Astronomical Handbooks and Tables from the Islamic World (750-1900): an Interim Report David A. King and Julio Sams6, with a contribution by Bernard R. Goldstein To Ted Kennedy, in appreciation Contents 1 Introduction 12 1.1 The scope of the zij literature . . . 14 1.2 The purpose of a zi 15 1.3 Regional schools of astronomy . 15 1.4 The historiography of modem research on zijes 18 2 The contents of zijes 19 2.1. Sexagesimal alphanumerical notation 19 2.2 Chronology and calendar conversion 19 23 Trigonometry .........~. 20 24 Spherical astronomical functions»... 2.2.00... 5 21 2.5 Planetary mean motions, equations and latitudes a arene «a 2.6 Planetary stations and visibility... 2... . . sen y 28 2.7. Solar and lunar parallax and eclipses 25 2.8 Lunar visibility . . oe 26 2.9 Geographical tables 3 27 2.10 Starcatalogues ...... 27 2.11 Tables for mathematical astrology. 28 2.12 Analysis of tables and parameters 3010 D.A. King & J. Sams6 3. Overview of the zij literature 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 The Indian-Iranian tradition 3.1.1 The Zijal-Shah . . 3.1.2 The Sindhind .. . seo 3.1.3 The Zijofal-Khwarizmi . . . al-Ma’miin and the earliest Ptolemaic zijes .. . . . - 3.2.1 The Arabic Almagest ... 0-5 +s 3.2.2 The Mumtahan Zij and the Zijes of Habash ‘The major Eastern Islamic zijes . 3.3.1 Some important zijes lost for posterity 3.3.2 The tradition of al-Battant .......---+- 3.3.3. The tables of a zij engraved on an astronomical in- strument. 6.2 eee eee 3.3.4 The tradition of Abu “I-Wafa ... . . 3.3.5 Sundry zijes from al-‘Iraq and Iran . 3.3.6 abBirini .......---5000 33.7 A aij from Marw (12th century) 3.3.8 The tradition of al-Fahhad: from ‘Adharbayjan to Constantinople and the Yemen . . . 3.3.9 The Maragha productions 3.3.10 Syrian zijes and the major production of the chief muwaggit of the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus. . ‘The tradition of Ibn Yiinus in Egypt and beyond Some Yemeni zijes (10th-19th century) ‘The productions of the Samarqand school (1 sth een- THEYYs weosen: ats wm oe vatory and later Turkish zijes displaying European influence... « be ceeee 3.3.15. Zijes from India. . . ‘Andalusi and Maghribi zZjes 3.4.1 The earliest Andalusi zijes 3.4.2. Ibmal-Zargalluh, $a'id al-Andalusi, and the Toledan Tables... 3.4.3. The works of Ibn al- Kamina and Ibn al-l Hai Hie «2 The productions associated sith the iseantial Obser- w 31 31 32 33 35 35 36 45 46 48 49 31 53 54 55 56 56 58 59 Subayt2 001)35 3.6 a7 3.8 4 Categories of tables not contained in zijes 4.1 42 43 48 49 4.10 411 4.12 4.13 4.14 Astronomical Handbooks and Tables 1 The Zi of Ibn Ishaq and its derivatives Two zijes from Fez . . . Later Maghribi zjes aeaee The tables of Zacut.. 2... 0... Zijes in Hebrew [by B. R. Goldstein] . . "The hay'a tradition and the ‘New Zi’ of Ibn al-Shatir 3.6.1 Hay’a in the early Islamic East... 2... 3.6.2. Hay’ain al-Andalus 3.6.3 The Maragha School bee 3.64 The planetary models of Ibn al-Shatir ..... 3.6.5 Other developments in hay’a after Maragha On the notion of trepidation Other innovations... . . Sexagesimal multiplication tables Trigonometric tables Ephemerides ..... Auxiliary tables for compiling ephemerides ‘Tables for determining lunar crescent visibility Double-argument planetary equation tables Auxiliary tables for solving spherical astronomical prob lems for all latitudes. 2. ee 3 Tables for time-keeping by the Sun and stars... . Tables for regulating the times of Muslim prayer. . Tables for finding the gibla... 2.0.2.2... . ‘Tables for constructing astrolabes and astrolabic quadrants. 91 ‘Tables for constructing sundials seve 92 Astrological tables... 0.2... a6 94 Miscellaneous tables... 2... eee eee 95 5 Concluding remarks 7 Bibliographical abbreviations 98 Suhayl2 2001)12 D. A. King & J. Sams6 1 Introduction The purpose of this paper! is to present an overview of the current state of research on the medieval Islamic astronomical handbooks known as zijes in particular? and astronomical tables in general. It is intended as a supple- ment to E. $. Kennedy’s groundbreaking survey of Islamic zijes published in 1956 incorporating the numerous categories of tables not contained in zijes,4 and an attempt has been made to mention most of the research that has been done since that time.® It is also intended as an interim overview ‘The main authors (D.A.K. and J.S.) are grateful to Frangois Charette, Benno van Dalen, Bernard Goldstein and David Pingree for their comments on earlier versions of this paper, and are alone responsible for any remaining errors and misinterpretations. We are particularly pleased that Bernard Goldstein was willing to contribute an important chapter on Hebrew zijes. Bibliographical abbreviations for the basic reference works for the history of Islamic astronomy and mathematics and other frequently-cited works are listed at the end of this paper. ‘The term zff is traditionally derived from Pabilevi zik, originally meaning ‘thread’ or ‘cord’ and already used in Pahlevi with the meaning ‘astronomical tables’, presumably by extension of the notion of a thread to the warp of a fabric and hence to the orthogonal framework of an astronomical table (Kennedy, “Zi Survey”, p. 123b, citing C. A. Nallino). However, recent research suggests that the term was originally used in Arabic to denote an astronomical text in verse, as in Sanskrit tantra, without any tables: see further R. Mercier, “From Tantra to Zij”, in Kunitzsch Festschrift, pp. 451-460. Kennedy, “Zij Survey”. See also Sams6, “Tablas astronémicas”. A preliminary survey was presented in King, “Islamic Astronomical Tables”, ‘The first version of this paper was prepared in answer to a request for an article “Zid” for the E/*. It turned out to be far longer than the Editors could accept, so we de- cided to prepare this version, reformatting the first for this journal, suppressing all of the quirky features of the EJ? (notably, the transliteration), but retaining most of the cross-references to other articles on specific topics in that monumental work (here cap- italized, as, for example: Z1Ds). We have, on the other hand, suppressed references to articles on individual astronomers in E/? and DSB, We assume on the part of the reader a certain familiarity with these works, as wel as with the standard bio-bibliographical sources, namely (in chronological order): Suter, MAA; Renaud, “Additions 4 Sutei Krause, “‘Stambuler Handschriften”; Storey, PL; Sezgin, GAS; Matvievskaya & Rosen- feld, MAMS; Cairo ENL Survey; and ihsanojlu, ed., Ottoman Astronomy and Ottoman Mathematics. Several of the studies listed in this article are reprinted in various volumes Suhoyt 2 con)Astronomical Handbooks and Tables 13 anticipating various significant advances in the field in the not-too-distant future.® Most of the relevant astronomical and astrological concepts mentioned below are clearly explained in al-Bi Tafhim.’ Kennedy's numbering 1-109 for zijes and X200-X220 for related works (see below) is used in this article, with each number preceded by a K and the Xs suppressed. An as- terisk is used for those zijes singled out by Kennedy for treatment in greater detail than the rest. The notation K@ means the work was not listed by Kennedy. such as: Goldstein, Saudies; Hariner, Studies, A-B; Kennedy et al., Studies; Kennedy, ‘Studies; King, Studies, A-C; Kunitesch, Studies; Langerman, Studies; Lorch, Studies: Millis Vallicrosa, Estudios, A-B; Nallino, Scritti, V; Sabra, Studies; Saliba, Studies, Sams6, Studies; Schoy, Beitréige; Suter, Beitrdge; Vernet, Esuidios, A-B; Vernet, ed. tudios, A-B; Wiedemann, Aufsiize and idem, Schriften. Also important for the study Of transmission of Islamic tables to Byzantium and Europe are Tihon, Studies, and Poulle, Studies. Other studies are published in collected works, such as EHAS; Kennedy Festschrift; Kunitesch Festschrift; North Festschrift; Sayth Memorial Volumes: and Ver- net Festschrifi. Certain conferences have produced useful publications, in particular: Aleppo 1976; Istanbul 1977; Istanbul 1981; New Dethi 1985; Istanbul 1986; Istanbul 1987; Istanbul 1991 and 1994; Norman (Oklahoma) 1995; Strasbourg 1995; Kyoto 1997; Paris 1998 (Fatimids); and Cambridge, Ma. (Dibner Institute) 1998, ‘The monumental reprint series Islamic Mathematics and Astronomy recently pub- lished by the indefatigable F. Suzgin in Frankfurt in over 100 volumes contains numer us articles and books (texts and studies) relevant to this study and generally difficult to access. Suffice it to mention here that materials relating to al-Khwirizmi feature in vols. 1-7; al-Farghani 9-10, 68; al-Battini 11-13; Thabit ibn Qurra 21-22; Ibn Yainus 25; al-SGfi 26; Ibrahim ibn Sinan 27, 101; Aba Nast 28, 37; al-Biriint 29-36, 74; Ibn al-Zarqalluh 39-40; al-MarrakushT 41-42; Ibn al-Banna’ 43-44; ‘Umar al-Khayyam 45- 46; al-Tisi et al. 47-51; Ulugh Beg 52-55; al-Kashi $6, 84; Ibn al-Haytham 57-58, 75; Abu 'I-Wafa’ 60-61; al-Sijei 66; Maimonides 67; Alfonso X 98-99: calendrics 64. 65; astronomical instriments 85-96; Sayili’s Observatory in Islam 97; Nallino’s Ta’rikh ‘ilm al-falak 100, © In Barcelona research on Andalusi and Maghribi tables (by J. Sams6 and his team) continues apace; in Frankfurt research on zijes in general (B. van Dalen) and various Categories of other tables (D. A. King and F. Charette) is in progress, 7 Listed as al-Birdni, Tafhim; see also Kennedy, “27j Survey”, pp. 139-145, Also ree- ‘ommended to the reader interested in ancient and medieval astronomy is J. Evans, The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy, New York & Oxford 1998, Subayl2 200)14 D. A. King & J. Sams6 LL The scope of the 73 literature In the 13th century the Yemeni astronomer Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr al- Farist was able to cite the names of 28 zijes, and in the 16th-century Indian encyclopedist Abu “I-Fadl al-‘Allami listed in his A%-i Akbarv the titles of 86 works of this genre. In 1956 E. S. Kennedy presented information on some 125 zijes. We now know that over 225 zfjes were compiled in the Islamic world during the period from the 8th to the 19th century. They constitute a major source for our understanding of the development and ap- plication of mathematical astronomy in the medieval period. Of these works just less than one-half are lost and known only by references to their titles or their authors, but enongh survive to convey a very clear impression of the scope and variety of the activities of the Muslim astronomers in this field and to reveal some of their most outstanding contributions.* Zijes are intended to serve a single locality, in the sense that a terrestrial longitude underlies the solar, lunar and planetary tables and a terrestrial lat- itude underlies the tables for spherical astronomy. Some of the more impor- tant zfjes were the results of serious observational programmes.” However, many zijes were simply rehashings of earlier ones, with minor variations, such as a change of meridian for the planetary tables, or a new set of spher- ical astronomical tables for a different latitude. Such modified versions can be of singular historical importance if the original works are no longer ex- tant. Not all zijes contain the extensive explanations of the astronomical and mathematical background typical of, say, Ptolemy's Almagest. Furthermore, there are numerous extensive sets of tables which do not constitute a zi or which are not found in any zij. ‘The best survey of Islamic astronomy and astrology in general remains the article by C.A. Nallino in the J. Hastings’ Eneyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, XM (1921), pp. 88-101, shortened from the Italian version in Nallino, Seritt, V, pp. 2-87; see also the same author's articles ASTROLOGY and ASTRONOMY in EI’, Two recent overviews are G, Saliba, “Astronomy / Astrology, Islamic”, in idem, Studies, no. 2 (first published in the Dictionary of the Middle Ages in 1982), and King, “Mathematical Astronomy in Islamic Civilisation”, in Astronomy across Cultures, pp. 585-613, a third by F.J. Ragep is currently in preparation. |. The Observatory in Islam, and also the EP article MARSAD. Suhay! 22001)Astronomical Handbooks and Tables 15 1.2. The purpose of a zij The purpose of a ij was to provide astronomers with all that they needed in the way of theory and tables for such tasks as calculating the positions (longitudes and latitudes) of the Sun, Moon and five naked-eye planets and, the time of day or night from solar or stellar altitudes, In addition the as- tronomer could use a zij to determine the possibility of lunar crescent or planetary visibility, Stellar positions he could simply take from the star- catalogue. Calculations for meridians other than that underlying the tables could be modified for the longitude differences apparent from the geograph- ical tables. The astronomer could calculate the duration of twilight and the altitude of the Sun at midday or at the time of the afternoon prayer. He could apply the mathematical procedures outlined in the 2f to specific geograph- ical data and compute the gibla of any locality. He could also determine the ascendant at a given time and the longitudes of the astrological houses, and having calculated the positions of the Sun, Moon and planets, he could Set up a horoscope: it could be argued that this was the main purpose of have attracted attention — we shall have occasion to mention the works of al-Hashimi, Ibn al-Muthannd, Ibn Masri, Ibn “Ezra and Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr al- Others are lost, (including those by al-Farghani, al-Sarakhsi, Thabit ibn Qurra and al-Birini, or are currently being studied, notably that of Samaw’al al-Maghribi."* In the 1970s the first author (D.A.K.) identified various categories of tables not found in zijes, although some of the larger sets are mistitled or miscatalogued as zfjes.'> Such tables will also be treated here: see Section 4 below.!6 13 See the EP article ILA. 4 Sezgin, GAS, VI, pp. 65-66. 15 See already n. 4. ‘The EP article DJADWAL deals mainly with magical arrangements of letters and sym- bols. Subay12 2001)Astronomical Handbooks and Tables 19 2. The contents of zijes 2.1 Sexagesimal alphanumerical notation The entries in the tables in zijes and other corpora of tables are expressed sexagesimally, that is, to base 60, although integers are invariably ex- pressed decimally. (In the modem notation standard in the history of the exact sciences a number expressed in the form @,b;c,d stands for ax 60+b+c/60+d/3600.) The entries are written in Arabic alphanumer- ical notation,'” with the attendant traps for the careless copyist and the trust- ing reader, One of the challenges to modern investigators, indeed, for some, the spice of their lives, is the restoration of original values from carelessly- copied entries. The standard errors are inevitable or careless or compound, ‘Inevitable’ refers to those cases where the omission of a diacritical point or two in one copy of a table invites an ambiguous interpretation in the next copy (thus, 14 <> 54 or 59 — 19 or 80 + 100). ‘Careless’ refers to situations where the sloppy rendition of one letter or ligature leads to its misinterpre- tation as another (thus, 0 ++ 5, 14 <= 15, 40 «+ 47, 50 + 7, 20 or 21 9, 38 © 18, 44 < 47, or 18 ++ 70). ‘Compound’ refers to a combination of the previous two (thus 14. 15 © 55 or 58 < 18 + 13 or 150 © 87). 2.2 Chronology and calendar conversion All zijes begin with one or more chapters and sets of tables devoted to the definition of the various eras and calendars in use at the time and place of writing, to methods of converting dates from one calendar to another, and to the problem of determining the madkhal, that is, the day of the week cor responding to the first day of a given year and month in a given calendar. The most common are the Iunar Hijra calendar and various solar calendars, See the EP article ABDIAD; R. A. K. Irani, “Arabic Numeral Forms”, Centaurus 4 (1955), pp. 1-12, repr. in Kennedy et al., Studies, pp. 710-721; also the comments, based on experience, often bitter, with medieval tables of one kind or another, in Kennedy & Kennedy, /slamic Geographical Tables, p. x; Kunitzsch, Sternkatalog des Almagest (cited in n. 44 below), I, pp. 19-21; and King, World-Maps (n. 43), pp. 161- 163. Subayt 2 Goon)20 D. A. King & J. Sams6 including the Seleucid (Alexander), the Coptic (Diocletian), and the Persian (Yazdijird), and, in the West, the Julian (A.D. and Spanish Era). The Per- sian calendar, using the Egyptian year of 365 days and no intercalation, particularly convenient for astronomical purposes. Less commonly treated calendars are the Jewish, Syrian, Maliki, Saka and Chinese-Uighur.!® A few zijes treat the lunar mansions and the Arab system of dividing the year according to the mansions.' 2.3. Trigonometry All aijes contain trigonometric tables, usually of at least the sine (al-jayb) and the cotangent (ai-zill) functions. The sine, first used by Indian as- tronomers, replaced the Ptolemaic chord function (al-watar) amongst the Muslims. The argument of the sine was an are (rather than an angle) 6 of a circle of radius R units, where R is a base, usually 60, occasionally 1. In the Indian tradition R was taken as 120, 150, 1000, 3270, 3438, erc.; in the Hel- lenistic tradition it was taken as 60, The medieval sine function is denoted by Sin @ and is related to Ptolemy’s chord function and the modern function by: Sin6 = }Ch(2@) = Rsin@. In timekeeping the versed sine (al-sahm) was also used (Vers 0 = R — Cos = R (1 —cos 8)), and occasionally also the cosecant function (quer al-zill) (Csc @ = R®/Cos 0 = Resc @). The earli- See F. K. Ginzel, Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie, 3 vols., Leipzig 1906, especially vol. I; Kennedy, “Zij Survey”, p. 139; various articles in Kennedy er al., Studies, pp. 652-709; B. van Dalen, B. S. Kennedy and M. K. Saiyid, “The Chinese-Uiighur Calendar in Tast's Zij-i likhani”, ZGAIW 11 (1997), pp. 111-152, and also the EJ? article TA*RIKH (2: Era chronology in astronomical handbooks) by B. van Dalen, See the E/? articles ANWA’ and MANAZIL; and also Sams6, “Calendarios populares y tablas astronémicas”; M. Forcada, “Books of Anwa’ in al-Andalus”, in The Formation of al-Andalus, Part 2: Language, Religion, Culture and the Sciences, M. Fierro and 3 ‘Sams6 eds., Aldershot (Ashgate-Variorum) 1998, pp. 305-328; D. M. Varisco, Medieval Folk Astronomy and Agriculture in Arabia and the Yemen, Aldershot & Brookfield, Vt. (Variorum) 1997; idem, Medieval Agriculture and Islamic Science ~ The Almanac of a Yemeni Sultan, Seattle, Wa. 1993; and idem, “Islamic Folk Astronomy”, in Astronomy ‘across Cultures, pp. 615-650. Sohal 2 2001)Astronomical Handbooks and Tables 21 est sine tables, from the 9th century, gave values to three sexagesimal places for each 1° of argument. By the 15th century accurate tables were available displaying the function to five places for each minute of argument. This was achieved by first deriving a very precise value of Sin 1° and utilizing a clever method of second-order interpolation.”° The cotangent function invariably had the solar altitude as argument, and used a base equal to the length of a gnomon, so that the function measures the length of the horizontal shadow cast by the gnomon. The units for the gnomon length used were 12 digits (isba’, asabi), or 7 feet (gadam, aqdam), although other values were also used. Al-Biriini has a detailed discussion in his treatise On Shadows (lfrad al-magat fi amr al-zilal). The cotangent function was also first tabulated in the 9th century.2! Trigonometric fuctions were occasionally tabulated inde- pendently, that is, not in zijes — see 4.2. Various procedures were used for interpolation in tables.?? 2.4. Spherical astronomical functions ‘The study of spherical astronomy — the mathematics of the celestial sphere and of the apparent daily rotation of the sphere — was of prime concern to Muslim astronomers, not least because of the importance of astronomical time-keeping,®* The formule for deriving time from solar or stellar altitude 2 A. Aaboe, “al-Kashi’s Iteration Method for the Determination of Sin 1°”, Scripta Math- ematica 29 (1954), pp. 24-29. 21 See further Kennedy, “Zi Survey”, pp. 139-140; Schoy, “Beitriige zur arabischen Tri- gonometrie (Originalstudien nach unedierten arabisch-astronomischen Manuscripten)”, Isis 5 (1923), pp. 364-399, and Die Gnomonik der Avaber, Bd. 1:F of Die Geschichte der Zeitmessung und der Uhren, E, von Bassermann-Jordan ed., Berlin & Leipzig 1923, both repr. in idem, Beitriige, 11, pp. 448-483 and 351-447; al-Birtini, On Shadows, pp. 71-80; and also J. L, Berggren, Episodes in the Mathematics of Medieval Islam, New York, etc. 1986, pp. 127-156. 2 See J. Hamadanizadeh, “A Survey of Medieval Islamic Interpolation Schemes”, in Kennedy Festschrifi, pp. 143-152, and the EP? article TA‘DIL BAYN AL-SATRAYN, 2 See now King, SATMI, especially I-11 on tables for timekeeping and the regulation of the times of Muslim prayer, A summary is already in the EJ? survey article MIKAT. Susy! 2 200)22 D. A. King & J. Sams6 were known from the 8th century onwards and are discussed in every 2ij. We can distinguish between several groups of functions that were regularly tabulated in zijes:”* 25 6 n — The solar declination (mayl al-shams or al-mayl) as a function of solar longitude (darajat al-shams). Underlying such tables was a value for the obliquity of the ecliptic (al-mayl al-a'zam), a parameter which changes slowly with time. The second declination (al-mayl al-thant) was used in celestial coordinate transformations.?> = The half length of daylight (nisf qaws al-nahar) for different latitudes, as a function of solar longitude, in equatorial degrees and minutes, or in hours and minutes. Sometimes the latitude-dependent tables would be presented for the seven climates (igltm) of Antiquity® The tangent of the declination was often tabulated; it is an auxiliary function useful in the determination of the length of daylight for any latitude (see below). ~ The right ascensions (al-matali‘ fi 'l-falak al-mustagim) as a function of ecliptic longitude (al-ral), defining the rising time of a given arc of the ecliptic (measured from the vernal point) over the horizon at the equator, and the oblique ascensions (al-matdli‘ al-baladiyya), defining the corresponding times for the horizons of different localities. Often the latter would be tabulated for a series of latitudes.?” ‘On basic tables for spherical astronomy see Kennedy, “Zij Survey”, pp. 140-141; D. A. King, Astronomical Works of Ibn Yionus (cited in n. 115 below); al-Marrakushi, Mabadi’ wa-ghayar; J. L. Berggren, “Spherical Astronomy in Kishyar ibn Labban’s Jami’ Zi ,in Kennedy Festschrife, pp. 15-33; and E. S. Kennedy, “Spherical Astronomy in al-Kashi’s Khagant Zij”, ZGAIW 2 (1990), pp. 1-46, repr. in idem, Studies, VII. See the E/? articles MAYL, MINTAKA and SHAMS. ‘See the E/? article 1KLIM, and on the importance of the climates see King, “Astronom- ical Instruments” (n. 10), pp. 152, 168-169, and idem, “Bringing Astronomical Instru- ments Back to Earth: The Geographical Data on Medieval Astrolabes (to ca. 1100)", in North Festschrift, pp. 3-53, esp. pp. 6-9. ‘On ascensions see the El? article MATALI'. Shay! oon)Astronomical Handbooks and Tables 23 — The solar meridian altitude (irtifa‘al-shams li-nisf al-nahar), and less frequently the rising amplitude of the Sun (sa‘at al-mashrig) and the solar altitude in the prime vertical (al-irtifa alladht la samt lahu or al- irtifa‘ al-‘adim al-samt), all for specific latitudes. Likewise the solar altitude in the azimuth of the gibla (irtifa‘ al-shams idha marrat bi- samt al-gibla) for specific localities, also tabulated for each degree of solar longitude. Certain functions with no immediate astronomical significance were also tabulated on account of their utility in the computation of other functions. We may mention as examples such ‘auxiliary’ functions as the tangent of the declination (labelled fudiil al-matali* li-'I-ard kul- liha), the sine of the right ascension (jayb al-marali}, and the product of the cosines of the declination and the terrestrial latitude (al-ast al- mutlag).28 Numerous other minor tables are found in corpora of tables relating to astro- nomical time-keeping, independent of zijes — see 4.8-9. These collections also contain some more extensive tables for time-keeping. The only variety of these occasionally found in zijes is a table displaying the time (7) since rising of the Sun or any star as a function of the meridian altitude (H) and the instantaneous altitude (A), for a specific latitude: these tables are trape- zoidal in shape since h < H and are called 2ij al-taylasain, after the name of a shawl. A faylasan table for Maragha is contained in the Iikhani Zij.2° We should also mention the extensive tables for spherical astronomy in the compendium on astronomical instrumentation by al-Marrakushi (Cairo ca. 1280). x0 al-Marrikusht, Mabddi wa-ghayat, A. See also King, SATMI, 1-4.3.2, and I1-6.7, Suhay!224 D.A. King & J, Sams6 2.5 Planetary mean motions, equations and latitudes These constitute the hard core of all zijes.*! Extensive tables display the epoch positions and the mean motions (wasat, pl. awsdt) of the ‘planets’ (al-kawakib al-sayyara or al-mutahayyara), that is, the Sun, Moon and five naked-eye planets. The tables are intended for a specific terrestrial longi- tude, usually that of the locality where the zij was compiled. They can eas- ily be modified to the meridian of another locality, if required: sometimes subtables of longitude corrections are provided. The motions for a given number of completed years, months, days and hours are to be added to the epoch positions (Arabic as/, Latin radix) to derive the actual mean positions. These then needed to be modified by equations (ta‘dil, pl. ta‘adil) to derive the true ecliptic positions (sometimes called al-muhkam or al-mu‘addal). The operation of finding the true positions is called sagwim or ta‘dil, the former expression also used for ephemerides (see 4.3), and the positions mugawwam or mu‘addal, The professional astronomer who did this could be called mugawwim, but only one example of this usage is known, namely, ina signature on an astrolabe made in Damascus in 1222/23. In the Ptole- maic tradition the equations are calculated by successive applications of a series of auxiliary trigonometric functions for each planet.>3 The more ex- tensive double-argument tables for the equations sometimes found in zijes are discussed in 3.8 and 4.6. The apogees (awy, pl. awjat) of the planets Kennedy, “Zij Survey”, pp. 141-142; idem and H. Salam, “Solar and Lunar Tables in Barly Islamic Astronomy”, /AOS 87 (1967), pp. 492-497, repr. in Kennedy et al, Swudies, pp. 108-113; idem, “Two Medieval Approaches to the Equation of Time”, Cen- taurus 31 (1988), pp. 1-8, repr. in idem, Studies, VIN; B. van Dalen, “al-Khwarizmi’s ‘Tables Revisited: Analysis of the Equation of Time”, in Vernet Festschrift, 1, pp. 195- 252, idem, “A Table for the True Solar Longitude in the Jami* Zi”, in Frankfurt IGN Festhand, pp. 171-190; and G. Van Brummelen, “Mathematical Methods in the Tables of Planetary Motion in Kashyar ibn Labban’s Jami‘ Zi”, HistMath 25 (1998), pp. 265- 280. On practical solutions of the various operations involving Sun, Moon and planets, down to eclipses, see various studies based on al-Kashi’s treatise on the equatorium reprinted in Kennedy et al., Studies, pp. 448-491 32 Says Memorial Volumes, Il, pp. 730-731. 33 See the EJ? article SHAMS, KAMAR and TA‘DIL. Subst 2 2001)Astronomical Handbooks and Tables 25 need to be considered in such calculations, and their positions, which vary with time, were also tabulated. Occasionally, especially, but not only, in Andalust and Maghribi zijes, we find tables relating to trepidation (al-ighal wa-’l-idbar), the presumed oscillation of the equinoxes — see further Additional auxiliary tables enabled the computation of the planetary la tudes (al-‘ard).* In the case of the Moon, a single table would suffice, the argument being the nodal distance, derived from the lunar longitude and the position of the ascending node, which was tabulated along with the mean motions. In the calculation of solar and lunar eclipses (see 2.7) also the equation of time,” that is, the difference between true and mean solar time, with a maximum of around 30 minutes, had to be considered; tables for this function were likewise standard in zijes. All of the necessary instructions for using these various tables are found in the typical zij. See also 2.12 on modern methods of analyzing medieval planetary tables. 2.6 Planetary stations and visibility Additional tables enabled the investigation of the direct and retrograde mo- tions of the planets, their stations, and their visibility (depending on their apparent elongation from the Sun). 2.7 Solar and lunar parallax and eclipses In zijes we also find tables for calculating the parallax of the Sun and Moon (ikhilaf al-manzar), preparatory to the prediction of eclipses (kusaf for the Sun and khusiif for the Moon*”). This would be achieved by means of tables “B.S, Kennedy and W. Ukashah, “al-Khwarizmi’s Planetary Latitude Tables”, Centaucrus 14 (1969), pp. 86-96, repr. in Kennedy et a., Studies, pp. 125-135; M. Viladri Planetary Latitude Tables in the Muntahan Zij", JHA 19 (1988), pp. 257-268; and B. van Dalen, “Planetary Latitude Tables in the Huihué [ (11)" (cited in n. 108 below). See the EJ? article TA‘DIL AL-ZAMAN, and also the studies of E. S. Kennedy and B. van Dalen cited in n, 31 36 B.S. Kennedy and M. Agha, “Planetary Visibility Tables in Islamic Astronomy”, Cen: taurus 7 (1960), pp. 134-140, repr. in Kennedy et al., Suulies, pp. 144-150. Sutayt2 2001)26 D. A. King & J. Sams6 of the times of syzygies, of true solar and lunar motions in small critical periods of time, of apparent solar and lunar radii, and others.** There is no survey of Islamic procedures for the computation of eclipses,” but this is currently being undertaken by B. van Dalen. 2.8 Lunar visibility Particular attention was paid by Muslim astronomers to the prediction of the visibility of the lunar crescent on the first evening after a conjunction of the Sun and Moon.” From the 9th century onwards tables were prepared to facilitate such predictions, underlying which were limiting conditions on various functions based on the apparent positions of the Sun and Moon rela- tive to each other and to the local horizon. Numerous such tables, of varying sophistication and complexity, are found in various zijes.*! See also 4.5. 37 On various not-too-technical aspects of the determination of eclipses see the EF? article KUSUF, 38 B.S. Kennedy, “Zij Survey”, pp. 143-144; idem, “Parallax Theory in Islamic Astron- omy”, Isis 47 (1956), pp. 33-53, repr. in idem et al., Studies, pp. 164-184; also B. R. Goldstein, “Lunar Velocity in the Middle Ages: a Comparative Study”, in Vernet Festschrifi, 1, pp. 181-194. % See already E. S. Kennedy and N. Faris, “The Solar Eclipse Technique of Yahya ibn ‘Abi Mangir”, JHA 1 (1970), pp. 20-38, and J. A. As-Saleh, “Solar and Lunar Distances and Apparent Velocities in the Astronomical Tables of Habash al-Llasib”, in al-Abhath (Beirut) 23 (1970), pp. 129-177, repr. in idem et al., Suudies, pp. 185-203 and 204-252; and a study by Kennedy on eclipse calculations in the Sanjufint 2ij cited inn. 109 below. 40 See the El? article RU'YAT AL-HILAL. 41. S. Kennedy, “The Lunar Crescent Visibility Theory of Ya‘qab ibn Tariq”, JNES 27 (41968), pp. 126-132, repr. in idem et al, Studies, pp. 157-163; D. A. King, “Some Early Islamic Tables for Determining Lunar Crescent Visibility”, in Kennedy Festschrift, pp. 185-225, repr. in idem, Studies, C-II; B.S. Kennedy and M. Janjanian, “The Cres- cent Visibility Table in al-Khwarizmi's Zi", Centaurus 11 (1965), pp. 73-78, repr. in idem et al., Studies, pp. 151-156 (deals with an Andalus? table included version); Morelon, Thabit ibn Qurra, pp. xciii-exviti, 93-112, and 230-259 (includes materials duc to Thabit preserved only in the Sanjar? Zi); J. P. Hogendijk, “Three Is lamic Lunar Crescent Visibility Tables”, JHA 19 (1988), pp. 29-44; D. A. King, “IbnAstronomical Handbooks and Tables 27 2.9 Geographical tables Tables displaying longitudes and latitudes of numerous localities are stan- dard in zijes. They have been published in various formats, that is, according to locality, source, increasing longitudes and increasing latitudes, by E. S. and M. H. Kennedy, who provided a valuable research tool that is currently being extended by M. Comes of Barcelona.*? These geographical coordi- nates were included in zijes in order to facilitate the use of planetary tables for other meridians, for which the longitude difference has to be taken into consideration, and also for computing the gibla, A minority of tables also display the gibla for each locality. Such tables are often engraved on astro- nomical instruments, especially those from Safavid Iran.** See also 4.10 on tables displaying the qibla for ranges of longitudes and latitudes. 2.10 Star catalogues Ina typical zj we find a table displaying the ecliptic or equatorial coordi- nates of selected stars, sometimes for a few dozen, sometimes for several hundred. Procedures for coordinate conversion are also described. The star catalogue in the Arabic Almagest has been published by P. Kunitzsch,“* and ‘Yanus on Lunar Crescent Visibility”, JHA 19 (1988), pp. 155-168, repr, in idem, Stud- ies, C-IIl; and Kennedy & Hogendijk, “Two Tables from ... Tibet” (cited in n. 109 below), pp. 238-242. “2 Kennedy & Kennedy, Islamic Geographical Coordinates; also E. S. Kennedy, “Math- ematical Geography”, in EHAS, I, pp. 185-201. On the Andalusi tradition represented by Ibn al-Zayyat see also M. Comes, “Islamic Geographical Coordinates: al-Andalus’ Contribution to the Correct Measurement of the Size of the Mediterranean”, in Istan- bul 1991 and 1994 Symposia Proceedings, pp. 123-138, and the same author's study mentioned in n. 72. ‘8 King, World-Maps for Finding the Direction and Distance to Mecca ..., Leiden & London 1999, pp. 71-89, 149-186, and App. B. 4% P. Kunitzsch, Der Almagest — Die Syntaxis Mathematica des Claudius Ptolemdus in arabisch-lateinischer Uberlieferung, Wiesbaden 1974; idem, Claudius Piolemdus — Der Sternkatalog des Aimagest — Die arabisch-mittelalterliche Tradition, 3 vols., Wies- baden 1986-1991; also idem, Studies. Sehayl2 001)28 D.A. King & J. Sams6 some early Islamic tables have been investigated by D. Girke (alas unpub- lished). More research is necessary to establish the relationships between individual star catalogues, not all of which are related in a trivial way to that in the Almagest. Thus, for example, the tables in the Kitab Suwar al- kawakib, “On Constellations”, by ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Siifi, and those in the aij of Ulugh Beg, are essentially Ptolemaic. Independent catalogues are found in the Mumtahan Zij, the Hakimt Zij, the Huihui li (a Chinese transla- tion of an independent zif), etc."® 2.11 Tables for mathematical astrology Zijes usually contain tables useful for astrological purposes,*7 notably, for drawing up a horoscope for a certain moment or for a series of such mo- ments, such as each year in the life of an individual. Given the horoscopus or ascendant, that is, the point of the ecliptic instantaneously rising over the 45D. Girke, “Drei Beitrige zu den friihesten islamischen Sternkatalogen mit besonderer Riicksicht auf Hilfsfunktionen fur die Zeitrechnung bei Nacht", Frankfurt am Main, Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universitat, Institut fir Geschichte der Naturwissenschafien, Preprint Series no. & (1988), 4% BB. Knobel, Ulughbeg’s Catalogue of Stars, Washington, D.C. 1917; M. Y. ‘Shevchenko, “An Analysis of the Errors in the Star Catalogues of Ptolemy and Ulugh Beg”, JHA 21 (1990), pp. 187-201; K. Krisciunas, “A More Complete Analysis of the Errors in Ulugh Beg’s Star Catalogue”, JHA 24 (1993), pp. 269-280; and P. Kunitzsch, “The Astronomer al-Saff as a Source for Ulugh Begs Star Catalogue (1437)". in Stras- bourg 1995 Colloquium Proceedings, pp. 41-47. On the influence of Islamic star catalogues in medieval Burope see P. Kunitesch, Typen von Sternverseichnissen in astronomischen Handschrifien des zelinten bis vierzehnten Jahrhunderts, Wiesbaden 1966, and various contributions to the Kunitzsch Festschrift ‘On stat lists in Hebrew that depend on Islamic sources, sce B. R. Goldstein, “Star Lists in Hebrew”, Centarerus 28 (1985), pp. 185-208; K. A. F. Fischer, P. Kunitzsch and Y. T, Langerman, “The Hebrew Astronomical Codex Ms. Sassoon 823”, Jewish Quarierly Review 78 (1988), pp. 253-292, repr. in Langerman, Studies, X; and Goldstein & Chabas, “Ibn al- Star List” (cited in n. 156 below). See also B. van Dalen, “A Non-Ptolemai sin Kunitesch Festschrift. pp. 147-176. a On the concepts see al-Birant, Tafhin, passin: Kennedy, “Zij Survey”, and the EP article NUDJOM, AHKAM Al-. pp. 144-145;