Refractory Theory PDF

PDH Course M158
Overview of Refractory Materials
A. Bhatia, B.E.
2011
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Overview of Refractory Materials

A. Bhatia, B.E.
COURSE CONTENT
Abstract
Refractories are heat resistant materials used in almost all processes involving high
temperatures and/or corrosive environment. These are typically used to insulate and protect
industrial furnaces and vessels due to their excellent resistance to heat, chemical attack and
mechanical damage. Any failure of refractory could result in a great loss of production time,
equipment, and sometimes the product itself. The various types of refractories also influence
the safe operation, energy consumption and product quality; therefore, obtaining refractories
best suited to each application is of supreme importance.
This course discusses the types, characteristics and properties of various refractories. There is
an outline of energy conservation and therefore the cost savings. The course covers 6
sections:
Section -1: Refractory Overview
Section -2: Types of Refractories
Section -3: Insulating Refractories
Section -4: Selection of Refractories
Section -5: Heat Loss and Energy Conservation
Section -6: Refractory Applications in Industry
2011 A. Bhatia Page 2 of 54

SECTION -1: REFRACTORY OVERVIEW
Refractories are inorganic, nonmetallic, porous and heterogeneous materials composed of

thermally stable mineral aggregates, a binder phase and additives. The principal raw materials
used in the production of refractories are: the oxides of silicon, aluminum, magnesium, calcium
and zirconium and some non-oxide refractories like carbides, nitrides, borides, silicates and
graphite.
The main types include fire-clay bricks, castables, ceramic fiber and insulating bricks that are
made in varying combinations and shapes for diverse applications. The value of refractories is
judged not merely by the cost of material itself, but by the nature of the job and/or its
performance in a particular situation. Atmosphere, temperature, and the materials in contact
are some of the operating factors that determine the composition of refractory materials.
What are Refractories used for?
Refractories are used by the metallurgy industry in the internal linings of furnaces, kilns,
reactors and other vessels for holding and transporting metal and slag. In non-metallurgical
industries, the refractories are mostly installed on fired heaters, hydrogen reformers, ammonia
primary and secondary reformers, cracking furnaces, incinerators, utility boilers, catalytic
cracking units, coke calciner, sulfur furnaces, air heaters, ducting, stacks, etc. Majority of these
listed equipment operate under high pressure, and operating temperature can vary from very
low to very high (approximately 900F to 2900F). The refractory materials are therefore
needed to withstand temperatures over and above these temperatures. Listed below is the
sample melting temperatures of key metallurgical elements where refractory application is
critical.
MELTING POINT CHART
KEY MATERIALS MELTING TEMPERATURES (F)

Iron 2800 F
Nickel 2650 F
Copper 1980 F
Aluminum 1220 F
Zinc 780 F
Lead 620 F
Tin 450 F

Due to the extremely high melting point of common metals like iron, nickel and copper,
metallurgists have to raise furnace temperatures to over 2800F. Furnaces are lined with
refractory materials such as magnesia, which has a melting point of 5070 degrees.
Requirements of Right Refractory
The general requirements of a refractory material can be summed up as:
1) Its ability to withstand high temperatures and trap heat within a limited area like a
furnace;
2) Its ability to withstand action of molten metal , hot gasses and slag erosion etc;
3) Its ability to withstand load at service conditions;
4) Its ability to resist contamination of the material with which it comes into contact;
5) Its ability to maintain sufficient dimensional stability at high temperatures and

after/during repeated thermal cycling;
6) Its ability to conserve heat.
Properties of Refractories
Important properties of refractories are: chemical composition, bulk density, apparent porosity,
apparent specific gravity and strength at atmospheric temperatures. These properties are
often among those which are used as control points in the manufacturing and quality control
process. The chemical composition serves as a basic for classification of refractories and the
density, porosity and strength is influenced by many other factors. Among these are type and
quality of the raw materials, the size and fit of the particles, moisture content at the time of
pressing, pressure at mould, temperature, duration of firing and the rate of cooling.
Some of the important characteristics of refractories are:
1) Melting Point:
Melting temperatures (melting points) specify the ability of materials to withstand high
temperatures without chemical change and physical destruction. The melting point of
few elements that constitute refractory composition in the pure state varies from
3100 6300F as indicated in the table below:

MELTING POINT CHART OF PURE COMPOUNDS
REFRACTORY ELEMENT MELTING TEMPERATURES

(F)
Graphite C Pure 6300 F
Thoria, ThO2 Pure Sintered 5430 F
Magnesia, MgO, Pure Sintered 5070 F
Zirconia, ZrO2 , Pure Sintered 4890 F
Lime, CaO 4660 F
Beryllia, BeO, Pure Sintered 4620 F
Silicon Carbide, SiC, Pure 4080 F
Magnesia, 90-95% 3980 F
Chromite, FeO-Cr2O3 3960 F
Chromium Oxide 3880 F
Alumina, Al2O3, Pure Sintered 3720 F
Chromite, 38%, Cr2O3 3580 F
Alumina Fused Bauxite 3400 F
Silicon Carbide, 80-90% 3400 F
Fireclay 3400 F
Titania, TiO2 3360 F
Kaolin, Al2O3 -, SiO2 3300 F
Silica, SiO2 3120 F
The melting point serves as a sufficient basis for considering the thermal stability of refractory
mixtures and is an important characteristic indicating the maximum temperature of use.
2) Size and Dimensional Stability:
The size and shape of the refractories is an important feature in design since it affects
the stability of any structure. Dimensional accuracy and size is extremely important to
enable proper fitting of the refractory shape and to minimize the thickness and joints in
construction.
3) Porosity:
Porosity is a measure of the effective open pore space in the refractory into which the
molten metal, slag, fluxes, vapors etc can penetrate and thereby contribute to eventual

degradation of the structure. The porosity of refractory is expressed as the average

percentage of open pore space in the overall refractory volume.
High porosity materials tend to be highly insulating as a result of high volume of air
they trap, because air is a very poor thermal conductor. As a result, low porosity
materials are generally used in hotter zones, while the more porous materials are
usually used for thermal backup.
Such materials, however, do not work with higher temperatures and direct flame
impingement, and are likely to shrink when subjected to such conditions. Refractory
materials with high porosity are usually NOT chosen when they will be in contact with
molten slag because they cannot be penetrated as easily.
4) Bulk Density:
The bulk density is generally considered in conjunction with apparent porosity. It is a

measure of the weight of a given volume of the refractory. For many refractories, the
bulk density provides a general indication of the product quality; it is considered that
the refractory with higher bulk density (low porosity) will be better in quality.
An increase in bulk density increases the volume stability, the heat capacity, as well as
the resistance to abrasion and slag penetration.
5) Cold Crushing Strength:
The cold crushing strength, which is considered by some to be doubtful relevance as a

useful property, other than it reveals little more than the ability to withstand the rigorous
of transport. It can be seen as a useful indicator to the adequacy of firing and abrasion
resistance in consonance with other properties such as bulk density and porosity.
6) Pyrometric Cone Equivalent (PCE)
Refractories due to their chemical complexity melt progressively over a range of

temperature. Hence refractoriness or fusion point is ideally assessed by the cone
fusion method. The equivalent standard cone which melts to the same extent as the
test cone is known as the pyrometric cone equivalent (PCE). According to ASTM C24 -
01, PCE is measured by making a cone of the material and firing it until it bends to 3
Oclock.

Representative PCE values for selected refractories include cones 33-34 for super duty
fireclay, cones 29-31 for medium duty fire clay and cones 36-37 for a 60% alumina
product. The cone values reported for refratories are based on a defined standard time
temperature relationship, so different heating rates will result in different PCE values.
PCE can be useful for quality control purposes to detect variations in batch chemistry
that result from changes or errors in the raw material formulation.
7) Refractoriness under load:
Refractoriness points to the resistance of extreme conditions of heat (temperature >

1800 F) and corrosion when hot and molten materials are contained while being
transported and/or processed.
The ability to withstand exposure to elevated temperatures without undergoing

appreciable deformation is measured in terms of refractoriness. The refractoriness
under load test (RUL test) gives an indication of the temperature at which the bricks will
collapse, in service conditions with similar load. However, under actual service where
the bricks are heated only on one face, most of the load is carried by the relatively
cooler rigid portion of the bricks. Hence the RUL, test gives only an index of the
refractory quality, rather than a figure which can be used in a refractory design. Under
service conditions, where the refractory used is heating from all sides such as
checkers, partition walls, etc. the RUL test data is quite significant.
8) Creep at high temperature:
Creep is a time dependent property which determines the deformation in a given time
and at a given temperature by a material under stress. Refractory materials must
maintain dimensional stability under extreme temperatures (including repeated thermal
cycling) and constant corrosion from very hot liquids and gases. The criterion of
acceptance usually adopted is; that compressive creep (deformation at a given time
and temperature under stress) for normal working conditions of load and temperature
shall not exceed 0.3% in the first 50 hours of the test. This figure has been found to
indicate that the creep rate falls by a negligible amount at the end of the stipulated
period, and therefore the refractory can be considered safe to use for a much longer
time.
9) Volume stability, expansion and shrinkage at high temperature:

The contraction or expansion of the refractories can take place during service. Such
permanent changes in dimensions may be due to:
a) The changes in the allotropic forms which cause a change in specific gravity
b) A chemical reaction which produces a new material of altered specific gravity.
c) The formation of liquid phase
d) Sintering reactions
e) It may also happen on account of fluxing with dust and slag or by the action of
alkalies on fireclay refractories, to form alkali-alumina silicates, causing
expansion and disruption. This is an example which is generally observed in
blast furnaces.
While it is desirable that all these changes are effected during manufacturing, it is not
possible due to economic reasons, as the process is time dependent. Permanent
Linear Change (PLC) on reheating and cooling of the bricks give an indication on the
volume stability of the product as well as the adequacy of the processing parameters
during manufacture. It is particularly significant as a measure of the degree of
conversion achieved in the manufacture of silica bricks.
10) Reversible Thermal Expansion:
Any material when heated expands, and contracts on cooling. The reversible thermal
expansion is a reflection on the phase transformations that occur during heating and
cooling. The PLC and the reversible thermal expansion are followed in the design of
refractory linings for provision of expansion joints. As a general rule, those with a lower
thermal expansion co-efficient are less susceptible to thermal spalling.
11) Thermal Conductivity:
Thermal conductivity is defined as the quantity of heat that will flow through a unit area
in direction normal to the surface area in a defined time with a known temperature
gradient under steady state conditions. It indicates general heat flow characteristics of
the refractory and depends upon the chemical and mineralogical compositions as well
as the application temperature.
High thermal conductivity refractories are required for some applications where good
heat transfer is essential such as coke oven walls, regenerators, muffles and water

cooled furnace walls. However, refractories with lower thermal conductivity are
preferred in industrial applications, as they help in conserving heat energy.
Porosity is a significant factor in heat flow through refractories. The thermal

conductivity of a refractory decreases on increasing its porosity.
Although it is one of the least important properties as far as service performance is

concerned, it evidently determines the thickness of brick work.
How are Refractories Classified?
Refractories can be classified on the basis of chemical composition and the methods of
manufacture or physical form.
Classification Based on Chemical Composition
Refractories are typically classified on the basis of their chemical behaviour, i.e. their reaction
to the type of slags. Accordingly the refractory materials are of three classes - Acid, Basic &
Neutral.
Acid Refractories:
Acid refractories are those which are attacked by alkalis (basic slags). These are used in
areas where slag and atmosphere are acidic. Examples of acid refractories are:
1) Silica (SiO2),
2) Zirconia (ZrO2), and
Neutral Refractories:
Neutral Refractories are chemically stable to both acids and bases and are used in areas
where slag and atmosphere are either acidic or basic. The common examples of these
materials are:
1) Carbon graphite (most inert)
2) Chromites (Cr2O3)
3) Alumina
Out of these graphite is the least reactive and is extensively used in metallurgical furnaces
where the process of oxidation can be controlled.
Basic Refractories:
Basic refractories are those which are attacked by acid slags but stable to alkaline slags, dusts
and fumes at elevated temperatures. Since they do not react with alkaline slags, these

refractories are of considerable importance for furnace linings where the environment is
alkaline; for example non-ferrous metallurgical operations. The most important basic raw
materials are:
1) Magnesia (MgO) - caustic, sintered and fused magnesia
2) Dolomite (CaO*MgO) - sintered and fused dolomite
3) Chromite -main part of chrome ore
Chemical characteristics of the furnace process usually determine the type of refractory
required. Theoretically, acid refractories should not be used in contact with basic slags, gases
and fumes whereas basic refractories can be best used in alkaline environment. Actually, for
various reasons, these rules are often violated.
Classification Based on Method of Manufacture
The refractories can be manufactured in either of the following methods:
a) Dry Press Process
b) Fused Cast
c) Hand Molded
d) Formed (Normal, Fired or chemical bonded)
e) Unformed (Monolithic Plastics, Ramming mass, Gunning, Cast able, Spraying
Classification Based on Physical Form
Refractories are classified according to their physical form. These are the shaped and
unshaped refractories. The former is commonly known as refractory bricks and the latter as
monolithic refractories.
Shaped Refractories:
Shaped refractories are those which have fixed shaped when delivered to the user. These are
what we call bricks.
Brick shapes maybe divided into two: standard shapes and special shapes. Standards shapes
have dimension that are conformed to by most refractory manufacturers and are generally
applicable to kilns and furnaces of the same type.
Special shapes are specifically made for particular kilns and furnaces. This may not be
applicable to another furnaces or kiln of the same type.

Shaped refractories are almost always machine-pressed, thus, high uniformity in properties
are expected. Special shapes are most often hand-molded and are expected to exhibit slight
variations in properties.
Unshaped Refractories:
Unshaped refractories are without definite form and are only given shape upon application. It
forms joint less lining and are better known as monolithic refractories. These are categorized
as Plastic refractories, ramming mixes, castables, gunning mixes, fettling mixes and mortars.
SHAPED UNSHAPED
1. Alumino Silicates 1. Mortars

2. Castables
High Alumina
LCC
Low Alumina
ULCC
2. Silica
3. Basic NCC
Magnesite SFC
Mag-Chrome 3. Gunning Mass

4. Ramming Mass
Mag-Carbon
5. Filling Mass
Forsterite
6. Fetling Mass
Dolomite 7. Spraying Compound
4. Carbon 8. Patching/Coating Mass
5. Zirconia
Zircon (Acidic)
Zirconia (Neutral)
6. Carbides/Nitrides
Silicon Carbide
Silicon Nitride
Boron Carbide

SHAPED UNSHAPED
Boron Nitride
7. Pure Oxides
Ferrites
Hofnium Oxides

SECTION - 2: TYPES OF REFRACTORIES
Refractories are classified as dense or insulating types. The most high-temperature

refractories, such as firebricks, are high-density (>120 lb/ft3). They offer excellent resistance in
challenging operating environments, such as slags with different chemical compositions,
fumes, dust, and gases. Insulating refractories have lower densities (4 to 70 lb/ft3) and provide
insulating properties, while offering resistance to corrosion and chemical reactions with the
operating environment.
The following brief discussion of the outstanding characteristics of the various types of
refractories is an attempt to be more specific.
Fire-clay brick Refractories
Fire-clay brick comprise about 75% of the production of refractories on a volume basis and are
essentially hydrated aluminum silicates with minor proportions of other minerals. Typical
composition consists of SiO2 <78% and Al2O3 < 44%. As a type they are extremely versatile;
least costly of all refractory bricks and are extensively used in the iron and steel industry, non
ferrous metallurgy, glass industry, pottery kilns, cement industry and by many others.
All fire-clay brick are not alike and the total ranges of their properties are quite broad. ASTM
subdivides fire-clay brick into four major classifications depending primarily upon fusion
temperature (Pyrometric Cone Equivalent, PCE) which, within limits, is a function of the
alumina-silica ratio. The four standard classes of fireclay brick are: super duty, high-duty,
medium-duty, low-duty, and also semi-silica. These classes cover the range from
approximately 18% to 44% alumina, and from about 50% to 80% silica. From the standpoint of
fusion temperature, super duty fire-clay brick have a PCE of approximately Cone 33, which
corresponds to 3175F. This does not mean that a brick with a PCE of Cone 33 can be used
in furnaces operating at 3175F. On the contrary, it means that at this temperature in a clean,
slag free, neutral to slightly oxidizing atmosphere, this brick would be unable to support its own
weight.
Table below shows that as the quantity of impurities increases and the amount of Al2O3
decreases, the melting point of fireclay brick decreases.
Brick %age SiO2 %age Al2 O3 Other PCE F

Constituents

Brick %age SiO2 %age Al2 O3 Other PCE F

Constituents
Super Duty 49-53 40-44 5-7 3175-3200
High Duty 50-80 35-40 5-9 3075-3175
Medium Duty 60-70 26-36 5-9 2975-3075
Low Duty 60-70 23-33 6-10 2770-2900
Characteristically, fire-clay brick begin to soften far below their fusion temperature and under
load actual deformation takes place. The amount of deformation depends upon the load, and,
once started, this deformation is a slow but continuous process unless either the load or the
temperature is reduced. It is for this reason that fire-clay brick are not well adapted for use in
wide sprung arches in furnaces operating continuously at high temperatures.
High Alumina Refractories
Alumina refractory which consists of aluminum oxide and traces of other materials is the most
mature of the engineering ceramics. Alumina is one of the most chemically stable oxides
known, which offers excellent hardness, strength and spalling resistance. It is insoluble in
water and super heated steam, and in most inorganic acids and alkalis. Alumina refractories
carry the all purpose characteristics of fire-clay brick into higher temperature ranges that
makes it suitable for lining furnace operating up to 3350F. It has a high resistance in oxidizing
and reducing atmosphere and is extensively used in heat processing industries.
The refractoriness of high alumina refractories increases with increase of alumina percentage.
The 50%, 60%, 70% and 80% alumina classes contain their respective alumina contents with
an allowable range of plus or minus 2.5%. High-alumina brick are classified by their alumina
content according to the following ASTM convention. These are:
a) Mullite refractory: Mullite brick is about 72% alumina with 28% silica. These have
excellent volume stability and strength at high temperatures. They are highly suitable
for electric furnace roofs, blast furnaces and blast furnaces stoves, and the
superstructure of glass tank furnaces.
b) Corundum refractories- The 99% alumina class of refractories is called corundum.

These refractories comprise single phase, polycrystalline, and alpha-alumina.
High alumina bricks are most commonly used in cement, lime and ceramic kilns, glass tanks,
crucibles for melting a wide range of metals, hearth & shaft of blast furnaces and in lead

drossing furnaces. Studies indicate that these are very economical for the lower sections of
soaking pits in the steel industry, primarily because of their resistance to iron oxide slags.
Manufacturing cost and, therefore, price of these brick increase more rapidly with % alumina
content, so it is essential to determine experimentally or by test installations the most
economical alumina content for each service.
Silica Brick
Silica Brick is a refractory material containing at least 93% SiO2. From a volume standpoint
silica brick are second only to fire clay brick. The outstanding property of silica brick is its
excellent mechanical strength at temperatures approaching their actual fusion point. This
behavior contrasts with that of many other refractories, for example alumino-silicate materials,
which begin to fuse and creep at temperatures considerably lower than their fusion points.
They have one major drawback too. Their weakness lies in their susceptibility to spalling at
temperatures below 1200F. Temperature fluctuations above 1200F do not affect silica brick
adversely and in this range it is classed as a good spalling resistant brick. Many furnaces,
however, must be cooled to nearly room temperature at frequent intervals and for such
processes silica brick are not practical.
As would be expected silica brick give good service in contact with high siliceous stags and
successfully used in the wide sprung arches of open hearth steel furnaces, glass tanks, and
reverberatory furnaces for the melting and refining of copper and many other metals.
Magnesite
Magnesite refractories are chemically basic materials, containing at least 85% magnesium
oxide. These are made from naturally occurring magnesite (MgCO3) and Silica (SiO2). Good
quality magnesite bricks usually results from a CaO-SiO2 ratio of less than 2 with a minimum
ferrite concentration, particularly if the furnaces lined with the refractory operate in oxidizing
and reducing conditions.
The physical properties of this class of brick are generally poor, and their great value is
primarily in their resistance to basic slags. The slag resistance is very high particularly to lime
and iron rich slags. These constitute the most important group of refractories for the basic
steelmaking processes. In addition to metallurgical furnaces, basic brick are now being
successfully used in glass tank checkers and in lime and cement kilns.

Raw Magnesite (MgCO3) is generally used in its calcined or dead burned forms. Caustic
calcined magnesite is used in effluent treatment, blended fertilizers and as feed stock for the
chemical industry. Dead burned magnesite is a raw material used widely by the refractory
industry. More recently fused magnesia grain; magnesia sinter with larger crystallite size and
very high purity magnesia sinter were introduced to further improve the corrosion resistance.
Fused magnesia is produced by melting refractory grade magnesia or other magnesia
precursor in an electric arc furnace. The molten mass is then removed from the furnace,
cooled, and broken up. The material than is used in manufacture of refractories.
Dolomite
The natural double carbonate dolomite (CaCO3 MgCO3) can be converted to refractory
dolomite (CaO- MgO) by high temperature firing. High purity dolomite is greater than 97% CaO
+ MgO. Dolomite refractories is found to be the most compatible material with the cement kiln
clinker as it provides excellent coating stability, has very good resistance to thermal shock &
alkali attack in varying kiln operating conditions. These refractories with Zirconia enrichment
are used for crack arresting.
Chromite Refractories
Here, a distinction must be made between chrome-magnesite refractories and magnesite-

chrome-refractories. Chrome-magnesite material usually contains 15-35% Cr2O3 and 42-50%
MgO whereas magnesite-chromite refractories contain at least 60% MgO and 8-18% Cr2O3.
Chrome- magnesite refractories are used for building the critical paths of high
temperature furnaces. These materials can withstand corrosive slags and gasses and
have high refractoriness.
The magnesite-chromite products are suitable for service at the highest temperatures
and in contact with the most basic slags used in steel melting. Magnesite-chromite
usually has a better spalling resistance than chrome-magnesite.
Zirconia Refractories
Zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) is a polymorphic material. There are certain difficulties in its usage
and fabrication as a refractory material. It is essential to stabilize it before application as a
refractory. This is achieved by incorporating small quantities of calcium, magnesium and
cerium oxide, etc. Its properties depend mainly on degree of stabilization and quantity of
stabilizer as well as the quality of original raw material. Zirconia refractories have a very high

strength at room temperature which is maintained up to temperatures as high as 2700F. They

are, therefore, useful as high temperature construction materials for furnaces and kilns. The
thermal conductivity of zirconium dioxide is found to be much lower than that of most other
refractories and the material is therefore used as a high temperature insulating refractory.
Since Zirconia exhibits very low thermal losses and does not react readily with liquid metals, it
is particularly useful for making refractory crucibles and other vessels for metallurgical
purposes. Zirconia is useful refractory material for glass furnaces primarily since it is not easily
wetted by molten glass and because of its low reaction with them.
Monolithic Refractories
Monolithic refractory, the name generally given to all unshaped refractory products, are
materials installed as some form of suspension that ultimately harden to form a solid mass.
Most monolithic formulations consist of large refractory particulates (an aggregate), fine filler
materials (which fill the interparticle voids) and a binder phase (that gels the particulates
together in the green state).
Monolithic refractories are replacing the conventional type fired refractories at a much faster
rate in many applications including those of industrial furnaces. The main advantages being:
1) It eliminates joints which is an inherent weakness
2) Method of application is faster and skilled measures in large number are not required
3) Properties can be better than pressed bricks
4) Transportation and handling are simple
5) Offers considerable scope to reduce inventory and eliminate special shapes
6) Has better spalling resistance and volume stability
7) Ability to install in Hot Standby mode
Various means are employed in the placement of monolithic refractories like ramming casting,
gunniting, spraying, sand slinging etc. Ramming masses are used mostly in cold applications
where proper consolidation of the material is important. The same practice can be adopted
with both air setting and heat setting materials. Proper ramming tools need to be selected.
Types of Monolithic Refractories
Castable Refractories: Castable by name implies a material of hydraulic setting in nature.

These are the materials that contain cement binder usually aluminate cement, which imparts

hydraulic setting properties when mixed with water. Following the heat-up of the material the
binder either transforms or volatilises facilitating the formation of a ceramic bond. The most
common binder used in castables is HAC (high alumina cement). Other binders that are often
used include hydratable aluminas and colloidal silica. These materials are installed by casting
and are also known as refractory concretes.
Insulating Castables: Insulating castables are specialised monolithic refractories that are
used on the cold face of applications. There are made from lightweight aggregate materials
such as vermiculite, perlite, extend-o-spheres, bubble alumina and expanded clay. Their main
function is to provide thermal insulation. They are typically of low density and low thermal
conductivity. Insulating refractories have inferior mechanical strength to that of conventional
castables.
Plastic Refractories: Plastic refractory is mixtures that is prepared in stiff plastic condition
and are delivered in blocks wrapped in polyethylene. During application, the blocks are sliced
into pieces and without further preparation, are rammed or poured into place with pneumatic
rammer. Plastic are easily rammed to any shape or contour.
Ramming Mixes: Ramming refractory materials are very similar to plastic refractories but are
much stiffer. The particle sizes are carefully graded and the final product is usually delivered
dry and then mixed with a little amount of water just before application. Other ramming mixes
are delivered in wet form and are ready for use immediately upon opening. Application is done
with pneumatic rammer.
Patching Refractories: These materials are similar to plastic refractories though have a very
soft plasticity allowing them to be pounded into place.
Coating Refractories: This type of product is used to protect refractory linings usually against
chemical attack. Coating refractories are normally intended to cover just the working surface of
a lining. They tend to be fairly thin layers.
Mortars: Mortars are generally neither classified under refractory brick nor monolithic
refractories. These are finely ground refractory materials, which become plastic when mixed
with water. These are used to bond the brickwork into solid unit, to provide cushion between
the slightly irregular surfaces of the brick, to fill up spaces created by a deformed shell, and to
make a wall gas-tight to prevent penetration of slag into the joints.

Gunning Mixes: Gunning mixes are granular refractory materials sprayed on application area
using a variety of air placement guns. These are heat setting and are used for patching and
maintenance works for kilns and furnaces.
Fettling Mixes: Fetting mixes are also granular refractory materials, similar to gunning mix
function, but are applied by shoveling into the furnace needing patching.
Insulating Refractories
These are high porosity refractories with low thermal conductivity used in order to reduce the
rate of heat flow (heat losses) and thus to maximize heat conservation within the furnace.
These have lower densities in range of 4 to 70 lb/ft3. The three basic types of insulating
materials for industrial use are: 1) thin (less than 20 micrometers), low-density (less than 12
lb/ft3) fibers made from organic or inorganic materials; 2) cellular material in closed or open cell
form made of organic or inorganic material; and 3) flaked or granular inorganic materials
bonded in the desired form. In most cases, glass (silica), mineral wool, high alumina, mulite, or
zirconia are the base materials and can be used to temperatures as high as 2900F. This
class of materials has a lower density that varies from 4 lb/ft3 to 12 lb/ft3 and offers higher
thermal resistance compared to firebricks. In all cases, thermal conductivity of the insulation
increases significantly as temperature increases.
We will discuss more about insulating refractories in next section.

SECTION - 3: INSULATING REFRACTORIES
High-temperature processes require a considerable amount of energy. Often the energy

consumption for high-temperature processes is used only partially for the actual technical
process and 30 to 40% energy escapes through the walls into the atmosphere. To optimize
the energy use and to prevent its escape into the ambience, special materials called insulating
refractories are necessary. The function of insulating refractory is to reduce the rate of heat
flow (heat loss) through the walls of furnaces. Insulation is effected by providing a layer of
material having low heat conductivity, which means heat does not readily pass through them.
Characteristics of Good Insulating Refractory
The desirable feature of insulating bricks is the low thermal conductivity, which usually results
from a high degree of porosity. Structure of air insulating material consists of minute pores
filled with air which have in them very low thermal conductivity. The air spaces inside the brick
prevent the heat from being conducted but the solid particles of which the brick is made
conduct the heat. So, in order to have required insulation property in a brick a balance has to
be struck between the proportion of its solid particles and air spaces. The thermal conductivity
is lower if the volume of air space is larger. Importantly, the thermal conductivity of a brick
does not so much depend on the size of pores as on the uniformity of size and even
distribution of these pores. Hence, uniformly small sized pores distributed evenly in the whole
body of the insulating brick are preferred.
The high porosity of the brick is created during manufacturing by adding a fine organic material
to the mix, such as sawdust. During firing, the organic addition burns out, creating internal
pores. Other ways to accomplish high porosity involves:
a) by using materials which expand and open up on heating;
b) by using volatile compounds like naphthalene;
c) by using aluminum (Al) powder in combination with NaOH solution (called chemical
bloating);
d) by using substances which by themselves have open texture e.g. insulating brick grog,
vermiculite, ex-foliated mica, raw diatomite etc;
e) by using foaming agents to slip;

f) by aeration etc
Because of their high porosity, insulating bricks inherently have lower thermal conductivity
and lower heat capacity than other refractory materials.
Types of Insulating Refractories
Insulating materials can be classified with respect to application temperature:
1) Heat resistant insulating materials for application temperatures up to 2000F: calcium

silicate materials; products from siliceous earth, perlite or vermiculite; silica based
micro porous heat insulators; alumino-silicate fibers;
2) Refractory insulating materials for application temperatures up to 2500F: lightweight

chamotte and kaolin bricks; lightweight castables; mixed fibers and aluminum oxide
fibers;
3) High refractory insulating materials for application temperatures up to 3100F:

lightweight mullite and alumina bricks; lightweight hollow sphere corundum castables
and bricks; special high refractory fibers;
4) Ultra-high refractory insulating materials for application temperatures up to 3600F:

zirconia lightweight bricks and fibers; non-oxide compounds;
Several other types of insulating refractories include castables, granular insulation, and
ceramic fiber insulation, which is light weight. Extremely lightweight materials have a porosity
of 75 to 85% and ultra-lightweight, high-temperature insulating materials have a total porosity
greater than 85%.
Applications & Advantages
These are widely used in the crowns of glass furnaces and tunnel kilns. They can also be used
as linings of furnaces where abrasion and wear by aggressive slag and molten metal are NOT
a concern. These offer several distinct advantages:
1) Decreased heat losses through the furnace lining and less heat loss to the refractory
leads to savings in fuel cost;
2) The insulating effect causes a more rapid heat-up of the lining and lowers heat
capacity of the insulating refractory;

3) Thinner furnace wall construction to obtain a desired thermal profile;

4) Less furnace mass due to the lower mass of the insulating refractory;
Some Drawbacks of Insulating Bricks
The porosity in insulating refractories creates a large amount of free surface area. Although
porosity decreases thermal conductivity and density of the brick, it also degrades the
mechanical strength of the brick as compared to a dense refractory firebrick. The poor strength
of insulating bricks due to their high porosity can pose structural design problems.
Porosity in insulating refractory leads to poor chemical resistance as compared to dense

refractories of similar compositions. Gases, fumes, liquids such as slags, molten glass etc. at
high temperatures can penetrate porous bricks easily, making insulating fire bricks unsuitable
for direct contact with such liquids or gases.
Insulating fire bricks often suffer from thermal spalling problems, particularly in an environment
of rapidly changing temperature. Since these bricks are good insulators, a substantial
temperature gradient will occur between the hot and the cold face of each brick. The hot face
will expand more than the cold face. The thermal gradient thus, gives rise to a mechanical
stress in the body of the brick.
Ceramic Fibers
Ceramic fibers are a family of insulating refractory products that is fluffy, white cotton like fiber
and can be spun and fabricated into textiles, blankets, felts, boards, blocks, etc. These
products have low thermal conductivity, very low heat storage, extremely light weight,
immunity to thermal shocks and are chemically stable. The lightweight construction ensures
that the required temperature in high-temperature plants is reached more rapidly, as only a
small proportion of the temperature released into the processing vessel/furnace is used for the
heating of the walls.
Ceramic fibers composed of 52 Al2O3 - 48 SiO2 combinations can be applied as a hot face
insulation material up to ~2600F, whereas a 62 Al2O3 - 38 SiO2 combinations impart greater
refractoriness to fiber. 42% Al2O3, 52% SiO2 and 6% ZrO2 produces extra long staple fiber of
10 or so and are used for manufacturing ceramic fiber textiles and ropes. Zirconium fibers
(generally glass bonded zircon) have also found
The advantages of light weight ceramic fiber are:

1) Better fuel economy (savings as high as 60% are feasible in the case of certain
intermittent furnaces);
2) Higher productivity capacity of furnaces, due to reduced heat storage capacity;
3) Higher service life of the furnace and reduced maintenance costs due to longer
refractory life;
4) Ease of installation.
They are used with great success in metal treating furnaces, ceramic kilns, and numerous
other periodic operations whose atmosphere do not negate their revolutionary thermal and
lightweight qualities. Fibre mats also continue to be used in expansion joints and door seals,
and in tunnel kilns and other exposed - brick structures as either original or retrofit layers on
the outside or cold-face surface.
Limitations
1) The chief limitation of ceramic fibre is shrinkage at high temperatures. A high quality
ceramic fibre blanket rated for continuous use at 2400F will have 5% shrinkage after
24-hr exposure at 2400F. Shrinkage will not continue past this level in normal
operating conditions, but this shrinkage must be carefully considered in designing a
furnace lining.
2) Mechanical strength of ceramic fibers is poor. These are not really structural materials.
Proper support must be given to all refractory fibre products.
3) Tend to sag at high temperature due to softening of fibers if improperly supported.
4) Not suitable in severe hostile environments. These are handy repositories of dusts,
fogs, and combustible fumes; not to mention for process liquids like slags and metals.
5) Tend to be more expensive than conventional refractories however; installation labour

savings and energy savings offset the high initial costs.
Note: Temperature-resistant ceramic materials for application temperatures up to 1475F

(~800C) are sometime regarded as thermal insulating materials and not refractory products.

SECTION - 4: SELECTION OF REFRACTORIES
There is practically no application where one particular quality can withstand all operating
conditions. Usually one would like to have a refractory with low thermal conductivity so that
heat may be more effectively contained within a furnace. Sometimes, however refractories and
materials having high thermal conductivity are desired; for example, a protective muffle in
certain ceramic kilns is designed to prevent combustion gases from reaching the ceramic
ware. It must transfer as much heat to the ware as possible, so conductive ceramic materials
like silicon carbide are often used for muffles.
You must take into account the specific metal you will be melting, the temperatures you will be
reaching, the length of your melt, how long you will be holding metal in the furnace, how much
inductive stirring will take place, what additives or alloying agents you will be using, and your
furnace relining practices. Therefore refractory selection is being based on what is considered
to be the most critical factor vis--vis the wear out pattern and operating parameters in order to
achieve the best possible techno economics. A right selection will not only gives a longer life
but helps in reducing down hours thus a better productivity.
Selection of Refractories
The five most important factors governing refractory service are:
1. Area of application .
2. Type of refractory
3. Operating conditions
4. Quality of refractory
5. Workmanship
It is essential to have an objective evaluation of the above considerations. These factors are
not necessarily in order of importance. The user needs to adjust them in the order to suit the
conditions existing in any particular furnace.
AREA OF APPLICATION
Selecting insulation materials and designing insulation systems requires evaluation of four
factors: 1) Thermal performance; 2) Physical properties; 3) Chemical characteristics and 4)
Costs

1) Thermal performance- involves temperature limit; melting or fusion temperature; thermal

conductivity (or insulation capability); heat capacity or storage; thermal expansion; and
thermal shock (spalling) resistance. Operating temperature is an important criterion for
selection of refractories. Temperatures exceeding the refractorys rating can soften its
surface and cause rapid erosion and failure. If the operating conditions heat or cool the
refractory lining beyond its specified range, the resulting thermal shock can damage the
integrity of the lining.
o Design of furnace/vessels -The performance and stability of the refractory lining

depends on the structural design of the furnace and its configuration. Sometimes
adequate attention is not given to the refractory lining and its engineering related
issues during early plant equipment design. This may lead to several compromises as
there is limited scope for change in vessel design, operating conditions and the
process to reduce the impact of these factors on lining performance during later stages
of detailed engineering.
o The refractory lining failure may occur due to insufficient combustion volume. The heat
released within the system is generally more than absorbed by the process and is
dissipated through walls or exhausted with flue gases. In such cases, there are
possibilities of the lining approaching the flame temperature and causing several
problems. The burner type, its design, location, flame shape, possibilities of flame
impingement, flowing pattern of flue gases, etc., may affect the lining. In many cases,
limited vessel dimensions, inaccessibility and complicated configuration restricts the
best lining practices during initial construction as well as subsequent maintenance and
repair.
2) Physical properties- includes density or porosity; abrasion; wear and erosion resistance;
electrical resistivity for use in electric heating; mechanical strength; and other structural
properties at high temperatures. High mechanical strength is required to resist load,
impact, abrasion and erosion in refractory materials.
o Physical Shock and Mechanical Stress - Most refractory materials tend to be brittle
and weak in tension. Bulky charge material dropped into an empty furnace can easily
cause the lining to crack upon impact. If a crack goes unnoticed, molten metal may
penetrate, leading to a run-out with the possibility of a water/molten metal explosion.

The sudden or cumulative effects of physical shocks and mechanical stress can lead to
failure of refractory lining.
o Thermal Stress - The entire refractory lining is subjected to thermal stress which also
plays a dominant role in selection. The refractory lining system or design must take
care of thermal resistance, expansion relief; prevent cracking and eliminating built-in
barriers. Thermo-mechanical FEM analysis is a reliable tool to investigate thermal
stresses and develop ways on improving the lining behavior.
o Refractory Wear - Refractory linings are subject to regular wear from the scraping of
metal on the furnace walls. In theory, refractory wear should be uniform, but in practice
this never occurs. The most intense wear occurs at the slag/metal interface; where
sidewalls join the floor; and at thin spots caused by poor lining installation.
3) Chemical considerations- includes uniformity of composition; reactions between base

materials and operating environment; and issues such as volatilization of the constituents
or binding agents, corrosion, chemical attack, or diffusion and reactions with the product.
Chemical attack may occur from gases such as steam, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, acid
and alkali slag, sulfurous gases, etc.; these acid gases can initiate various problems in the
lining. All of the important operating factors and any other criteria specific to the process
under consideration should be verified for their possible effect on the performance of the
lining.
o Chemical v/s Physical Characteristics
Chemical characteristics of the furnace process usually determine the type of refractory
required, although this is not universally true. We have the familiar and greatly
overworked example of silica brick, the most acid of refractories, being successfully
used in the roofs of basic open hearth steel furnaces. In this case the physical
properties of the brick, particularly load bearing strength, are more important than the
chemical characteristics. Numerous examples could be given illustrating the fact that
for successful refractory practice the physical and chemical properties of the refractory
must be compatible with the furnace operation and nature of the process.
4) Economics - mean initial installation labor; maintenance, repair; and replacement costs.
Selecting materials solely based on price and ease of installation should be avoided. Very
often, monolithic lining system is selected in the lining design of critical equipment where

brick lining or some other design may be more suitable. The selection may be due to
cheap and easy availability of monolithics and easier installation than brick lining and to
avoid preparation of too many engineering drawings for the complicated brick shapes and
laying details. In many cases, recommendations of refractory manufacturers are biased
and based on their available product ranges, which may not be appropriate for the required
conditions.
TYPE OF REFRACTORY
Refractory materials are typically quasi brittle at low temperature and have a viscous behavior
at high temperature. They are subject to considerable variability in strength, resulting from
local variations in their microstructure and their lack of ductility. They are characterized by
high-temperature creep or plastic deformation. Their brittleness and their high elastic modulus
make them sensible to failure under thermal stresses and shocks.
In order to judge the type of refractory material most likely to give satisfactory service in a
certain furnace, one must have knowledge of the limitations as well as the strong points of the
principal types of refractories. Very often it is desirable to use different types of refractories in
various parts of the same furnace to obtain uniformly good or balanced refractory service.
Refer to section-3 for detailed description of the types of refractories.
OPERATING CONDITIONS
Selecting materials should always be based on properties and specifications suitable for the
specific application and operating conditions. We frequently hear statements from users that
"the refractories fail prematurely and our operating practice has not been changed in years."
This may be true, but very often there can be unintentional changes in furnace conditions long
enough in duration to destroy a refractory lining but not long enough to be considered as a
change in practice. For example, a burner getting out of adjustment so that the furnace
atmosphere becomes highly reducing for a short period of time; possibly the operating
temperature of the furnace may become abnormally high and damage the grid-work before it
is corrected; or perhaps the chemical composition of raw material charge or the fuel may have
changed although purchased from the same sources. Such variations in practice are usually
extremely difficult to discover because they leave no record except for their effect on the lining.
Another complicating factor is that the failure of the refractory may not become apparent until
weeks or even months after the actual damage was done.

Transportation, handling, timely arrival of refractory bricks, mortars, skill of masonry work,
proper equipment for application e.g. mixer machine for castable, vibrator for installation,
forma etc. are very important.
The user is concerned with the conservation of energy and saving dollars. Fuel can be saved
in two ways; either by insulation or by faster working. Both these methods give low energy
cost per ton of product.
QUALITY OF REFRACTORY
Refractories can be the controlling factor in the success or failure of thermal equipment as well
as the safe and profitable operation of the plant. The performance of any refractory is
considered reasonable when similar service lives are achieved on a regular basis. Premature
lining failure may be defined as one that does not achieve normal or average performance and
service life. The most common refractory problems are:
Hot spots (higher casing temperature);
Excessive cracking;
Spalling of lining (thermal, mechanical, structural);
Erosion and thinning of lining;
Chemical attack/corrosion from process gases (such as hydrogen, carbon monoxide,

sulfur dioxide, alkalies), flue gases (sulfur, sodium, vanadium), steam, etc;
Acid-gas dew-point corrosion of refractory and metallic parts;
Partial melting and degradation of lining;
Excessive shrinkage and development of gaps;
Anchor failure and detachment of lining from wall;
Failure of metal liner over refractory;
Explosive spalling during dry out;
Mechanical damages.
For critical applications, purchasing of materials based on a comparison of product datasheet

or catalogue specifications or equivalent principles should be avoided. The actual performance
references and records for specific products or brands should be verified against similar

applications. Reviews of manufacturing facilities and quality-control program, and random

inspection and testing of important properties are essential.
WORKMANSHIP
Proper installation of the refractory is as important as selection of the right material. If the
material is inadequately compacted during installation, voids or areas of low density may form,
creating a weak spot easily attacked by molten metal. Maintaining proper expansion gaps,
correct dimension of bricks and monolithics, fixing anchors etc. all are very important to
achieve better life of refractories. Some of the important aspects of refractory construction are:
Bond: Bond in brick work is an arrangement by which the joints between the bricks are
staggered in all directions in a pre-determined manner. This ensures stability in construction
as well as air tightness. An all header construction is recommended in the hot face of a
furnace where heavy refractory wear is anticipated either due to action of molten metal slag or
dust laden gas moving at high velocities. Where intermittent repairs to the walls are expected,
the working layer is built separately from the main wall.
Wall Thickness: Structural stability should be taken into consideration while deciding the wall
thickness. As a good engineering practice, furnace walls lined with 115mm thickness bricks
should not be constructed beyond a height of one meter without proper anchorage. From the
stability point of view minimum thickness should be around 230mm, which may be suitably
increased as the height goes up. Use of metallic sheets with anchoring arrangements,
improves the stability of the wall where basic refractories are used. Such anchoring of walls
with the furnace structure should have sliding arrangement to take care of the movement of
refractories during heating up and cooling down.
Joints: The joints form a small part of the lining of the vessels but they have two important
functions.
1) To assemble the pieces (bricks or blocks) together;
2) To absorb thermal expansion and to limit the stresses generated in the masonry.
The joints may be either mortared joints (i.e. granular material with matrix and voids) or dry
(without mortar) joints. In either case, the stress/strain behavior of the joint interface differs
considerably. At room temperature, compressibility of the joints is around 20%. At 1200C, the
mortar becomes more and more plastic and its compressibility approaches 50%.

Mortar Joints: Mortar joints improve the stability of construction. It also takes care of slight
variation in sizes as well as warpages by offering a uniform bedding surface. Chemical and
physical properties of mortar should be identical to that of the bricks which they are joining.
Workability of the mortar is important, in the absence of which, good construction is not
possible. The excess mortar applied to the brick surface should come out from the edges
when one brick is tapped against the other, to ensure that the joints are full and that there is
not open gap.
Expansion Joints: As explained earlier, refractories expand on heating up. Suitable

provisions should be made at the time of construction for this expansion to take place without
creating undue stresses which may result in failure of the refractories. Usually, expansion
joints are built in as the construction proceeds. The necessary provision is made depending on
the expansion characteristic of the particular refractory at the operating temperature. Care
should be taken to check the expansion allowance in practice just one half of the theoretical
expansion is sufficient. The remaining one half will be absorbed by the mortal joints, or even
dry joints between the bricks.
Structural Support: Refractories are normally held in position with steel shell or a structural
framework by tie rods as failure of structural by other reasons will cause partial failure or limit
the total collapse of refractories. Their alignment, shape etc should also be equal concern.
Also important is that the structural should not get overheated, and should be adequately
insulated wherever required.
Good brickwork is extremely important but there are other factors involved like the proper size
and location of expansion joints, the rise of an arch, or the thickness of a wall as properly
coming under the head of masonry workmanship. If the refractory lining is improperly cantered
or has somehow been distorted during storage or shipment, lining thickness will be uneven
and it may fail prematurely before the end of its predicted service life.
Refractory installation should never be left to brick masons who have had no experience
except in the building trade. The owner/users must assure themselves that the person in
charge of the masons understands high temperature furnace work. The refractory
manufacturers procedures for installation, drying and sintering must be followed.
Key Selection Facts:
a) Reaction/wear increases exponentially with increasing temperature
b) Temperature cycling will cause cracks, loss of strength, and spalling of material

c) Stronger is not always better
d) Lining life is controlled by the weakest link
e) Shorter service life can be more cost effective
f) Refractory manufacture should use high purity, ultra fine materials
g) Microstructure engineering control of aggregate shape is important.
Summarizing
The design and selection of the refractory should be done on the basis of careful analysis of
service conditions, availability of refractory materials, thickness requirements, anchorage,
ease of installation and future repair and maintenance. Adequate knowledge on operating
conditions that are activesuch as temperature, pressure, chemical attack, thermal shock,
abrasion, erosion, furnace gas composition, mechanical movement, vibration, etc.should be
very useful for the optimum lining design and selection of refractory.

SECTION - 5: HEAT LOSS AND ENERGY CONSERVATION
Furnaces and kilns particularly depending on heat treatment or melting applications operate at
very high temperatures. Refractory bricks are used for internal lining of furnace. When a
furnace is heated up from cold, the first stage involves bringing the brickwork up to
temperature. The heat energy required for initial heat up depends to a great extent upon the
time cycle of the furnace. In a furnace with a weekly cycle when the furnace is not used at
weekends it will be considerable. With a daily cycle shutting down over night it will still be
considerable. Finally in furnaces operating on a heating and cooling cycle in which the furnace
is heated up with each charge of goods, the heat consumed by the brickwork may assume
quite surprising proportions in relation to the heat usefully used.
The heat stored in the body of the furnace depends on the weight of each component, its
specific heat and its average rise in temperature. There are two broad categories of furnaces
viz. continuous furnaces and intermittent batch type furnaces.
Whichever category of furnace is used, the heat losses result from
1) The loss through the furnace walls due to conduction, radiation and convection.
2) The loss due to the thermal mass of the furnace storing unnecessary heat
There is however a difference. In furnaces, operated continuously at full working temperature,

the heat loss through the walls is far greater than the heat required to heat up the mass of the
furnace. In furnaces heated and cooled intermittently, the loss thorough heat stored in the
mass of the furnace (and dissipated each time the furnace is cooled) may be much greater.
The external insulation is used sometimes to reduce the heat losses. In continuous or long
time cycle furnaces the insulating problem is to prevent heat loss through the walls and roof. In
intermittent or short time cycle furnaces, it is to reduce the heat storage loss whilst still not
neglecting the external surface loss.
The striking benefits of the application of insulation to a furnace can be seen from the following
example:
A refractory brick walled furnace with walls of a nominal 9 thickness and an internal wall
temperature of 2000F will lose 145 BTUs per square feet. With a nominal 4 of insulation the
heat loss will be reduced to 32 BTUs per square feet and with nominal 8 insulation to 18
BTUs per square feet.

Heat losses can also be reduced to certain extent by increasing the thickness of the refractory
brick but this is not very effective as this method adds significant cost to the furnace structure.
It is much better to use insulation.
But a word of caution:
The insulation of furnaces should not be adopted without careful consideration of the
consequences and the changes in refractory temperatures that may result.
Effect of insulation on refractory temperatures:
An operating temperature above the service limit for a particular refractory can weaken or melt
the refractory. If the outer wall of a refractory lined furnace is insulted, heat losses shall reduce
or more heat is retained within the system. This means that in practice, the average
temperature of the refractory walls increases even when the fuel consumption is reduced to
maintain the same internal furnace temperature. This can result in the refractory or insulation
becoming overheated so that:
a) The refractory may melt and the furnace collapse
b) The insulation may be spoiled or made ineffective
The effect of insulation on our example furnace would be as follows:
The interface temperature that is the temperature of the face between the refractory brick and
the insulation would increase considerably. With no insulation the refractory external
temperature would be 500F. With nominal 4 insulation it would be 1650F and with nominal
8 insulation it would be 1800F.
Whilst a refractory built into a wall or roof can be operated with its face above the safe
temperature as long as the bulk of the brick is at a temperature low enough to stand up to
conditions, applying insulation to the outside may set up very dangerous conditions. For this
reason it is recommended that furnace builders or the manufactures of insulating bricks should
always be consulted before the insulation of high temperature furnace is undertaken.
As a rule of thumb, putting 4 of insulation on the exterior surface shall increase heat storage
by about 60%. Although the reduction in heat losses through the walls is more than enough to
compensate for the additional stored heat, it would save more energy overall on a short cycle
furnace, if we could stop that heat getting into the walls in the first place. Especially since
increased thermal storage exacerbates the problem of cooling the furnace at the end of each
cycle.

Shorter the time cycle of the furnace, the greater is the heat stored in the wall in comparison
with the heat lost through the wall.
The solution of the difficulty lies in reducing to a minimum the weight of refractory that must be
heated and cooled each cycle. At one time this solution was rendered impossible by the high
temperature of the insulation/refractory interface. Hot face insulation is now a common
solution. The development of bricks with both high refractoriness and good insulation
properties has been followed by the use of low density ceramic fibers and micro porous
insulation. The great advantage of ceramic fiber and micro porous insulation is their low
thermal conductivity, low thermal mass and resistance to thermal shock. For intermittent
furnaces the use of these materials as internal insulation should drastically reduce the energy
used. In cases where the new types of insulation may be subject to chemical attack or where
more mechanical strength may be required it is possible to provide added protection by
treating it with suitable coating.
Intermittent furnaces where the furnace must be cooled to a considerable extent as part of the
process will lose their heat much more slowly, if externally insulated. In cases where there is a
need to reduce the internal temperature as quickly as possible, the level of insulation should
not be reduced just to further this aim. Cooling can be carried out by drawing volumes of cold
air or gases through the furnace with the provision that good quality non-spalling brickwork
forms the internal surface of the furnace.
Heat losses from furnace walls
In furnaces and kilns, heat losses from furnace walls, affect the fuel economy substantially.
The extent of wall losses depends on:
1) Emissivity of walls
2) Conductivity of refractories
3) Wall thickness
4) Whether furnace or kiln is operated continuously or intermittently
Different materials have different radiation power (emissivity). The emissivity of walls coated
with aluminum paint is lower than that of bricks. Figure below shows the coefficient of heat
dissipation for the following conditions:
a) Rough vertical plane surface
b) Vertical aluminum painted walls

(Figure indicative only: not for data interpretation)
The variation of thermal conductivity for typical refractory materials (silica brick, fireclay brick
and insulation brick) with temperature is depicted in figure below:
Average Conductivity of Refractory Material

Heat losses can be reduced by increasing the wall thickness, or through the application of
insulating bricks. Outside wall temperature and heat losses for a composite wall of a certain
thickness of firebrick and insulation brick are much lower due to lesser conductivity of
insulating brick as compared to a refractory brick.
Temperature Relationship of Inside/Outside Faces of Furnace Wall
The heat loss from a furnace wall increases with low thickness non insulating brick. This is
depicted by curves below.

Heat Losses through Furnace Walls
The heat losses discussed in the preceding section are those incurred during steady,
uninterrupted operation. In actual practice, operating period - ON alternate with idle periods-
OFF. During the off period, the heat stored in the refractories in the ON-period is gradually
dissipated, mainly through radiation and convection from the cold face. In addition, some heat
is abstracted by air flowing through the furnace. Dissipation of stored heat is a low, because
the lost heat is at least in part again imparted to the refractories during the next ON- period,
thus expending fuel to generate the heat. If a furnace is operated 24 hr, every third day,
practically all of the heat stored in the refractories is lost. But if the furnace is operated 8 hours
per day, not all the heat stored in the refractories is dissipated. For a furnace with firebrick wall
(350mm) thick it is estimated that 55% of the heat stored in the refractories is dissipated from
the cold surface during 16 hours idle period. Furnace wall built of insulating refractories and
encased in a shell reduce flow of heat to the surroundings. The loss can be further be reduced
by inserting a fiber blow between the insulating refractory and the steel casing. The general
question one asks is how much heat loss can be reduced by application of insulation. The
answer is ha it depends on the thickness of firebricks and of the insulation and on continuity of

furnace operation. The heat saving pattern with three of these variables are indicated in the
table below:
Reduction of Wall Losses by Insulation, Percent
Thickness of Continuous Operation 1 Week Cycle 1 Day Cycle; 6

Firebrick Wall Insulation Insulation Insulation Days per week
(mm) (65mm) (120mm) (65mm) Insulation
(65mm)
115 62 76 58 25
230 46 65 36 18
350 38 65 20 14
460 35 53 15 12
In the table, one week cycle means continuous operation for 6 days of 24 hrs. For 5 days
operation, the savings reduced, approximately 10%, to one day cycle means 8 to 10 hr per
day. The tabular values must be reduced somewhat, if the wall is thick in comparison with the
interior dimensions of the furnace. The tabular values apply only to those furnaces which are
covered entirely with insulation, even under the binding.
To sum up, the heat losses from walls depend on
1) Inside temperature
2) Outside air temperature
3) Outside air velocity
4) Configuration of walls
5) Emissivity of walls
6) Thickness of walls
7) Conductivity of walls
The last two can be easily controlled by the furnace fabricator. The following conclusions can
be drawn:
a) As the wall thickness increases, the heat losses reduce
b) As thickness of insulation is increased, heat losses reduce

c) The effect of insulation in reducing heat losses is more pronounced than the increase
of wall thickness (roughly 1 cm of insulation brick is equivalent to 5 to 8 cm of refractory
firebrick)
d) In intermittent furnaces, thin walls of insulating refractories are preferable to thick walls
of a normal refractory for intermittent operation since less heat is stored in them.
e) One approach to achieve less heat storage capacity would be to utilize insulating
material itself to form the inner refractory lining. Robust refractories with fairly god
strength and spalling resistance can be used for temperature in the range of 1300 C.
They are termed as hot face insulation.
f) Hot face insulating bricks are lighter than normal refractories, weighing only one third to
one half as much. Therefore, heat storage in the hot face insulation is very much
reduced.
Case Study: Thermal insulation of an oil fired forging furnace (SI units, indicative only)
An oil fired furnace with 3.34 sq meter heart area and 350 mm thick side walls of fire bricks is
operated for about 8 hours a day. The furnace takes about one hour in the morning to attain
the desired furnace temperature of 1250C. Moreover, the radiation losses are considerable.
With a view to cut down the radiation loss and the heat storage or initial heating time of the
furnace, it is desired to employ insulation.
The seven proposals of employing various refractories and insulating bricks of various
thicknesses have been studied from fuel savings considerations. The replacement of
refractories at the roof and the doors side is not being considered.
1) 450 mm Firebrick
2) 350mm Firebrick (the existing one)
3) 350mm Firebrick + 115mm Cold face insulation
4) 230mm Firebrick + 115mm Hot face insulation + 75 mm Cold face insulation
5) 230mm Firebrick + 115mm Hot face insulation
6) 350mm hot face insulation
7) 350mm hot face insulation + 75mm cold face insulation
The various heat aspects are given in Tables A) & B) below. The calculations and figures
given in the table are on the following bases:

a. Furnace Dimensions, Hearth = 1.83 m x 1.83 m
b. Side wall internal height up to the lower end of arch = 60 mm wall thickness = 350 mm
firebrick
c. For convenience only three side walls have been taken into consideration for
calculating radiation loss and initial heating time.
d. Initial heating time for proposal 2 (existing one) is 1 hour. For other proposals, the initial
heating time has been calculated on the basis of relative mass of the refractory with
respect to the mass associated with that of proposal 2.
e. The furnace operates for 8 hrs
f. Steady state internal furnace temperature is 1250 C
g. Brick size = 230mm x 115mm x 75mm
h. Burner output at initial heating = 100 liters/hr (burner output at other times = 80 liters/hr
avg )
i. Density of firebrick = 1920 Kg/m3
j. Density of hot face insulation brick = 960 Kg/m3
k. Density of cold face insulation brick = 480 Kg/m3
l. Coefficient of conductivity in Kcal/hr m C of
o Fire Brick = 1.30
o Hot face insulation = 0.414
o Cold face insulation = 0.207
m. Calorific value of furnace oil = 10300 Kcal/kg
n. The bricks employed in various proposals can withstand the interfacial temperature
obtained in actual operation of the furnace
o. Percentage heat utilized in the heating of the material and refractories = 50%, i.e. of
every 100 Kcal by oil, 50 Kcals are carried away be stack and 50 Kcals are available
for raising temperature of furnace and materials.
TABLE - A

Proposal Wall No. of Corresponding Radiation Total Initial

no. Thickness Bricks mass of Losses Radiation heating to
used refractories Kcal/hr/m2 in 8hrs attain the
(Kg) operation furnace
Kcal temperature
in minutes
450 mm
1 Firebrick 900 3430 2390 10.71 x 104 83
350mm
Firebrick (the
2 existing one) 650 2482 3040 12.73 x 104 60
350mm
Firebrick +
650
3 115mm Cold 2720 1085 4.85 x 104 66
face insulation 250
230mm
Firebrick +
115mm Hot
450
4 face insulation 2350 1085 4.75 x 104 57
+ 75 mm Cold 250
face insulation
230mm
Firebrick +
450
5 115mm Hot 2150 1845 7.73 x 104 52
face insulation 250
350mm hot
6 face insulation 650 1240 1085 4.55 x 104 30
350mm hot
face insulation
650
7 + 75mm cold 1384 760 3.33 x 104 33
face insulation 164
TABLE - B

Proposal Initial heating Oil used Heat loss in 8hrs Equivalent oil Total oil
no. to attain the in light operation in Kcal consumption consumption
furnace up corresponding equivalent to heat
temperature (gallons to 8 hrs losses losses (gallons
in minutes per day) (gallons per per day)
day)
1 83 36 10.71 x 104 6 42
2 60 26 12.73 x 104 7 33
3 66 29 4.85 x 104 2.7 31.7
4 57 25 4.75 x 104 2.6 27.6
5 52 23 7.73 x 104 4.3 27.3
6 30 13 4.55 x 104 2.5 15.5
7 33 14 3.33 x 104 1.8 15.8

SECTION - 6: REFRACTORY APPLICATIONS IN INDUSTRY
Iron and Steel
Iron and Steel industry is the major consumer of refractories with about 70% of refractories
being consumed by them.
The different areas of the steel manufacturing processes are exposed to different
temperatures, slag and sulphur gases. The diversity in the operating conditions of different
equipment's demands different grades for different areas of application.
Refractory selection for the lining of a furnace is invariably built upon a combination of material
qualities, and brick size to maximize the performance. Preferential wear in the hot spots and at
the slag line is reduced by careful material selection, together with an understanding of the
particular practice.
Steel industry use refractory for diverse applications:
Blast Furnace
Coke Ovens
Torpedo Ladles
Basic Oxygen Furnace
Electric Arc Furnace
Twin Hearth Furnace
Energy Optimizing Furnace
Secondary Refining Ladles
Stainless Steel Vessels
Slide Gate Refractories
Purging Refractories
Tundish Refractories
Induction Furnace
Blast furnace is the focus of any integrated steel plant. Blast furnace is used to reduce the iron
ore to iron. The charge consisting of the lumps of iron ore, coke and limestone etc is fed from

the top in different ratios. Air heated in the blast furnace stoves, is applied from the bottom of
the furnace. The hot blast comes in contact with the descending charge in furnace and the iron
ore gets reduced to iron due to reducing conditions on account of CO2 and CO in the furnace.
CO provides further heat and a very high temperature is developed because of which the iron
gets melted which, along with the slag is collected in the hearth from where these are tapped
separately from different tap holes.
Blast Furnace Temperature Zones
Basic refractory of magnesia constitute the most important group of refractories for the
steelmaking processes. The conventional magnesite refractory may be pitch bonded; resin
bonded, burned and impregnated magnesia brick. Other than these following three types of
magnesia-carbon refractory bricks are used:
1) Regular sintered magnesia (97% MgO) with medium quality graphite (95% C)
2) High purity sintered magnesia (99% MgO) with high purity graphite (99% C)
3) High purity sintered magnesia with high purity graphite plus antioxidants.

Magnesia-carbon brick were originally designed for water cooled electric furnaces but later
with improvement these are widely used in basic oxygen converter, ladle slag lines,
degassers, etc.
Typically, the major elements that are subjected to refractory lining are described below:
Hearth
The working hearth is required to withstand high temperature, temperature cycling, and impact
from the scrap charge. The sub hearth of the furnace has an extended lifetime in comparison
with other components of the lining, and is only replaced after severe metal penetration
through the working hearth or after major water leakage.
Hearth linings are normally constructed with high quality 42-62% Al2O3, Mullite, conventional
carbon block. Current furnace designs favor Carbon/Graphite block with super micro-pores.
Monolithic linings based upon high MgO powders are rammed and contoured into the
sidewalls. Some furnace operations do however permit and prefer brick hearths, generally
based upon pitch impregnated fired magnesite.
Sidewalls
Within the sidewall area there are three main zones, the slag line, the hot spots and the
remainder.
Balanced lining wear is the main criteria of the furnace refractory performance, and this
requires zoning of the lining by both material quality and thickness. The majority of furnaces
incorporate magnesite-carbon products into the sidewall, and their performance is influenced
by both the base raw material, and graphite content. Performance is markedly increased as
the crystal size of the magnesite increased to the ultimate by the use of fused magnesia.
Increase of graphite content also follows the same pathway, although carbon retention is
important, and this may be improved by the inclusion of finely divided metals.
Main Sidewall
The areas in the sidewall that gives rise to least difficulty are those between the hot spots, the
so called 'cold spots'.
The major factors influencing refractory performance are temperature, and slag splash, and in
water cooled furnaces a magnesite carbon of at least 10% graphite content is preferred.
Hot Spots

Wear in the hotspots is similar to that in the main sidewall, but is exacerbated by temperature
owing to electrode flare.
Higher quality magnesite carbon with graphite content of 20% and based upon either large
crystal size or fused magnesia is preferred. Where oxy-fuel burners are employed, oxidation of
the carbon can take placed, and this may be reduced by magnesite carbon materials
incorporating finely divided metals.
Slagline
The aggressive nature of slag fluidizers such as fluorspar has a detrimental effect upon slag
line performance. Materials based upon high quality magnesite, or in severe cases, large
crystal size or fused magnesia are preferred. Where high iron oxide slags are encountered
magnesite carbon materials incorporating metal additions are preferred.
Burner Ports and Slag Door
These areas of the furnace are subjected to wear by oxidation, and by impact of slag door
jambs. Magnesite carbon with metal additions is important in these areas.
Roof
Electric arc furnace roofs have a high degree of water cooling, and as such require little
refractory material. The delta between the electrodes is invariably formed using a monolithic
material or precast shape, but refractory bricks are often used to form the electrode ports.
Materials in this area require good thermal shock and abrasion resistance, and high alumina
materials are seen to advantage.
Where the furnace roof is bricked, these are subjected to high thermal loading, and slag
splash. Phosphate bonded heat treated materials offer good resistance to slab and spalling in
the roof.
Nozzles
A wide range of atomizing and metering nozzles are available that are based upon Zircon
based products and stabilized Zirconia. The nozzles are manufactured in a wide range of
shapes, sizes and designs flexible to the requirements of customer specifications.
Copper Industry
In copper industry, Direct Bonded Magnesia Chrome Brick is the most popular choice
worldwide. The bulk of copper smelting is produced using flash smelters followed by

reverberatory furnaces. Flash furnaces have major benefits over reverberatory furnaces,
particularly in fuel efficiency, and increased yield.
The other type of copper smelting include; Isa Furnace, Pierce Smith Converters, Anode
refining Furnace, Rotary Holding Furnace, Slag Cleaning Electric Arc Furnace, etc
A comprehensive range of products for the traditional and advanced smelting processes is
primarily based upon magnesite -chrome products for the working lining with alumino - silicate
materials for the intermediate and safety linings. A complete range of refractory mortars and
monolithics is also available.
Smelting Process
Primary smelting vessels, whether they are flash furnaces, reverberatory furnaces or electric
arc furnaces; all subject the refractory lining to attack by slag and sulphur gases. The slag
composition is normally high in Fe2O3 and SiO2, both of which attack magnesia in the refractory
to form magnesio-ferrite, and Forsterite, whilst the sulphur present in the vapor phase also
attacks magnesia to form magnesium sulphate. All reactions in the refractory system are
accompanied by volume expansion, leading to crack formation behind the working face, which
are then lost during temperature cycling.
Direct bonded magnesite -chrome refractories are the preferred materials in contact with
copper slags, owing to their greater tolerance to acidic slags. Improved products based upon
pre-sintered clinker and/or fused grain clinkers also show further benefit.
The Converter
The copper converter carries similar slags to those found in the smelting process, together
with sulphurous gases, and consequently similar modes of refractory attack take place.
Preferential wear frequently takes place at the tuyere line of the converter owing to the
combination of slag attack and thermal shock. High hot strength chrome - magnesite with good
thermal shock resistance is a prerequisite.
Anode Furnace
There is little slag present in the Anode furnace, but the refractory lining is in contact with
highly penetrative molten copper and cuprous oxide. Penetration of the refractory material with
copper leads to disruptive failure owing to crack formation at the limit of penetration. Reaction
between copper oxide and silica in the refractory leads to the formation of low melting point
compound which exacerbate the formation of cracks, and loss of the working face.

The working environment of the Anode furnace demands chrome - magnesite material with
high hot strength to minimize copper penetration and disruptive loss of the working face.
Slag Cleaning Furnace
The slag cleaning furnace has special requirements depending upon the slag practice. It is
necessary to maintain a frozen slag layer on the refractory lining, therefore, a good slag and
penetration resistance is required. Direct bonded Magnesite - chrome materials are preferred.
Aluminum Industry
Refractories in Aluminum industry are commonly utilized in several equipment's like
Anode Baking Furnaces
Melting / Holding Furnaces
Induction Furnaces
Reduction Pots
Ladles and Launders
Most common refractories utilized in Aluminum Industry include:
Super duty Fireclay & High Alumina Bricks
Phosphate Bonded High Alumina Bricks These are ideally suited to molten aluminum
ladle/furnace applications due to their unique chemistry, including special aggregates
and additives.
The special requirements for refractories in Aluminum industry are
Resistance to Carbon/Aluminum penetration
High Strength
High Corrosion resistance
Wide ranges of products are offered to meet the requirement of diverse application conditions.
Range of products for Aluminum contact applications includes Insulating, dense, Low Cement
and Ultra Low Cement Castables. These products are not only reaction resistant to Aluminum
contact but also totally non-wetting.
Pot Shell Refractory Material

Pot shell is essentially a refractory-lined vessel composed of an outside steel shell and layers
of refractory linings. The interior layer of the refractory lining is exposed to the process (molten
metal, slag, corrosive gases). The linings between the shell and working lining are often
referred to as the safety or insulating linings. Insulating linings are used to limit heat loss and
to maintain the vessel shell temperatures at reasonable levels.
Typically, the pot shell lining consists of several layers refractories blocks or bricks joined
together using some monolithic material of varying qualities:
1) Light Insulating Bricks - Generally these are Calcium Silicate bricks that are used in
the shell lining. These bricks are used to thermally insulate the pot bottom and
therefore are of very low thermal.
2) Ordinary Refractory Bricks - Ordinary Refractory Bricks are Alumina Silicate bricks.
3) Resistance Insulating Bricks - Resistant Insulating Bricks fall in between those of
Light Insulating Bricks and Ordinary Refractory Bricks in their properties.
4) Silicon Carbide slabs / Sidewall Blocks - Silicon Carbide or Silicon nitride boards are
bonded with silicon carbide and must have resistance to corrosion by liquid aluminium
and fluorinated products.
5) Cathode Sidewall Blocks - Preformed, carbonaceous blocks used around the
perimeter of the cell to form the sides of the cathode. These blocks, which are
generally less than 160 mm thick, are usually bonded directly to the steel pot shell with
refractory mortar. The desired properties of the sidewalls are different from those of the
bottom blocks. Electrical conductivity is not needed since it is not intended that current
should pass through the sidewalls. High heat conductivity however is very important to
permit the formation of frozen bath or ledges to protect the sidewalls from erosion and
the corrosive effects of the bath. Prebaked sidewall blocks are usually manufactured
from the same materials and with the same formulations as the bottom blocks.
Traditionally, amorphous anthracite carbon blocks have been used; however, silicon
carbide or graphite blocks are more common with new cell designs.
6) Powdered Alumina - Powdered Alumina is used as a base layer for the cathode
block, at the bottom of large joint ring, to fill the joints between the light insulating bricks
and to even out irregularities at the bottom of pot shell.
7) Refractory Concrete having High Alumina Cement

8) Brick and Slab Grouting mortar - The mortar is used for grouting of the ordinary
refractory bricks and insulating refractory bricks and carbon and silicon carbide slabs.
This is an air setting mortar with sodium silicate binder
9) Fibrous concrete - This is an injectable fibrous concrete used for cathode bar stuffing
boxes
10) Other Fibrous Material - Mineral Wool Panels are used as thermal insulation
expansion joint on the inner wall of the pot shell.
11) Ceramic fibres for sealing cathode block bars. Ceramic fibres are in form of
blankets, braiding and loose fibre. These fibrous withstand the temp up to 1250C and
having Al2O3 content of about 35% and bulk density 90-100kg/m.
Refractories show significant expansion upon heating. In service, under given thermal and
mechanical boundary conditions, the refractory linings are exposed primarily to through-
thickness temperature gradients and to thermal expansion loading. The free thermal
expansion of linings is controlled by the external structural steel shell. In most cases, the
thermal stresses due to the restraint are considerably greater than the gravity weight stresses
(gravity load stresses typically are in the range of 0.2 to 1 MPa, while the thermal expansion
stresses can be in the range of 15 to 100 MPa). Of all the various shapes of industrial vessels,
the cylindrical and the flat refractory structures appear to be the most predominant geometries.

a) The cylindrical lining remains in full contact with the outside steel shell due to the
thermal expansion and the hydrostatic pressure (due to molten metal). Therefore, both
loads develop a uniform pressure loading around the cylindrical shell.
b) The behavior of the refractory flat lining differs considerably from that of the cylindrical
lining. The refractory flat linings are subjected to unstable and undesirable inward and
outward displacements (with a risk of buckling) when subjected to cyclic pressure and
expansion loadings.
In a refractory lining design process steps to prevent substantial failure and damage of a
refractory lining under thermal load may involve:
a) Selection of compatible lining refractory materials
b) Rational thermo mechanical analysis and design toward developing acceptable stress
and strain distributions
c) Determination of optimal operating conditions (specially heating scheme)
Cement Industry
In cement industry, the kiln, the preheating system, and the cooler operate in a vey high
temperature range and therefore lined with refractories to protect steel structure against heat,
abrasion and chemical attack.
Cement Rotary Kiln is the heart of any cement plant directly influencing the plant productivity.
Nature of stresses is different in different areas, necessitating different quality of refractories
for different zones.
Common refractory materials used are
Dolomite
Magnesia-Chrome Spinel
Magnesia-Alumina Spinel
Fireclay and
High Alumina
The cement kiln clinker area is usually provided with Dolomite refractories. Advantages of
Dolomite refractories for cement are well established it is the most compatible material with
the cement kiln clinker as it provides excellent coating stability, has very good resistance to

thermal shock and alkali attack in varying kiln operating conditions. The refractories with
Zirconia enrichment are used for crack arresting
The Transition zone / Preheat zone / Preheater Precalinator areas are usually provided with
Magnesia-Alumina spinel variety with high thermo-elastic and thermo mechanical property and
various grades of high alumina bricks (45-80% Al2O3) with high strength.
Glass Industry
The glass industry furnaces are categorized by
1) High operating temperature
2) High Insulation of crown
3) High pull rates and low melting Rates
4) Corrosive vapors and Batch dust
The bonded refractories are utilized in melter, refiner, regenerator, dog-house and ports of
furnace.
Melter/Refiner: Refractories are needed for superstructure, crown and bottom. The important
characteristics of the refractories in these areas are-
High Alkali Vapor Resistance
High hot strength
High Corrosion Resistance
Crown: The furnace crowns are heavily insulated to reduce the energy loss. The important
characteristics of refractory to meet this requirement are
Very Low flux factor <0.5; high hot strength
Very low residual quartz <0.5%; good volume stability at service temperature
High alkali vapor resistance
Close dimensional tolerances required for laying with zero joint concept.
Regenerators: Regenerator in single or multi pass design is a common energy saving

measure adopted. The basic requirement of the glassmaker from a regenerator is to maximize
the heat recovery from outgoing gases apart from a long trouble free campaign life. This
coupled with the increase in melting rates and use of alternative fuels has increased the

severity of the working conditions in regenerator, subjecting the refractories to adverse

chemical attack and high temperatures.
To achieve optimum energy saving and long campaign life the refractories for such areas
should be selected for -
High thermal shock resistance
High hot strength
High creep resistance at service temperature
High heat transfer
Checker Work: Regenerator checker system is a most vital component of a glass tank
furnace from the point of energy saving. To increase the efficiency of heat transfer and to
withstand the onslaught of the batch dust, high temperature and thermal cycling, the products
are characterized by-
High thermal shock resistance
High resistance to the chemical attack of batch dust
High heat transfer
The needs of the different regions of the regenerator are different with condensation zone
being the most critical zone.
Zirconia is useful refractory material for glass furnaces primarily since it is not easily wetted by
molten glass and because of its low reaction with them.
Course Summary
Refractories are heat resistant materials that can withstand high temperature without rapid
physical & chemical deterioration. Refractories are expensive, and any failure in the
refractories results in a great loss of production time, equipment, and sometimes the product
itself. The various type of refractories influence energy consumption and product quality.
Therefore, the problem of obtaining refractories best suited to each application is of supreme
importance. Refractories are also vital for the safe operation of the processes and must not
expose personnel to hazardous conditions during their manufacture, installation, use or during
disposal following their use.

Continuous improvement of refractories materials have improved service life and has
decreased consumption rate significantly.
It is important that due regard to required levels of refractory lining be given at the initial design
stages of process plant. With the advent of technology in refractory materials, many upgraded
alternatives are available to engineers for application in industry. Economics greatly influence
the appropriate selection and the refractory best suited for an application is not necessarily the
one that lasts the longest, but rather the one which provides the best balance between initial
installed cost and service performance.

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PDH Course M158

Overview of Refractory Materials

PDH Online | PDH Center

An Approved Continuing Education Provider

Overview of Refractory Materials

Section -1: Refractory Overview

Section -2: Types of Refractories

Section -3: Insulating Refractories

Section -4: Selection of Refractories

Section -5: Heat Loss and Energy Conservation

Section -6: Refractory Applications in Industry

2011 A. Bhatia Page 2 of 54

SECTION -1: REFRACTORY OVERVIEW

Refractories are inorganic, nonmetallic, porous and heterogeneous materials composed of

What are Refractories used for?

MELTING POINT CHART

KEY MATERIALS MELTING TEMPERATURES (F)

2011 A. Bhatia Page 3 of 54

Requirements of Right Refractory

The general requirements of a refractory material can be summed up as:

3) Its ability to withstand load at service conditions;

5) Its ability to maintain sufficient dimensional stability at high temperatures and

6) Its ability to conserve heat.

Some of the important characteristics of refractories are:

2011 A. Bhatia Page 4 of 54

MELTING POINT CHART OF PURE COMPOUNDS

REFRACTORY ELEMENT MELTING TEMPERATURES

2) Size and Dimensional Stability:

2011 A. Bhatia Page 5 of 54

degradation of the structure. The porosity of refractory is expressed as the average

The bulk density is generally considered in conjunction with apparent porosity. It is a

5) Cold Crushing Strength:

The cold crushing strength, which is considered by some to be doubtful relevance as a

6) Pyrometric Cone Equivalent (PCE)

Refractories due to their chemical complexity melt progressively over a range of

2011 A. Bhatia Page 6 of 54

7) Refractoriness under load:

Refractoriness points to the resistance of extreme conditions of heat (temperature >

The ability to withstand exposure to elevated temperatures without undergoing

8) Creep at high temperature:

9) Volume stability, expansion and shrinkage at high temperature:

2011 A. Bhatia Page 7 of 54

b) A chemical reaction which produces a new material of altered specific gravity.

c) The formation of liquid phase

10) Reversible Thermal Expansion:

11) Thermal Conductivity:

2011 A. Bhatia Page 8 of 54

Porosity is a significant factor in heat flow through refractories. The thermal

Although it is one of the least important properties as far as service performance is

How are Refractories Classified?

Classification Based on Chemical Composition

2) Zirconia (ZrO2), and

1) Carbon graphite (most inert)

2011 A. Bhatia Page 9 of 54

1) Magnesia (MgO) - caustic, sintered and fused magnesia

2) Dolomite (CaO*MgO) - sintered and fused dolomite

3) Chromite -main part of chrome ore

Classification Based on Method of Manufacture

The refractories can be manufactured in either of the following methods: