CHAPTER 2

Table of Contents

Getting Started

Running Python Interpreter

Python comes with an interactive interpreter. When you type python in your shell or command prompt, the
python interpreter becomes active with a >>> prompt and waits for your commands.
$ python
Python 2.7.1 (r271:86832, Mar 17 2011, 07:02:35)
[GCC 4.2.1 (Apple Inc. build 5664)] on darwin
Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
>>>

Now you can type any valid python expression at the prompt. python reads the typed expression, evaluates it and
prints the result.
>>> 42
42
>>> 4 + 2
6

Problem 1: Open a new Python interpreter and use it to find the value of 2 + 3.

Running Python Scripts

Open your text editor, type the following text and save it as hello.py.
print "hello, world!"

And run this program by calling python hello.py. Make sure you change to the directory where you saved
the file before doing it.
anand@bodhi ~$ python hello.py
hello, world!
anand@bodhi ~$

Text after # character in any line is considered as comment.

# This is helloworld program
# run this as:
# python hello.py
print "hello, world!"

Problem 2: Create a python script to print hello, world! four times.

Problem 3: Create a python script with the following text and see the output.

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1 + 2

If it doesnt print anything, what changes can you make to the program to print the value?

Assignments

One of the building blocks of programming is associating a name to a value. This is called assignment. The
associated name is usually called a variable.
>>> x = 4
>>> x * x
16

In this example x is a variable and its value is 4.

If you try to use a name that is not associated with any value, python gives an error message.
>>> foo
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
NameError: name 'foo' is not defined
>>> foo = 4
>>> foo
4

If you re-assign a different value to an existing variable, the new value overwrites the old value.
>>> x = 4
>>> x
4
>>> x = 'hello'
>>> x
'hello'

It is possible to do multiple assignments at once.

>>> a, b = 1, 2
>>> a
1
>>> b
2
>>> a + b
3

Swapping values of 2 variables in python is very simple.

>>> a, b = 1, 2
>>> a, b = b, a
>>> a
2
>>> b
1

When executing assignments, python evaluates the right hand side first and then assigns those values to the vari-
ables specified in the left hand side.
Problem 4: What will be output of the following program.
x = 4
y = x + 1
x = 2
print x, y

Problem 5: What will be the output of the following program.

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x, y = 2, 6
x, y = y, x + 2
print x, y

Problem 6: What will be the output of the following program.

a, b = 2, 3
c, b = a, c + 1
print a, b, c

Numbers

We already know how to work with numbers.

>>> 42
42
>>> 4 + 2
6

Python also supports decimal numbers.

>>> 4.2
4.2
>>> 4.2 + 2.3
6.5

Python supports the following operators on numbers.

+ addition
- subtraction
* multiplication
/ division
** exponent
% remainder
Lets try them on integers.
>>> 7 + 2
9
>>> 7 - 2
5
>>> 7 * 2
14
>>> 7 / 2
3
>>> 7 ** 2
49
>>> 7 % 2
1

If you notice, the result 7 / 2 is 3 not 3.5. It is because the / operator when working on integers, produces
only an integer. Lets see what happens when we try it with decimal numbers:
>>> 7.0 / 2.0
3.5
>>> 7.0 / 2
3.5
>>> 7 / 2.0
3.5

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The operators can be combined.

>>> 7 + 2 + 5 - 3
11
>>> 2 * 3 + 4
10

It is important to understand how these compound expressions are evaluated. The operators have precedence, a
kind of priority that determines which operator is applied first. Among the numerical operators, the precedence of
operators is as follows, from low precedence to high.
+, -
*, /, %
**
When we compute 2 + 3 * 4, 3 * 4 is computed first as the precedence of * is higher than + and then the
result is added to 2.
>>> 2 + 3 * 4
14

We can use parenthesis to specify the explicit groups.

>>> (2 + 3) * 4
20

All the operators except ** are left-associcate, that means that the application of the operators starts from left to
right.
1 + 2 + 3 * 4 + 5

3 + 3 * 4 + 5

3 + 12 + 5

15 + 5

20

Strings

Strings what you use to represent text.

Strings are a sequence of characters, enclosed in single quotes or double quotes.
>>> x = "hello"
>>> y = 'world'
>>> print x, y
hello world

There is difference between single quotes and double quotes, they can used interchangebly.
Multi-line strings can be written using three single quotes or three double quotes.
x = """This is a multi-line string
written in
three lines."""
print x

y = '''multi-line strings can be written

using three single quote characters as well.
The string can contain 'single quotes' or "double quotes"
in side it.'''
print y

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Functions

Just like a value can be associated with a name, a piece of logic can also be associated with a name by defining a
function.
>>> def square(x):
... return x * x
...
>>> square(5)
25

The body of the function is indented. Indentation is the Pythons way of grouping statements.
The ... is the secondary prompt, which the Python interpreter uses to denote that it is expecting some more
input.
The functions can be used in any expressions.
>>> square(2) + square(3)
13
>>> square(square(3))
81

Existing functions can be used in creating new functions.

>>> def sum_of_squares(x, y):
... return square(x) + square(y)
...
>>> sum_of_squares(2, 3)
13

Functions are just like other values, they can assigned, passed as arguments to other functions etc.
>>> f = square
>>> f(4)
16

>>> def fxy(f, x, y):

... return f(x) + f(y)
...
>>> fxy(square, 2, 3)
13

It is important to understand, the scope of the variables used in functions.

Lets look at an example.
x = 0
y = 0
def incr(x):
y = x + 1
return y
incr(5)
print x, y

Variables assigned in a function, including the arguments are called the local variables to the function. The
variables defined in the top-level are called global variables.
Changing the values of x and y inside the function incr wont effect the values of global x and y.
But, we can use the values of the global variables.
pi = 3.14
def area(r):
return pi * r * r

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When Python sees use of a variable not defined locally, it tries to find a global variable with that name.
However, you have to explicitly declare a variable as global to modify it.
numcalls = 0
def square(x):
global numcalls
numcalls = numcalls + 1
return x * x

Problem 7: How many multiplications are performed when each of the following lines of code is executed?
print square(5)
print square(2*5)

Problem 8: What will be the output of the following program?

x = 1
def f():
return x
print x
print f()

Problem 9: What will be the output of the following program?

x = 1
def f():
x = 2
return x
print x
print f()
print x

Problem 10: What will be the output of the following program?

x = 1
def f():
y = x
x = 2
return x + y
print x
print f()
print x

Problem 11: What will be the output of the following program?

x = 2
def f(a):
x = a * a
return x
y = f(3)
print x, y

Functions can be called with keyword arguments.

>>> def difference(x, y):
... return x - y
...
>>> difference(5, 2)
3
>>> difference(x=5, y=2)
3
>>> difference(5, y=2)
3
>>> difference(y=2, x=5)
3

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And some arguments can have default values.

>>> def increment(x, amount=1):
... return x + amount
...
>>> increment(10)
11
>>> increment(10, 5)
15
>>> increment(10, amount=2)
12

There is another way of creating functions, using the lambda operator.

>>> cube = lambda x: x ** 3
>>> fxy(cube, 2, 3)
35
>>> fxy(lambda x: x ** 3, 2, 3)
35

Notice that unlike function defination, lambda doesnt need a return. The body of the lambda is a single
expression.
The lambda operator becomes handy when writing small functions to be passed as arguments etc. Well see
more of it as we get into solving more serious problems.

Built-in Functions

Python provides some useful built-in functions.

>>> min(2, 3)
2
>>> max(3, 4)
4

The built-in function len computes length of a string.

>>> len("helloworld")
10

The built-in function int converts string to ingeter and built-in function str converts integers and other type of
objects to strings.
>>> int("50")
50
>>> str(123)
"123"

Problem 12: Write a function count_digits to find number of digits in the given number.
>>> count_digits(5)
1
>>> count_digits(12345)
5

Methods

Methods are special kind of functions that work on an object.

For example, upper is a method available on string objects.
>>> x = "hello"
>>> print x.upper()
HELLO

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As already mentioned, methods are also functions. They can be assigned to other variables can be called separately.
>>> f = x.upper
>>> print f()
HELLO

Problem 13: Write a function istrcmp to compare two strings, ignoring the case.
>>> istrcmp('python', 'Python')
True
>>> istrcmp('LaTeX', 'Latex')
True
>>> istrcmp('a', 'b')
False

Conditional Expressions

Python provides various operators for comparing values. The result of a comparison is a boolean value, either
True or False.
>>> 2 < 3
False
>>> 2 > 3
True

Here is the list of available conditional operators.

== equal to
!= not equal to
< less than
> greater than
<= less than or equal to
>= greater than or equal to
It is even possible to combine these operators.
>>> x = 5
>>> 2 < x < 10
True
>>> 2 < 3 < 4 < 5 < 6
True

The conditional operators work even on strings - the ordering being the lexical order.
>>> "python" > "perl"
True
>>> "python" > "java"
True

There are few logical operators to combine boolean values.

a and b is True only if both a and b are True.
a or b is True if either a or b is True.
not a is True only if a is False.
>>> True and True
True
>>> True and False
False
>>> 2 < 3 and 5 < 4

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False
>>> 2 < 3 or 5 < 4
True

Problem 14: What will be output of the following program?

print 2 < 3 and 3 > 1
print 2 < 3 or 3 > 1
print 2 < 3 or not 3 > 1
print 2 < 3 and not 3 > 1

Problem 15: What will be output of the following program?

x = 4
y = 5
p = x < y or x < z
print p

Problem 16: What will be output of the following program?

True, False = False, True
print True, False
print 2 < 3

The if statement

The if statement is used to execute a piece of code only when a boolean expression is true.
>>> x = 42
>>> if x % 2 == 0: print 'even'
even
>>>

In this example, print even is executed only when x % 2 == 0 is True.

The code associated with if can be written as a separate indented block of code, which is often the case when
there is more than one statement to be executed.
>>> if x % 2 == 0:
... print 'even'
...
even
>>>

The if statement can have optional else clause, which is executed when the boolean expression is False.
>>> x = 3
>>> if x % 2 == 0:
... print 'even'
... else:
... print 'odd'
...
odd
>>>

The if statement can have optional elif clauses when there are more conditions to be checked. The elif
keyword is short for else if, and is useful to avoid excessive indentation.
>>> x = 42
>>> if x < 10:
... print 'one digit number'
... elif x < 100:
... print 'two digit number'
... else:

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... print 'big number'

...
two digit number
>>>

Problem 17: What happens when the following code is executed? Will it give any error? Explain the reasons.
x = 2
if x == 2:
print x
else:
print y

Problem 18: What happens the following code is executed? Will it give any error? Explain the reasons.
x = 2
if x == 2:
print x
else:
x +

Lists

Lists are one of the great datastructures in Python. We are going to learn a little bit about lists now. Basic
knowledge of lists is requrired to be able to solve some problems that we want to solve in this chapter.
Here is a list of numbers.
>>> x = [1, 2, 3]

And here is a list of strings.

>>> x = ["hello", "world"]

List can be heterogeneous. Here is a list containings integers, strings and another list.
>>> x = [1, 2, "hello", "world", ["another", "list"]]

The built-in function len works for lists as well.

>>> x = [1, 2, 3]
>>> len(x)
3

The [] operator is used to access individual elements of a list.

>>> x = [1, 2, 3]
>>> x[1]
2
>>> x[1] = 4
>>> x[1]
4

The first element is indexed with 0, second with 1 and so on.

Well learn more about lists in the next chapter.

Modules

Modules are libraries in Python. Python ships with many standard library modules.
A module can be imported using the import statement.
Lets look at time module for example:

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>>> import time

>>> time.asctime()
'Tue Sep 11 21:42:06 2012'

The asctime function from the time module returns the current time of the system as a string.
The sys module provides access to the list of arguments passed to the program, among the other things.
The sys.argv variable contains the list of arguments passed to the program. As a convention, the first element
of that list is the name of the program.
Lets look at the following program echo.py that prints the first argument passed to it.
import sys
print sys.argv[1]

Lets try running it.

$ python echo.py hello
hello
$ python echo.py hello world
hello

There are many more interesting modules in the standard library. Well learn more about them in the coming
chapters.
Problem 19: Write a program add.py that takes 2 numbers as command line arguments and prints its sum.
$ python add.py 3 5
8
$ python add.py 2 9
11

Working with Data

Lists

Weve already seen quick introduction to lists in the previous chapter.

>>> [1, 2, 3, 4]
[1, 2, 3, 4]
>>> ["hello", "world"]
["hello", "world"]
>>> [0, 1.5, "hello"]
[0, 1.5, "hello"]
>>> [0, 1.5, "hello"]
[0, 1.5, "hello"]

A List can contain another list as member.

>>> a = [1, 2]
>>> b = [1.5, 2, a]
>>> b
[1.5, 2, [1, 2]]

The built-in function range can be used to create a list of integers.

>>> range(4)
[0, 1, 2, 3]
>>> range(3, 6)
[3, 4, 5]
>>> range(2, 10, 3)
[2, 5, 8]

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The built-in function len can be used to find the length of a list.
>>> a = [1, 2, 3, 4]
>>> len(a)
4

The + and * operators work even on lists.

>>> a = [1, 2, 3]
>>> b = [4, 5]
>>> a + b
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
>>> b * 3
[4, 5, 4, 5, 4, 5]

List can be indexed to get individual entries. Value of index can go from 0 to (length of list - 1).
>>> x = [1, 2]
>>> x[0]
1
>>> x[1]
2

When a wrong index is used, python gives an error.

>>> x = [1, 2, 3, 4]
>>> x[6]
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
IndexError: list index out of range

Negative indices can be used to index the list from right.

>>> x = [1, 2, 3, 4]
>>> x[-1]
4
>>> x [-2]
3

We can use list slicing to get part of a list.

>>> x = [1, 2, 3, 4]
>>> x[0:2]
[1, 2]
>>> x[1:4]
[2, 3, 4]

Even negative indices can be used in slicing. For example, the following examples strips the last element from the
list.
>>> x[0:-1]
[1, 2, 3]

Slice indices have useful defaults; an omitted first index defaults to zero, an omitted second index defaults to the
size of the list being sliced.
>>> x = [1, 2, 3, 4]
>>> a[:2]
[1, 2]
>>> a[2:]
[3, 4]
>>> a[:]
[1, 2, 3, 4]

An optional third index can be used to specify the increment, which defaults to 1.

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>>> x = range(10)
>>> x
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
>>> x[0:6:2]
[0, 2, 4]

We can reverse a list, just by providing -1 for increment.

>>> x[::-1]
[9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0]

List members can be modified by assignment.

>>> x = [1, 2, 3, 4]
>>> x[1] = 5
>>> x
[1, 5, 3, 4]

Presence of a key in a list can be tested using in operator.

>>> x = [1, 2, 3, 4]
>>> 2 in x
True
>>> 10 in x
False

Values can be appended to a list by calling append method on list. A method is just like a function, but it is
associated with an object and can access that object when it is called. We will learn more about methods when we
study classes.
>>> a = [1, 2]
>>> a.append(3)
>>> a
[1, 2, 3]

Problem 20: What will be the output of the following program?

x = [0, 1, [2]]
x[2][0] = 3
print x
x[2].append(4)
print x
x[2] = 2
print x

The for Statement

Python provides for statement to iterate over a list. A for statement executes the specified block of code for
every element in a list.
for x in [1, 2, 3, 4]:
print x

for i in range(10):
print i, i*i, i*i*i

The built-in function zip takes two lists and returns list of pairs.
>>> zip(["a", "b", "c"], [1, 2, 3])
[('a', 1), ('b', 2), ('c', 3)]

It is handy when we want to iterate over two lists together.

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names = ["a", "b", "c"]

values = [1, 2, 3]
for name, value in zip(names, values):
print name, value

Problem 21: Python has a built-in function sum to find sum of all elements of a list. Provide an implementation
for sum.
>>> sum([1, 2, 3])
>>> 6

Problem 22: What happens when the above sum function is called with a list of strings? Can you make your sum
function work for a list of strings as well.
>>> sum(["hello", "world"])
"helloworld"
>>> sum(["aa", "bb", "cc"])
"aabbcc"

Problem 23: Implement a function product, to compute product of a list of numbers.

>>> product([1, 2, 3])
6

Problem 24: Write a function factorial to compute factorial of a number. Can you use the product function
defined in the previous example to compute factorial?
>>> factorial(4)
24

Problem 25: Write a function reverse to reverse a list. Can you do this without using list slicing?
>>> reverse([1, 2, 3, 4])
[4, 3, 2, 1]
>>> reverse(reverse([1, 2, 3, 4]))
[1, 2, 3, 4]

Problem 26: Python has built-in functions min and max to compute minimum and maximum of a given list.
Provide an implementation for these functions. What happens when you call your min and max functions with a
list of strings?
Problem 27: Cumulative sum of a list [a, b, c, ...] is defined as [a, a+b, a+b+c, ...]. Write a
function cumulative_sum to compute cumulative sum of a list. Does your implementation work for a list of
strings?
>>> cumulative_sum([1, 2, 3, 4])
[1, 3, 6, 10]
>>> cumulative_sum([4, 3, 2, 1])
[4, 7, 9, 10]

Problem 28: Write a function cumulative_product to compute cumulative product of a list of numbers.
>>> cumulative_product([1, 2, 3, 4])
[1, 2, 6, 24]
>>> cumulative_product([4, 3, 2, 1])
[4, 12, 24, 24]

Problem 29: Write a function unique to find all the unique elements of a list.
>>> unique([1, 2, 1, 3, 2, 5])
[1, 2, 3, 5]

Problem 30: Write a function dups to find all duplicates in the list.

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>>> dups([1, 2, 1, 3, 2, 5])

[1, 2]

Problem 31: Write a function group(list, size) that take a list and splits into smaller lists of given size.
>>> group([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9], 3)
[[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], [7, 8, 9]]
>>> group([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9], 4)
[[1, 2, 3, 4], [5, 6, 7, 8], [9]]

Sorting Lists

The sort method sorts a list in place.

>>> a = [2, 10, 4, 3, 7]
>>> a.sort()
>>> a
[2, 3, 4, 7 10]

The built-in function sorted returns a new sorted list without modifying the source list.
>>> a = [4, 3, 5, 9, 2]
>>> sorted(a)
[2, 3, 4, 5, 9]
>>> a
[4, 3, 5, 9, 2]

The behavior of sort method and sorted function is exactly same except that sorted returns a new list instead
of modifying the given list.
The sort method works even when the list has different types of objects and even lists.
>>> a = ["hello", 1, "world", 45, 2]
>>> a.sort()
>>> a
[1, 2, 45, 'hello', 'world']
>>> a = [[2, 3], [1, 6]]
>>> a.sort()
>>> a
[[1, 6], [2, 3]]

We can optionally specify a function as sort key.

>>> a = [[2, 3], [4, 6], [6, 1]]
>>> a.sort(key=lambda x: x[1])
>>> a
[[6, 1], [2, 3], [4 6]]

This sorts all the elements of the list based on the value of second element of each entry.
Problem 32: Write a function lensort to sort a list of strings based on length.
>>> lensort(['python', 'perl', 'java', 'c', 'haskell', 'ruby'])
['c', 'perl', 'java', 'ruby', 'python', 'haskell']

Problem 33: Improve the unique function written in previous problems to take an optional key function as argu-
ment and use the return value of the key function to check for uniqueness.
>>> unique(["python", "java", "Python", "Java"], key=lambda s: s.lower())
["python", "java"]

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Tuples

Tuple is a sequence type just like list, but it is immutable. A tuple consists of a number of values separated by
commas.
>>> a = (1, 2, 3)
>>> a[0]
1

The enclosing braces are optional.

>>> a = 1, 2, 3
>>> a[0]
1

The built-in function len and slicing works on tuples too.

>>> len(a)
3
>>> a[1:]
2, 3

Since parenthesis are also used for grouping, tuples with a single value are represented with an additional comma.
>>> a = (1)
>> a
1
>>> b = (1,)
>>> b
(1,)
>>> b[0]
1

Sets

Sets are unordered collection of unique elements.

>>> x = set([3, 1, 2, 1])
set([1, 2, 3])

Python 2.7 introduced a new way of writing sets.

>>> x = {3, 1, 2, 1}
set([1, 2, 3])

New elements can be added to a set using the add method.

>>> x = set([1, 2, 3])
>>> x.add(4)
>>> x
set([1, 2, 3, 4])

Just like lists, the existance of an element can be checked using the in operator. However, this operation is faster
in sets compared to lists.
>>> x = set([1, 2, 3])
>>> 1 in x
True
>>> 5 in x
False

Problem 34: Reimplement the unique function implemented in the earlier examples using sets.

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Strings

Strings also behave like lists in many ways. Length of a string can be found using built-in function len.
>>> len("abrakadabra")
11

Indexing and slicing on strings behave similar to that of lists.

>>> a = "helloworld"
>>> a[1]
'e'
>>> a[-2]
'l'
>>> a[1:5]
"ello"
>>> a[:5]
"hello"
>>> a[5:]
"world"
>>> a[-2:]
'ld'
>>> a[:-2]
'hellowor'
>>> a[::-1]
'dlrowolleh'

The in operator can be used to check if a string is present in another string.

>>> 'hell' in 'hello'
True
>>> 'full' in 'hello'
False
>>> 'el' in 'hello'
True

There are many useful methods on strings.

The split method splits a string using a delimiter. If no delimiter is specified, it uses any whitespace char as
delimiter.
>>> "hello world".split()
['hello', 'world']
>>> "a,b,c".split(',')
['a', 'b', 'c']

The join method joins a list of strings.

>>> " ".join(['hello', 'world'])
'hello world'
>>> ','.join(['a', 'b', 'c'])

The strip method returns a copy of the given string with leading and trailing whitespace removed. Optionally a
string can be passed as argument to remove characters from that string instead of whitespace.
>>> ' hello world\n'.strip()
'hello world'
>>> 'abcdefgh'.strip('abdh')
'cdefg'

Python supports formatting values into strings. Although this can include very complicated expressions, the most
basic usage is to insert values into a string with the %s placeholder.
>>> a = 'hello'
>>> b = 'python'

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>>> "%s %s" % (a, b)

'hello python'
>>> 'Chapter %d: %s' % (2, 'Data Structures')
'Chapter 2: Data Structures'

Problem 35: Write a function extsort to sort a list of files based on extension.
>>> extsort(['a.c', 'a.py', 'b.py', 'bar.txt', 'foo.txt', 'x.c'])
['a.c', 'x.c', 'a.py', 'b.py', 'bar.txt', 'foo.txt']

Working With Files

Python provides a built-in function open to open a file, which returns a file object.
f = open('foo.txt', 'r') # open a file in read mode
f = open('foo.txt', 'w') # open a file in write mode
f = open('foo.txt', 'a') # open a file in append mode

The second argument to open is optional, which defaults to r when not specified.
Unix does not distinguish binary files from text files but windows does. On windows rb, wb, ab should
be used to open a binary file in read, write and append mode respectively.
Easiest way to read contents of a file is by using the read method.
>>> open('foo.txt').read()
'first line\nsecond line\nlast line\n'

Contents of a file can be read line-wise using readline and readlines methods. The readline method
returns empty string when there is nothing more to read in a file.
>>> open('foo.txt').readlines()
['first line\n', 'second line\n', 'last line\n']
>>> f = open('foo.txt')
>>> f.readline()
'first line\n'
>>> f.readline()
'second line\n'
>>> f.readline()
'last line\n'
>>> f.readline()
''

The write method is used to write data to a file opened in write or append mode.
>>> f = open('foo.txt', 'w')
>>> f.write('a\nb\nc')
>>> f.close()

>>> f.open('foo.txt', 'a')

>>> f.write('d\n')
>>> f.close()

The writelines method is convenient to use when the data is available as a list of lines.
>>> f = open('foo.txt')
>>> f.writelines(['a\n', 'b\n', 'c\n'])
>>> f.close()

Example: Word Count

Lets try to compute the number of characters, words and lines in a file.

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Number of characters in a file is same as the length of its contents.

def charcount(filename):
return len(open(filename).read())

Number of words in a file can be found by splitting the contents of the file.
def wordcount(filename):
return len(open(filename).read().split())

Number of lines in a file can be found from readlines method.

def linecount(filename):
return len(open(filename).readlines())

Problem 36: Write a program reverse.py to print lines of a file in reverse order.
$ cat she.txt
She sells seashells on the seashore;
The shells that she sells are seashells I'm sure.
So if she sells seashells on the seashore,
I'm sure that the shells are seashore shells.

$ python reverse.py she.txt

I'm sure that the shells are seashore shells.
So if she sells seashells on the seashore,
The shells that she sells are seashells I'm sure.
She sells seashells on the seashore;

Problem 37: Write a program to print each line of a file in reverse order.
Problem 38: Implement unix commands head and tail. The head and tail commands take a file as argu-
ment and prints its first and last 10 lines of the file respectively.
Problem 39: Implement unix command grep. The grep command takes a string and a file as arguments and
prints all lines in the file which contain the specified string.
$ python grep.py she.txt sure
The shells that she sells are seashells I'm sure.
I'm sure that the shells are seashore shells.

Problem 40: Write a program wrap.py that takes filename and width as aruguments and wraps the lines longer
than width.
$ python wrap.py she.txt 30
I'm sure that the shells are s
eashore shells.
So if she sells seashells on t
he seashore,
The shells that she sells are
seashells I'm sure.
She sells seashells on the sea
shore;

Problem 41: The above wrap program is not so nice because it is breaking the line at middle of any word. Can
you write a new program wordwrap.py that works like wrap.py, but breaks the line only at the word boundaries?
$ python wordwrap.py she.txt 30
I'm sure that the shells are
seashore shells.
So if she sells seashells on
the seashore,
The shells that she sells are
seashells I'm sure.
She sells seashells on the
seashore;

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Problem 42: Write a program center_align.py to center align all lines in the given file.
$ python center_align.py she.txt
I'm sure that the shells are seashore shells.
So if she sells seashells on the seashore,
The shells that she sells are seashells I'm sure.
She sells seashells on the seashore;

List Comprehensions

List Comprehensions provide a concise way of creating lists. Many times a complex task can be modelled in a
single line.
Here are some simple examples for transforming a list.
>>> a = range(10)
>>> a
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
>>> [x for x in a]
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
>>> [x*x for x in a]
[0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]
>>> [x+1 for x in a]
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]

It is also possible to filter a list using if inside a list comprehension.

>>> a = range(10)
>>> [x for x in a if x % 2 == 0]
[0, 2, 4, 6, 8]
>>> [x*x for x in a if x%2 == 0]
[0, 4, 8, 36, 64]

It is possible to iterate over multiple lists using the built-in function zip.
>>> a = [1, 2, 3, 4]
>>> b = [2, 3, 5, 7]
>>> zip(a, b)
[(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 5), (4, 7)]
>>> [x+y for x, y in zip(a, b)]
[3, 5, 8, 11]

we can use multiple for clauses in single list comprehension.

>>> [(x, y) for x in range(5) for y in range(5) if (x+y)%2 == 0]
[(0, 0), (0, 2), (0, 4), (1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 0), (2, 2), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 3), (4, 0), (4, 2), (

>>> [(x, y) for x in range(5) for y in range(5) if (x+y)%2 == 0 and x != y]

[(0, 2), (0, 4), (1, 3), (2, 0), (2, 4), (3, 1), (4, 0), (4, 2)]

>>> [(x, y) for x in range(5) for y in range(x) if (x+y)%2 == 0]

[(2, 0), (3, 1), (4, 0), (4, 2)]

The following example finds all Pythagorean triplets using numbers below 25. (x, y, z) is a called
pythagorean triplet if x*x + y*y == z*z.
>>> n = 25
>>> [(x, y, z) for x in range(1, n) for y in range(x, n) for z in range(y, n) if x*x + y*y == z*z]
[(3, 4, 5), (5, 12, 13), (6, 8, 10), (8, 15, 17), (9, 12, 15), (12, 16, 20)]

Problem 43: Provide an implementation for zip function using list comprehensions.
>>> zip([1, 2, 3], ["a", "b", "c"])
[(1, "a"), (2, "b"), (3, "c")]

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Problem 44: Python provides a built-in function map that applies a function to each element of a list. Provide an
implementation for map using list comprehensions.
>>> def square(x): return x * x
...
>>> map(square, range(5))
[0, 1, 4, 9, 16]

Problem 45: Python provides a built-in function filter(f, a) that returns items of the list a for which
f(item) returns true. Provide an implementation for filter using list comprehensions.
>>> def even(x): return x %2 == 0
...
>>> filter(even, range(10))
[0, 2, 4, 6, 8]

Problem 46: Write a function triplets that takes a number n as argument and returns a list of triplets such
that sum of first two elements of the triplet equals the third element using numbers below n. Please note that (a,
b, c) and (b, a, c) represent same triplet.
>>> triplets(5)
[(1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 3), (1, 3, 4), (2, 2, 4)]

Problem 47: Write a function enumerate that takes a list and returns a list of tuples containing
(index,item) for each item in the list.
>>> enumerate(["a", "b", "c"])
[(0, "a"), (1, "b"), (2, "c")]
>>> for index, value in enumerate(["a", "b", "c"]):
... print index, value
0 a
1 b
2 c

Problem 48: Write a function array to create an 2-dimensional array. The function should take both dimensions
as arguments. Value of each element can be initialized to None:
>>> a = array(2, 3)
>>> a
[[None, None, None], [None, None, None]]
>>> a[0][0] = 5
[[5, None, None], [None, None, None]]

Problem 49: Write a python function parse_csv to parse csv (comma separated values) files.
>>> print open('a.csv').read()
a,b,c
1,2,3
2,3,4
3,4,5
>>> parse_csv('a.csv')
[['a', 'b', 'c'], ['1', '2', '3'], ['2', '3', '4'], ['3', '4', '5']]

Problem 50: Generalize the above implementation of csv parser to support any delimiter and comments.
>>> print open('a.txt').read()
# elements are separated by ! and comment indicator is #
a!b!c
1!2!3
2!3!4
3!4!5
>>> parse('a.txt', '!', '#')
[['a', 'b', 'c'], ['1', '2', '3'], ['2', '3', '4'], ['3', '4', '5']]

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Problem 51: Write a function mutate to compute all words generated by a single mutation on a given word. A
mutation is defined as inserting a character, deleting a character, replacing a character, or swapping 2 consecutive
characters in a string. For simplicity consider only letters from a to z.
>>> words = mutate('hello')
>>> 'helo' in words
True
>>> 'cello' in words
True
>>> 'helol' in words
True

Problem 52: Write a function nearly_equal to test whether two strings are nearly equal. Two strings a and
b are nearly equal when a can be generated by a single mutation on b.
>>> nearly_equal('python', 'perl')
False
>>> nearly_equal('perl', 'pearl')
True
>>> nearly_equal('python', 'jython')
True
>>> nearly_equal('man', 'woman')
False

Dictionaries

Dictionaries are like lists, but they can be indexed with non integer keys also. Unlike lists, dictionaries are not
ordered.
>>> a = {'x': 1, 'y': 2, 'z': 3}
>>> a['x']
1
>>> a['z']
3
>>> b = {}
>>> b['x'] = 2
>>> b[2] = 'foo'
>>> b[(1, 2)] = 3
>>> b
{(1, 2): 3, 'x': 2, 2: 'foo'}

The del keyword can be used to delete an item from a dictionary.

>>> a = {'x': 1, 'y': 2, 'z': 3}
>>> del a['x']
>>> a
{'y': 2, 'z': 3}

The keys method returns all keys in a dictionary, the values method returns all values in a dictionary and
items method returns all key-value pairs in a dictionary.
>>> a.keys()
['x', 'y', 'z']
>>> a.values()
[1, 2, 3]
>>> a.items()
[('x', 1), ('y', 2), ('z', 3)]

The for statement can be used to iterate over a dictionary.

>>> for key in a: print key
...
x

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y
z
>>> for key, value in a.items(): print key, value
...
x 1
y 2
z 3

Presence of a key in a dictionary can be tested using in operator or has_key method.

>>> 'x' in a
True
>>> 'p' in a
False
>>> a.has_key('x')
True
>>> a.has_key('p')
False

Other useful methods on dictionaries are get and setdefault.

>>> d = {'x': 1, 'y': 2, 'z': 3}
>>> d.get('x', 5)
1
>>> d.get('p', 5)
5
>>> d.setdefault('x', 0)
1
>>> d
{'x': 1, 'y': 2, 'z': 3}
>>> d.setdefault('p', 0)
0
>>> d
{'y': 2, 'x': 1, 'z': 3, 'p': 0}

Dictionaries can be used in string formatting to specify named parameters.

>>> 'hello %(name)s' % {'name': 'python'}
'hello python'
>>> 'Chapter %(index)d: %(name)s' % {'index': 2, 'name': 'Data Structures'}
'Chapter 2: Data Structures'

Example: Word Frequency

Suppose we want to find number of occurrences of each word in a file. Dictionary can be used to store the number
of occurrences for each word.
Lets first write a function to count frequency of words, given a list of words.
def word_frequency(words):
"""Returns frequency of each word given a list of words.

>>> word_frequency(['a', 'b', 'a'])

{'a': 2, 'b': 1}
"""
frequency = {}
for w in words:
frequency[w] = frequency.get(w, 0) + 1
return frequency

Getting words from a file is very trivial.

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def read_words(filename):
return open(filename).read().split()

We can combine these two functions to find frequency of all words in a file.
def main(filename):
frequency = word_frequency(read_words(filename))
for word, count in frequency.items():
print word, count

if __name__ == "__main__":
import sys
main(sys.argv[1])

Problem 53: Improve the above program to print the words in the descending order of the number of occurrences.
Problem 54: Write a program to count frequency of characters in a given file. Can you use character frequency
to tell whether the given file is a Python program file, C program file or a text file?
Problem 55: Write a program to find anagrams in a given list of words. Two words are called anagrams if one
word can be formed by rearranging letters of another. For example eat, ate and tea are anagrams.
>>> anagrams(['eat', 'ate', 'done', 'tea', 'soup', 'node'])
[['eat', 'ate', 'tea], ['done', 'node'], ['soup']]

Problem 56: Write a function valuesort to sort values of a dictionary based on the key.
>>> valuesort({'x': 1, 'y': 2, 'a': 3})
[3, 1, 2]

Problem 57: Write a function invertdict to interchange keys and values in a dictionary. For simplicity,
assume that all values are unique.
>>> invertdict({'x': 1, 'y': 2, 'z': 3})
{1: 'x', 2: 'y', 3: 'z'}

Understanding Python Execution Environment

Python stores the variables we use as a dictionary. The globals() function returns all the globals variables in
the current environment.
>>> globals()
{'__builtins__': <module '__builtin__' (built-in)>, '__name__': '__main__', '__doc__': None}
>>> x = 1
>>> globals()
{'__builtins__': <module '__builtin__' (built-in)>, '__name__': '__main__', '__doc__': None, 'x':
>>> x = 2
>>> globals()
{'__builtins__': <module '__builtin__' (built-in)>, '__name__': '__main__', '__doc__': None, 'x':
>>> globals()['x'] = 3
>>> x
3

Just like globals python also provides a function locals which gives all the local variables in a function.
>>> def f(a, b): print locals()
...
>>> f(1, 2)
{'a': 1, 'b': 2}

One more example:

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>>> def f(name):

... return "Hello %(name)s!" % locals()
...
>>> f("Guido")
Hello Guido!

Further Reading:
The article A Plan for Spam by Paul Graham describes a method of detecting spam using probability of
occurrence of a word in spam.

Modules

Modules are reusable libraries of code in Python. Python comes with many standard library modules.
A module is imported using the import statement.
>>> import time
>>> print time.asctime()
'Fri Mar 30 12:59:21 2012'

In this example, weve imported the time module and called the asctime function from that module, which returns
current time as a string.
There is also another way to use the import statement.
>>> from time import asctime
>>> asctime()
'Fri Mar 30 13:01:37 2012'

Here were imported just the asctime function from the time module.
The pydoc command provides help on any module or a function.
$ pydoc time
Help on module time:

NAME
time - This module provides various functions to manipulate time values.
...

$ pydoc time.asctime
Help on built-in function asctime in time:

time.asctime = asctime(...)
asctime([tuple]) -> string
...

On Windows, the pydoc command is not available. The work-around is to use, the built-in help function.
>>> help('time')
Help on module time:

NAME
time - This module provides various functions to manipulate time values.
...

Writing our own modules is very simple.

For example, create a file called num.py with the following content.
def square(x):
return x * x

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def cube(x):
return x * x * x

Now open Python interterter:

>>> import num
>>> num.square(3)
9
>>> num.cube(3)
27

Thats all weve written a python library.

Try pydoc num (pydoc.bat numbers on Windows) to see documentation for this numbers modules. It wont have
any documentation as we havent providied anything yet.
In Python, it is possible to associate documentation for each module, function using docstrings. Docstrings are
strings written at the top of the module or at the beginning of a function.
Lets try to document our num module by changing the contents of num.py
"""The num module provides utilties to work on numbers.

Current it provides square and cube.

"""

def square(x):
"""Computes square of a number."""
return x * x

def cube(x):
"""Computes cube of a number."""
return x * x

The pydoc command will now show us the doumentation nicely formatted.
Help on module num:

NAME
num - The num module provides utilties to work on numbers.

FILE
/Users/anand/num.py

DESCRIPTION
Current it provides square and cube.

FUNCTIONS
cube(x)
Computes cube of a number.

square(x)
Computes square of a number.

Under the hood, python stores the documentation as a special field called __doc__.
>>> import os
>>> print os.getcwd.__doc__
getcwd() -> path

Return a string representing the current working directory.

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Standard Library

Python comes with many standard library modules. Lets look at some of the most commonly used ones.

os module

The os and os.path modules provides functionality to work with files, directories etc.
Problem 58: Write a program to list all files in the given directory.
Problem 59: Write a program extcount.py to count number of files for each extension in the given directory. The
program should take a directory name as argument and print count and extension for each available file extension.
$ python extcount.py src/
14 py
4 txt
1 csv

Problem 60: Write a program to list all the files in the given directory along with their length and last modification
time. The output should contain one line for each file containing filename, length and modification date separated
by tabs. Hint: see help for os.stat.
Problem 61: Write a program to print directory tree. The program should take path of a directory as argument
and print all the files in it recursively as a tree.
$ python dirtree.py foo
foo
|-- a.txt
|-- b.txt
|-- code
| |-- a.py
| |-- b.py
| |-- docs
| | |-- a.txt
| | \-- b.txt
| \-- x.py
\-- z.txt

urllib module

The urllib module provides functionality to download webpages.

>>> import urllib
>>> response = urllib.urlopen("http://python.org/")
>>> print response.headers
Date: Fri, 30 Mar 2012 09:24:55 GMT
Server: Apache/2.2.16 (Debian)
Last-Modified: Fri, 30 Mar 2012 08:42:25 GMT
ETag: "105800d-4b7b-4bc71d1db9e40"
Accept-Ranges: bytes
Content-Length: 19323
Connection: close
Content-Type: text/html
X-Pad: avoid browser bug

>>> response.header['Content-Type']
'text/html'

>>> content = request.read()

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Problem 62: Write a program wget.py to download a given URL. The program should accept a URL as argument,
download it and save it with the basename of the URL. If the URL ends with a /, consider the basename as
index.html.
$ python wget.py http://docs.python.org/tutorial/interpreter.html
saving http://docs.python.org/tutorial/interpreter.html as interpreter.html.

$ python wget.py http://docs.python.org/tutorial/

saving http://docs.python.org/tutorial/ as index.html.

re module

Problem 63: Write a program antihtml.py that takes a URL as argument, downloads the html from web and print
it after stripping html tags.
$ python antihtml.py index.html
...
The Python interpreter is usually installed as /usr/local/bin/python on
those machines where it is available; putting /usr/local/bin in your
...

Problem 64: Write a function make_slug that takes a name converts it into a slug. A slug is a string where spaces
and special characters are replaced by a hyphen, typically used to create blog post URL from post title. It should
also make sure there are no more than one hyphen in any place and there are no hyphens at the biginning and end
of the slug.
>>> make_slug("hello world")
'hello-world'
>>> make_slug("hello world!")
'hello-world'
>>> make_slug(" --hello- world--")
'hello-world'

Problem 65: Write a program links.py that takes URL of a webpage as argument and prints all the URLs linked
from that webpage.
Problem 66: Write a regular expression to validate a phone number.

json module

Problem 67: Write a program myip.py to print the external IP address of the machine. Use the response from
http://httpbin.org/get and read the IP address from there. The program should print only the IP address
and nothing else.

zipfile module

The zipfile module provides interface to read and write zip files.
Here are some examples to demonstate the power of zipfile module.
The following example prints names of all the files in a zip archive.
import zipfile
z = zipfile.ZipFile("a.zip")
for name in z.namelist():
print name

The following example prints each file in the zip archive.

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import zipfile
z = zipfile.ZipFile("a.zip")
for name in z.namelist():
print
print "FILE:", name
print
print z.read(name)

Problem 68: Write a python program zip.py to create a zip file. The program should take name of zip file as first
argument and files to add as rest of the arguments.
$ python zip.py foo.zip file1.txt file2.txt

Problem 69: Write a program mydoc.py to implement the functionality of pydoc. The program should take
the module name as argument and print documentation for the module and each of the functions defined in that
module.
$ python mydoc.py os
Help on module os:

DESCRIPTION

os - OS routines for Mac, NT, or Posix depending on what system we're on.
...

FUNCTIONS

getcwd()
...

Hints:
The dir function to get all entries of a module
The inspect.isfunction function can be used to test if given object is a function
x.__doc__ gives the docstring for x.
The __import__ function can be used to import a module by name

Installing third-party modules

PyPI, The Python Package Index maintains the list of Python packages available. The third-party module devel-
opers usually register at PyPI and uploads their packages there.
The standard way to installing a python module is using pip or easy_install. Pip is more modern and perferred.
Lets start with installing easy_install.
Download the easy_install install script ez_setup.py.
Run it using Python.
That will install easy_install, the script used to install third-party python packages.
Before installing new packages, lets understand how to manage virtual environments for installing python pack-
ages.
Earlier the only way of installing python packages was system wide. When used this way, packages installed
for one project can conflict with other and create trouble. So people invented a way to create isolated Python
environment to install packages. This tool is called virtualenv.
To install virtualenv:
$ easy_install virtualenv

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Installing virtualenv also installs the pip command, a better replace for easy_install.
Once it is installed, create a new virtual env by running the virtualenv command.
$ virtualenv testenv

Now to switch to that env.

On UNIX/Mac OS X:
$ source testenv/bin/activate

On Windows:
> testenv\Scripts\activate

Now the virtualenv testenv is activated.

Now all the packages installed will be limited to this virtualenv. Lets try to install a third-party package.
$ pip install tablib

This installs a third-party library called tablib.

The tablib library is a small little library to work with tabular data and write csv and Excel files.
Here is a simple example.
# create a dataset
data = tablib.Dataset()

# Add rows
data.append(["A", 1])
data.append(["B", 2])
data.append(["C", 3])

# save as csv
with open('test.csv', 'wb') as f:
f.write(data.csv)

# save as Excel
with open('test.xls', 'wb') as f:
f.write(data.xls)

# save as Excel 07+

with open('test.xlsx', 'wb') as f:
f.write(data.xlsx)

It is even possible to create multi-sheet excel files.

sheet1 = tablib.Dataset()
sheet1.append(["A1", 1])
sheet1.append(["A2", 2])

sheet2 = tablib.Dataset()
sheet2.append(["B1", 1])
sheet2.append(["B2", 2])

book = tablib.Databook([data1, data2])

with open('book.xlsx', 'wb') as f:
f.write(book.xlsx)

Problem 70: Write a program csv2xls.py that reads a csv file and exports it as Excel file. The prigram should
take two arguments. The name of the csv file to read as first argument and the name of the Excel file to write as
the second argument.

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Problem 71: Create a new virtualenv and install BeautifulSoup. BeautifulSoup is very good library for parsing
HTML. Try using it to extract all HTML links from a webpage.
Read the BeautifulSoup documentation to get started.

Object Oriented Programming

State

Suppose we want to model a bank account with support for deposit and withdraw operations. One way to
do that is by using global state as shown in the following example.
balance = 0

def deposit(amount):
global balance
balance += amount
return balance

def withdraw(amount):
global balance
balance -= amount
return balance

The above example is good enough only if we want to have just a single account. Things start getting complicated
if want to model multiple accounts.
We can solve the problem by making the state local, probably by using a dictionary to store the state.
def make_account():
return {'balance': 0}

def deposit(account, amount):

account['balance'] += amount
return account['balance']

def withdraw(account, amount):

account['balance'] -= amount
return account['balance']

With this it is possible to work with multiple accounts at the same time.
>>> a = make_account()
>>> b = make_account()
>>> deposit(a, 100)
100
>>> deposit(b, 50)
50
>>> withdraw(b, 10)
40
>>> withdraw(a, 10)
90

Classes and Objects

class BankAccount:
def __init__(self):
self.balance = 0

def withdraw(self, amount):

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self.balance -= amount
return self.balance

def deposit(self, amount):

self.balance += amount
return self.balance

>>> a = BankAccount()
>>> b = BankAccount()
>>> a.deposit(100)
100
>>> b.deposit(50)
50
>>> b.withdraw(10)
40
>>> a.withdraw(10)
90

Inheritance

Let us try to create a little more sophisticated account type where the account holder has to maintain a pre-
determined minimum balance.
class MinimumBalanceAccount(BankAccount):
def __init__(self, minimum_balance):
BankAccount.__init__(self)
self.minimum_balance = minimum_balance

def withdraw(self, amount):

if self.balance - amount < self.minimum_balance:
print 'Sorry, minimum balance must be maintained.'
else:
BankAccount.withdraw(self, amount)

Problem 72: What will the output of the following program.

class A:
def f(self):
return self.g()

def g(self):
return 'A'

class B(A):
def g(self):
return 'B'

a = A()
b = B()
print a.f(), b.f()
print a.g(), b.g()

Example: Drawing Shapes

class Canvas:
def __init__(self, width, height):
self.width = width
self.height = height
self.data = [[' '] * width for i in range(height)]

def setpixel(self, row, col):

self.data[row][col] = '*'

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def getpixel(self, row, col):

return self.data[row][col]

def display(self):
print "\n".join(["".join(row) for row in self.data])

class Shape:
def paint(self, canvas): pass

class Rectangle(Shape):
def __init__(self, x, y, w, h):
self.x = x
self.y = y
self.w = w
self.h = h

def hline(self, x, y, w):

pass

def vline(self, x, y, h):

pass

def paint(self, canvas):

hline(self.x, self.y, self.w)
hline(self.x, self.y + self.h, self.w)
vline(self.x, self.y, self.h)
vline(self.x + self.w, self.y, self.h)

class Square(Rectangle):
def __init__(self, x, y, size):
Rectangle.__init__(self, x, y, size, size)

class CompoundShape(Shape):
def __init__(self, shapes):
self.shapes = shapes

def paint(self, canvas):

for s in self.shapes:
s.paint(canvas)

Special Class Methods

In Python, a class can implement certain operations that are invoked by special syntax (such as arithmetic opera-
tions or subscripting and slicing) by defining methods with special names. This is Pythons approach to operator
overloading, allowing classes to define their own behavior with respect to language operators.
For example, the + operator invokes __add__ method.
>>> a, b = 1, 2
>>> a + b
3
>>> a.__add__(b)
3

Just like __add__ is called for + operator, __sub__, __mul__ and __div__ methods are called for -, *, and
/ operators.
Example: Rational Numbers
Suppose we want to do arithmetic with rational numbers. We want to be able to add, subtract, multiply, and divide
them and to test whether two rational numbers are equal.

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We can add, subtract, multiply, divide, and test equality by using the following relations:
n1/d1 + n2/d2 = (n1*d2 + n2*d1)/(d1*d2)
n1/d1 - n2/d2 = (n1*d2 - n2*d1)/(d1*d2)
n1/d1 * n2/d2 = (n1*n2)/(d1*d2)
(n1/d1) / (n2/d2) = (n1*d2)/(d1*n2)

n1/d1 == n2/d2 if and only if n1*d2 == n2*d1

Lets write the rational number class.

class RationalNumber:
"""
Rational Numbers with support for arthmetic operations.

>>> a = RationalNumber(1, 2)
>>> b = RationalNumber(1, 3)
>>> a + b
5/6
>>> a - b
1/6
>>> a * b
1/6
>>> a/b
3/2
"""
def __init__(self, numerator, denominator=1):
self.n = numerator
self.d = denominator

def __add__(self, other):

if not isinstance(other, RationalNumber):
other = RationalNumber(other)

n = self.n * other.d + self.d * other.n

d = self.d * other.d
return RationalNumber(n, d)

def __sub__(self, other):

if not isinstance(other, RationalNumber):
other = RationalNumber(other)

n1, d1 = self.n, self.d

n2, d2 = other.n, other.d
return RationalNumber(n1*d2 - n2*d1, d1*d2)

def __mul__(self, other):

if not isinstance(other, RationalNumber):
other = RationalNumber(other)

n1, d1 = self.n, self.d

n2, d2 = other.n, other.d
return RationalNumber(n1*n2, d1*d2)

def __div__(self, other):

if not isinstance(other, RationalNumber):
other = RationalNumber(other)

n1, d1 = self.n, self.d

n2, d2 = other.n, other.d
return RationalNumber(n1*d2, d1*n2)

def __str__(self):
return "%s/%s" % (self.n, self.d)

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__repr__ = __str__

Errors and Exceptions

Weve already seen exceptions in various places. Python gives NameError when we try to use a variable that is
not defined.
>>> foo
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
NameError: name 'foo' is not defined

try adding a string to an integer:

>>> "foo" + 2
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: cannot concatenate 'str' and 'int' objects

try dividing a number by 0:

>>> 2/0
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero

or, try opening a file that is not there:

>>> open("not-there.txt")
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
IOError: [Errno 2] No such file or directory: 'not-there.txt'

Python raises exception in case errors. We can write programs to handle such errors. We too can raise exceptions
when an error case in encountered.
Exceptions are handled by using the try-except statements.
def main():
filename = sys.argv[1]
try:
for row in parse_csv(filename):
print row
except IOError:
print >> sys.stderr, "The given file doesn't exist: ", filename
sys.exit(1)

This above example prints an error message and exits with an error status when an IOError is encountered.
The except statement can be written in multiple ways:
# catch all exceptions
try:
...
except:

# catch just one exception

try:
...
except IOError:
...

# catch one exception, but provide the exception object

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try:
...
except IOError, e:
...

# catch more than one exception

try:
...
except (IOError, ValueError), e:
...

It is possible to have more than one except statements with one try.
try:
...
except IOError, e:
print >> sys.stderr, "Unable to open the file (%s): %s" % (str(e), filename)
sys.exit(1)
except FormatError, e:
print >> sys.stderr, "File is badly formatted (%s): %s" % (str(e), filename)

The try statement can have an optional else clause, which is executed only if no exception is raised in the try-block.
try:
...
except IOError, e:
print >> sys.stderr, "Unable to open the file (%s): %s" % (str(e), filename)
sys.exit(1)
else:
print "successfully opened the file", filename

There can be an optional else clause with a try statement, which is executed irrespective of whether or not exception
has occured.
try:
...
except IOError, e:
print >> sys.stderr, "Unable to open the file (%s): %s" % (str(e), filename)
sys.exit(1)
finally:
delete_temp_files()

Exception is raised using the raised keyword.

raise Exception("error message")

All the exceptions are extended from the built-in Exception class.
class ParseError(Exception): pass
Problem 73: What will be the output of the following program?
try:
print "a"
except:
print "b"
else:
print "c"
finally:
print "d"

Problem 74: What will be the output of the following program?

try:
print "a"
raise Exception("doom")

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except:
print "b"
else:
print "c"
finally:
print "d"

Problem 75: What will be the output of the following program?

def f():
try:
print "a"
return
except:
print "b"
else:
print "c"
finally:
print "d"

f()

Iterators & Generators

Iterators

We use for statement for looping over a list.

>>> for i in [1, 2, 3, 4]:
... print i,
...
1
2
3
4

If we use it with a string, it loops over its characters.

>>> for c in "python":
... print c
...
p
y
t
h
o
n

If we use it with a dictionary, it loops over its keys.

>>> for k in {"x": 1, "y": 2}:
... print k
...
y
x

If we use it with a file, it loops over lines of the file.

>>> for line in open("a.txt"):
... print line,
...

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first line
second line

So there are many types of objects which can be used with a for loop. These are called iterable objects.
There are many functions which consume these iterables.
>>> ",".join(["a", "b", "c"])
'a,b,c'
>>> ",".join({"x": 1, "y": 2})
'y,x'
>>> list("python")
['p', 'y', 't', 'h', 'o', 'n']
>>> list({"x": 1, "y": 2})
['y', 'x']

The Iteration Protocol

The built-in function iter takes an iterable object and returns an iterator.
>>> x = iter([1, 2, 3])
>>> x
<listiterator object at 0x1004ca850>
>>> x.next()
1
>>> x.next()
2
>>> x.next()
3
>>> x.next()
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
StopIteration

Each time we call the next method on the iterator gives us the next element. If there are no more elements, it
raises a StopIteration.
Iterators are implemented as classes. Here is an iterator that works like built-in xrange function.
class yrange:
def __init__(self, n):
self.i = 0
self.n = n

def __iter__(self):
return self

def next(self):
if self.i < self.n:
i = self.i
self.i += 1
return i
else:
raise StopIteration()

The __iter__ method is what makes an object iterable. Behind the scenes, the iter function calls __iter__
method on the given object.
The return value of __iter__ is an iterator. It should have a next method and raise StopIteration when
there are no more elements.
Lets try it out:

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>>> y = yrange(3)
>>> y.next()
0
>>> y.next()
1
>>> y.next()
2
>>> y.next()
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
File "<stdin>", line 14, in next
StopIteration

Many built-in functions accept iterators as arguments.

>>> list(yrange(5))
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
>>> sum(yrange(5))
10

In the above case, both the iterable and iterator are the same object. Notice that the __iter__ method returned
self. It need not be the case always.
class zrange:
def __init__(self, n):
self.n = n

def __iter__(self):
return zrange_iter(self.n)

class zrange_iter:
def __init__(self, n):
self.i = 0
self.n = n

def __iter__(self):
# Iterators are iterables too.
# Adding this functions to make them so.
return self

def next(self):
if self.i < self.n:
i = self.i
self.i += 1
return i
else:
raise StopIteration()

If both iteratable and iterator are the same object, it is consumed in a single iteration.
>>> y = yrange(5)
>>> list(y)
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
>>> list(y)
[]
>>> z = zrange(5)
>>> list(z)
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
>>> list(z)
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]

Problem 76: Write an iterator class reverse_iter, that takes a list and iterates it from the reverse direction.
::

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>>> it = reverse_iter([1, 2, 3, 4])

>>> it.next()
4
>>> it.next()
3
>>> it.next()
2
>>> it.next()
1
>>> it.next()
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
StopIteration

Generators

Generators simplifies creation of iterators. A generator is a function that produces a sequence of results instead of
a single value.
def yrange(n):
i = 0
while i < n:
yield i
i += 1

Each time the yield statement is executed the function generates a new value.
>>> y = yrange(3)
>>> y
<generator object yrange at 0x401f30>
>>> y.next()
0
>>> y.next()
1
>>> y.next()
2
>>> y.next()
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
StopIteration

So a generator is also an iterator. You dont have to worry about the iterator protocol.
The word generator is confusingly used to mean both the function that generates and what it generates. In this
chapter, Ill use the word generator to mean the genearted object and generator function to mean the function
that generates it.
Can you think about how it is working internally?
When a generator function is called, it returns a generator object without even beginning execution of the function.
When next method is called for the first time, the function starts executing until it reaches yield statement.
The yielded value is returned by the next call.
The following example demonstrates the interplay between yield and call to next method on generator object.
>>> def foo():
... print "begin"
... for i in range(3):
... print "before yield", i
... yield i
... print "after yield", i
... print "end"
...

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>>> f = foo()
>>> f.next()
begin
before yield 0
0
>>> f.next()
after yield 0
before yield 1
1
>>> f.next()
after yield 1
before yield 2
2
>>> f.next()
after yield 2
end
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
StopIteration
>>>

Lets see an example:

def integers():
"""Infinite sequence of integers."""
i = 1
while True:
yield i
i = i + 1

def squares():
for i in integers():
yield i * i

def take(n, seq):

"""Returns first n values from the given sequence."""
seq = iter(seq)
result = []
try:
for i in range(n):
result.append(seq.next())
except StopIteration:
pass
return result

print take(5, squares()) # prints [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]

Generator Expressions

Generator Expressions are generator version of list comprehensions. They look like list comprehensions, but
returns a generator back instead of a list.
>>> a = (x*x for x in range(10))
>>> a
<generator object <genexpr> at 0x401f08>
>>> sum(a)
285

We can use the generator expressions as arguments to various functions that consume iterators.
>>> sum((x*x for x in range(10)))
285

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When there is only one argument to the calling function, the parenthesis around generator expression can be
omitted.
>>> sum(x*x for x in range(10))
285

Another fun example:

Lets say we want to find first 10 (or any n) pythogorian triplets. A triplet (x, y, z) is called pythogorian triplet
if x*x + y*y == z*z.
It is easy to solve this problem if we know till what value of z to test for. But we want to find first n pythogorian
triplets.
>>> pyt = ((x, y, z) for z in integers() for y in xrange(1, z) for x in range(1, y) if x*x + y*y =
>>> take(10, pyt)
[(3, 4, 5), (6, 8, 10), (5, 12, 13), (9, 12, 15), (8, 15, 17), (12, 16, 20), (15, 20, 25), (7, 24,

Example: Reading multiple files

Lets say we want to write a program that takes a list of filenames as arguments and prints contents of all those
files, like cat command in unix.
The traditional way to implement it is:
def cat(filenames):
for f in filenames:
for line in open(f):
print line,

Now, lets say we want to print only the line which has a particular substring, like grep command in unix.
def grep(pattern, filenames):
for f in filenames:
for line in open(f):
if pattern in line:
print line,

Both these programs have lot of code in common. It is hard to move the common part to a function. But with
generators makes it possible to do it.
def readfiles(filenames):
for f in filenames:
for line in open(f):
yield line

def grep(pattern, lines):

return (line for line in lines if pattern in line)

def printlines(lines):
for line in lines:
print line,

def main(pattern, filenames):

lines = readfiles(filenames)
lines = grep(pattern, lines)
printlines(lines)

The code is much simpler now with each function doing one small thing. We can move all these functions into a
separate module and reuse it in other programs.
Problem 77: Write a program that takes one or more filenames as arguments and prints all the lines which are
longer than 40 characters.

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Problem 78: Write a function findfiles that recursively descends the directory tree for the specified directory
and generates paths of all the files in the tree.
Problem 79: Write a function to compute the number of python files (.py extension) in a specified directory
recursively.
Problem 80: Write a function to compute the total number of lines of code in all python files in the specified
directory recursively.
Problem 81: Write a function to compute the total number of lines of code, ignoring empty and comment lines,
in all python files in the specified directory recursively.
Problem 82: Write a program split.py, that takes an integer n and a filename as command line arguments and
splits the file into multiple small files with each having n lines.

Itertools

The itertools module in the standard library provides lot of intersting tools to work with iterators.
Lets look at some of the interesting functions.
chain chains multiple iterators together.
>>> it1 = iter([1, 2, 3])
>>> it2 = iter([4, 5, 6])
>>> itertools.chain(it1, it2)
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

izip iterable version of zip

>>> for x, y in itertools.izip(["a", "b", "c"], [1, 2, 3]):
... print x, y
...
a 1
b 2
c 3

Problem 83: Write a function peep, that takes an iterator as argument and returns the first element and an
equivalant iterator.
>>> it = iter(range(5))
>>> x, it1 = peep(it)
>>> print x, list(it1)
0 [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]

Problem 84: The built-in function enumerate takes an iteratable and returns an iterator over pairs (index, value)
for each value in the source.
>>> list(enumerate(["a", "b", "c"])
[(0, "a"), (1, "b"), (2, "c")]
>>> for i, c in enumerate(["a", "b", "c"]):
... print i, c
...
0 a
1 b
2 c

Write a function my_enumerate that works like enumerate.

Problem 85: Implement a function izip that works like itertools.izip.
Further Reading
Generator Tricks For System Programers by David Beazly is an excellent in-depth introduction to generators
and generator expressions.

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Functional Programming

Recursion

Defining solution of a problem in terms of the same problem, typically of smaller size, is called recursion. Recur-
sion makes it possible to express solution of a problem very concisely and elegantly.
A function is called recursive if it makes call to itself. Typically, a recursive function will have a terminating
condition and one or more recursive calls to itself.

Example: Computing Exponent

Mathematically we can define exponent of a number in terms of its smaller power.

def exp(x, n):
"""
Computes the result of x raised to the power of n.

>>> exp(2, 3)
8
>>> exp(3, 2)
9
"""
if n == 0:
return 1
else:
return x * exp(x, n-1)

Lets look at the execution pattern.

exp(2, 4)
+-- 2 * exp(2, 3)
| +-- 2 * exp(2, 2)
| | +-- 2 * exp(2, 1)
| | | +-- 2 * exp(2, 0)
| | | | +-- 1
| | | +-- 2 * 1
| | | +-- 2
| | +-- 2 * 2
| | +-- 4
| +-- 2 * 4
| +-- 8
+-- 2 * 8
+-- 16

Number of calls to the above exp function is proportional to size of the problem, which is n here.
We can compute exponent in fewer steps if we use successive squaring.
def fast_exp(x, n):
if n == 0:
return 1
elif n % 2 == 0:
return fast_exp(x*x, n/2))
else:
return x * fast_exp(x, n-1)

Lets look at the execution pattern now.

fast_exp(2, 10)
+-- fast_exp(4, 5) # 2 * 2
| +-- 4 * fast_exp(4, 4)

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| | +-- fast_exp(16, 2) # 4 * 4
| | | +-- fast_exp(256, 1) # 16 * 16
| | | | +-- 256 * fast_exp(256, 0)
| | | | +-- 1
| | | | +-- 256 * 1
| | | | +-- 256
| | | +-- 256
| | +-- 256
| +-- 4 * 256
| +-- 1024
+-- 1024
1024

Problem 86: Implement a function product to multiply 2 numbers recursively using + and - operators only.

Example: Flatten a list

Supposed you have a nested list and want to flatten it.

def flatten_list(a, result=None):
"""Flattens a nested list.

>>> flatten_list([ [1, 2, [3, 4] ], [5, 6], 7])

[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]
"""
if result is None:
result = []

for x in a:
if isinstance(x, list):
flatten_list(x, result)
else:
result.append(x)

return result

Problem 87: Write a function flatten_dict to flatten a nested dictionary by joining the keys with . character.

>>> flatten_dict({'a': 1, 'b': {'x': 2, 'y': 3}, 'c': 4})

{'a': 1, 'b.x': 2, 'b.y': 3, 'c': 4}

Problem 88: Write a function unflatten_dict to do reverse of flatten_dict.

>>> unflatten_dict({'a': 1, 'b.x': 2, 'b.y': 3, 'c': 4})
{'a': 1, 'b': {'x': 2, 'y': 3}, 'c': 4}

Problem 89: Write a function treemap to map a function over nested list.
>>> treemap(lambda x: x*x, [1, 2, [3, 4, [5]]])
[1, 4, [9, 16, [25]]]

Problem 90: Write a function tree_reverse to reverse elements of a nested-list recursively.

>>> tree_reverse([[1, 2], [3, [4, 5]], 6])
[6, [[5, 4], 3], [2, 1]]

Example: JSON Encode

Lets look at more commonly used example of serializing a python datastructure into JSON (JavaScript Object
Notation).

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Here is an example of JSON record.

{
"name": "Advanced Python Training",
"date": "October 13, 2012",
"completed": false,
"instructor": {
"name": "Anand Chitipothu",
"website": "http://anandology.com/"
},
"participants": [
{
"name": "Participant 1",
"email": "[email protected]"
},
{
"name": "Participant 2",
"email": "[email protected]"
}
]
}

It looks very much like Python dictionaries and lists. There are some differences though. Strings are always
enclosed in double quotes, booleans are represented as true and false.
The standard library module json provides functionality to work in JSON. Lets try to implement it now as it is
very good example of use of recursion.
For simplicity, lets assume that strings will not have any special characters and can have space, tab and newline
characters.
def json_encode(data):
if isinstance(data, bool):
if data:
return "true"
else:
return "false"
elif isinstance(data, (int, float)):
return str(data)
elif isinstance(data, str):
return '"' + escape_string(data) + '"'
elif isinstance(data, list):
return "[" + ", ".join(json_encode(d) for d in data) + "]"
else:
raise TypeError("%s is not JSON serializable" % repr(data))

def escape_string(s):
"""Escapes double-quote, tab and new line characters in a string."""
s = s.replace('"', '\\"')
s = s.replace("\t", "\\t")
s = s.replace("\n", "\\n")
return s

This handles booleans, integers, strings, floats and lists, but doesnt handle dictionaries yet. That is left an exercise
to the readers.
If you notice the block of code that is handling lists, we are calling json_encode recursively for each element of
the list, that is required because each element can be of any type, even a list or a dictionary.
Problem 91: Complete the above implementation of json_encode by handling the case of dictionaries.
Problem 92: Implement a program dirtree.py that takes a directory as argument and prints all the files in that
directory recursively as a tree. Hint: Use os.listdir and os.path.isdir funtions.

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$ python dirtree.py foo/

foo/
|-- a.txt
|-- b.txt
|-- bar/
| |-- p.txt
| `-- q.txt
`-- c.txt

Problem 93: Write a function count_change to count the number of ways to change any given amount.
Available coins are also passed as argument to the function.
>>> count_change(10, [1, 5])
3
>>> count_change(10, [1, 2])
6
>>> count_change(100, [1, 5, 10, 25, 50])
292

Problem 94: Write a function permute to compute all possible permutations of elements of a given list.
>>> permute([1, 2, 3])
[[1, 2, 3], [1, 3, 2], [2, 1, 3], [2, 3, 1], [3, 1, 2], [3, 2, 1]]

Higher Order Functions & Decorators

In Python, functions are first-class objects. They can be passed as arguments to other functions and a new functions
can be returned from a function call.

Example: Tracing Function Calls

For example, consider the following fib function.

def fib(n):
if n is 0 or n is 1:
return 1
else:
return fib(n-1) + fib(n-2)

Suppose we want to trace all the calls to the fib function. We can write a higher order function to return a new
function, which prints whenever fib function is called.
def trace(f):
def g(x):
print f.__name__, x
value = f(x)
print 'return', repr(value)
return value
return g

fib = trace(fib)
print fib(3)

This produces the following output.

fib 3
fib 2
fib 1
return 1
fib 0
return 1

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return 2
fib 1
return 1
return 3
3

Noticed that the trick here is at fib = trace(fib). We have replaced the function fib with a new function,
so whenever that function is called recursively, it is the our new function, which prints the trace before calling the
orginal function.
To make the output more readable, let us indent the function calls.
def trace(f):
f.indent = 0
def g(x):
print '| ' * f.indent + '|--', f.__name__, x
f.indent += 1
value = f(x)
print '| ' * f.indent + '|--', 'return', repr(value)
f.indent -= 1
return value
return g

fib = trace(fib)
print fib(4)

This produces the following output.

$ python fib.py
|-- fib 4
| |-- fib 3
| | |-- fib 2
| | | |-- fib 1
| | | | |-- return 1
| | | |-- fib 0
| | | | |-- return 1
| | | |-- return 2
| | |-- fib 1
| | | |-- return 1
| | |-- return 3
| |-- fib 2
| | |-- fib 1
| | | |-- return 1
| | |-- fib 0
| | | |-- return 1
| | |-- return 2
| |-- return 5
5

This pattern is so useful that python has special syntax for specifying this concisely.
@trace
def fib(n):
...

It is equivalant of adding fib = trace(fib) after the function definition.

Example: Memoize

In the above example, it is clear that number of function calls are growing exponentially with the size of input and
there is lot of redundant computation that is done.
Suppose we want to get rid of the redundant computation by caching the result of fib when it is called for the

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first time and reuse it when it is needed next time. Doing this is very popular in functional programming world
and it is called memoize.
def memoize(f):
cache = {}
def g(x):
if x not in cache:
cache[x] = f(x)
return cache[x]
return g

fib = trace(fib)
fib = memoize(fib)
print fib(4)

If you notice, after memoize, growth of fib has become linear.

|-- fib 4
| |-- fib 3
| | |-- fib 2
| | | |-- fib 1
| | | | |-- return 1
| | | |-- fib 0
| | | | |-- return 1
| | | |-- return 2
| | |-- return 3
| |-- return 5
5

Problem 95: Write a function profile, which takes a function as argument and returns a new function, which
behaves exactly similar to the given function, except that it prints the time consumed in executing it.
>>> fib = profile(fib)
>>> fib(20)
time taken: 0.1 sec
10946

Problem 96: Write a function vectorize which takes a function f and return a new function, which takes a
list as argument and calls f for every element and returns the result as a list.
>>> def square(x): return x * x
...
>>> f = vectorize(square)
>>> f([1, 2, 3])
[1, 4, 9]
>>> g = vectorize(len)
>>> g(["hello", "world"])
[5, 5]
>>> g([[1, 2], [2, 3, 4]])
[2, 3]

Example: unixcommand decorator

Many unix commands have a typical pattern. They accept multiple filenames as arguments, does some processing
and prints the lines back. Some examples of such commands are cat and grep.
def unixcommand(f):
def g(filenames):
printlines(out for line in readlines(filenames)
for out in f(line))
return g

Lets see how to use it.

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@unixcommand
def cat(line):
yield line

@unixcommand
def lowercase(line):
yield line.lower()

exec & eval

Python privides the whole interpreter as a built-in function. You can pass a string and ask it is execute that piece
of code at run time.
For example:
>>> exec("x = 1")
>>> x
1

By default exec works in the current environment, so it updated the globals in the above example. It is also
possible to specify an environment to exec.
>>> env = {'a' : 42}
>>> exec('x = a+1', env)
>>> print env['x']
43

It is also possible to create functions or classes dynamically using exec, though it is usually not a good idea.
>>> code = 'def add_%d(x): return x + %d'
>>> for i in range(1, 5):
... exec(code % (i, i))
...
>>> add_1(3)
4
>>> add_3(3)
6

eval is like exec but it takes an expression and returns its value.
>>> eval("2+3")
5
>>> a = 2
>>> eval("a * a")
4
>>> env = {'x' : 42}
>>> eval('x+1', env)
43

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