Ita Report 16 WG2 BD - P PDF

Twenty Years of frc Tunnel Segments Practice :
Lessons Learnt and Proposed Design Principles
ITA Working Group 2

Research
N ISBN: 978-2-970 1013-5-2 ITA REPORT n16 / april 2016
21373-ITA-REPORT-16-WG2.indd 1 13/05/16 10:07

ITA Report n 16 - Twenty years of FRC tunnel segments practice: lessons learnt and proposed design principles
NISBN : 978-2-970 1013-5-2 / april 2016 - Layout : Longrine Avignon France www.longrine.fr
The International Tunnelling and Underground Space Association/Association Internationale des Tunnels et de lEspace Souterrain (ITA/AITES) publishes this report to, in accordance with its
statutes, facilitate the exchange of information, in order: to encourage planning of the subsurface for the benefit of the public, environment and sustainable development to promote advances
in planning, design, construction, maintenance and safety of tunnels and underground space, by bringing together information thereon and by studying questions related thereto. This report
has been prepared by professionals with expertise within the actual subjects. The opinions and statements are based on sources believed to be reliable and in good faith. However, ITA/AITES
accepts no responsibility or liability whatsoever with regard to the material published in this report. This material is: information of a general nature only which is not intended to address the specific
circumstances of any particular individual or entity; not necessarily comprehensive, complete, accurate or up to date; This material is not professional or legal advice (if you need specific advice,
you should always consult a suitably qualified professional).

Twenty Years of frc Tunnel Segments Practice :
Lessons Learnt and Proposed Design Principles
ITA Working Group 2

Research

1 >> Preface
The construction of underground infrastructures for transport purposes (roads, railways, and metro),
for mountain, sea straits or rivers crossing, for water transportation (clean or sewage water), and for
utilities, including multi-purpose tunnels has a key role in the development of modern society. In this
context, the use of mechanised tunnelling faces continuously increasing challenges in terms of diameter,
depth, machine power, adaptability to different geological context. Consequently, the conception of
the lining - usually made of precast segments - has to evolve accordingly in terms of mechanised
behaviour, bearing capacity, crack control and water-tightness.
In the last two decades, the use of Fibre Reinforced Concrete (FRC) progressed and was adopted
in several tunnel projects. Among the benefits related to the inclusion of fibre reinforcement in the
cementitious composites, the most important is the noticeable increase of the post-cracking tensile
residual properties. In addition, the fibre reinforcement facilitates production process of the lining
segments. The enhancement of the general structural behaviour together with the improvement of
the industrialized production of precast tunnel segments are probably the two main key-factors of the
continuously growth in using FRC in precast tunnel linings.
The aim of this report is to provide advances in the design of FRC tunnel lining in accordance with the
objectives of the International Tunnelling Association (ITA) prescribed in Section II of the Statutes of
the ITA (ITA, 1976). Standards and recommendations related to the design of general FRC elements
are already available, but they do not provide details on specific requirements and loading conditions
applicable in the case of tunnel lining segments. The scope of the report is hence to take advantage of
twenty years of FRC practice in precast tunnel lining - including research and feedback from real cases
to provide additional design principles which complete the existing standards and recommendations
for the specific case of tunnel lining.
This document was conceptually agreed during the meeting of ITA Working Group 2 (WG2) in Budapest,
2009. The first early draft document was presented in Vancouver, 2010. After several discussions and
meetings within WG2 the current version was completed, it was reviewed by the WG2 members, and
it went through the formal approval process of ITA.
4 ITA Working Group 2 - Research

1 >> Preface
Authors
Tiberti G., DICATAM - Department of Civil, Architectural, Environmental, Land Planning Engineering and
Mathematics, University of Brescia, via Branze 43, 25123 Brescia, Italy.
Chiriotti E., INCAS Partners - In-ground Consulting and Strategy, 54 rue Lamarck, 75018 Paris, France.
Plizzari G.A. DICATAM - Department of Civil, Architectural, Environmental, Land Planning Engineering
and Mathematics, University of Brescia, via Branze 43, 25123 Brescia, Italy.
Group members Mitew-Czayewska M.,

Atsushi K., Mooney M.,
Barbero M., Nasri V.,
Bezuijen A. Remi B.,
Choy G., Sturk R.,
Dias T., Tengborg P.,
Felice C., Thewes M.,
Fernandez- Bollo M., Tluczek R.,
Gan P., Vanni D.,
Garroux D., Zdenek Z.
Hansmire B.,
Animateur
Harding A.,
Chungsik Yoo
Hfer-llinger G.,
Humbert E., Vice Animateur
Hurt J., Elena Chiriotti
Leca E., Tutor

Marulanda C., Eric Leca
Twenty years of FRC tunnel segments practice: lessons learnt and proposed design principles 5

2 >> Glossary
Annular gap : Fire spalling of concrete : Sealing system :

space between the surrounding excavated a physical process of breaking up of sealing strips (gaskets) installed on the
ground and the outer surface of the surface layers of concrete which crumble perimeter of each individual segment which
segments; into small pebble-like pieces in response to ensure permanent sealing of the tunnel tube
high temperatures exposure during a fire against groundwater pressure;
Average tunnel segment aspect ratio : event;
the ratio of average segments length Segment thickness :
(based on the different length of segments, Grouting process : distance between the inner and outer sides
counter-key segments and the key- process of filling the annular gap with of the lining segment;
segment) to segment thickness; mortar or blowing pea gravel (or other
composites as in case of two-component Spalling stresses :
Circumferential joint or ring joint : grouting) in order to produce a frictional local tensile stresses that arise in the lining
joint between two adjacent segmental rings; connection between the subsoil and the in the region between the thrust jack plates
segmental lining; (thrust shoes) because of the interaction of
Connections: adjacent jacks or couple of jacks;
fixed connecting elements (e. g. bolts, Internal ring forces :
dowels) subjectable to tensile stress and actions arising in tunnel linings (N=axial Splitting stresses :
shearing for temporary or permanent force or normal force, V=shear force, local tensile stresses (also called bursting
connecting two segments or segmental M=bending moment) generally calculated stresses) which arise during the jacks thrust
rings in the longitudinal and circunferential by accepting, as a first approximation, the in tunnel segments under their loading
joints; typical beam theory; areas in transverse direction (perpendicular
to the axis of the applied forces);
Conventional or traditional rebars : Longitudinal joint or radial joint :
steel reinforcing bar place into the segment joint between adjacent segments belonging Structural characteristic length :
mould before pouring the concrete (RC to the same ring; parameter used for easily connect
tunnel segments); continuous mechanics, governed by a
Post-cracking residual strengths : stress-strain constitutive relationships, and
Cross-passage or cross-cut : post-cracking stresses that a cracked fracture mechanics, governed by a stress-
connecting structure between two tunnel concrete sample under a uniaxial tensile crack opening law;
tubes or between a tunnel tube and the force can still carry. Generally speaking,
ground surface or a shaft, with special they are also intended as the nominal Tail void :
transition structures with the main tube simplified strengths that can be obtained annular space between the outside
(usually connection in the side wall area); from tests of cracked concrete samples diameter of the shield and the extrados of
under flexure; the segmental lining;
D-region :
disturbed region where the typical beam Ring model : Thrust jack configurations :
theory cannot be applied, but a more simplified numerical or analytical model, location of the hydraulic jacks along
general approach should be used. based on beam theory and using simplified the segment length, which determines
D-regions occur in tunnel segments approaches for simulating the surrounding where the stress concentrations in tunnel
during the TBM thrust phase where high ground, used to calculate the internal ring segments take place;
concentrated forces exerted by TBM forces (N, V, M);
jacks determine stresses parallel and Thrust jack or thrust ram :
perpendicular to the axis of the applied Segment width : hydraulic jack serving to transmit the thrust
forces (2D or 3D stresses condition); dimension of the segment ring in its centre forces of the tunnel boring machine to the
axis in the longitudinal direction of the segmental ring;
Eccentricity : tunnel;
in general is a misalignment of an applied Thrust jack phase :
force with respect to the centre of gravity of Segment length : temporary phase when the TBM pushes
the resisting concrete cross section. Hence, mean segment length measured along the itself forward while excavating the ground
it can be an eccentricity of the axial force segment mean curved plane; and pushing through its hydraulic jacks on
(normal ring force) in the segment (e.g. final the already installed tunnel lining;
state) or it can be a possible irregularity in the
position of TBM jacks with respect to tunnel
rings. It can be caused by different factors;

2 >> Glossary
Toughness :
ability of a material to absorb energy and
deform without rupturing. With regard to
concrete tensile behaviour, toughness
generally indicates the ability to resist
internal crack propagation;
Tunnel boring machine (TBM) :

the machine used to excavate tunnels with
generally a circular cross section;
Tunnel lining aspect ratio :

the ratio of tunnel lining ring diameter to ring
thickness (segment thickness);
Tunnel overburden :
clear ground cover over the crown of the
tunnel lining;
Tunnel segment aspect ratio :

the ratio of segment length (segment
extension) to ring thickness (segment
thickness);
Tunnel segment :
curved prefabricated element that
composes the tunnel lining rings;
depending upon the type of lining, the
corresponding radial joints can be inclined
or parallel with respect to the tunnel
longitudinal axis;
Un-even supports or non-smooth

supports :
referring to the TBM thrust phase,
corresponds to the configuration when
one or more supports of a tunnel element
in a ring joint because of several possible
reasons;
Universal ring :
tapered segmental ring that can be installed
in a number of allowed positions permitting
to face straight and curved alignment.

3 >> List of symbol and abreviations
As Cross-sectional area of conventional steel reinforcing bar in

compression;
As Cross-sectional area of conventional steel reinforcing bar in tension;
Bsegment segment width;
c clear concrete cover;
CMOD Crack Mouth Opening Displacement;
d effective depth of the segment cross-section;
Di internal tunnel lining diameter;
Di/h tunnel aspect ratio;
Ec concrete elastic modulus;
Es steel elastic modulus;
fcd design value of cylindrical compressive concrete strength;
fck characteristic value of cylindrical compressive concrete strength;
fck, de-mould characteristic value of cylindrical compressive concrete strength
at de-moulding;
fcm mean value of cylindrical compressive concrete strength;
fctd design value of tensile concrete strength;
fctk characteristic value of tensile concrete strength;
fctk,0.05,de-mould characteristic value of tensile concrete strength at de-moulding time;
fctm mean value of tensile concrete strength;
fFts serviceability residual strength (post-cracking strength for serviceability
crack opening);
fFtsd design value of post-cracking strength for serviceability crack opening;
fFtsk characteristic value of post-cracking strength for serviceability crack
opening;
fFtu ultimate residual strength (post-cracking strength for ultimate crack
opening);
fFtud design value of post-cracking strength for ultimate crack opening;
fFtuk characteristic value of post-cracking strength for ultimate crack
opening;
fL limit of proportionality;
fLm mean value of limit of proportionality;
fR,j residual flexural tensile strength of fibre reinforced concrete
corresponding to CMOD=CMODj;
fR,jd design value of residual flexural tensile strength of fibre reinforced
concrete corresponding to CMOD=CMODj;
fR,jk characteristic value of residual flexural tensile strength of fibre
reinforced concrete corresponding to CMOD=CMODj;
fR,jm mean value of residual flexural tensile strength of fibre reinforced
concrete corresponding to CMOD=CMODj;
ft,fiber mean value of ultimate tensile strength of fibres;
fyd design value of rebar yield strength;
fyk characteristic value of rebar yield strength;

3 >> List of symbol and abreviations
FRC Fibre Reinforced Concrete;

h Lining thickness;
Hoverbunden,min,max : tunnel overbunden (min-max);
Lf fibre length;
Lf/f fibre aspect ratio;
Lsegment segment length;
lcs structural characteristic length;
M applied internal bending;
MEd design value of the applied internal bending moment;
MRd design value of the bending resistance moment;
N applied axial force (normal ring force);
NEd design value of the applied axial force;
Njack total number of TBM jacks;
Nkey number of key segments;
NRd design value of the axial resistance;
Nsegments number of segments;
NLFM Non-Linear Fracture Mechanics approach;
Rck characteristic value of cubic compressive concrete strength;
Rcm mean value of cubic compressive concrete strength;
RC Reinforced Concrete (reinforced by traditional rebar);
SFRC Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete;
SLS Serviceability Limit State;
SynFRC Synthetic Fibre Reinforced Concrete;
srm mean value of crack spacing;
TBM Tunnel Boring Machine;
Tmax,jack maximum thrust exerted per jack;
Tmax,total total maximum thrust exerted by TBM jacks;
TSC,jack thrust exerted per jack, service condition;
ULS Ultimate Limit State;
V applied shear force;
VEd design value of the applied shear force;
Vf volume fraction of fibres;
VRd design value of the shear resistance force;
wu maximum crack opening accepted in structural design;
SLS average tensile member strain at SLS, based on srm;
ULS average tensile member strain at ULS, based on srm;
c partial factor for concrete;
f partial factor for Fibre Reinforced Concrete;
f fibre diameter;
s longitudinal reinforcing ratio (referred to steel reinforcing bars, steel rebars).

4 >> Table of contents
1. PREFACE..............................................................................................................................................4
2. GLOSSARY...........................................................................................................................................6
3. LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS........................................................................................8
4. TABLE OF CONTENTS.......................................................................................................................10
5. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................ 11
6. scope................................................................................................................................................14
7. IDENTIFICATION OF APPLICABLE STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES.............................................15
8. LESSONS LEARNT DURING 20 YEARS OF APPLICATION.............................................................16
9. BACKGROUND FOR AN APPROPRIATE DESIGN APPROACH......................................................18
10. FRC PROPERTIES...........................................................................................................................1 9
10.1 Classification..................................................................................................................................1 9
10.2 Constitutive laws at Ultimate Limit State (ULS). ....................................................................................2 0
10.3 Constitutive laws at Serviceability Limit State (SLS). ..............................................................................20

11. P
RECAST SEGMENTAL TUNNEL LINING: LOADING CONDITIONS............................................2 1
11.1 General design aspects concerning thrust jack phase............................................................................2 1
11.2 General design aspects related to segmental lining behaviour during service conditions...............................24
12. DESIGN PROCEDURE OF FRC SEGMENTAL LINING..................................................................2 8
12.1 FRC mechanical properties...............................................................................................................2 9
12.2 De-moulding of tunnel segments.......................................................................................................2 9
12.3 Storage of segments.......................................................................................................................3 0
12.4 Transportation and positioning of segments by erector..........................................................................3 0

12.5 Thrust jack phase...........................................................................................................................3 0
12.6 Ring behaviour of the tunnel lining during grouting process.....................................................................3 1

12.7 Introduction of normal ring force in longitudinal joints.............................................................................3 2
12.8 Ring behaviour at the final stage........................................................................................................3 2

12.9 Ring behaviour during fire event.........................................................................................................33
13. CONCLUDING REMARKS...............................................................................................................35
ANNEX I: CASE STUDIES......................................................................................................................36
ANNEX II: GENERAL TENDENCIES EMERGING FROM THE CASE STUDIES.......................................68
REFERENCES.........................................................................................................................................70

5 >> Introduction
Tunnel segments are generally reinforced the fulfilment of the fire protection and of FRC structural elements. In particular,
with conventional rebars that are placed in durability requirements; the cracking phenomena of concrete
Reinforced Concrete (RC) elements to resist d
urability is improved. The latter is matrices containing fibres can be accurately
the tensile stresses both at Serviceability generally associated to permeability, but represented by using an approach based
(SLS) and Ultimate Limit States (ULS). it also depends on microcracks or cracks on non-linear fracture mechanics (NLFM;
In the last two decades, Fibre Reinforced related to internal and external strain or Hillerborg et al., 1976, [8]). A similar
Concrete (FRC) was used in many precast deformations experienced by structures. simplified method is well described within
tunnel segments in combination or not with In this regard, fibre reinforcement can the new fib Model Code 2010 [9]. The latter
conventional rebars [1,2,3,4], as reported in considerably reduce the cracking follows the publication of several guidelines
Table 1. FRCs are composite materials with phenomena and control permeability of concerning design of FRC elements (RILEM
a cementitious matrix and a discontinuous concrete under stress; Guidelines, 2003, [10]; CNR-DT-204, 2006,
reinforcement, the fibres, that may be [11]; DafStb Guideline, 2012 [12]).
fi bre reinforcement enhances a
made of metal, glass, synthetic or natural sustainable use of structural concrete, The present document focuses on the
materials [5]. The reason for adding fibres due to a low environmental impact and to structural behaviour of FRC precast
to cementitious composites is principally the resulting mechanical performance of tunnel linings and it was developed with a
to improve their tensile behaviour; for structures. framework similar to that of the report titled
normal fibre dosages (corresponding to a Guidelines for the design of shield tunnel
For structural purposes, Steel Fibre
volume fraction Vf<1%) the concrete tensile lining, Working Group 2 of ITA [13], which
Reinforced Concrete (SFRC) is widely
strength is not affected by fibre addition, gives information regarding the design
utilized, even though some types of
whereas the post-cracking residual of precast tunnel elements reinforced by
structural synthetic fibres (macro fibres)
strengths considerably enhance. conventional rebars only.
are able to enhance concrete toughness
Table 1 collects case studies of tunnel in order to make it adequate for structural The interest of the International Tunnelling
linings made by FRC. Fourteen of these purposes [6,7]. In fact, any type of Association (ITA) in developing this
case histories are reported in more detail in fibre that meets structural performance document is mainly to give specific
Annex I. , Based on data collected in Table requirements with respect to Serviceability recommendations which are adequate
1, possible general tendencies are analysed Limit State (SLS) and Ultimate Limit State to FRC tunnel segmental lining and their
in Annex II. (ULS) is considered suitable for structural specific design procedure. For this purpose,
FRC represents a competitive material for applications. as it will be deeply explained in Section
tunnel segmental lining for the following 6 and 7, among the existing standards
In the case studies collected in Table
main reasons: regarding FRC elements, the standard
1, type of fibres and their contents are
more suitable for the design of FRC tunnel
fibres considerably improve the concrete specified even if, as it will deeply explained
lining is certainly the recent Model Code
post-cracking behaviour, defined as in Sections 6 and 7, fibre dosage is not
2010 [9]. Based on general approaches
toughness in the following; a complete information, since it does not
and criteria proposed by Model Code 2010
fibre reinforcement enables a better crack provide any information on the post-crack
[9], the main goal of the present document
control, especially in combination with residual performance required by the
is to offer general rules and procedures
traditional reinforcing bars. Hence, smaller designer for a specific concrete application.
according to the particular requirements
crack openings are expected at SLS With the progressively growing use of and loading conditions of segmental tunnel
resulting in a considerable improvement fibre reinforcement in tunnel elements linings. Information or specific advices
of the durability of the structure; as well as in other structural elements will be given with regard to analytical and
fibres give higher resistance to impact (e.g., slabs at grade, track-slabs) several numerical procedures necessary to quantify,
loading; national standards were developed for during the design process, the beneficial
the characterization of the post-cracking effects due to fibre addition.
the industrial production process is
residual strengths exhibited by FRCs.
improved, since a partial or complete The scope of the document is to provide
Beside the quantification of toughness
substitution of conventional rebars can design principles which are specific for
provided by fibre reinforcement, it is of
be achieved, which means time reduction precast FRC tunnel lining, and which are
paramount importance the definition
in handling and placing curved rebars. A based on the experiences acquired in the
of rules and recommendations for the
considerable reduction or elimination of last two decades in various projects.
design of FRC structural elements, since
storage areas for traditional reinforcement
the classical design, based on the elastic
can be obtained;
approach, is acceptable only for ordinary
fibre reinforcement is distributed RC structure. A proper design procedure
everywhere in the segment, including the that takes into account the significant
concrete cover which, in RC segments, residual tensile strength provided by fibres
often needs to be considerably thick for after cracking should be adopted in case

5 >> Introduction
Fibre Fibre
Tunnel Di h Di/h Type of Rebars
Year Country Function Content Volume
name (m) (m) (-) FRC used
(kg/m3) Fraction (%)
Metrosud 1982 Italy Subway 5.8 0.30 19.3 SFRC N.A.' N.A.' No
Fanaco 1989 Italy Water Supply 3.0 0.20 15.0 SFRC N.A.' N.A.' No
Heathrow Baggage Handling 1993 England Service 4.5 0.15 30.0 SFRC 30 0.38% No
Heathrow Express 1994 England Railway 5.7 0.22 25.9 SFRC 30 0.38% No
Napoli metro 1995 Italy Subway 5.8 0.30 19.3 SFRC 40 0.51% No
Lesotho Highlands 1995 South Africa Water Supply 4.5 0.30 15.0 SFRC 50 0.64% No
Hachinger 1998 Germany Water Supply 2.2 0.18 12.2 SFRC N.A.' N.A.' No
2nd Heinenoord 1999 Netherlands Road 7.6 0.35 21.7 SFRC N.A.' N.A.' No
Jubilee Line 1999 England Subway 4.5 0.20 22.3 SFRC 30 0.38% No
Trasvases Manabi (La Esperanza) 2001 Ecuador Water Supply 3.5 0.20 17.5 SFRC 30 0.38% No
Essen 2001 Germany Subway 7.3 0.35 20.9 SFRC N.A.' N.A.' No
Sorenberg 2002 Switzerland Gas Pipeline 3.8 0.25 15.2 SFRC 40 0.51% No
Canal de Navarra 2003 Spain Water Supply 5.4 0.25 21.6 N.A.' N.A.' N.A.' No
Onzberg tunnel 2003 Switzerland Railway 10.8 0.30 36.0 N.A.' N.A.' N.A.' No
Onzberg-TBM 2003 Switzerland Railway 11.4 0.40 28.5 SFRC 30 0.38% Yes
Onzberg-Shield 2003 Switzerland Railway 11.4 0.40 28.5 SFRC 60 0.76% No
Barcelona Metro Lin 9 - Can Zam Stretch 2003 Spain Subway 10.9 0.35 31.1 SFRC 60 0.76% No
Channel Tunnel Rail Link (CTRL) 2004 England Railway 7.2 0.35 20.4 SFRC 30 0.38% No
Heathrow Express Extension (HexEx) 2005 England Railway 5.7 0.22 25.9 SFRC 30 0.38% No
Metropolitan Expressway Central Circular

2005 Japan Road 10.9 0.45 24.2 SFRC 63 0.80% Yes
Shinjuku Route tunnel
San Vicente 2006 USA Water Supply 3.2 0.18 17.8 SFRC 30 0.38% No
Heathrow SWOT 2006 England Water Supply 2.9 0.20 14.5 SFRC 30 0.38% No
0.38%
Barcelona Metro Line 9 - Stretch I 2006 Spain Subway 8.4 0.32 26.3 SFRC 30 and 25 Yes
and 0.32%
Ltschberg 2007 Switzerland Temporary pilot 4.5 0.22 20.5 SFRC N.A.' N.A.' No
Beacon Hill Tunnels 2007 USA Road 6.7 0.30 22.3 N.A.' N.A.' N.A.' No
Hofoldinger Stollen 2007 Germany Water Supply 2.9 0.18 16.1 SFRC 40 0.51% No
Madrid Metro 2007 Spain Subway 8.4 0.30 28.0 SFRC 25 0.32% Yes
Gold Coast Desalination Plant 2008 Australia Water Supply 3.4 0.20 17.0 SFRC 35 0.45% No
Big Walnut Sewer 2008 USA Waste Water 3.7 0.23 16.1 SFRC 35 0.45% Yes
Heathrow PiccEx 2008 England Subway 4.5 0.15 30.0 SFRC 30 0.38% No
Heathrow Express Ext. Tunnel to T5 2008 England Railway 5.7 0.22 25.9 SFRC 30 0.38% No
Hobson Bay 2009 New Zealand Waste Water 3.7 0.25 14.8 SFRC 40 0.51% No
Sao Paulo Metro Line 4 2009 Brazil Subway 8.4 0.35 24.0 SFRC 35 0.45% No
Copenhagen District Heating Tunnel 2009 Denmark Water Supply 4.2 0.30 14.0 SFRC 35 0.45% No
Docklands Light Railway (DLR) Extension 2009 England Railway 5.3 0.25 21.2 SFRC N.A.' N.A.' No
Harefield Gas Tunnel 2009 England Gas Pipeline 2.6 0.18 14.4 SynFRC 7 0.78% No

5 >> Introduction
Fiber Fiber
Tunnel Di h Di/h Type of Rebars
Year Country Function Content Volume
name (m) (m) (-) FRC used
(kg/m3) Fraction (%)
Malaga Rail Tunnel 2009 Spain Railway 8.4 0.32 26.3 SynFRC 5 0.56% Yes
FontsantaTrinitat Interconnection 2010 Spain Water Supply 5.2 0.20 26.0 SFRC 25 0.32% Yes
Clem Jones - Clem 7 2010 Australia Road 11.2 0.40 28.0 SFRC 37 0.47% Yes
Germany-
Ems-Dollard Crossing 2010 Gas Pipeline 3.0 0.25 12.0 N.A.' N.A.' N.A.' No
Netherlands
City West Cable Tunnel (CWCT) 2010 Australia Power Cable 2.5 0.20 12.5 N.A.' N.A.' N.A.' No
Adelaide Desalination Plant 2010 Australia Water Supply 2.8 0.20 14.0 SFRC 35 0.45% No
FGC Terrassa 2010 Spain Railway 6.0 0.30 20.0 SFRC 25 0.32% Yes
Keio line 2010 Japan Railway 6.7 0.30 22.3 SFRC 63 0.80% Yes
Brightwater East 2011 USA Waste Water 5.1 0.26 19.6 SFRC 35 0.45% No
Brightwater Central 2011 USA Waste Water 4.7 0.33 14.2 SFRC 40 0.51% No
Brightwater West 2011 USA Waste Water 3.7 0.26 14.2 SFRC 35 0.45% No
East side CSO 2011 USA Waste Water 6.7 0.36 18.6 SFRC 32 0.40% No
Izumi-Otsu 2011 Japan Water Supply 1.8 0.13 14.4 SFRC 32 0.40% Yes
Metropolitan Expressway 2011 Japan Road 13.4 0.45 29.8 SFRC 47 0.60% Yes
Victorian Desalination Plant 2011 Australia Water Supply 4.0 0.23 17.4 N.A.' N.A.' N.A.' No
Monte Lirio 2012 Panama Water Supply 3.2 0.25 12.8 SFRC 40 0.51% No
Pando 2012 Panama Water Supply 3.0 0.25 12.0 SFRC 40 0.51% No
Airport Link 2012 Australia Road 11.4 0.40 28.4 SFRC 35 0.45% No
Midosuji Utility 2012 Japan Utility 5.1 0.15 33.8 SFRC 32 0.40% Yes
Sagami Line 2012 Japan Road 11.8 0.50 23.6 SFRC 47 0.60% Yes
El Alto 2013 Panama Water Supply 5.8 0.35 16.6 SFRC 40 0.51% No
Asada Trunk Line 2013 Japan Sewage 4.6 0.20 22.8 SFRC 25 0.32% Yes
Koishikawa Kasen 2013 Japan Railway 6.7 0.30 22.3 SFRC 47 0.60% Yes
Oi-Ariake Cable 2013 Japan Power Cable 4.0 0.20 20 SFRC 32 0.40% Yes
Wehrhahn 2014 Germany Subway 8.3 0.30 27.7 SFRC 30 0.38% No
STEP Abu Dhabi Lot T-02 2014 UAE Waste Water 6.3 0.28 22.5 SFRC 30 0.38% Yes
San Francisco Central Subway 2014 USA Railway 5.4 0.28 19.3 SFRC 30 0.38% Yes
Legacy Way 2015 Australia Road 11.3 0.35 32.3 SFRC 40 0.51% No
Metropolitan Expressway 2015 Japan Road 12.3 0.40 30.8 SFRC 47 0.60% Yes
Abu Hamour 2016 Qatar Water Drainage 3.7 0.25 14.8 SFRC 40 0.51% No
Doha Metro Red North Line 2016 Qatar Subway 6.17 0.30 20.6 SFRC 40 0.51% No
Abatemarco - Italy Water Supply 3.5 0.20 17.5 SFRC 40 0.51% No
Public Sewage - Japan Sewage 5.6 0.18 32.0 SFRC 43 0.55% Yes
Lee Tunnel Sewer U.C.* England Waste Water 7.2 0.35 20.6 N.A.' N.A.' N.A.' No
Downtown Line 3 U.C.* Singapore Subway 5.8 0.28 21.1 SFRC 40 0.51% No
Thomson Line U.C.* Singapore Subway 5.8 0.28 21.1 SFRC 40 0.51% No
0.38%
Crossrail U.C.* England Railway 6.2 0.30 20.7 SFRC 30-40 No
and 0.51%
N.A.: Not available.

* U.C.: Under construction.
Fibre reinforcement solution used for the vast majority of the alignment. Hybrid solution used only in highly loaded tunnel sections and at the location of cross-passages.
Table 1. Tunnel excavated with TBM and supported by FRC precast segments.

6 >> Scope
In the last two decades, the design of introduced by Model Code 2010. Finally, for segmental tunnel lining. The document
FRC tunnel linings collected in Table 1 in Section 8, some examples of typical reports some basic concepts of the current
was possible because of the development problems encountered by designers will Model Code 2010 [9], but it does not go into
of national or international standards be described. Some of these issues are sufficient details on aspects such as specific
concerning principally two issues: related to specific loading conditions (e.g., boundary conditions and irregularities to be
the quantification of post-cracking residual introduction of irregularities during the TBM considered in the design stage in order to
tensile strength exhibited by FRC. This thrust phase) that cannot be easily covered properly evaluate the possibility of partially or
strength can be considered as a typical by a general purpose standard such as MC totally substituting traditional reinforcement
fracture parameter, which enable to 2010. with fibres.
quantify the toughness provided by FRC The Model Code 2010 [9] is a remarkable The recommendations of German society
as a composite material made by concrete standard which introduces the fundamental for concrete technology [16] are focused,
matrix and fibre reinforcement; concept of post-cracking residual flexural on steel fibre reinforcement only. The
the design of FRC structural elements strength ratios as parameters for classifying more recent recommendations of German
based on post-cracking residual strength. FRC as a composite. The fibre type or content Tunnelling Committee [17] provide several
are not complete information for design useful information concerning the design
In Section 7, the current most important
purposes; the key-factor is the quantification of precast tunnel segments reinforced with
standards are listed. Even if several standards
of toughness that a given fibre content traditional rebars; nevertheless, only few
are available for the design of FRC elements,
or type of fibre can provide in a specific sections are dedicated to SFRC precast
no specific rules or recommendations are
concrete matrix. However, as mentioned tunnel segments.
addressed for the specific design of tunnel
before, this performance approach is only The ACI 544.7R-16 report will complete the
lining.
the basis of a necessary and specific design current general report on FRC from ACI-
In fact, the current Model Code 2010 procedure for precast tunnel segments. This 544 [19]. It worthwhile noticing that also a
[9,14], which is well known as the reference leads to develop specific basis of design, fib WP 1.4.1 is currently working on FRC for
international standard for the design of FRC design principles and recommendations for use in tunnel segments with the main scope
structural elements, provides general design covering the gaps that reasonably remains in of providing a detailed design procedure
rules. The latter can be easily applied for a general purpose standard. for FRC precast linings based on on-going
typical structures such as beams or slabs,
Among the already existing available specific research or recently developed research.
but they need to be contextualized to the
recommendations for the design of FRC Within this framework, the needed to
specific issues concerning tunnel lining
precast tunnel elements, the following shed some new light on general rules and
elements.
documents can be mentioned: procedures regarding FRC precast tunnel
Tunnel curved elements are, for instance,
the recommendations of AFTES segments is considerable. The scope of
characterized by a temporary loading
(Association Franaise des Tunnels et this document is basically to take benefits
condition during the excavation of the tunnel,
de lEspace Souterrain), concerning the from the already developed experiences or
where considerable stresses are introduced
design, dimensioning and execution of already well known research evidences for
in the lining due to high concentrated forces
precast steel fibre reinforced concrete arch providing suggestions and advices useful
exerted by the TBMs hydraulic jack (TBM
segments [15]; for the community of designers/contractors
thrust phase). The noticeable enhancement
the recommendations of DBV (Deutscher of FRC linings. This ITA document is not
of post-cracking residual strengths due to
Beton und Bautechnik-verein e.v., German overlapping the work of ACI and fib groups,
fibres addition can be exploited during this
society for concrete and construction which are mainly focused on detailed design
stage even if no specific recommendations
technology) concerning design principles procedures (both) and on research issues
are included in Model Code 2010 [9] for this
of steel fibre reinforced concrete for still under discussion (fib WP 1.4.1).
purpose.
tunnelling works [16];
Moreover, the stresses developing in
tunnel segments during several temporary the recommendations of DAUB [17],
conditions (TBM thrust phase, handling (Deutscher Ausschuss fr unterirdisches
and storage) are quite different from those Bauen e. V., German Tunnelling
arising in the final state, where the lining is Committee), concerning the design,
mainly loaded by the surrounding ground. production and installation of segmental
This issue is typical of precast elements and rings.
required special attention particularly when the ACI report 544.7R-16 on FRC tunnel
tunnel segments are reinforced by fibre segments [18], that has been recently
reinforcement only. Specific rules need to approved.
be suggested for this purpose, for instance, The AFTES recommendation [15] is focused
starting from the general criteria already well on the use of steel fibres as reinforcement

7 >> Identification of applicable standards and guidelines
The main standards applicable for the dedicated to SFRC of German standard,
evaluation of FRC post-cracking residual DIN-1045-2 [25] is cited, since fracture
strengths are reported in the following : parameters proposed by this document
(a) EN-14651, Test method for metallic fibre are adopted by the correspondent German
concrete - Measuring the flexural tensile standard for the design of FRC elements
strength (limit of proportionally (LOP), [12].
residual), European Committee for The recommended standard for the design
Standardization EN 14651 [20]; of FRC structures is, as already mentioned,
ASTM C1609/C1609M, Standard Test
(b) the current new fib Model Code 2010 [9],
Method for Flexural Performance of which has introduced post-cracking residual
Fibre Reinforced concrete (Using Beam flexural strength ratios as key parameters
With Third-Point Loading), American for classifying FRCs (see Section 10.1).
Standard [21]; Nevertheless, within the European countries,
other acceptable standards are the following:
(c)
ASTM C1399/C1399M, Standard Test
Method for Obtaining Average Residual (a)
RILEM TC 162-TDF, Test and design
Strength of Fibre Reinforced Concrete, methods for steel fibre reinforced
American Standard [22]; concrete. Design with - method, first
international recommendations about the
(d)
ASTM C1550/1550M, Standard Test
design of FRC elements [10];
Method for Flexural Toughness of Fibre
Reinforced Concrete (Using Centrally (b)
CNR-DT-204, Guidelines for design,
Loaded Round Panel), American construction and production control of
Standard [23]; fibre reinforced concrete structures,
Italian Standard [11];
(e)
JCI-SF4, Method of Tests for Flexural
Strength and Flexural Toughness of (c)
DafStb Guideline Steel fibre reinforced
Fibre Reinforced Concrete, Japanese concrete, Design and construction;
Standard [24]; specification, performance, production
and conformity; execution of structures,
(f)
DIN 1045-2, Concrete, reinforced and
German standard [12].
prestressed concrete structures - Part
2: Concrete - Specification, properties, RILEM TC 162-TDF [10] is the first important
production and conformity - Application document concerning the design of FRC
rules for DIN EN 206-1, ANNEX O in elements. The CNR-DT-204 [11] was one
conjunction with [12], German Standard of the first national standard based on a
[25]. performance approach similar to that of
current Model Code. The German standard
A reference standard for toughness
[12] was cited since it is a recent national
characterization of FRCs is the international
document about the design of FRC
European standard EN 14651 [20], since the
structures based on performance approach.
new fib Model Code 2010 [9] requires that
It concerns steel fibre reinforcement only
nominal values of the material properties
and requires that the FRCs post-cracking
(residual post-cracking strengths, see
properties should be determined by
Section 10.1) can be determined by
performing a 4-point bending test on a
performing a 3-point bending test on a
beam without notch.
notched beam according to [20]. However,
other tests can be accepted if correlation An annex on design of FRC elements is
factors with the parameters of EN 14651 under preparation within Eurocode 2 [26].
[20] are proven. Accordingly, the standard
test proposed by ASTM (American Standard
Test and Methods, [22], [23], [24]) are well
known and acceptable, even if correlation
factors are necessary for using them in the
design process of FRC elements according
to Model Code 2010 [9]. A similar well known
standard is proposed by the Japanese
Concrete Institute [24]. Finally, the annex

8 >> Lessons learnt during 20 years of application
The reinforcement used in precast tunnel installed. The ratio of internal diameter positioning by erector or general handling to
segments can be of three types: over thickness (Di/h, tunnel aspect ratio, the project site) as well as in the final stage.
RC: segment reinforced only by see Table 1) of this lining was 31.1 and For instance, Gettu et al. [30], [31] suggest
conventional rebars; its internal diameter Di, equal to 10.9 m to pay more attention to the position of the
(note that the average segment aspect segments on supports during storage by
FRC: segment reinforced only by fibre
ratio is 13.88, see Annex A.I.1). During the reducing eccentricity between supports,
reinforcement;
construction of these rings some splitting especially in presence of segments reinforced
RC+FRC: segment reinforced by a cracks and local failures appeared. By by fibres only. In fact, these segments,
combination of fibre and traditional means of numerical simulations [47], it under bending conditions (such as storage),
reinforcement (also called hybrid-solution). was proven that some irregularities (e.g., after cracking present a softening branch
The use of Fibre Reinforced Concrete eccentricities) probably occurred during and not a hardening behaviour, as occurs
in tunnel segments allows for several this phase. In fact, by considering an ideal in RC segments; hence, unfavourable
advantages such as the improvement of loading condition (with jacks and bearing situations characterized by misalignment
post-cracking tensile behaviour and the pads perfectly placed) the solution with of supports should be limited. Similarely,
correspondent better control of flexural fibre reinforcement only could be generally recommendations are included in recent
cracks. Fibres enable a stable development satisfactory; on the contrary, by considering ACI 544.7R-16 report [18], where a typical
of splitting cracks, a possible reduction irregularities, cracks were expected. On the maximum acceptable eccentricity between
of stirrups placed in the regions under the other hand, it can be noticed that the case supports is also reported. Noteworthy is
thrust jacks [27,28] and a possible complete study of Legacy Way (see Annex A.I.10, Di/ that a reduction of bending moments in
replacement of shear reinforcement [7,29]. h=32.3) presents geometrical dimensions tunnel segments (in presence of temporary
In FRC tunnel elements both localized and similar to Barcelona; nevertheless, in the and permanent loading conditions) can be
diffused stresses are generally present. major part of the alignment a solution with directly achieved by controlling the segment
Localized stresses are better resisted by fibre reinforcement only was used. A hybrid aspect ratio.
localized reinforcement such as traditional reinforcement solution (RC+SFRC) was The need of a more precise estimation
steel reinforcing bars (rebars), while diffused used only in highly loaded sections of tunnel of the flexural demand required to tunnel
stresses (e.g.: splitting stresses) are better and also at the cross-passage locations. segments (basically the ratio between the
resisted by spread reinforcement such as This possible design approach will be briefly applied bending moment and axial force)
fibres. introduced in Section 9. according to the specific loading conditions
The stress level is generally high during the Irregularities during the TBM thrust phase of a given tunnel project clearly emerges
application of TBMs thrust jacks. Regarding occur also in RC tunnel segments but it from experiences reported in Annex I
the local-behaviour under TBM thrust shoes, has been understood that traditional rebars (A.I.4). Among the three possible solutions
it was proven that, since the cracks due to can cope with the corresponding higher previously mentioned, Dobashi et al. [32,33]
splitting stresses remain relatively small, localized stresses. In other words, it seems successfully adopted a hybrid solution
also FRCs having post-cracking properties that FRC tunnel segments are probably (RC+FRC) for a lining having a tunnel aspect
corresponding to class 2e (according to more vulnerable to these conditions. ratio (Di/h) of 24.2, with a large internal
Model Code 2010, see Section 10.1) can Traditional RC precast tunnel segments diameter of 10.9 m. The original RC tunnel
probably be satisfactory in terms of local are generally characterized by a rather segment solution was heavily reinforced,
splitting behaviour under the loading areas low longitudinal steel ratio (s 0.2-0.3% probably because of a high flexural demand.
[28]. Nevertheless, high localized stresses whereas in typical beam elements s is On the contrary, Caratelli et al. [34] fruitfully
(e.g., bending stresses) can occur if some around 1%) since, at final stage (lining use only fibre reinforcement for a lining
irregularities take place during the tunnel embedded in the ground), the lining is having a much smaller internal diameter
construction process (e.g., eccentricity loaded by a favorable axial compressive (only 3.2 m) and a tunnel lining aspect ratio
of jacks, gaps between rings, etc.). The normal force and it is supported by the of 12.8 (see Annex A.I.8, Monte Lirio tunnel).
probability of occurrence and the extent ground. The soil-structure system interacts Based on several experiences already
of these irregularities directly govern the in a highly redundant manner. Hence, available in literature for typical structural
amount of localized stresses in segments possible design solution of segments with elements (e.g., beams or slabs, see [14]), the
and, consequently, the possible complete fibre reinforcement only, generally presents fibre content is not a complete information
or partial substitution of traditional rebars by a satisfactory resistant bending moment at from a structural point of view, as well
means of fibre reinforcement. ULS, even if it is rather lower than that of emphasised by the performance approach
One of the first example of this possibility traditional RC configuration. Accordingly, reported in the Model Code 2010 [9]. The
was the Barcelona Metro Line 9 project (see it is generally fundamental to control the higher toughness provided by fibre addition
Annex A.I.1); a total of thirty rings reinforced tunnel flexural demand during temporary in a concrete matrix is described by residual
only by steel fibres were constructed and phases (such as de-moulding, storage and post-cracking strengths [9]. Referring to

8 >> Lessons learnt during 20 years of application
FRC precast tunnel segments, an early

experience based on this performance
approach is reported in Annex I (see Annex
A.I.8, Monte Lirio tunnel lining designed
according to Model Code 2010, having an
average segment aspect ratio of 7.75 and
having a minimum required design FRC
class of 4c, according to Model Code
2010).
Even if it is not the purpose of this
document, which is oriented on design
aspects, some technological aspects
related to the need to consider FRC
as a composite material can be briefly
mentioned. FRC is not simply produced
by adding dispersed fibre reinforcement
to a concrete matrix: a specific mix-design
should be adopted by taking into account
workability issues as well as the opportune
system of concrete vibration. Referring to
the segment production, the experiences
of Kasper et al. [35] and King et al. [36]
reported in A.I.5 and A.I.6, respectively, can
be quoted. In both cases, a solution with
fibre reinforcement only is adopted and, in
both projects, initial problems concerning
early production occurred (e.g., small
cracks or tendency of SFRC to show higher
risk to honeycomb and blow hole formation
compared to conventional concrete).
By means of a progressive optimization
of the production technique [35] or mix
design [36], FRC tunnel segments were
satisfactory produced and FRC properties
were exploited by achieving a general
improvement of durability.

9 >> Background for an appropriate design approach
The following main basic criteria should be in tunnel segments is a key-point for evaluating Finally, only fibres that satisfy the following
considered: the possibility to completely substitute requirements are generally suitable for use
Fibres considerably improve the concrete traditional rebars with fibre reinforcement. in concrete, in conjunction with Model Code
post-cracking tensile behaviour, providing For this purpose, the role of modelling is 2010 [9]:
significant residual strength, generally fundamental as described in Section 12.7 T
he fibre material shall not deteriorate
defined as toughness. and 12.8. in concrete over time nor shall the
The ability to resist internal crack propagation Particular attention should be given to material show time dependent or thermo-
(generally defined as toughness) is a modelling the force exerted by TBM during hygrometrical phenomena (see Model Code
property of FRC considered as a composite the construction process. As already 2010, chapter 5.6.1), both in uncracked
in order to allow a performancebased- mentioned, if some irregularities occur, a and cracked state. The fibre material shall
design. Model Code 2010 [9] and some design solution with fibre reinforcement not deteriorate under storing conditions
other relevant codes [10, 11, 12] provide only cannot be satisfactory. This loading recommended by the supplier;
classes based on FRC post-cracking condition should be analysed at local and T
he material properties of the final composite
residual strengths. This concept will be global scale. Designers should be aware shall not suffer from negative effects induced
introduced in details in Section 10 with that some special loading conditions should by the added fibres unless these effects are
reference to Model Code 2010. be considered in the design process by acceptable for the intended use and unless
using the methods mentioned above for these effects are especially accounted
Similar to traditional RC structures, designers
including FRCs post-cracking properties. In for in the design and construction of
can start to develop their calculations by
this way, by assuming certain irregularities, the structural element. This requirement
assuming a certain FRC class which it
designers can prescribe the necessary applies to the properties of fresh concrete
will become the minimum requirement
boundary conditions (e.g., maximum (workability, air content, homogenity of
to be checked in the production of FRC
admissible eccentricity) associated to materials, etc.), hardened concrete strength
segments. The required FRC class can be
a certain segment configuration (FRC and deformation properties (compressive
verified by means of preliminary tests on
only or RC+FRC). The respect of these strength, splitting tensile strength, static
small specimens (according to EN 14651,
requirements conditions are important modulus of elasticity, creep and shrinkage
[20]). Then, conformity tests should be
for the use of a specific reinforcement behaviour, bond to reinforcing steel, etc.),
properly planned during the production of
configuration of tunnel segments. and durability properties (carbonation and
tunnel segments.
Attention should be given to the ion/water-transport properties determining
The post-cracking residual strength
frequency of occurrence of the mentioned steel and concrete corrosion risk, frost
exhibited by FRC should be included
irregularities, which can be associated to resistance, abrasion);
in the design approach by one of the
particular conditions of steering the TBM T
he fibre material itself or additional
following two non-linear methods:
(e.g., minimum curvature radius, certain substances applied to or with the fibres
- analytical approaches for evaluating
mixed face conditions, etc.). If, together (e.g. spin finish, glues) shall not affect the
the behaviour at ULS and SLS of a
with contractors, designers are able to corrosion resistance of steel being present
tunnel segment in terms of typical
accurately predict the most probable in the concrete (reinforcing steel, tendons
beam actions (N, M, V, Section 11.2);
frequency of occurrence, they can provide or in case of fibre cocktails steel fibres);
- numerical approaches for evaluating
appropriate design solutions (e.g., higher
the local and global behaviour of tunnel T
he fibres have to resist mixing, transport
amount of fibre reinforcement, combination
segments during crucial loading conditions and processing without a significant change
with steel reinforcing bars, ). For instance,
such as the introduction of local forces of their properties;
a specific hybrid solution could be used in
exerted by TBM rams (Section 11.1 and T
he fibre material must be suitable for the
specific alignment sections, while using
12.5). intended climatic conditions;
fibre reinforcement only in the rest of the
Experimental tests on full-scale tunnel alignment. T
he fibre material and the manufacturing
elements (flexural and point load tests) are process must be suitable to achieve
In order to prove the beneficial effects of
useful tools for proving the design approach. tolerances on the fibres properties which
fibres in terms of crack control (hence,
Particular attention should be devoted improvement of durability of the structure are acceptable for structural uses;
to the evaluation of lining internal actions at SLS) proper approaches should be F
ibres shall satisfy the existing requirements
during annular gap grouting and at the final applied (Section 12.8); otherwise one of the on environmental compatibility and
stage, as well as during demoulding and main advantages of using fibres in tunnel physiological harmlessness. In addition,
storage, in order to properly determine the lining cannot be demonstrated and used. safety risks shall be reduced to the minimum
maximum bending moment generated in Eventually it is worthwhile noticing that only possible.
the lining. In fact, the flexural demand fibers that satisfy the following requirements
are generally suitable for use in concrete in
conjunction with Model Code 2010 [9]:

10 >> FRC properties
In Sections 6 and 7, it was already underlined As already mentioned in Section 7, materials which is expressed as Crack Mouth Opening
that concrete is characterized by a brittle having a noticeable post-cracking uniaxial Displacement (CMOD).
behaviour in tension. Consequently, the main tensile behaviour can globally present Parameters, fRj, representing the residual
reason for adding fibres to cementitious a flexural hardening. It is obvious that flexural tensile strength (fracture nominal
matrices is to enhance the tensile behaviour concretes presenting a uniaxial tensile parameters), are evaluated from the
after cracking, in terms of increase of residual hardening will exhibit a flexural hardening. In F-CMOD relationship, as follows:
tensile strength and ductility. In fact, after the latter case, the toughness exhibited by
concrete cracking, fibres bridge the crack the composite is so high that, after reaching (Eq. 1)
and allow to transmit higher forces between the tensile strength (fctm), a micro-cracking
the crack planes. process occurs corresponding to tensile
stresses higher than fctm. For higher applied where:
FRC is a composite material and not the
simple addition of fibres to a concrete matrix. loads, a macro-crack form. Generally, fRj [MPa] is the residual flexural
for these high performance cementitious tensile strength corresponding to
Post-cracking concrete residual properties CMOD = CMODj;
composites it is recommended to develop
(toughness) depend on fibre characteristics
bending tests on un-notched specimens Fj [N] is the load corresponding to
(such as material, shape, aspect ratio),
in order to better capture also the micro- CMOD = CMODj;
quantity (usually expressed by the volume
cracking stage [39]. l [mm] is the span length;
percentage), orientation as well as on
the properties of the cementitious matrix Since FRCs for use in tunnel segments b [mm] is the specimen width;
surrounding the fibres. generally present a uniaxial tensile softening
behaviour, applicable standards for the hsp [mm] is the distance between
Fibre reinforcement has little effect on the notch tip and the top of the
characterization of the FRCs toughness
the elasticity modulus, Poissons ratio, specimen (125 mm).
can be based on notched specimens or
compressive strength, electrical conductivity
un-notched specimens under bending (see
and porosity. Therefore, the concrete
Section 7). Other tests can be accepted if correlation
behaviour before cracking is not significantly
modified by fibres. factors with the parameters of EN 14651
[20] are proven; among them, the most
The contribution of fibres lasts when they commonly used and acceptable are reported
are either pulled out or broken. Fibre pull- in Section 7.
out is the mechanism that is looked for in
the post cracking phase because it allows
higher energy dissipation and better post- 10.1 Classification
cracking residual properties. Consequently,
The residual post-cracking strength
the fibre strength should be selected taking
Figure 1. Bending performance of plain concrete and FRC. represents, for designers, the performance
into consideration the concrete strength
in order to favour fibre pull-out rather than parameters that should be satisfied.
rupture and to achieve the best possible During the production of precast FRC
fibre contribution and performance. tunnel segments, this parameter should be
In order to determine the post-cracking continuously verified through conformity
behaviour of FRC in tension, various test tests. In order to classify the post-cracking
methods are possible. strength of FRC, the characteristic residual
Uniaxial tensile tests enable to directly strength significant for serviceability (fR1k) and
evaluate the post-cracking tensile behaviour ultimate (fR3k) conditions is considered; in
(softening or hardening) but are quite difficult particular, two parameters, namely:
to perform. Design recommendations are
usually based on bending tests that are Figure 2. Typical load F CMOD curve for FRC
(EN 14651, 2005).
able to analyse the flexural response of
cementitious composites after cracking.
As stated by several authors [37,38], Among several standards, EN 14651 [20]
after reaching the initial crack, a flexural defines the beam testing standard that
softening or hardening behaviour will occur, the Model Code 2010 [9] refers to, where
depending on the type and amount of fibre nominal values of the material properties are
reinforcement, as well as on the concrete determined by performing a 3-point bending
matrix. Figure 1 schematically shows the test on a notched beam.
enhanced post-cracking bending behaviour
Figure 2 shows a typical diagram of the
of FRC due to the addition of fibres.
applied force (F) versus the deformation

10 >> FRC properties
the strength interval fR1k defined by two (hardening or softening), as schematically 10.3 Constitutive laws at Serviceability
subsequent numbers in the series: 1.0, shown in Figure 4, where fFts represents the Limit State (SLS)
1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0 serviceability residual strength, defined as
[MPa]; the post-cracking strength for serviceability The study of the tunnel lining behaviour at SLS
crack openings, and fFtu represents the can be developed, according to Model Code
the residual strength ratio fR3k/fR1k,
ultimate residual strength [9]. 2010 [9], by adopting the law schematically
represented by a letter (a, b, c, d or e) as
depicted in Figure 5. This law refers to the
follows:
characteristic FRC fracture parameters.
For numerical analyses, more advanced
a if 0.5 fR3k/fR1k 0.7; constitutive laws are recommended. Further
b if 0.7 fR3k/fR1k 0.9; details on the design rules for FRC elements
can be found in the new fib Model Code [9].
c if 0.9 fR3k/fR1k 1.1;
d if 1.1 fR3k/fR1k 1.3;
e if 1.3 fR3k/fR1k.
Figure 4. Simplified post-cracking constitutive laws:
The designer has to specify the residual stress-crack opening (continuous and dashed lines refer
strength class, the ratio fR3k/fR1k as well as the to softening and hardening post-cracking behaviour
material of the fibre (Figure 3). respectively, MC 2010, 2012).
According to fib Model Code 2010 [9], fibre

reinforcement can substitute (also partially)
conventional reinforcement at ultimate Rigid-plastic post-cracking model
limit state, if the following relationships are Figure 5. Constitutive law at SLS proposed by MC 2010.
satisfied: The rigid-plastic model identifies an unique
reference value, fFtu, based on the ultimate The uniaxial tensile constitutive laws (both,
fR1k/fLk > 0.4 ; (Eq. 2) behaviour. Such a value is determined as: ULS and SLS) should be expressed in terms
fR3k/fR1k > 0.5. (Eq. 3) of stress () vs. strain () by introducing
(Eq. 4) the structural characteristic length, lcs
of the structural element [9, 39], which
is a parameter used for easily connect
continuous mechanics, governed by a
Linear post-cracking model stress-strain constitutive relationships,
and fracture mechanics, governed by a
The linear model identifies two reference stress-crack opening law. In elements with
values, namely fFts and fFtu. They are defined longitudinal rebars (RC or RC+FRC), lcs
through residual values of flexural strength corresponds to the mean crack spacing,
by using the following equations: srm, namely the most probable distance
Figure 3. Typical load F CMOD curve for FRC with the between two consecutive cracks according
material classification. (Eq. 5) to current formulations available [9, 10]. It
can be noticed that srm is used when typical
10.2 Constitutive laws at Ultimate Limit plane sectional approaches are adopted in
structural analyses [9, 39]. In case of FRC
State (ULS) structures (fibre reinforced only), within the
framework of simplified sectional analyses,
A stress-crack opening law in uniaxial (Eq. 6) MC 2010 [9] suggested to use, as a first
tension is defined for the post-cracking approximation, the beam depth as a kind of
behaviour of FRC. where wu is the maximum crack opening reference lcs.
accepted in structural design; its value
Two simplified stress-crack opening When using finite element models (FEMs), it
depends on the ductility requirement. Based
constitutive laws, adequate for calculations is necessary to introduce a specific internal
on the characteristic values of residual
at ULS, may be determined from the length, which depends on the cracking
strengths (fR3k and fR1k), fFts,k and fFtu,k can
bending test results. The first concerns a model implemented in the program.
be determined: the corresponding design
plastic rigid behaviour, while the second
values are obtained by diving by a safety
proposes a linear post-cracking behaviour
factor (f).

11 >> Precast segmental tunnel lining : loading conditions
The design process of segmental tunnel 11.1 General design aspects u

niform distributed supports on the
lining is principally governed by several concerning thrust jack phase tunnel segment (ideal smooth support);
load conditions which occur during b
i-dimensional analysis;
segment manufacturing, transportation, Although the application of the thrust jack
forces is a temporary loading condition s implified resistant mechanism:
tunnel excavation, lining construction
during construction, it may govern the strut-tie model, as shown in Figure 6
and final service stage. These loading
structural size as well as the final stage. (that is generally quite conservative).
conditions can be summarized as follows
(in chronological order according to the By using Finite Element Analyses (FEA),
The TBM is pushed forward by thrust it is possible to study the segment global
construction process):
jacks acting on the last placed lining behaviour in more details (Figure 7). In fact,
(1) de-moulding of tunnel segments; ring to compensate the friction forces nonlinear FEA enables:
(2) storage of segments; on the shield and the ground and water
t o consider the concrete behaviour after
(3) transportation of segments; pressure in the front and around the
the first cracking;
boring machine. Generally, designers
(4) positioning of segments by erector; t o estimate the stresses redistribution in
study this temporary stage by referring
(5) thrust jack forces from TBM; to an ideal loading condition where the statically undetermined structure;
(6) introduction of normal ring force in thrust jacks are perfectly placed and t o estimate the resistace contribution
longitudinal joint; also the support pads on the face of the coming from FRC. This aspect can be
(7) r ing behaviour of the tunnel lining during segments are perfectly located. Since considered only if non-linear material
grouting process; different thrust jack configurations can be properties are included in the analyses
used (see French, German and Japanese (NLFM, Non Linear Fracture Mechanics);
(8)ring behaviour of the tunnel lining
standards / recommendations), the stress to
investigate the real tri-dimensional
embedded in the ground;
concentrations in the tunnel lining may behaviour of the tunnel segment as as a
(9) ring behaviour during special event take place differently. curved element.
such as fire, explosion, earthquake (fire
The analysis of this load condition should FEA models based on NLFM allow to
event only will briefly discussed in this
be developed according to local and global predict the maximum bearing capacity of
document).
scale. In the study of the global behaviour, the FRC segments as well as the cracking
It is fundamental to observe that loading it is recommended to consider the actual behaviour under service loads. Nowadays,
conditions (1)(4) and (7)(9) can be arrangement of rams of the selected TBM several finite element programs enable to
well analysed by means of ring models and to consider the effect of tolerances on analyse concrete behaviour after cracking
and bedded-beam models, respectively; those positions, and to conduct the study by means of typical local approaches such
hence, the internal lining actions can according to the following principles: as the smeared cracking. These programs
be described by typical beam actions:
s tudy of the possible boundary conditions also enable to estimate the crack widths
bending moment (M), shear force (V) and
that could interest the tunnel segments expected in tunnel segments during the
axial normal ring force (N). On the other
during this phase; TBM thrust phase. Nevertheless, specific
hand, loading conditions (5) and (6) require
choose a realistic load scheme; knowledge is required for properly and fully
more complicated numerical or analytical
exploit the opportunities offered by such
approaches. In Section 11.1 some general choose of an appropriate resistant
programs.
design aspects and issues concerning mechanism;
FRC tunnel linings will be introduced, FRCs typically used in tunnel linings
On the other hand, the local behavior
especially with regard to the thrust jack present a post-cracking softening
under the loading thrust jacks should be
phase. In Section 11.2, a similar overview behaviour, which means that generally
carefully taken into account.
will be briefly reported for all the other they tend to localize cracking phenomena
As far as the global behaviour of the occurring in a certain region in a single
loading conditions. Finally, in Section 12,
segment under the forces exerted by TBM crack. Hence, a crack width estimation
a possible general design procedure of
thrust jacks is concerned, simplified 2D can be done by integrating the smeared
FRC segmental lining will be proposed
models can be adopted. They are generally cracking deformation along a reference
by analysing step-by-step the previously
based on the following hypotheses: length, which is representative of the
mentioned basic loading conditions.
cracked region.

In order to evaluate the maximum tensile

stresses due to this local behaviour,
simplified analytical models are available in
literature [42,43]. Generally, the maximum
tensile stresses are compared with the
concrete tensile strength and local stirrups
are placed under the jacks.
The local and global mechanisms,
previously described, are analysed with
particular reference to the enhancement
of concrete post-cracking properties due
to fibres addition. During the thrust jack
Figure 6. Scheme of a possible simplified load strut-tie model phase, cracks in the segments can occur, Figure 8. Possible gap between subsequent rings due to a
for the design of tunnel segments [27]. no-perfect installation process; possible un-even support
and they can normally be accepted if they configuration.
develop in a stable way, without exhibiting
a brittle behaviour. In other words, if fibre
reinforcement or conventional rebars are
used, small cracks are expected, which are An eccentric placement of the thrust jack
generally tolerated, particularly as the axial in the radial direction may represent a
compressive force in the ring generated by significant loading condition. In particular,
the ground and grout loads tend to close the presence of an eccentricity on the
these cracks. The spalling off of the concrete outward part of the lining can cause a
cover along the edges of the segments, or rotation of the tunnel segment (Figure 9).
the development of longitudinal large cracks Consequently, cracks may occur in the
along the width of the ring are not tolerated; middle of the segment because of the
possible causes of these cracks could superposition of the tensile stresses due to a
be the eccentricity or the inclination of the bending moment generated by the segment
thrust jacks with respect to the longitudinal rotation (Figure 9). Furthermore, splitting
tunnel axis (by considering these possible cracks under the loading areas can occur
Figure 7. Example of a 3D model, simulating one segment
irregularities, a different local splitting and since the eccentricity determines an applied
and its interaction with the adjacent ones during the thrust
jack phase [40]. spalling behaviour is expected). higher pressure on the outward part of the
In the real operational conditions, segments segment [46].
belonging to the same ring are hardly
As far as the local behaviour is concerned, assembled in a perfect plane because of
the region of the segment under the the small installation irregularities that are
jacks can be considered as a disturbed normally present (Figure 8). In practice,
region (D-region). Transverse tensile and the tunnel segments are not supported
compressive stresses appear since a bi- uniformly by the back ring and a bending
axial or tri-axial stress condition occurs moment may arise due to un-even support
over a certain diffusive length (also called of the segments on the ring joint (Figure
introduction length). These stresses are 8). Depending on such irregularities, large
generally defined as splitting or bursting undesired cracks can appear, which require
stresses. Moreover, each tunnel segment, reparation works.
depending to the segment configuration
Cracking phenomena in tunnel design could
adopted, are loaded by two or more thrust
be limited by strictly controlling the jack
shoes; the combined effect of the TBM high-
position and alignment as well as the ring
concentrated loads determine, between Figure 9. 3D scheme of the dominant mechanism in case
planarity; since this is not always easy to of outward eccentricity; the lining behaviour tends to be
the corresponding loading areas, tensile
achieve in practice, cracks can be reduced governed by bending moments.
stresses in the local tangential direction,
by using a proper combination of FRC and
generally defined as spalling stresses [41].
conventional reinforcement localized in the
critical regions [44,45].

One of the most severe irregular configurations achieving a local equilibrium configuration combination with fibre reinforcement are
with respect to the already installed ring which permits the total load to increase [44]. adequate to absorbe such stresses [44], [47].
corresponds to the presence of localised This phenomenon can be qualitatively Longitudinal rebars can be concentrated in
contact on the corner of the segment, as explained by means of the diagrams shown chords placed along the two longer side of the
shown in Figure 10 [40]. in Figure 11, that represent the radial-stresses segment (Figure 12). The segment behaves
under a TBM jack vs. the distance along the like a deep beam, where shear between the
width of the segment. The diagrams are two chords can be transmitted through fibre
obtained from numerical non-linear analyses reinforcement.
of tunnel segments reinforced only by steel On the other hand, if particular attention is
fibres [47]. By progressively increasing the devoted during construction to maintain the
load applied by TBM thrust jacks, after an plane face of the rings, and if this is combined
initial development of splitting cracks (Figure with suitable grouting of the tail void, the
11), the splitting stresses do not rapidly amount of this irregularities can be significantly
decrease as in the case of plain concrete. reduced; this condition is favourable to the
Figure 10. Possible un-even support configuration: localised
The post-cracking residual strength provided use of fibre reinforcement only (see Annex II).
contact on the corner of the segment with respect to the by fibres enables a re-distribution of stresses
already installed ring along the segment width without reduction of
the global load applied, which continuously
Research works clearly evidenced the increase (Figure 11). As a result, by using a
beneficial effects of FRC in presence of load FRC having proper post-cracking toughness,
concentrations and splitting phenomena designers can reduce or entirely replaced
that arise in tunnel segments because of the the stirrups locally placed in the region
introduction of thrust jack forces [27, 28]. under the jacks. Nevertheless, no specific
By performing NLFM analyses [8], it can be simplified relationships are currently available
demonstrated that, as the load increases, to appreciate this local phenomenon in FRC
the area where splitting stresses occur in the tunnel segments.
concrete under the jacks becomes larger, When referring to the global behaviour of the
as necessary for the equilibrium. Due to the segment with high localized stresses due to
residual post cracking strength of FRC, in geometrical and/or load irregularities, rebars
spite the area is micro-cracked, a residual represent an optimised solution. In presence
strength is available. Such residual strength of irregularities such as possible eccentricities Figure 12. Possible reinforcement solution for precast
allows a progressive redistribution of stresses segments: traditional rebars+fibers [44].
or un-even supports, the segment behaves
in deeper points inside the segment, since like a deep beam under flexure/shear. In
FRC enables a stable propagation of cracks this case, high localized stresses appear
compared to plain concrete. This allows in the segments and traditional rebars in
Figure 11. Distribution of radial stresses (splitting stress) along the segment width. Results obtained by means of numerical analyses [47].

11.2 General design aspects

related to segmental lining
behaviour during service
conditions
This section reports a brief overview of the
loads corresponding to service conditions
(e.g., final stage or grouting process). The
ring can be modelled through different types
of models:
Bedded-beam model;
Finite element method (FEM);
Elastic equation method; Figure 13. Possible scheme of the contact area for evaluating the stiffness of rotational spring between two adjacent segments.
Schulze and Duddeck model;
Muir Wood model.
When modelling a ring, special attention
should be given to the way of properly
simulating the longitudinal joints (between
adjacent segments of the same ring), and
the circunferential joints (between adjacent
rings).
The behaviour of longitudinal joints is
intermediate between a perfect continuity (of
the ring) and a perfect hinge, and an proper
rotational stiffness should be estimated. In the
contact area of the longitudinal joint stresses
and deformations are transferred, and
deformations are determined by assuming
a transfer zone over which the stresses are
divided. Knowing the deformations on the
Figure 14. Model based on two adjacent rings with radial springs simulating the ground, and longitudinal and ring-to-ring joints
contact area, it is possible to determine the simulating the interaction among segments and between rings. Scheme of the ring joint.
rotation of the segment. A good estimate
of the rotation can be simply determined
by integrating the curvature over the depth of local springs. As an example, a numerical when considering segments reinforced by
of the contact area (Figure 13). The non- model consisting of two rings laying on the fibres only. In fact, RC tunnel segments
linear rotational behaviour of the longitudinal same plane and connected by radial springs generally exhibit high resistant bending
joint can be included in a rotational spring that simulate the forces transmitted through moments, but this is not always the case of
which connects the ends of two adjacent the ring joints, can be adopted [45,48]. This FRC segments.
tunnel segments (e.g., in a bedded -beam 2D model is able to consider in a simple way It can be noted that build tolerances, such
model). The stiffness of this rotational spring the influence of the third dimension, as as ovalisation and steps between rings lead
can be determined by simply calculating the shown in Figure 14. This seems adequate to irregularities similarly to those previously
bending moment vs. rotation relationship of for parametric studies or preliminary design. discussed in Section 11.1. Such aspects
the equivalent concrete beam, as evidenced By properly considering the interaction are difficult to be model accurately; a limited
in Figure 13. between two adjacent rings, the distribution influence on the lining internal actions is
As regards circumferential joints, and of the bending moments varies. Generally, expected, but a much important effect
referring again to relative simple bedded- an increment of the maximum bending can be expected on the normal ring force
beam models, the contact behaviour moment occurs with respect to the results of transferred to the longitudinal joints.
between rings can be modelled by means the analysis of a single ring. This is important

11.2.1 Lining response at ULS
The residual strength fFtud (Eq. 4, Section

10.2), introduced in the simplified rigid-
plastic law suggested by Model Code
2010 [9], is expressed by scaling by the
factor the tensile strength fctd, as shown
in Figure 15 (fctd=fFtud, eq. 4, Section 10.2).
The constitutive law reported in Figure 15 is
expressed in terms of strain by considering
the structural characteristic length (lcs) as
explained in Section 6.2.
nts. Figure 16. Constitutive law that can be adopted for concrete under compression (a) and for steel under tension/compression (b).
Figure 15. Constitutive law that can be adopted for SFRC

under tension.
After the evaluation of the FRC post-

cracking behaviour (Figure 15), it is possible
to calculate the resistant domain MRd-NEd
at ULS of a 1m long longitudinal section
of tunnel lining. For this purpose, the
constitutive law proposed by Eurocode 2 Figure 17. Scheme with evidenced the distribution of strain and stresses along the longitudinal section at ULS.
[26] for concrete under compression can be
adopted (Figure 16); it can be considered
a reasonable approximation because the
addition of fibres has a little influence on the
peak compressive strength. Similarly, the
law suggested by Eurocode 2 [26] for steel
under compression/tension can be adopted
(Figure 16).
The following hypotheses are also taken:
the plane section assumption remains
valid under rotation; as a result, the strain
distribution over the section is linear;
a perfect-bond relationship is assumed
between SFRC and longitudinal rebars.
The behaviour of the longitudinal tunnel
lining section at ULS is shown in Figure 17.

As an example, by referring to a longitudinal condition of segment storage or construction 11.2.2 Lining sectional response at SLS
section of a tunnel lining having a width of 1 stage); the increment becomes negligible
m and by assuming a post-cracking residual when the axial load increases. As previously Besides the necessity to provide a certain
strength (parameter ) equal to 25%, 50% explained, this aspect can be considered by required design bearing capacity of the lining
and 75% of fctd, the domain represented in means of simple calculation by designers in at ULS, the Serviceability Limit State (SLS) of
Figure 18 can be calculated (curves refer to order to get the best design solution. the structure should be taken into account.
a segment with a thickness of 350 mm). A This means, for a concrete structure, that
With regard to the shear capacity of the tunnel
reference concrete presenting a concrete the designers should guarantee, at SLS, a
lining, the fibre resistant contribution VRd,F,
strength class C 40/50 is considered [26]. minimum performance level (especially with
can be estimated by using the expressions
The following mechanical properties are reference to the crack control) in order to
suggested by standards concerning the
adopted: Ec=35000 MPa, fck=40 MPa, guarantee the necessary durability of the
design of FRC structure. The new fib Model
fctk=2.456 MPa, fcd=22.67 MPa and structure.
Code 2010 [9], proposes a shear strength
fctd=1.637 MPa [45]. The lining is reinforced that is a quite simple adaptation of the current At Serviceability Limit State a lining in its final
only with fibres. formulation included in the Eurocode 2 [26] load configuration has to ensure durability
Similarly, the domain can be calculated for shear in members without conventional with respect to a required nominal life of the
also for linings reinforced by means of a transverse reinforcement. The fibre tunnel, which very often is 100 years or more.
combination of traditional rebars and fibres. contribution is included as a modification For concrete structures, durability generally
As an example, by adopting two layers of of the longitudinal reinforcement ratio, since involves a proper choice of the concrete
rebars B450C and a longitudinal steel ratio fibres can be considered as an additional matrix and mix-design [49], but also involves
equal to s=0,20%, the diagrams shown in randomly distributed reinforcement all over a proper control of crack width. In this
Figure 19 can be obtained (note that the the depth of the beam. sense, for RC or RC+FRC tunnel segments,
concrete cover, measured from the rebar the reference maximum accepted crack
Shear forces are generally small in the
centroid, is 41 mm). widths suggested in Model Code 2010 [14]
final state; hence, the minimum shear
as a function of the expected environmental
The diagrams clearly show that, because of reinforcement provided by fibres is generally
conditions can be used. The latter are
the low longitudinal steel ratio, the increment sufficient in tunnel linings.
reference values similar to that reported in
of the resistant bending moment at ULS
other standards [10, 11, 12, 26] and they are
due to fibres can be noticeable when the
generally based on criteria for preventing the
compressive axial load is small (typical
corrosion of conventional steel rebars.
Figure 18. Examples of MRd-N domain at ULS, FRC segments. Figure 19. Comparison of the domain MRd-NEd calculated for different reinforcement
combinations. Fibres only (FRC), traditional reinforcement (RC) and combination of
these two types of reinforcement (RC+FRC).

Within the scientific community, the Among different methods proposed by Fibres improve autogenous healing by
maximum accepted crack width in order the scientific community for evaluating enhancing multiple crack formation and
to prevent the corrosion of steel fibres, crack width occurring in FRC or RC+FRC limiting the crack width. In fact, generally
especially in case of a SFRC tunnel segment structural elements, a simplified method will cracks narrower than 50 m closed
solution (only fibre) is a matter of discussion. be reported in Section 12.8. This method completely, while cracks with a width
Early reference values (still under discussion) is particularly suitable for the final stage between 50 and 150 m only show partial
have been reported in the recommendation when the rings are embedded in the ground closure [51]. A review of the phenomena
of AFTES [15], concerning the design, and small cracks are acceptable. On the involved in autogenous healing in presence
dimensioning and execution of precast steel other hand, as described in Sections 12.2, of micro-synthetic fibre reinforcement was
fibre reinforced concrete arch segments. The 12.3 and 12.4, at stages of de-moulding, recently proposed by Snoeck et al. [51], and
following values are reported: design width storage and positioning of segments, it is research on this aspect is currently under
of cracks wk of 0.15 mm (exposure classes recommended to avoid cracks as much as development.
XS1, XD1, XS2, XD2, XA1 and XA2) or 0.2 possible.
mm (exposure classes XC1, XC2, XC3 and The evaluation of crack width at SLS in the
XC4). Synthetic fibres (SynFRC) are generally final stage (lining embedded in ground) also
not affected by corrosion, and in case of involves another issue under discussion in
combined use with conventional rebars, the the scientific community, that is, creep of
maximum accepted crack width is governed concrete in tension. The latter depends on
by the deterioration of steel rebars. several factors especially the type of fibre
In addition, independently by the possible reinforcement adopted. It is well known
deterioration of materials, in case of tunnel that concrete creep in tension can lead to
linings, the maximum accepted crack substantial widening of cracks.
width should be determined by taking into A further aspect to be considered with
account also the water-tightness requireents respect to crack width development at
of the lining, further to the environmental long term is the concrete natural capacity
conditions. Indeed, in particular situations of autogenous crack healing. The latter can
the maximum accepted crack width can be be the consequence of hydration of un-
very small. hydrated cement particles and dissolution
Since FRC, due to its noticeable post- and subsequent carbonation of calcium
cracking tensile properties, principally allows hydroxide. In addition to these mechanisms,
a better crack control, its contribution at swelling of the matrix and blocking of the
SLS can be remarkable. This additional crack due to debris present in the infiltrated
advantage means a longer durability and water, or loose concrete particles resulting
lower maintenance costs of the tunnel lining. from cracking may also cause autogenous
In case of RC+FRC solution, it should be healing.
highlighted that tunnel linings are generally The overall contribution of the mechanisms
structure characterized by low reinforcement in autogenous healing remains a matter of
rebars ratios (s), which means that the debate. On the other hand, researchers
crack opening limitation could have a agree that autogenous healing can improve
relevant impact on the design. Eventually, when the amount of reactive binder agents
the combination of regular reinforcement, is increased, when additional water is
consisting in longitudinal rebars, involve the present in the crack region (e.g., presence
necessity of using an opportune crack width of moisture), or when crack widths are
criterion based on a proper study of the restricted [50]. The latter can be achieved by
tension stiffening phenomena. the addition of fibres.

12 >> Design procedure of frc segmental lining
In Section 11 a general overview of the main Tunnel characteristic

load-conditions concerning the segmental
Tunnel overburden (min-max) Hoverburden,min,max
lining was presented and the beneficial
effects due to the addition of fibres as well Thickness h
as possible design solutions were briefly Internal diameter Di
introduced and discussed. N (segments) +Nkey (key segment; counter key
N . of segments
o
The aim of this section is to describe the segments are also specified)
general design procedure for FRC segmental Segment length/ width Lsegment/Bsegment
lining based on remarks introduced in Concrete class of strength fck/Rck
Section 11. With this purpose, the following
loading conditions will be described: TBM data
de-moulding of tunnel segments; N. jacks Njack
storage of segments; Thrust (max) Tmax,total
transportation and positioning of segments Thrust (max) exerted by each jack Tmax,jack
by erector; Thrust (SC) exerted by each jack Tsc,jack
thrust jack forces from TBM; Reinforcement
introduction of normal ring force in Conventional reinforcement (reinforcing bar, rebar)
longitudinal joint;
Longitudinal steel ratio s
ring behaviour at the final stage;
Characteristic yield strength fyk
ring behaviour during fire event.
Design yield strength fcd
FFor each of this conditions, possible
analytical methods for including the fibre Steel elastic modulus Es
resistant contribution is suggested, starting Fiber reinforcement
from general approaches already reported in fLm
the Model Code 2010 [9] for the design of
fR1,m
FRC structures.
Mean residual flexural tensile strengths according to EN 14651
The loading conditions will be schematically fR2,m
[20] as introduced in Section 10.
described with respect to SLS and ULS by fR3,m
referring to a typical tunnel lining presenting fR4,m
the main characteristics summarized in
fLk
Table 2, where each of the main parameters
used in the following sections is introduced fR1,k
with its correspondent symbol. Characteristic residual flexural tensile strengths according to EN
fR2,k
14651 [20] as introduced in Section 10.
In the following the design procedure will be fR3,k
referred to the three possible reinforcement
fR4,k
combinations previously introduced in
Section 8: Table 2 : Basic parameters to be used in the design procedure of a FRC segmental lining.
RC: segment reinforced only by
conventional rebars;
FRC: segment reinforced only by fibre
reinforcement;
RC+FRC: segment reinforced by a
combination of fibre and traditional
reinforcement (hybrid solution).

12.1 FRC mechanical properties at Ultimate Limit State in order to evaluate are neglected in analytical calculations. If
the minimum required bearing capacity that the tunnel segment does not remain in the
The general mechanical properties of segments must provide for not collapsing. un-cracked state, other possible specific
concrete such as: In fact, the safety of workers must always calculations in order to evaluate the crack
elastic modulus, Ec; be guaranteed, and a verification at ULS is width can be developed with the simplified
compressive strength, fc; generally required (Figure 20). method described in Section 12.8, even if
It is recommended to evaluate the fracture it is strictly recommended to avoid as much
tensile strength, fct;
parameters by testing standard specimens as possible cracking during demoulding,
can be obtained by simply applying the having the same curing time and curing storage, transportation and positioning of
general rules for conventional concrete (see procedure. Alternatively, as a rough first segments.
Eurocode 2 [26], MC 2010 [9]) since these approximation, the fracture properties at
mechanical properties are not influenced by a certain curing time (demoulding time)
volume fractions of fibres (Vf) smaller than can be estimated to be proportional to the
1%, as are generally used in segmental compressive strength, even if there are no
tunnel lining (see Case Studies in Annex I). currently specific relationships available
As previously described in Section 11.2.1, for evaluating the post-cracking residual
the lining sectional response at ULS can strengths at early age based on the one
be obtained by means of MRd-NEd domain. exhibited at 28 days.
The post-cracking constitutive laws, which Besides the evaluation of the flexural bearing
describes the residual strength provided by capacity, it is necessary to calculate the
fibres, can be obtained by using the approach corresponding resistant shear, VRd, based
proposed by MC 2010 [9]. A rigid-plastic on the approach suggested by Model
law can be used according to Eq. 4, Section Code 2010 [9]: notice that this method is
10.2, or by using a linear post-cracking law, only suitable for RC and RC+FRC segment
which can be easily obtained according to configurations. In case of FRC segments, a
Eq. 5 and Eq. 6. These equations refer to method was recently suggested by Coccia
FRC fracture parameters summarized in et al. [52].
Table 2, according to the post-cracking Serviceability Limit State (SLS) is of
performance criteria adopted by MC 2010 paramount importance for this loading
[9]. In particular, in order to evaluate the lining condition, with the main objective to avoid
behaviour at ULS, the reference parameters cracking. Based on the adopted static
for design are the following: scheme (Figure 20), the segment internal
force at SLS can be easily calculated (N,
(Eq. 7) V, M). Since, it is expected that concrete
remains in the un-cracked state, the
(Eq. 8) maximum tensile stress should be less
than the tensile strength (fctk,0.05) evaluated
at demoulding time. Hence, the following
should be verified:
12.2 Demoulding of tunnel (Eq. 9)

segments
The main issue of this temporary phase is the In Equation 9 the term 1,2 represents the
early-age of concrete. Generally, a minimum principal tensile stress in the most critical
concrete compressive strength (fck,de-mould) tunnel segment section calculated by means
should be guaranteed when demoulding. of Mohrs circle according to the combination
of N, V, M and by assuming an un-cracked
Demoulding is a typical temporary phase
concrete section (as it is expected in this
which should be analysed at SLS in order
phase).
to evaluate crack development, since it is
desirable to avoid cracking as much as This verification is basically independent by Figure 20 . Possible static schemes for evaluating the
possible during this stage. Nevertheless, this fibre resistant contribution (since fibres act segment internal actions (N, V, M) during de-molding-stage.
loading condition can be also considered after cracking) and also traditional rebars

12.3 Storage of segments
This temporary stage is characterized by

the same concerns regarding the early-
age concrete. Furthermore, similarly to
demoulding, it is desirable to avoid cracking
as much as possible during this stage; a
minimum bearing capacity that segments
must provide for not collapsing is also
required.
Possible static schemes typically adopted
are schematically depicted in Figure 21.
Particular attention should be given to the Figure 21. Possible stacking segment configurations: static scheme for evaluating the segment internal actions (N, V, M)
misalignment of the supports of piled tunnel during this phase should consider possible eccentricities.
segments, which can introduce unwanted
eccentricities and high bending moments
which can be particularly severe for tunnel
segments reinforced by fibres only.
The main steps of the design process for this
phase are the following:
evaluation of the actual compressive
strength of concrete at the time of
segments storage: (fck,storage);
e
valuation (or estimation) of FRC fracture
parameters (fRi), at the time of storage (an
experimental campaign on testing samples
is recommended);
based on assumed static scheme,
analytical calculation of N , V, M at SLS and
at ULS are performed; Figure 22. Possible static schemes for evaluating the segment internal actions (N, V, M) during the process of positioning
verification at SLS of the expected the segment by means of pin-shear erector.
un-cracked state of concrete tunnel
segments. The same procedure previously described stage, two approaches are possible:
in Sections 12.3 and 12.4 can be applied full scale experimental tests on FRC or
12.4 Transportation and by referring to concrete mechanical and RC+FRC tunnel segments;
positioning of segments by fracture properties at 28 days (characteristic
erector n
on-linear numerical analyses based on
and design values, respectively for SLS
non-linear fracture mechanics (NLFM, [8]),
and ULS). The static scheme used in this
The segments need to be transported in order to take properly into account the
temporary stage strictly depends on the
around the segment plant, to the project post-cracking residual strength of FRCs.
erection system. Possible configurations are
site, and down to the tunnel. A variety of These approaches allow to evaluate the
reported in Figure 22.
lifting devices can be used such single point, safety-factor in terms of additional capacity
side clamps, fork lift, vacuum lift, etc. supplied by fibre reinforcement with respect
12.5 Thrust jacks phase to the most probable forces exerted by TBM
Then, the segments should be positioned
jacks during service condition.
by means of the segment erector. This As mentioned in Section 11.1, the first step
particular temporary stage concerns the to assess the local stresses generated in the The procedure and instrumentation for full-
construction of a ring, and the concrete lining segments under the action of the TBM scale tests are generally expensive, and
curing-time shall be well beyond 28-days; jacks is to evaluate the risk of cracking due this approach does not enable a proper
hence, no particular concerns arise with to local splitting stresses based on typical parametric study to evaluate different
regard to mechanical properties. relationships available in the bibliography [42, segment boundary conditions. On the other
43]. In order to take properly into account hand, full-scale tests allow to observe the
the fibre resistant contribution during this actual segment behaviour.

In this section a possible two-steps The second step consist of 3D numerical of a shield driven tunnel, including the grouting
numerically-based design procedure is briefly analyses can be carried out to evaluate the phase. Nevertheless, for the scope of lining
introduced, as a possible alternative approach additional effects of possible eccentricities design, it is recommended to use simpler
to experimental full-scale tests. of the pushing arms. A typical numerical 3D models, which are able to reasonably capture
The first step of a numerical approach is the model of a tunnel segment is reported in Figure the bending moments arising in the lining
creation of a simplified 2D numerical model in 25. Advanced modelling techniques can be during the grouting process [48]. Such models
order to develop a parametric non-linear study. used like, for instance, interface elements allow determining the internal lining actions
(Figure 25). A 3D model enables to better (N, M, V) during the grouting process, and
A typical 2D model is presented in Figure 23.
capture local and global mechanisms of the comparing them to the resistant actions at
The segment length measured on the mid-
segment during this phase even though these ULS as previously described for other loading
tunnel segment plane (Lsegment) is evidenced
analyses are time-consuming. Nevertheless, if conditions. The study of this temporary
together with the segment width (Bsegment).
these models are used after a preliminary 2D phase at ULS is particularly meaningful for
Particular attention should be given to
study, the analyses can be used to refine final the incomplete grouting condition, since it
the boundary conditions which, as a first
evaluations regarding the best reinforcement represents the effects of a not-well controlled
approximation, can be described as rigid
design solution. grouting process and it consists in a kind of
supports.
ultimate condition.
Based on a simplified 2D numerical model,
Referring to SLS, if the tunnel segment, as
several simulations can be carried out by
expected, does not remain in the un-cracked
varying:
state, other possible specific calculations
the total reinforcement adopted in the in order to evaluate the crack width can
segment (RC, FRC, RC+FRC); be developed with the simplified method
the boundary conditions. described in Section 12.8.
Figure 23. Example of typical 2D numerical model adequate Figure 24. Scheme of possible boundary conditions of tunnel
for developing an initial parametric study. segment during the thrust phase.
12.6 Ring behaviour of the tunnel

The boundary conditions can be varied, for lining during grouting process
instance, by adopting the schemes shown in
Figure 24, which introduce the irregularities of The most serious source of ring bending in
support in the jacks, starting from a regular segmental linings is the pressure of grout
configuration (UNI). injected to fill the anular void [53]. If the grouting
process is not carried out carefully, the lining
Based on a 2D parametric study, initial choices
could sink in the invert under its own weight
can be made with respect to the amount of
plus that of the tunnel construction equipment.
fibre and traditional reinforcement to be used.
This could cause an eccentric annular void,
The numerical analyses are generally carried
larger at the crown than at the invert. In case of
out by applying Tsc,jack, which is the service
incomplete grouting condition, a local increase
load for each pushing arm and by verifying
of the bending moment arise in the lining,
the cracks arising in the lining in terms of the
which can be particularly crucial for FRC tunnel
cracked region dimensions and maximum
segments with fibre reinforcement only.
crack width. The load can be progressively
increase up to Tmax,jack ( the maximum load The available bibliography shows that complex Figure 25. Example of typical 3D numerical model adequate
applicable by each jack). In this way, both SLS 3D modelling exists, trying to simulate the for final evaluations concerning the segment behavior during
overall behaviour of the construction process the thrust phase Scheme with evidenced interface elements.
and ULS can be investigated.

12.7 Introduction of normal ring Linear elastic analyses as well as analytical State condition is more significant than in
force in longitudinal joints elastic formulations can be used for temporary phases such as demoulding
evaluating if the local bursting stresses or positioning of segments, since the final
The longitudinal joints are those located exceed the concrete tensile strength [42, stage is investigated in a long term condition.
between adjacent segments of the same 43]. On the other hand, in order to capture The ULS verification can also represent a
ring. These joints can be characterized by a the post-cracking FRC contribution, non- particular situation along the tunnel where
simple contact between the flat surfaces of linear numerical analyses should be carried unexpected ground conditions occur.
adjacent segments, shear keys or guidance out. These analyses enables to evidence the
rods. Hence, the normal hooping force, maximum crack width at service condition
arising in the lining because of the ground (if the bursting stresses are higher than fctk)
pressure, should be transmitted along a and enables to evaluate the safety factor,
contact segment-to-segment surface, guaranteed by fibre reinforcement in terms
which generally is reduced according to the of both bearing capacity and local ductility.
joint systems.
A local traditional reinforcement could be
12.8 Ring behaviour at the final
placed in order to cope with local bursting
stage
stresses arising in the segment because
of the local introduction of high axial The evaluation of the lining internal actions at
compressive forces (normal ring forces) the final stage, when the lining is embedded
along small surfaces. The amount of this local in the surrounding ground, can be developed
reinforcement, when necessary, is based on by means of several available analytical
simplified relationships available [42, 43]. or numerical/analytical approaches, as
In order to evaluate this local mechanism generally described in Section 11.2.
with respect to possible use of fibre
A design procedure similar to that previously
reinforcement, linear or non-linear numerical
described in Sections 12.3-12.4 can be used
analyses can be carried out by using simple
on analytical study of the lining behaviour at
2D models, and also by including possible
ULS and SLS. It is worthwhile noticing that,
local eccentricities, as shown in Figure 26.
during the final stage, the Ultimate Limit
Figure 27. Typical distribution of bending moments M and

shear forces V of a segmental lining ring embedded in soil.
Typical diagrams representing the distribution

of bending moments and shear forces
along a tunnel lining are reported in Figure
27 for a continuous ring having a width of
1 m, embedded in soft soil. As previously
mentioned in Section 11.2, these diagrams
can be further developed by considering
the interaction through adjacent rings as
well as the influence of longitudinal joints
according to proper approaches available
in the bibliography. The ring is subjected
to compressive force in the hoop direction,
Figure 26. Example of typical 2D numerical model adequate for evaluating the introduction of normal ring which means that each segment transverse
force in longitudinal joint. section is subjected to a certain applied
normal ring force.

Based on the lining internal actions at SLS, For a given tunnel lining section (thus, a given The possible causes for explosive spalling
the corresponding actions at ULS (MEd, NEd, normal ring force), it is possible to enter in the are the following [59]:
VEd) can be estimated by using a multiplying diagram with the bending moment acting in -
thermal processes (thermal stresses,
factor (taken from the relevant design code the section at SLS (MSC). For each point of elastic incompatibilities due to different
used for the project or based on the risk of the diagram, the distribution of strains and elongations between aggregates and
possible unfavorable ground conditions). stresses along the tunnel lining thickness is hardened cement paste);
For RC, FRC, RC+FRC, the domain MRd vs. known. Consequently, the maximum tensile
-
thermo-hydraulic processes (vapor
NEd can be defined with the general rules strain exhibited along the lining thickness
pressure). The pore water in the concrete
previously described (Section 11.2.1). can be obtained for the applied bending
evaporates instantly when concrete is
moment. If this maximum tensile strain
At the serviceability limit state attention is exposed to fire and causes spalling of large
exceeds that corresponding to the tensile
given to a proper choice of the concrete chunks of concrete.
strength, the lining is cracked.
matrix and mix-design, and to a proper Referring to tunnel linings, Dehh [60]
control of crack width. Among different In presence of a cracked lining section the
underlined that, in case of a tunnel fire,
methods available for evaluating crack width crack width can be estimated by multiplying
destructive spalling occurs at supporting
occurring in FRC or RC+FRC structural the maximum tensile strain (retrieved by the
concrete structures. This is mainly caused
elements [45, 54 55, 56, 57], a simplified strain distribution along the lining thickness)
by the water content of the tunnel concrete
procedure is proposed starting from the arising in this section by the the structural
which is mostly higher than in other concrete
constitutive law proposed by Model Code characteristic length, lcs. In the recent fib
structures, and to the temperature increase
2010 [9]. By using a layer-by-layer plane- Model Code 2010 [9], relationships for
rate, which is especially high in tunnel fires.
sectional model as introduced by Hordijk evaluating lcs are given for RC, FRC and
RC+FRC members. Spalling generally occurs within the first 5 to
[58] and developed by Kooiman [37] for
30 minutes of a fully developed fire. Other
FRC members, the sectional response of In summary, for a given tunnel lining cross-
parameters which can affect the spalling
a generic RC, FRC or RC+FRC members section under an expected axial force (N),
behaviour include the base materials,
(in terms of bending moment vs. curvature) based on the constitutive law reported in
particularly aggregates, and the internal
can be plotted. In case of precast tunnel Figure 5, a moment vs. curvature diagram
stress conditions due to the non-linear
lining, the diagram M vs. curvature should can be calculated (Figure 28). Afterwards,
temperature along the cross-sectional
be calculated in presence of a certain axial based on lcs, similar diagram can be obtained
area [60]. Some studies have shown that
compressive force, corresponding to the in terms of M vs. average crack opening. By
the occurrence of spalling depends on the
normal ring force of a given lining section entering in this diagram with the expected
following factors: maximum fire temperature,
under investigation. An example of a diagram bending moment in service condition, the
moisture content of concrete, temperature
M vs. curvature is reported in Figure 28. The corresponding estimation of average crack
increase rate, concrete density and strength,
approach is a kind of sectional smeared width can be obtained and compared to the
arrangement of the reinforcement, geometry
approach and can be developed by referring maximum allowable crack width.
of the structure, pore volume and mean pore
to FRC characteristic properties (fRi,k, see The procedure can be repeated for different size, pressure stress within the structure,
Table 2). The post-cracking constitutive law axial forces and a given allowable maximum mineralogical/petrographical composition of
shown in Figure 5 can be applied in order crack width, resulting in a domain M vs. N the aggregates [60]. For instance, for high-
to consider the FRC resistant contribution at for a given crack width [45]. performance concrete the saturated zone
SLS (Section 11.2.2).
is located nearer to the surface exposed to
12.9 Ring behaviour during fire fire because of the denser structure of the
event concrete. This causes a quicker heating-up
of the condensed water and a quicker rise of
This section aims to give some general
the vapor pressure [59].
advices concerning the fire resistance of
tunnel segments with the awareness that An effective reduction of explosive spalling
this issue is, in general, a matter of strong can be achieved through a pore system
debate in the scientific community especially which guarantees sufficient reduction of the
with reference to spalling phenomena, and high steam pressure. This can be achieved,
to the influence of fibres addition on these for example, by adding micro-synthetic
aspects. fibres, which melt when exposed to fire
and open micro-pore passages and form a
Three possible types of concrete spalling are
porous transition zone between the matrix
kown: surface spalling, corner break-off and
Figure 28. Typical moment vs. curvature diagram of 1 and fibre through which the steam pressure
m width FRC tunnel lining section in presence of a given explosive spalling; the latter is probably the
applied normal ring force.
can be released at an early stage.
most crucial phenomenon.

Dehn et al. [59], based on a micro analytical usually provide a rather limited number of specimens. In case of FRC, the evaluation of
investigation on the effect of polypropylene specific rules or recommendations with post-cracking residual strengths is of main
fibres in fire exposed high-performance regard to spalling [64]. interest [67, 68]. Furthermore, in the Italian
concrete, stated that the addition of synthetic Referring to the main international available guideline [11], it is described that a low
fibres may lead to the following effects: standards, in Eurocode 2 (Part 1-2) [65] percentage of steel fibres does not influence
- improvement of permeability due to the fire design of concrete structures is thermal diffusivity. However, steel fibres
formation of capillary pores which are presented for conventionally reinforced improve residual strengths for concrete
composed during melting and burning of and pre-stressed concrete. By means of exposed to temperatures higher than
fibres. This effect is generally mentioned to analytical simplified approaches or numerical 600 C. Additionally, a damage coefficient is
describe the efficiency of fibres; analyses, the development of temperature introduced. The damage coefficient is equal
within a tunnel lining ring in presence of a to the residual strength (compression or
- improvement of permeability due to
standard fire event can be reproduced. direct tension test) tested after exposing the
creation of transition zones (TZ) which are
Based on the temperature distribution along specimens to high temperature normalized
open for diffusion. Considering the structure
the lining thickness (h), a proper domain M to the strength tested with specimens at
in TZ between aggregates and cement
vs. N can be evaluated for the lining section room temperature.
matrix additional pores are formed. The
thickness of these TZ are mainly influenced according to the isothermal 500 Eurocode 2
by w/c ratio, cement type, and additives. (Part 1-2), Annex B1 [65]. The reliability of this
By addition of fibres, TZ will be connected. method with respect to more complicated
The system will get open for filtration and approaches is well discussed in [66], with
permeability; particular reference to its application to FRC
exposed to high temperature by considering
- improvement of permeability due to
the decay of FRC mechanical properties
additional micro pores which are the effect
according to the applied temperatures
of structural aeration while mixing fibres in
[67,70]. In Eurocode2 (Part 1-2) [65], no
the concrete;
recommendations are given for the design
- formation of micro-cracks as result of the of FRC elements. With respect to explosive
melting process. concrete spalling, methods are mentioned
In several other research works, the which result in a reduction of spalling for
beneficial effects of micro-synthetic fibres in high-strength concrete (use of 2.0 kg/m of
terms of controlling spalling in tunnel lining monofilament synthetic fibres for concrete
was demonstrated [61, 62, 63]. The use grades ranging between C80/95 and
of monofilament polypropylene (PP) micro- C90/105 according to the strength class
fibres is well known as a good solution definition of EN 206-1 [49]).
for considerably reducing the effect of fire The fib Model Code 2010 [9] contains
spalling in order to achieve a passive fire- information about principles of fire design
protection of structural elements such tunnel (7.5.1.2) for concrete with conventional
linings. reinforcement. In fib Bulletin 38 [69], the
Fire spalling is a complex phenomenon, influence of fire on concrete structures
and predicting the risk of fire-spalling or is reported. The use of synthetic fibres is
the effect of a certain dosage/type of fibre characterized to reduce pore pressure and
reinforcement on spalling is difficult. In fact, risk of spalling (6.4). Nevertheless, the
even if the beneficial effect of the addition of bulletin includes no information regarding fire
micro synthetic fibres to concrete (SynFRC) design of FRC. Moreover, in fib Bulletin 46
is well known, there is a general consensus [70], it is shown that fibres are conducive to
within the scientific community that the better mechanical properties after exposure
accurate determination of fibre dosage, to high temperatures.
to provide the required explosive spalling The evaluation of properties of FRC exposed
resistance, should be evaluated on specific at high temperatures is also of main interest
experimental fire tests on tunnel segments. for estimating the tunnel lining behaviour
The latter are probably the only current during and after a fire event [66]. The main
available method for deeply and clearly mechanical properties of plain concrete as
investigating this issue. This tendency is well as of FRC during and after exposure to
also confirmed by current standards, which high temperatures can be evaluated on small

13 >> Concluding remarks
The document has been developed to conditions, optimized solutions can be

provide recommendations and guidelines based on fibres only (FRC) or fibres plus
specifically adequate to FRC tunnel traditional rebars (hybrid solution, RC+FRC).
segmental lining with special emphasis to
their design procedure.
This work is based on twenty years of FRC
tunnel segments practice that show how the
use of FRC in tunnel segments allows for
several advantages such as the improvement
of post-cracking tensile behaviour and
the consequent better control of flexural
cracks. Fibres enable a stable development
of splitting cracks and a possible reduction
of stirrups placed in the regions under the
thrust jacks as well as a possible complete
replacement of shear reinforcement.
The document proposes a brief overview on
current available applicable standards for the
characterization of FRCs fracture properties
and for the design of FRC elements. Among
them, the new fib Model Code 2010 is
mentioned, which refers to EN 14651 for
determining the main significant residual
post-cracking strengths.
Based on the performance criteria and
approaches provided by fib Model Code
2010 and based on experiences already
developed on FRC tunnel segments,
design rules and procedures according
to the particular requirements and loading
conditions of segmental lining are suggested.
The analytical and numerical procedures
useful to quantify during design the main
advantages due to fibre reinforcement
are also discussed. In fact, the current fib
Model Code 2010 can be easily applied
for structures such as beams or slabs, but
needs to be contextualized to the specific
issues concerning tunnel lining elements.
In the document special attention is devoted
to some particular loading conditions that,
based on experience, should be considered
since they can be very severe for a tunnel
segment reinforcement solution based on
fibres only. As a general criterion, it has
been emphasized that localized stresses are
better resisted by localized reinforcement
such as traditional steel reinforcing bars
(steel rebars), while diffused stresses are
better resisted by spread reinforcement,
such as fibres. Hence, depending on FRC
properties, lining geometry and ground-

>> Annex 1 - case studies
In this section, fourteen case studies Out of the fourteen case, two are feasibility
mentioned in Table 1 are presented in more studies regarding FRC use in major tunnel
detail, based on information reported in projects. The first feasibility study is based on
published papers or in international journals. a non-linear numerical simulation, whereas the
In some of these case studies, FRC or second is based on full-scale experimental
RC+FRC tunnel segments were not used tests. They represent the two currently
along the whole tunnel alignment. available methods for investigating the FRC
tunnel segments behaviour during the thrust
phase, as addressed in Section 12.5.
A.I.1 Barcelona Metro Line 9
Project particulars
Location Barcelona (SPAIN)
Construction period Started in 2003, under construction.
Owner GISA, Gestio dinfrastructures, s.a.
Designer(s) -
Contractor(s) UTE Linia 9 (Line 9 joint venture)
Engineer(s) PAYMACotas
General Project description
The TBM-excavated tunnel of Barcelona has an internal diameter of about 10.9 m, a length of more than 41.4 km and is located from 30 to 70 meters below the surface. The
tracks and platforms will be accommodated in a double deck configuration (metro line). The metro line has 43 stations and 15 interchanges. The lining will be an important
connection to the airport, the law district, the Barcelona fair and the high speed railway.
Tunnel characteristics
Total Tunnel Length 41.4 km
Boring diameter 12.1 m
Overburden (min-max) 30-70 m
Lining type Segmental
Ring type Universal ring
Thickness 0.35 m
Internal diameter Di 10.9 m
Tunnel aspect ratio (Di/h) 31.14
Average segment aspect ratio 13.88
No. of segments 7 segments +1 key segment

Gettu et al., 2004 [30].
Segment length/width 4.7 m/1.8 m
Connectors Bolts in inclined socket.
Concrete mix design
Concrete class of strength C 50/60
Cement CEM I 52.5R 400 kg/m3
Sand: 05 mm 745 kg/m3
Coarse aggregate: 514 mm 558 kg/m3 Gettu et al., 2006 [31]
Coarse aggregate: 1222 mm 559 kg/m 3
Water 132 kg/m3
Admixtures 4.8 kg/m (HRWRA, high range water-reducing admixture)

3
Environmental and geological conditions
Stretches which present tunnel overburdens ranging from 60-90 m are in prevalent rock with dominant granite (granodiorite). All the other stretches are principally characterized by soil.

Method of excavation
Mechanised tunnelling method by means of a Tunnel Boring Machine with shield.
TBM data
Manufacturer -
TBM Type EPB-Type Earth Pressure Balanced Tunnel Boring Machine (also a DUAL EPB/HR TBM was used)
N. jacks 30 (2 jacks act on each steel thrust shoes)
Tmax,total 140 MN
Tmax,jack 4.67 MN
Tsc,jack 3.0 MN (typical load in service condition)
Back-up length -
Reinforcement design solution proposed
Sketch of the Conventional reinf. Fibre reinf. Total reinf.

Ref.#
reinforcement [kg/m3] [kg/m3] [kg/m3]
25
Original solution
SFRC 50/1.0, Reported in:
(structural contribution 97 122
Lf/f=50, Gettu et al. 2004 [30]
of fibres not considered)
ft,fiber=1100 MPa
60
SFRC 50/1.0, Proposed by:
Solution 01 - 60
Lf/f=50, Gettu et al. 2004 [30]
ft,fiber=1100 MPa
25
SFRC 50/0.75,
Lf/Lf/f=66.67,
46 (in two chords
ft,fiber=1100 MPa
along
fIf,m=5.095 MPa Proposed by:
Solution 02 the longer 71
feq(0-0.6),m=3.943 MPa Plizzari et al. 2005 [44]
segment sides).
feq(0.6-3),m=3.474 MPa
fIf,k=4.323 MPa
feq(0-0.6),k=3.024 MPa
feq(0.6-3),k=2.395 MPa [71]
Reported in:
Solution adopted The original design solution was adopted. De la Fuente et al. 2012
[1]
Remarks concerning the solution proposed
The solution 01 was proposed by Gettu et al. [30], based on experimental campaign on SFRC tunnel segment. The experimental research includes the mechanical
characterization of FRC, full scale bending tests and local splitting tests.
The solution 02 was proposed by Plizzari et al. [44] [47], based on the mechanical characterization of FRC, analytical approaches and non-linear numerical analyses for evaluating
the thrust-phase temporary phase (TBM thrust jacks acting on the lining).
Remarks concerning the solution adopted
The stretch Bon-Pastor to Cam-Zam was one of first pilot project for the application of SFRC in precast segments. A total thirty rings with 60 kg/m3 of steel fibres were constructed
(solution 01). Three of them were instrumented in order to carry out a loading test for simulating soil pressure in the field conditions by means of jacks (Molins et al., 2009, [72]). The
working condition was adverse (descending stretch and water leaks with a temperature up to 60C). As a matter of fact, some splitting cracks and local failures appeared, which also
took place in the stretches with traditional reinforcement. Even considering the problems the results from loading were satisfactory (Molins et al., 2009, [72]).
The solution was not generalized in the whole tunnel for several reasons, many of them bearing non relation to the technical reasons [72].

A.I.2 FontSanta-Trinitat tunnel
Project particulars
Construction period -
Owner -
Designer(s) -
Contractor(s) -
Engineer(s) -
It consists of a tunnel for transportation of desalinated water from Llobregat River toward the Ter river. For this purpose, a main station was built in Fontsanta (Santa Just
dEsvern, Barcelona). The tunnel was excavated under the Collserola mountain (Barcelona) simultaneously from two opposite fronts (Riera de Sant Just and La Trinitad) using two
double-shielded TBMs (for more details, see de La Fuente et al., 2012 [1]).
Total Tunnel Length -
Boring diameter 6m
Overburden (min-max) -
Thickness 0.25 m
Connectors -
Concrete mix design
C 50/60 (was used in stretches with poor quality of the rock

Concrete class of strength mass as well as the presence of the phreatic level expectable
in few stretches according to the geotechnical analyses).
Sand: 05 mm 746 kg/m3 De La Fuente

et al., 2012 [1]
Coarse aggregate: 514 mm 558 kg/m3
Water 145 kg/m3
Admixtures 3.12 kg/m3 (superplasticizer)
The layout gets across heterogeneous soil with several different geological formations. The predominant materials are schist and phyllite (35% of the length), slate and quartzite slate
(15%) being the latter ones the worst concerning its geotechnical quality. On the contrary, the rest of the formations are rocks with medium high quality (granodiorite, hornfels, porphyry,
quartzite and metamorphic rocks, for more details, see de La Fuente et al., 2012 [1]).

Mechanised tunnelling method by means of two double-shielded TBMs.
TBM data
Manufacturer -
TBM Type -
N. jacks -
Tmax,total -
Tmax,jack -
Tsc,jack -
Back-up length -

Ref.#
Reported in:
68 (n.d.)
68 (n.d) De La Fuente et al.,
Original solution - (estim.)
(estimated) 2012 [1]
19 (in two chords 25

along SFRC 60/0.75, Proposed by:
the longer Lf/f=50, De La Fuente et al.,
Solution 01 44
segment side). ft,fiber=1100MPa 2012 [1]
(estimated) fR1,m=3.537 MPa
fR4,m=3.275 MPa [20]
Solution adopted The rings RC+SFRC (solution 01, C50-60) were used.
The solution 01 was proposed by de La Fuentes et al. [1], based on the experience of Barcelona Metro Line 9 and based on analytical approach for evaluating resistant bending
moments of RC+SFRC tunnel lining section. The internal lining actions (M, V, N) were evaluated by means of numerical analyses.
Ten rings made by RC+SFRC segments (solution 01, two edge chords presenting 4+410 and stirrups 8@180 mm) were manufactured. None of the rings presented cracks during
the assembling operations neither service loads.

A.I.3 Terrassa tunnel
Project particulars
Construction period -
Owner -
Designer(s) -
Contractor(s) -
Engineer(s) -

It consists in two parallel rail tunnels in the urban area of Terrassa as the extension of the Ferrocarriles de la Generalitat de Catalunya (FGC)for more details, see de La Fuente et
al., 2012 [1]).
Total Tunnel Length 4.51 km (each tunnel)
Thickness 0.30 m
Internal diameter Di 6m
Tunnel aspect ratio (Di/h) 20
Segment length/width 3 m/1.5 m
Connectors -
Concrete mix design

De La Fuente
et al., 2012 [1]
Water 133 kg/m3
Admixtures 5.40 kg/m3 (superplasticizer)
The analysed stretch for evaluating an optimal tunnel segment reinforcement passes through a soil formed by quartenary clay, with a 24.5 m cover and with a presence of the phreatic
level 9.5 m above the tunnel crown (for more details, see de La Fuente et al., 2012 [1]).

Mechanised tunnelling method by means of a TBM with a diameter section of 6.90 m. The existing gap between the segmental ring and drilled soil was 15 cm wide and it was
filled with grout.
TBM data
Manufacturer -
TBM Type -
N. jacks -
Tmax,total -
Tmax,jack -
Tsc,jack -
Back-up length -

Ref.#
101 Reported in:

76 (n.d.) 25
Original solution (n.d.) De La Fuente et al.,
(estimated) SFRC
(estim.) 2012 [1]
25
SFRC 60/0.75,
80 Proposed by:
55 Lf/f=50,
Solution 01 (n.d.) De La Fuente et al.,
(estimated) ft,fiber=1100MPa
(estim.) 2012 [1]
fR1,m=3.065 MPa
fR4,m=2.838 MPa [20]
Solution adopted The original design solution was used.
The solution 01 was proposed by de La Fuente et al. [1], based on the experience of Barcelona Metro Line 9 and based on analytical approach for evaluating resistant bending
moments of RC+SFRC tunnel lining section. The internal lining actions (M, V, N) were evaluated by means of numerical analyses. The solution 01 reduces the amount of
longitudinal curved rebars with respect to the original solution (11+11 12 vs. 15+15 12 ). Furthermore, the amount of stirrups is reduced ( 8mm@250 mm).
The original design solution (for which the contribution of the steel fibres was not considered) was finally used. The obtained results were excellent at a production level (reducing
times and risks during the manufacture) as well as in efficiency rates (decreasing significantly the problems to impact and the thrust of jacks) thanks to the use of fibres (de La Fuente
et al., 2012 [1]).

A.I.4 Metropolitan Expressway Central Circular Shinjuku Route tunnel
Project particulars
Location Tokyo (Japan)
Construction period March 14, 2002 October 27, 2005
Owner Metropolitan Expressway Company Limited
Designer(s) -
Contractor(s) -
Engineer(s) - Dobashi et al., 2007 [32]
The Metropolitan Expressway Central Circular Route with a total length of approximately 47 km is located outside the Inner Circular Route of Tokyo (at a radius of approximately
8 km from the city center). In the Center Circular Shinjuku Route, a section with approximately 11 km in west side, RC+SFRC tunnel segments were used. These segments have
applied to outbound sections SJ51 through SJ53 (for more details, see Dobashi et al., 2007 [32]).
11 km
Total Tunnel Length With 60 rings made by RC+SFRC segments
(work sections through SJ51-SJ53)
Overburden (min-max) 7.3 m to 23.4 m
Thickness 0.45 m Dobashi et al., 2007 [32]
No. of segments 9 segments
Connectors Shear key
Concrete mix design
Concrete class of strength fck=48.1 MPa (self compacting highly flowable concrete)
Coarse aggregate: 514 mm 1037 kg/m3 Dobashi et al., 2007 [32]
Coarse aggregate: 1222 mm 501 kg/m 3
Water 180 kg/m3
Admixtures - (superplasticizer)
Tunnel in soil: Musashino gravel layer, Tokyo layer, Tokyo gravel layer, Kasusa group [33]. Hence, the soil profile consists of: sand and silty sand (diluvial layer), clay and silt (diluvial layer),
sand gravel, clayey silt (diluvial layer) [73].

Mechanised tunnelling method by means of a TBM having the largest mud shield in the world [33].
TBM data
Manufacturer -
TBM Type -
N. jacks -
Tmax,total -
Tmax,jack -
Tsc,jack -
Back-up length -

Ref.#
Original solution
Longitudinal curved rebars:
14 25 (tunnel intrados); 204 204 Reported in:
Longitudinal curved rebars: (n.d.) - (n.d.) Dobashi et al., 2007 [32]
14 22 (tunnel extrados); (estimated) (estim.) Dobashi et al., 2006 [33]
Transverse reinf.: 16 and
13, an amount of 167.8
Solution 01
Longitudinal curved rebars: 8
25+6 22 (tunnel intrados);
Longitudinal curved rebars: 8 135 63 198 Proposed by:
22+6 19 (tunnel extrados); (estimated) SFRC 30/0.6, (n.d.) Dobashi et al., 2007 [32]
Transverse reinf.: 13, an Lf/f=50 (estim.) Dobashi et al., 2006 [33]
amount of 22.2 kg/segment.
Total amount of reinf. :
360.7 kg/segment.
Solution adopted The solution 01 was adopted in 60 rings along the Center Circular Shinjuku Route.
The solution 01 was proposed Dobashi et al., 2007 [32] in order to improve the performance and durability of segments by means of the addition of steel fibres, which enables
to guarantee a better crack control and a considerable reduction of the transverse reinforcement. These advantages were well demonstrated by Dobashi et al. by means of full
scale experimental tests on RC+SFRC segments. The following tests were carried out: bending tests, tests for verifying the distribution of stress of main reinforcement, flexural
compression failure test, verification of distribution of steel fibres, fire resistance tests and measurements in the field.
The solution 01 was adopted in 60 rings along the Center Circular Shinjuku Route. Visual inspection of the surface of RC+SFRC after the assembly of a segmental ring found that
concrete was well placed throughout the segment and neither the loss of concrete in corners nor cracking occurred. Measurements of stresses in the reinforcement of RC+SFRC
segments in the field confirm that SFRC segments can provide a performance equivalent or higher than that of conventional RC segments with a reduction of the total conventional
reinforcement of about 34% (Dobashi et al., 2007 [32]).

A.I.5 District heating tunnel in Copenhagen
Project particulars
Location Copenhagen (Denmark)
Construction period June 2006 March 2009
Owner -
Designer(s) -
Contractor(s) -
Engineer(s) - Kasper et al., 2008 [35]

The 3.9 km long district heating tunnel carries heating from a power plant on the island Amager into the centre of Copenhagen. A shaft on Amager and two shafts in the city
centre provide access to the tunnel, which is located the Copenhagen limestone at a depth between 25 and 38 m below the ground surface. The tunnel is excavated with an
earth pressure balance (EPB) shield machine and is lined with steel fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC) segments without any conventional steel bar reinforcement. The tunnel has
an internal diameter of 4.2 m and carries two steam pipes, two hot water pipes and two condensation pipes.
Overburden (min-max) from 25 to 38 m
Universal ring with a taper of 2 cm to allow for

Ring type
alignments correction during construction
Thickness 0.30 m

3 standard segments, two counter-key segments
and one-key segment.
No. of segments
(segments installed with a vacuum pad erector in
combination with a 110 mm diameter pin shear erector).
Segment length/width 2.83 m (standard segment)/1.5 m
Kasper et al., 2008 [35]
Bolts in inclined socket.
Connectors
The lining has flat concrete-to-concrete radial joints.
Concrete mix design
Cement CEM I 52.5R 24 kN/m3
Sand: 05 mm 36800 MPa
Coarse aggregate: 514 mm 0.17 Kasper et al., 2008 [35]
Coarse aggregate: 1222 mm 50 MPa
Water 1.4 MPa
Admixtures 0.6 MPa
The tunnel is bored with an EPB shield machine through Copenhagen limestone. This type of TBM was successfully used in the Copenhagen metro project. The geological conditions
along the alignment of tunnel are characterised by quarternary soft soil deposits down to depths between 14 and 18 m below the ground surface, followed by the Copenhagen limestone
with different degrees of induration. The design groundwater levels range between 0 and 8 below the ground surface (for more details see [35]).

Mechanised tunnelling method by means of a TBM EPB shield machine.
TBM data
Manufacturer -
TBM Type EPB shield machine
N. jacks 20 push arms equally distributed over the circumference acting on 45 cm long and 25 cm wide ram shoes.
Tmax,total 26.6 MN
Tmax,jack 1330 kN
Tsc,jack -
Back-up length -

Ref.#
35
Original solution - - 55
Lf/f=58, Kasper et a. 2008 [35]
ft,fiber=n.d.
It was decided to design the tunnel lining for the bored tunnel with SFRC segments without conventional steel bar reinforcement, using the German SFRC design guideline (DBV, 2001) as
the design basis. The specified service life of the tunnel is 100 years.
It is worthwhile noticing that the grout (15 cm thick annular gap) for the district heating is a two-component grout based on cement, bentonite, water and stabilizer as component A and
water and sodium silicate (water glass) as component B (grout having short gelling and setting time). This ensures a quick stabilization of the tunnel lining, avoids buoyancy induced uplift
of the rings, settlements due to the loads from the back-up trailer and the resulting shear displacements between the segments.
The solution was proposed Kasper et al. [35], based on previously experiences concerning SFRC in tunnel linings reported in literature and based of opportune analytical/numerical
calculations. Linear elastic numerical analyses were carried in order to evaluate the loading by the push rams. The failure of the push rams during installation due to mistake withdrawn
from the segment has been verified by hand calculations and testing on the bolt connections. Linear elastic numerical analyses were carried for evaluating the permanent loading
condition without/with heating of the tunnel.
The original design solution consisting in SFRC segments without conventional reinforcement was applied [35]. The experiences during the segment production and tunnel
construction can be summarized as it follows. Mainly at the beginning of the segment production, some small cracks were observed after de-moulding at the inner edges of the
gasket grooves around the segment corners. In fact, SFRC has a higher risk of honeycomb and blow hole formation compared to conventional concrete. Limited defects around
the gasket grooves were reworked after de-moulding. After optimization of the production technique and production parameters, the SFRC segments have not shown a larger size
of blow holes and honey-comb defects compared to traditionally reinforced segments. No formation of fibre clusters (balling) has been detected by visual inspection or petrographic
analyses. In the first 2.4 km long section of the tunnel drive, cracks at the corners of key segments have occurred in a larger number of rings. The number of these damages has
significantly decreased in the second section of the tunnel drive. In general, the segments have shown a high quality and have been easy to handle and install in the tunnel, which is
deemed to be one of the reasons for high production rates of up to 49.5 m per day [35].

A.I.6 San Vicente aqueduct pipeline tunnel
Project particulars
Location San Diego (United States)
Construction period 2005 2010
Owner San Diego County Water Authority
Designer(s) Halcrow Group Ltd. King et al., 2007 [36]
Contractor(s) Traylor Bros. Inc. JF Shea Company (TSJV)
Engineer(s) Jacobs Associates
The San Vicente Aqueduct Pipeline consists of a water transmission pipeline running from San Vicente Pump Station to the Rancho Penasquitos Pressure Control and
Hydroeletric Facility. The segment manufacturer for the San Vicente to Second Aqueduct Pipeline decided to make use of simplified precasting methods for the production of
over 66000 segments to be used for the primary lining of the tunnels. The methods examined and adopted included the use of steel fibres to replace traditional reinforcement
bars, vertical molds to minimize surface finishing, and self compacting concrete to minimize vibration and compaction effort. The SVP is constructed predominantly in tunnel with
a total length of approximately 17.4 km, constructed mainly through sedimentary rocks (for more details, see King et al., 2007 [36]).
17.4 km (segmental lining for 2.9+10.27 km,
Total Tunnel Length
Reach 2 and Reach 4, respectively)
Boring diameter -
Ring type Universal ring with a taper of 20mm across the diameter
Thickness 0.178 m

King et al., 2007 [36]
No. of segments 6 segments trapezoidal
Segment length/width 1.7 m /1.22 m

Two spear bolts are used across each longitudinal joint, and the
Connectors ring has a total of 12 dowels across the circumferential joint. Blind
end grout sockets are cast into the centre of each segment
Concrete mix design
Concrete class of strength Required fck=41.3 MPa
Cement 420 kg/m3
Fly Ash Class F 140 kg/m3
Steel fibres 30 kg/m3
Wash Concrete Sand 715 kg/m3
3/8 Aggregate 860 kg/m3

King et al., 2007 [36]
HWRA, High Water Reducing Admixiture 4.7 cc/kg
Compressive strength 7-days 40.8 MPa
SFRC flexural strength at 1st crack 8.0 MPa
SFRC residual flexural strength 3.7 MPa
Tensile strength 5.4 MPa King et al.,2007 [36]

The tunnel is bored mainly in sedimentary rocks. The ground traversed within these sections is predominantly weaker Sedimentary formations and Conglomerates between
higher strength Granitic rocks either side of the two Reaches (for more details, see King et al., 2007 [36]).
Mechanised tunnelling method by means of CTS Tunnel Shield Machines (TSMs), which were one-faced rippers with enhanced features intended to engage the anticipated
unique geology of the San Vicente Pipeline Project. The machines can be described in three main shield sections along with the backup and ancillary equipment.
TBM data
Manufacturer Jesse Engineering facilities in Tacoma, WA
TBM Type CTS Tunnel Shield Machines
N. jacks -
Tmax,total -
Tmax,jack -
Tsc,jack -
Back-up length -

Ref.#
30
Original solution - - 30
Lf/f=80, King et al.., 2007 [36]
ft,fiber=1050 MPa
The solution based on only fibre reinforced tunnel segments (SFRC tunnel segment) was finally used. The SFRC segments were produced on a two shift per day basis, five days per
week. The average daily production was 48 rings. King et al. 2007 [36] quote the principal advantages and disadvantages related to the use of vertical molds, SCC and SFRC.
Referring to vertical molds, it implies the ability to cast two molds per cycle, doubling output with a decrease in cost of molds. The main disadvantage is the top edge finishing, which is
not a completely smooth surface since is hand-finished. Depending on the project, this could have a negative effect on the sealing performance of a gasketed segment, and could cause
point loading along this edge.
Regarding to use of SCC, the vibration was not completely eliminated but significantly reduced since the use of long fibres required the use of vibration in order to reduce the air voids.
It was believed that the fibres tended to impede the flow of air bubbles up and out of the mold. SCC enables a quicker concrete placement, less wear and tear on the molds and batch
plant, less noise, better consolidation around mold details. The main disadvantage is that the use of SCC can require more time to develop the desired mix with respect to a traditional
mix and SCC can be less forgiving than traditional concrete, depending on the local materials and the use of other admixtures. No remarks are reported concerning the fibre orientation in
presence of vertical mold.
Referring to SFRC, King et al. underlined that SFRC is cost saving with respect of traditional reinforcement and makes possible an automatic dosing and record keeping. The
reinforcement is provided in all the area of the segment, no need for special reinforcement around bolt pockets, grout sockets. SFRC enables a general improvement of durability and
corrosion resistance. On the other hand, SFRC requires new equipment for accurate and efficient dosing and additional set of performance testing. From the structural point of view,
SFRC requires careful analysis of all segment handling, from demoulding to segment erection and produces a segment weaker than a fully reinforced section.
The original design solution was used in Reach 2 and Reach 4 as initially planned.

A.I.7 East Side Combined Sewer Overflow Tunnel
Project particulars
Location Portland Oregon (United States)
Construction period May 2007 December 2011
Owner City of Portland, Bureau of Environmental Services
Designer(s) -
-
Contractor(s) Joint venture Kiewit Construction Co. and Bilfinger Berger
Engineer(s) -
The East Side Combined Sewer Overflow (ESCSO) tunnel is 9.7 km long tunnel along the east bank of the Willamette River in Portland Oregon for the city of Portland, Bureau of
Environmental Services. The tunnel is from 18.3 m to 48.8 m below ground surface and in water bearing alluvium deposits. The SFRC segmental rings are the tunnel lining for
approximately 85% of the alignment where the tunnel is located within highly competent Troutdate formation (for more details see Cook et al., 2007 [74).
Boring diameter -
Overburden (min-max) from 18.3 to 48.8 m
Thickness 0.356 m

-
7 trapezoidal segments and 1 smaller trapezoidal key
No. of segments
segment with skewed longitudinal joint of 5 degrees
Segment length/width 3.53 m (standard segment)/1.5 m
dowels provide connections between segments on the
circumferential joints. Each dowel comprises a steel shank
Connectors
within a plastic sleeve with specified pull-out strength.
Pullout bolts are placed along skewed longitudinal joints
Concrete properties (SFRC requirements)
Compressive strength, fc at 28 days: 41.4 MPa
Youngs modulus (E) at 28 days: 30500 MPa
Splitting tensile strength at 28 days: 4.76 MPa
First peak strength, f1 at 28 days: 4.55 MPa
Average residual strength, fcr.3.0 at 28 days: 2 MPa Cook et al., 2007 [74]
The tunnel is excavated in Troutdale formation.

Mechanised tunnelling method by means of a TBM.
TBM data
Manufacturer -
TBM Type -
N. jacks -
Tmax,total -
Tmax,jack -
Tsc,jack -
Back-up length -

Ref.#
32.6 Proposed by:

Original solution - - 32.6
SFRC Cook et al., 2007 [74]

The solution proposed for the 85% rings of the tunnel alignment consists of only fibre reinforced segments (SFRC segments). The solution was designed by referring to the
following permanent loading conditions: external ground and groundwater loads, ring distortion resulting from its erection, seismicity based on an earthquake and transient
internal water pressures. These loading conditions were analysed by means of analytical solution and linear numerical analyses. The corresponding internal lining forces were
compared to the resisting ones by calculating a domain moment vs. axial force diagram. The principal issues related to tunnel temporary loading conditions (removal of segments
from molds, handling and stacking in the storage yard, transportation, lining erection, TBM thrust loads, backfill grouting) were also checked. For instance, for installation
underground, the segments were checked in terms of bursting under the action of the loads from the thrust arms of the tunnel boring machine. The final design choice was to
ensure that the segments remain elastic and un-cracked under temporary construction loading conditions, which means that the stresses are required to be maintained below
the average residual flexural strength as well as below the compressive and tensile strengths of the SFRC (Cook et al., 2007 [74]).
Regarding durability issue, to meet the sulphate resistant needs cement type II with fly ash was specified. To further protect against corrosion, the segment thickness was
increased by 1.9 centimetres to provide a sacrificial zone on the tension side of the section.
Cook et al., 2007 [74] in order to prove the validity of the design solution proposed carried out experimental tests concerning the evaluation of post-cracking strength of SFRC
(three types of fibre were considered). Furthermore, tests in compression at full-scale for evaluating the capacity of the actual joint between segments were done. In addition,
dowels were tested for tensile and shear capacity in the embedded condition, into SFRC concrete blocks.
The original SFRC design solution was adopted for 85% of the tunnel lining.

A.I.8 Monte Lirio
Project particulars
Location Monte Lirio (PANAMA Republic)
Construction period March 2010-Under construction
Owner Electron Investment SA Panama City
Designer(s) -
Contractor(s) Constructora SELI Panama SA
Engineer(s) - [72]
The Monte Lirio (Panama) hydraulic tunnel is 7878 m long with an external diameter equal to 3.7 m. The thickness of the lining, made with precast segment is equal to 250 mm,
thus the internal diameter of the tunnel is 3.2 m (for more details see Caratelli et al., 2012, [34]).
Thickness 0.25 m
No. of segments 6 segments
Bolts in inclined socket (segments of the same ring).

Connectors
Plastic sockets for the connectors between rings. Caratelli et al., 2012, [34]
Concrete mix design
Cement CEM I 52.5R -
Sand -
Coarse aggregate -
Coarse aggregate -
Water -
Admixtures -

Mechanised tunnelling method by means of a EPB-TBM with a boring diameter of 3.92 m and a maximum cutterhead thrust of 13560 kN, [75].
TBM data
Manufacturer SELI
TBM Type EPB
N. jacks 12
Tmax,total 13.56 MN
Tmax,jack 1.13 MN
Tsc,jack 0.785 MN
Back-up length -

Ref.#
40
SFRC 30/0.35,
Lf/f=86,
ft,fiber=-
fL,m=4.55 MPa
fR1,m=4.66 MPa
fR2,m=4.97 MPa Proposed in:
Original solution - - fR3,m=4.63 MPa 40
Caratelli et al., 2012 [34]
fR4,m=3.95 MPa (n.d., estim.) [20]
fR1,m=6.15 MPa
fR3,m=6.13 MPa
(data from precast tunnel segments
production process)
[76]
The design of the tunnel segment was performed in according to the fib Model Code 2010 [9] prescription for FRC, assisted by full scale tests. Two different kinds of
experimental tests have been performed: bending test and thrust test. The latter was carried out for reproduce the TBM action on the segment during the excavation process.
The full-scale tests were developed only on FRC tunnel segments without any conventional reinforcement. Preliminary 3PBT tests for FRC characterization were carried out on
specimens having the same concrete matrix, same fibre content (40 kg/m3) but made with hooked fibres having different geometries (see Caratelli et al., 2012, [34]). The results
showed a good behaviour of the elements that satisfy the prescription when 40 kg/m3 of steel fibres having a length of 30 mm and a diameter of 0.35 mm were adopted.
It is worthwhile mentioning that, more recently, Di Prisco et al. [6] carried out full-scale tests on tunnel segments having the same geometry of those adopted in Monte Lirio
tunnel. However, the segments were reinforced by a combination of macro-synthetic fibres and conventional rebars. The results were satisfactory and have confirmed the
opportunities offered by a hybrid solution RC+SynFRC.
The excavation of the Monte Lirio tunnel is now in progress; in several circumstances the TBM had to push up its loading capacity and no problems with the lining were detected.

A.I.9 Channel Tunnel Rail Link
Project particulars
Location Cheriton-St Pancras (London)
Construction period 2004
Owner -
Designer(s) -
Contractor(s) -
Engineer(s) Hayden Davies. Eddie Woods [77]

The Channel Tunnel Rail Link (CTRL) is composed by two sections: Section 1 consists of 74 km constructed above ground; Section 2 consists of 38.5 km under the River
Thames. CTRL required an internal diameter of 7.15 m. The thickness of the lining, made with precast segment is equal to 350 mm.
Boring diameter -
Thickness 0.35 m
No. of segments 9+1 segments

[77]
Connectors Straight bolts into plastic insert.
Concrete mix design
Sand -
Coarse aggregate -
Coarse aggregate -
Water -
Admixtures -

The ground conditions imposed the use of closed face TBMs and a one pass precast gasketted bolted concrete lining. In Section 2, a presence of saline water is caused by the presence
of the river Thames.

Mechanised tunnelling method by means of a EPB-TBM.
TBM data
Manufacturer Kawasaki Heavy Industries
TBM Type EPBM shields
N. jacks -
Tmax,total -
Tmax,jack -
Tsc,jack -
Back-up length -

Ref.#
30
SFRC 80/0.75,
- - 30
Lf/f=107,
ft,fiber=1050 MPa
Proposed in:
Original solution
[77]
1
SynFRC (Synthetic Fibre Reinforced
- - 1
Concrete, micro-fibres)
A 60 MPa concrete mix was selected, with low permeability specified to improve durability and minimize water ingress. A series of tests were carried out to confirm the load
bearing capacity of the SFRC segments. The concrete mix has strengths averaging 70 MPa at 28 days rising to 90-100 MPa with age. The inclusion of 1 kg/m3 of polypropylene
fibres in the high strength, low permeable mixes tested significantly reduced the risk of explosive spalling.
The segments are put under significant loads during handling, erection and TBM thrust forces.

A.I.10 Legacy Way
Project particulars
Location Brisbane, Queensland (Australia)
Construction period April 2011-2015
Owner Brisbane City Council
Designer(s) -
Brisbane-based BMD, Italian company Ghella
Contractor(s)
and Spanish business Acciona Infrastructure
Engineer(s) - [78]
Legacy Way is a 4.6 kilometer twin-bore toll road tunnel that will connect the Western Freeway at Toowong with the Inner City Bypass (ICB) at Kelvin Grove. It includes two
parallel twin-lane tunnels linked by cross passages every 120 metres.
The thickness of the lining, made with precast segment is equal to 350 mm, thus the internal diameter of the tunnel is 11.2 m.
Thickness 0.35 m
No. of segments 9
[78]
Segment length/width 4.2 m/2 m
Connectors -
Concrete mix design
Concrete class of strength C50/60
Sand -
Coarse aggregate -
Coarse aggregate -
Water -
Admixtures -

During tunnelling, the TBMs will travel through a range of underground geology, most predominantly rock types Bunya Phyllite and Neranleigh Fernvale, which are common in Brisbanes
western suburbs. In unstable ground conditions, the gripper shoes are not used. In this instance, the TBM moves forward using parts of the TBM shield to push off against the previously
installed concrete segments. ) [79].

In order to excavate the hard rock mass, Transcity undertook drill and blast activities. Mechanized tunnelling method by means of two 12.4 m diameter double shield Tunnel
Boring Machines (TBMs) [79].
TBM data
Manufacturer Herrenknecht
TBM Type Two double shields TBM ( 12.34 meters)
N. jacks -
Tmax,total -
Tmax,jack -
Tsc,jack -
Back-up length -

Ref.#
No (Hybrid solution
used only in highly
loaded length of
Original solution - 40 - [80]
tunnel and also
in cross passage
locations)
The universal type ring with an 8+1 division has been designed with trapezoidal/rhomboidal shaped segments, waterproof gaskets, shear/tension connectors in the ring joint, spare
bolts and guiding rods in the longitudinal joints. All segments were fibre reinforced with steel and PP fibres and additional rebar reinforcement along the longitudinal joints to cope with
the splitting force.
For grouting the annulus gap was developed a cement based two component grout that has been injected through the tail shield in the lower section of the tunnel during the
regripping of the TBM and in the upper section through special cast in grout ports in the precast segments during excavation [80].

A.I.11 Harefield Gas tunnel
Project particulars
Location Harefield (United Kingdom)
Construction period 2009
Owner National grid
Designer(s) -
Contractor(s) -
Engineer(s) -
The Harefield to Southall contract is a new 18 km steel gas transmission pipeline to meet energy demand in west London which links existing AGIs. Some 2.6 km of pipeline was
installed in a pre-constructed tunnel and two thirds in an urban environment to avoid traffic sensitive roads.
Thickness 0.18 m
N . of segments
o
7 segments +1 key segment
Segment length/width 1.26/1
Connectors - [81]
Concrete mix design
Sand -
Coarse aggregate -
Coarse aggregate -
Water -
Admixtures -
London Blue Clay

Mechanised tunnelling method by means of a EPB-TBM.
TBM data
Manufacturer -
TBM Type -
N. jacks -
Tmax,total -
Tmax,jack -
Tsc,jack -
Back-up length -

Ref.#
Original solution - - - [81]
7
SynFRC (with macro-fibres)
Solution adopted - Lf = 42 mm, - [81]
ft,fiber=550 MPa
The lining was comprehensively designed and checked using an Finite Element Analysis software.
Low-stressed steel bars within the section were replaced with 7 kg/m3 of macro-synthetic fibre. [81].

A.I.12 Malaga rail tunnel
Project particulars
Location Malaga-Fuengirola (Spain)
Construction period August 2009
Owner Aeropuertos Espaoles y Navegacin Area (AENA)
Designer(s) -
Contractor(s) Acciona Infrastructures and Sando Construcciones
Engineer(s) -
The precast concrete lining comprises of concrete rings made up of seven segments giving a finished tunnel diameter of 9 m. The lining was designed with hybrid reinforcement
comprising steel reinforcement cage and structural macro synthetic fibre.
Thickness 0.32 m
No. of segments 6 segments+1 key segment
Segment length/width 4.38/1.5

[82]
Connectors -
Concrete mix design
Sand -
Coarse aggregate -
Coarse aggregate -
Water -
Admixtures - [82]
TBM passing beneath the river, the existing suburban rail tracks and the land where the second runway is being buit.

Mechanised tunnelling method by means of a TBM.
TBM data
TBM Type Earth pressure balance TBM Biznaga
N. jacks -
Tmax,total -
Tmax,jack -
Tsc,jack -
Back-up length -

Ref.#
5
SynFRC (macro-fibres)
Original solution Yes - [82]
Lf=48 mm
ft,fiber=550 MPa
Reinforcement options were carefully evaluated; it was decided to use 5 kg/m3 of macro-synthethic fibers in combination with traditional rebars.

A.I.13 Abu Hamour
Project particulars
Location Abu Hamour Drainage Tunnel, Qatar
Construction period 2015-2016
Owner -
Designer(s) Design and build Contract: Impregilo-COWI
Contractor(s) Salini-Impregilo
Engineer(s) - [83]
Abu Hamour (Musaimeer) Surface & Ground Water Drainage Tunnel is 9.5 km long. Integral to the project, 21 shafts will be built in order to facilitate inflows along its route. This
project was the first TBM mined tunnel with FRC in Doha - Qatar.
Boring diameter -
Ring type -
Thickness 0.25 m [83]
Concrete mix design
Special mix consisting of a triple blend concrete made by

ground granulated blast-furnace slag, ordinary portland [83]
cement and fly ash (GGBS + OPC + FA) suitable for -
harsh ground and groundwater conditions (chlorinated
environment and sulfate aggression).

Tunnelling challenges include the first ever tunnelling in Rus Formation (Chalky/Dolomitic Limestone and Chert) and about 5 km of mixed face condition (Limestone from Simsima
Formation and Midra Shale). The Abu Hamour Tunnel is located in a hot humid environment with high concentrations of chlorides and sulphates which are present in the ground and
groundwater, as well as in the storm water and dewatering the will flow through the tunnel. Chloride induced corrosion and sulphate attack are considered to be the principal deterioration
mechanisms that may influence the long term durability of concrete structures. Both chloride penetration and sulphate accumulation are accelerated by the cyclic wetting and drying of
the structural concrete.

The main tunnels will be constructed by two Herrenknecht EPB machines to be assembled in a launching shaft located in the middle of the tunnel alignment and will proceed in
opposite directions to receiving shafts at the western and eastern end of the tunnel alignment.
TBM data
TBM Type EPB
N. jacks -
Tmax,total -
Tmax,jack -
Tsc,jack -
Back-up length -

Ref.#
40
Original solution Yes SFRC 60/0.75, Lf/f=80, 40 [83]
ft,fibre>1500 MPa
The dimensional tolerances of the steel fibres comply with the European Standard EN 14889-1. A minimum design FRC class of 4c was required, according to Model Code
2010.
The original conceptual design achieved a 100-years design life and 50 years maintenance-free performance for the tunnel by applying HDPE liner on the intrados and epoxy
coating on the extrados. The design-build team proposed an alternative utilizing, among other things, steel fibre reinforcement, dosage rate 40 kg/mc, and special mix consisting
of a triple blend concrete made by ground granulated blast-furnace slag, ordinary portland cement and fly ash (GGBS + OPC + FA) suitable for harsh ground and groundwater
conditions (chlorinated environment and sulfate aggression).
The excavation of the Abu Hamour Drainage Tunnel is now completed. A design solution with segment reinforced by steel fibres only was successfully used.

A.I.14 Doha Metro Red North Line
Project particulars
Location Doha Metro Red North Line, Qatar
Construction period 2013 - 2018
Owner Qatar Railway
Designer(s) CIO JV (COWI-ITALFERR-ONEWORKS) [84]
Contractor(s) ISG JV (Salini Impregilo SK Galfar)
Engineer(s) Jacobs

The Doha Metro Red Line North Underground Project represents a portion of a Master Plan for a large mobility system promoted by Qatar under the scope of the National
Development Plan for 2030. The Red Line North starts from Msheireb station in the South to the Golf Course in the North. The contract includes the Design and Construction of
the following structures:
- 2 parallel tunnels having an approximate length of 11.4 km with an internal diameter of 6.17 m. In particular, the precast segments are made of Steel Fibre Reinforced
Concrete only (class 4c acc.to CEB-FIP Model Code 2010), except for the special rings where stainless steel cages have been used. The C40/50 concrete mix is enriched with
polypropylene fibres in order to achieve the prescribed fire resistance properties. The Tunnels will be provided with a cast in situ invert and side walls to accommodate the metro
track system.
- 22 Tunnel Cross Passages. These are excavated in NATM managing the groundwater with an extensive pre-grouting system. The structures are constructed with a cast in situ
final lining enveloped in compartmented injectable waterproofing system.
- Underground Stations including the shallow areas for the ventilation shafts and the relevant access structures. 1 Cut & Cover Structure, 2 Emergency Exits and 1 Tunnel
Ventilation Shaft. These have been excavated with various temporary support methodologies such us shotcrete lining, diaphragm walls in the areas next to skyscrapers, secant
and tangent piles and kingposts. Challenging dewatering activities have been implemented in all the excavation works requiring in some case the use of plastic walls to create a
water cut off. All the structures are provided with a compartmented post injectable waterproofing system and are mainly constituted by cast in situ concrete with high durability
and fire resistance requirements.
Overburden (min-max) 10.21 m 37 m
Thickness 0.3 m

6+1
(1 trapezoidal key segment
No. of segments
+ 5 parallelogram segments
+ 1trapezoidal counter key segment) [84]
Concrete mix design

OPC Type I (30% -132kg/m3), GGBS (65% - 286kg/m3),
Cement CEM I 52.5R
Microsilica (5% - 22kg/m3)
Sand Washed Natural Sand (800 kg/m3)
Coarse aggregate 20mm (577 kg/m3) [84]
Coarse aggregate 10mm (484 kg/m3)
Water 158 kg/m3
Admixtures HRWR (PCE) S/P Type F (4.4kg/m3)

The Red North Line is located in an environment with high concentrations of chlorides and sulphates (up to 6000mg/l) present in the soil and groundwater. The requirements to
the concrete mix i.e. max. water/cement ratio and min. cementitious content has been determined to ensure a sufficient sulphate resistant concrete as tested in accordance with
the German SVA method (max expansion of 0.5mm/m at 90days). The exposed geological formations in Qatar are all of Tertiary to Quaternary age. Local geological records a
20m to 25m thickness of Simsima Limestone overlying shales of the Midra Shale unit, clays and limestones of the Rus Formation. The Simsima Limestone is found from 0m to
9m below ground level, and in thickness up to 32m. The Simsima Limestone has been sub-divided into three sub-groups described by the degree of weathering. Weathered
Simsima Limestone: matrix supported crystalline dolomitic limestone (< 50%) embedded into very porous limestone and uncemented carbonate sand, silt and clay, moderately
to highly weathered. Less weathered Simsima limestone: bimodal grain supported crystalline dolomitic limestone (> 50%) with larger pockets and patches of porous limestone
and uncemented carbonate sand, silt and clay, slightly to moderately weathered. Simsima Limestone: (generally) moderately strong, fresh to moderately weathered bimodal
crystalline dolomitic limestone with pockets of softer material and some solution vugs. The Midra Shale is found with top at depths varying from 12m to 32m below ground level
and average thickness of 3.7m. A weak to moderately strong, slightly to highly weathered shale interbedded with dolomitic limestone. Russ Formation: A (generally) very weak
to moderately weak, slightly to highly weathered chalky and marly dolomitic limestone. Found with top at depths varying from 16m to 35m below ground level and extending to
great depth (up to 100m). This solid geology is covered by a layer of unconsolidated overburden of natural marine silts, sands with calcarenite horizons which in turn have been
recently (in the early 1970s) covered by a variable thickness of hydraulically placed fill material. Karstic features are common in Qatar [84].
Each of the TBMs for the Red Line North measures 7.1 m in diameter and 110 m in length with a max thrust pressure of 57.78MN.
TBM data
TBM Type EPB
N. jacks 38 (2 jacks act on each steel thrust shoes)
Tmax,total 57.78 MN
Tmax,jack 1.52 MN
Tsc,jack -
Back-up length 110 m

Ref.#
40
SFRC 50/0.75,
Lf/f=67,
ft,fibre>1500 MPa
Original solution - [84]
fL,m=6.34 MPa
fR1,m=7.85 MPa
fR3,m=9.0 MPa.
[20]
2
Solution 01 SynFRC (Synthetic Fibre Reinforced - [84]
Concrete, micro-fibres)
The dimensional tolerances of the steel fibres comply with the European Standard EN 14889-1. The steel fibres reinforced concrete shall be minimum type 4.0 c according to
CEB FIP Model Code 2010 classification. Stainless Steel Reinforcement (SSR) 160kg/m3 used only at cross passages and sensitive locations. With regards to the corrosion, it
is assumed that, for concrete reinforced with steel fibres, this may occur e.g. due to carbonation of the intrados surface which is limited to the near-surface area of the segments.
This localized corrosion of the steel fibres does not cause damage (cracking and/or spalling) of concrete and it is consequently not considered problematic for the entire required
service life of 120 years. On the basis of the above, no specific durability design is necessary with regard to corrosion of fibres. For the special segments the risk of reinforcement
corrosion is eliminated by using SSR as reinforcement. Thus, the durability design of the segmental lining is mainly determined by the risk of sulphate attack [84].
The excavation of the Red Line North Tunnels is now completed. A design solution with segment reinforced by steel fibres only was successfully used.

A.I.15 Valencia Metro Line 1: feasibility study
Project particulars
Location Valencia (VENEZUELA)
Construction period 2001-2006
Owner -
Designer(s) GEODATA
Contractor(s) Ghella
Engineer(s) - Perri, 2004 [85]
Line 1 of the Valencia Metro starts in the southern part from the Monumental station and proceeds northward under the Avenue Bolvar up to the Miranda station at the city
center. The total length is approx. 5 km, completely underground, with a small part built as an artificial tunnel, approx 0.5km long between the Monumental and Las Ferias
stations and the major part, from the north part of Las Ferias station, being a tunnel built with an EPB TBM, excavation diameter of 9.52 m. The configuration of the running
tunnel is single-tube, double-track. The project belongs to a mass transit system, an underground metro, with a volume of passengers of 35.000 per hour in each direction. The
design paid particular attention to the correct dimensioning of the electro-mechanical installations and the entranceexit of the stations in order to have an easy construction and
functionality for the passengers in relation to the expected traffic volume. 7 stations between the Las Ferias and Miranda stations the Palotal Santa Rosa Michelena Lara
Cedeo were built before the tunnel excavation, with an inverted cut and cover method. Line 1 will be completed with a second stage with 5 more stations connecting Guaparo
town in the metropolitan area and the Universidad area. The project includes there-modelling of the Avenue above the metro line (from Plaza de Toros to Avenue Bolvar Sur and
to the city centre). [86].
Total Tunnel Length 5 km
Thickness 0.40 m
No. of segments 4 segments+2 counter key segments, 1 key segment
Connectors Bolts in inclined socket. Perri, 2004 [85]
Concrete mix design
Sand -
Coarse aggregate -
Coarse aggregate -
Water -
Admixtures -
Tunnel in soil, which profile principally consists of of silty clay and clayey sand.

The tunnel is excavated with an EPB TBM, excavation diameter of 9.52 m.
TBM data
Manufacturer LOVAT
TBM Type EPB-Type Earth Pressure Balanced Tunnel Boring Machine
N. jacks 30
Tmax,total -
Tmax,jack -
Tsc,jack 2.365 MN (thrust shoes 710 x 110 mm)
Back-up length -

Ref.#
Reported in:
Original solution 76 - 76
Perri, 2004 [85]
40
SFRC 50/0.75,
Lf/f=67,
38
ft,fiber=1100 MPa
(in two chords Proposed by:
fIf,m=6.152 MPa
Solution 1 along 78 Plizzari et al. 2006
feq(0-0.6),m=6.098 MPa
the longer [87]
feq(0.6-3),m=5.289 MPa
segment sides).
fIf,k=3.448 MPa
feq(0-0.6),k=2.041 MPa
feq(0.6-3),k=1.516 MPa [71]
The solution 01 was proposed by Plizzari et al., 2006 [87] based on non-linear numerical analyses of thrust-phase (when the TBM pushing arms are acting of the last constructed
ring in order to guarantee the drill process). Several analyses were carried out by considering several reinforcement combinations (SFRC only, RC+SFRC RC only). Furthermore,
numerical analyses of the final stage (ground pressure acting on the lining) were carried out by also properly modelling the longitudinal joints. The final solution proposed was a
combination of traditional rebars concentrated in two chords and amount of 40 kg/m3 of steel fibres. The research was developed when the construction process of the tunnel
was already at an advanced stage. Hence, it was not possible to adopt this design solution.
The original design solution was adopted.

A.I.16 Brenner Base tunnel: feasibility study
Project particulars
Location Italy-Austria, Base tunnel from Innsbruck to Fortezza

Work is currently underway on the exploratory tunnel which
is being built as a preliminary measure for geological and
hydrogeological prospecting. This preliminary research
will help to minimize both construction costs and risks.
Construction period
Excavation of the pilot hole between chainage 0+000 and
chainage 10+400 to be bored by double shield TBM having
an excavation diameter of 6,30 metres. The first section of the
pilot hole (150 m) to be performed by drill and blast method.
Owner BBT Brenner Basistunnel BBT SE - Innsbruck (Austria)
Designer(s) -
Joint Venture made of Pizzarotti (Leader),
Condotte, SELI, Collini (Italy),
Contractor(s)
Bilfinger Beger, Alpine Mayreder, Jaeger Bau,
Beton Und Monierbau (Austria). [88]
Engineer(s) -
The Brenner Base Tunnel is a tunnel 55 km long between Italy and Austria. The project consists of two parallel railway tunnels and a central pilot hole. The latter was designed for
the application in mechanised tunnelling with a TBM doubles shield machine between chainage 0.000 and chainage 10+400 (for more details see Caratelli et al., 2011, [89]).
Total Tunnel Length 55 km
Boring diameter 6.3 m (pilot hole)
Overburden (min-max) 1300 m
Thickness 0.2 m
[75]
No. of segments 3 segments+1 key segment + 2 counter-key segments

No longitudinal devices are present between [89]
Connectors
the segments of the ring.
Concrete mechanical properties
RC segment
RC segments present an average compressive strength of 50 MPa.
FRC segment
The concrete matrix of SFRC was opportunely designed for enhancing the performance of the adopted steel fibres, characterised by diameter of 0.35 mm and a length of 30
mm and whose dosage was equal to about 40 kg/m3.
SFRC segments present an average compressive strength of 75 MPa.
The equivalent strength, adopted in the design process, was defined in agreement with the CNR-DT 204 [11] as the average stress evaluated for crack openings ranging
between 0.6 and 3 mm. This equivalent flexural post-cracking strength was 6.5 MPa.
The tunnel layout gets across ordinary granite (specific load =26.5 kN/m3, cohesion c=4000 kPa, friction angle =31, Young modulus E=14 GPa, poisson ratio =0.3), [89].

Mechanised tunnelling method with a TBM doubled shield machine, constructor SELI, Italy [89-75].
TBM data
Manufacturer SELI
TBM Type TBM doubled shield machine
N. jacks -
Tmax,total -
Tmax,jack 1.579 MN
Tsc,jack -
Back-up length -

Ref.#
Reported in:
Original solution 67 (n.d.) - 67 Caratelli et al. 2011,
[89]
40
SFRC 30/0.35,
Lf/f=86,
Proposed by:
ft,fiber=-
Solution 1 - 40 Caratelli et al. 2011,
feq(0-0.6),m=6.61 MPa
[89]
feq(0.6-3),m=6.29 MPa
(n.d., estim) [71]
Solution adopted -
The solution 01 was proposed by Caratelli et al., 2011 [89] based on experimental research. Full scale tests (segment type D) on both traditional reinforced concrete and fibre
reinforced elements have been performed. Bending tests were carried out in order to compare the behaviour of the segments under flexural actions, while point load tests were
developed with the aim of simulating the thrust force induced by the TBM, and the effect of load concentration and splitting phenomena. The tests results showed that, in this
peculiar application, the fibre reinforced concrete can substitute the traditional reinforcement.
In fact, the FRC elements tested under flexure exhibited a better behaviour in terms of cracking control with respect to traditional RC segment; the load related to the first crack
formation was higher, and the cracks opening were reduced.

>> Annex 2 - General tendencies emerging from the case studies
The case studies of FRC precast tunnel

segments in combination or not with
conventional rebars, previously reported
in Table 1, have been briefly analysed in
order to draw possible tendencies resulting
from twenty years of FRC practice in tunnel
linings.
Based on the data reported in Table 1,
the tunnel linings reinforced with fibre
reinforcement only are about 71%, and for
the remaining 29% a hybrid solution (fibres
+ conventional rebars) is used (Figure 29).
In Figure 30, the internal diameter Di of tunnel
linings reinforced by fibre only and by fibre Figure 29 : Distribution of the reinforcement solutions adopted in the tunnel lining case studies reported in Table 1.
and conventional rebars are shown. Based
on the collected case studies, the solution
with fibres only has been used with diameter
less than 8 m (Figure 30). The hybrid solution
has generally not been used for lining having
very small diameter (less than 4 m, Figure 30).
In Figure 31 and in Figure 32 the distribution
of Di is reported for each considered project.
In the case of Legacy Way, Airport link and
Onzberg-Shield fibre reinforcement only
was used for large diameter tunnels.
In Figure 33 the tunnel lining aspect ratio
(Di/h) of the reported case studies was briefly
analysed. As a reference value, the typical
tunnel aspect ratio suggested by many
recommendations [90], which is equal to
20, was assumed. It seems that the design
hybrid solution was used in presence of high Figure 30 : Distribution of the internal diameter (DI) in the tunnel lining case studies reported in Table 1.
slenderness (>20, Figure 33). In Figure 34
and in Figure 35 the distribution of Di/h is
reported for each considered project. It is
worthwhile noticing that Di/h is a simplified
parameter and it does not provide any
information on issues such as, for instance,
the TBM ram loads or the expected ground
conditions.
Finally, it is highlighted that no tendencies
concerning fibre content were analyses,
and this was done on purpose because, as
strongly underlined in the document, fibre
dosage is not a meaningful information for
design purposes, since it does not provide
any information on the post-cracking
residual strengths required by designers for
a specific tunnel lining.
Figure 31 : Distribution of the internal diameter (DI) in FRC tunnel lining case studies reported in Table 1

>> Annex 2 - General tendencies emerging from the case studies
Figure 32 : Distribution of the internal diameter (DI) in RC+FRC (hybrid, Figure 35. Distribution of the tunnel aspect ratio (DI/h) in RC+FRC (hybrid,
fibres+rebars) tunnel lining case studies reported in Table 1. fibres+rebars) tunnel lining case studies reported in Table 1.
Figure 33 : Distribution of the tunnel aspect ratio (DI/h) in the tunnel lining case studies reported in Table 1.
Figure 34. Distribution of the tunnel aspect ratio (Di/h) in FRC tunnel lining case studies reported in Table 1

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[54] Gilbert, R.I., Bernard, E.S. 2015. Time-dependent Chapter 8 of the book: Construction methodologies and [86] GEODATA website, www.geodata.it.
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longrine 04 90 14 48 48 - (21373 - 04/16)
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Email : [email protected] - Web : www.ita-aites.org

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Twenty Years of frc Tunnel Segments Practice :

Lessons Learnt and Proposed Design Principles

ITA Working Group 2

N ISBN: 978-2-970 1013-5-2 ITA REPORT n16 / april 2016

21373-ITA-REPORT-16-WG2.indd 1 13/05/16 10:07

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ITA Working Group 2

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4 ITA Working Group 2 - Research

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Group members Mitew-Czayewska M.,

Hurt J., Elena Chiriotti

Leca E., Tutor

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Annular gap : Fire spalling of concrete : Sealing system :

6 ITA Working Group 2 - Research

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Tunnel boring machine (TBM) :

Tunnel lining aspect ratio :

Tunnel segment aspect ratio :

Un-even supports or non-smooth

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As Cross-sectional area of conventional steel reinforcing bar in

8 ITA Working Group 2 - Research

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FRC Fibre Reinforced Concrete;

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10.3 Constitutive laws at Serviceability Limit State (SLS). ..............................................................................20

12.3 Storage of segments.......................................................................................................................3 0

12.4 Transportation and positioning of segments by erector..........................................................................3 0

12.6 Ring behaviour of the tunnel lining during grouting process.....................................................................3 1

12.8 Ring behaviour at the final stage........................................................................................................3 2

10 ITA Working Group 2 - Research

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Onzberg-Shield 2003 Switzerland Railway 11.4 0.40 28.5 SFRC 60 0.76% No

Metropolitan Expressway Central Circular

12 ITA Working Group 2 - Research

21373-ITA-REPORT-16-WG2.indd 12 13/05/16 10:07

Wehrhahn 2014 Germany Subway 8.3 0.30 27.7 SFRC 30 0.38% No

Abatemarco - Italy Water Supply 3.5 0.20 17.5 SFRC 40 0.51% No

N.A.: Not available.

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14 ITA Working Group 2 - Research

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16 ITA Working Group 2 - Research

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FRC precast tunnel segments, an early

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18 ITA Working Group 2 - Research

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According to fib Model Code 2010 [9], fibre

20 ITA Working Group 2 - Research

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The design process of segmental tunnel 11.1 General design aspects u

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In order to evaluate the maximum tensile

As Cross-sectional area of conventional steel reinforcing bar in