CLIMATE RESPONSIVE ARCHITECTURE: CREATING GREATER

DESIGN AWARENESS AMONG ARCHITECTS

Kabiru S. Daroda
Department of Architecture
College of Environmental Studies
Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna, Nigeria
E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Climate has always challenged man in his quest for a better life. The elements
of weather have affected all spheres of man's activities and have shaped his
instinctive responses leading to largely disruptive effects to the natural
environmental equilibrium. Nothing is more basic to human existence as food
and shelter. The search for habitable dwellings which offer comfort, security
and relief brings into focus the need for buildings which respond to particular
local climatic and environmental conditions. This paper primarily aimed at
creating greater design awareness among architects on designing climate
responsive architectures. It strives to provide suggestions to architects (who lead
the building professionals) on employing an organized approach to designs to
suit specific climates. Based on the findings of the study it was recommended
among others that architects should embrace a proper interpretation of location
and climate parameters. Also, architectural designs must harmonize passive
and active cooling/heating strategies. This may include sun shading, thermal
insulation and cross-ventilation in combination with active systems, such as air
conditioning.
Keywords: Climate, Environment, Architecture, Design, Construction

INTRODUCTION

Depending on the contexts and perceptions of the period, architecture has

been defined in various ways. The Encarta dictionary (2008) says it is the art and
science of designing and constructing buildings. Another description refers to the
overall design of a building, structure, or system that unifies its components or elements
into a coherent and functional whole (dictionary.com ,2009). Other descriptions
abound but the overriding theme of most definitions is the recognition of architecture
as reconciliation between man and the environment. This reconciliation requires the
architect to constructively contend with the prevailing external environment into which
he introduces his building. Among the several goals the architect sets out to achieve
when designing a building, the creation of a comfortable living space is perhaps the
most important (Saberi, Saneei and Javanbakht, 2000). This overriding need for
comfort indeed determines the success or failure of any architectural design scheme,
necessitating a competent understanding of local climatic conditions and working
with them. From the beginning of time, man has been affected by climate and its

Journal of Environmental Issues and Agriculture in Developing Countries, Volume 3 Number 1, April 2011 33
influence over the earth. This is reflected in the efforts of the first humans who inhabited
caves and built shelters to avoid the elements of weather. Turner (2003) quotes Oktay
as dating the first documented architectural design with climate in mind as far back as
4BC in Greece. This is probably the origin of vernacular or climate-responsive
architecture whereby the approach to design of buildings in various regions of the
world employs unique local techniques that are best suited to that particular region
and which encompass the cultural patterns (Turner, 2003). Due to inadequacies in
the training curriculum (Sa'ad, 2001), architects are not properly equipped to effectively
marry designs with local conditions resulting in designs which rely totally on active
methods of thermal comfort control thereby producing buildings which lack both
cost and energy efficiency.
The so-called International Style which ignores traditional age-old solutions
to problems posed by local climate while relying instead on the use of high technology
materials such as reinforced concrete frame and glass walls simply fails as an
architectural solution. Indeed as Fathy (1986) illustrates, a 3 x 3m glass wall in a
building exposed to solar radiation on a warm, clear tropical day will let in
approximately 2000 kilocalories per hour. To maintain the microclimate of a building
thus exposed within the human comfort zone, two tons of refrigeration capacity is
required. Such a reliance on energy-consuming solutions at a time when the earth is
experiencing severe climate change due to global warming (IPCC, 1997) is truly a
reflection of the failure of the architect to live up to his responsibility towards the
client and the environment. The architect cannot ignore the environment and local
conditions in which he operates. Olotuah (2006) captures the essence of this argument
by insisting that architectural education (and by extension the practice of the profession)
must not only be appreciative of the various cultures of the people, but must also be
informed by it. The need for climate-responsive architecture is clearly not only desirable
but essential.

Fig. 1: World Climates: Source: www.printablemaps.com

Journal of Environmental Issues and Agriculture in Developing Countries, Volume 3 Number 1, April 2011 34
 CLIMATE AND DESIGNING FOR COMFORT
In applying climate-responsive architecture principles, it is useful to understand
the basics of climate itself and its characteristics. Climate is the term used to describe
the long-term weather patterns of a particular place, including factors such as rainfall
and humidity (Jackson and Hudman, 1990). Depending on the combination of these
factors, different climate classifications can be given to various regions of the world.
The climate of any region is affected by latitude (distance from the equator) and
elevation as well as nearby oceans and ocean currents.
The Kppen Climate Classification System is the most widely used for
classifying the world's climates (Koch-Nielsen, 1997). It is based on the one introduced
in 1900 by the Russian-German climatologist Wladimir Kppen. He divided the Earth's
surface into climatic regions that generally coincided with world patterns of vegetation
and soils. The Kppen system recognizes five major climate types based on the annual
and monthly averages of temperature and precipitation. Table 1 shows the
categorization he developed. The whole concept of comfort has been looked at and
approached by different academics in different ways. Comfort is defined by Opoko
(2001) as conditions in which somebody feels physically relaxed. Saini (1973) identifies
comfort as being both physiological and psychological. This underscores the
importance of establishing just what the conditions required for comfort are and
explains the development and use of the bioclimatic chart (Fig 1).
This is a chart which identifies the comfort zone which Krishan & Arvind,
(1999) define as the range of temperatures and humidities within which people feel
comfortable under calm wind conditions. In general, as temperature increases,
tolerance to humidity decreases, and vice versa. Wind speed, however, has a great
effect on the comfort zone. Increases in wind speed up to about 40 miles per hour
lower the effective temperature, a phenomenon known as the wind-chill factor. When
air temperature is 20C and wind speed is 20 miles per hour, the effective temperature
is -10C and when wind speed is 40 miles per hour, the effective temperature is -
21C. Every climate offers challenges. Hot humid climates for example present high
temperatures, insolation, high humidity and small diurnal temperature range. Temperate
climates on the other hand have low humidity with high diurnal range and have four
distinct seasons: summer, winter, autumn and spring.

Fig. 2: The Psychometric Chart Source: Hall and Blakay (1996)

Journal of Environmental Issues and Agriculture in Developing Countries, Volume 3 Number 1, April 2011 35
The chart can be used as a design tool, with the comfort zone in the centre. Temperature
forms the horizontal axis, humidity the vertical axis. Warm climates normally sit to
the right of the comfort zone.
Table 1: The Kppen Climate Classification System
Climate Sub-group Characteristics
Tropical humid Af Tropical wet No dry season
Am Tropical monsoonal Short dry season; heavy
monsoonal rains in other months
Aw Tropical savanna Winter dry season
Dry BWh Subtropical desert Low-latitude desert
BSh Mid-latitude dry Low-latitude dry
BWk Mid-latitude desert Mid-latitude desert
BSk Mid-latitude steppe Subtropical steppe
Mild Mid-Latitude Csa Mediterranean Mild with dry, hot summer
Csb Mediterranean Mild with dry, warm summer
Cfa Humid subtropical Mild with no dry season, hot summer
Cwa Humid subtropical Mild with dry winter, hot summer
Cfb Marine west coast Mild with no dry season, warm summer
Cfc Marine west coast Mild with no dry season, cool summer
Severe Mid-Latitude Dfa Humid continental Humid with severe winter, no dry
season, hot summer
Dfb Humid continental Humid with severe winter, no dry
season, warm summer
Dwa Humid continental Humid with severe, dry winter, hot
summer
Dwb Humid continental Humid with severe, dry winter, warm
summer
Dfc Subarctic Severe winter, no dry season, cool
summer
Dfd Subarctic Severe, very cold winter, no dry season,
cool summer
Dwc Subarctic Severe, dry winter, cool summer
Dwd Subarctic Severe, very cold and dry winter, cool
summer
Polar ET Tundra Polar tundra, no true summer
EF Ice Cap Perennial ice
Source: Lene Edvardsen

THE CLIMATE-RESPONSIVE ARCHITECTURE

Climate-responsive architecture can be defined as architecture aimed at

achieving occupant thermal and visual comfort with little or no recourse to non-
renewable energy sources by incorporating the elements of the local climate effectively
(Yannas, 2003). This refers therefore to architecture that reduces the negative impact
on the environment & sustains the ecosystem of which it is a part. Udyavar (2006)
identifies the main paradigms of Climate Sensitive Architecture as: (a) Energy Efficient
Design (b) Preservation of Natural Ecosystems (c) Use of Renewable Energy
(d) Water Resource Management (e) Use of Eco-friendly materials (f) Ecological
Landscape Design (g) Solid Waste Management and Healthy Indoor Environment.
For the architect, the process of acquiring and maintaining the knowledge and

Journal of Environmental Issues and Agriculture in Developing Countries, Volume 3 Number 1, April 2011 36
proficiency needed to create and sustain an environmentally-responsive architecture
can be very tasking. Yannas argues that this requires the architect to have motivation,
dedication and a considerable amount of time. There can also be conflicts with other
criteria. For some designers environmental aspects are just an additional concern; for
them environmental design is essentially and mainly corrective rather than generative.
Such designers fail at the first hurdle to incorporate what Ehrenkrantz (1992) identifies
as user needs and aspirations which include provision of environmental control and
comfort among others. In practical terms climate-responsive architecture should result
in structures that are planned and constructed to accommodate weather-related factors
such as heavy precipitation, snow loads and temperature extremes. To get from design
objectives to actualization, the architect has to incorporate environmental aspects
from the outset. At the heart of this is the architectural design process itself which is
so complicated that even experienced architects could not easily clarify what exactly
happens in creating a new building. Table 2 below offers suggestions on some steps
in design process that architects use.

Table 2: The Architectural Design Process

1. Study 2. Sketch Design 3. Design 4. Detail design
(giving Alternatives) Scale: 1:100 Scale: 1:50-1:1
Concepts and Ideas Concepts and Ideas Choosing one of Detail design of:
alternatives and Architectural
giving exact plans Mechanical
on different levels Electrical and
structural systems
Climate and comfort Facades
Function Functional 2d and 3d
Diagrams Sections
Circulation Orientation Perspectives Cost estimation
Culture Volume Model Perspectives
Structure Facades Primary decisions exact models
about mechanical,
structural and electrical
systems
Mechanical systems Site layout Thedrawings
should be ready to
built without any
more description
Electrical systems Simple models
Source: Saberi,Saneei and Javanbakht (2002)
An analysis of the table shows that climate studies are the first step, in which
the architect needs to study climate of the area using mostly meteorological stations
data outside or in the boundaries of the city. This data is then analyzed using some
approximate comfort data (winter and summer comfort zones) while at the same
time looking at passive heating/cooling strategies; then combine these strategies to
design in sketch and other steps, if other issues such as economical and/or aesthetic
considerations allow. Environmentally-responsive architecture is an evolving concept
that must be redefined and reassessed with each new project. Two major factors:

Journal of Environmental Issues and Agriculture in Developing Countries, Volume 3 Number 1, April 2011 37
knowledge and performance targets should govern any design decisions the architect
makes. These will form a strong guide and ensure that decisions reached are practical
and effective. Table 3 explains these factors further:
Factor Main sources
Knowledge i) A good theoretical grounding is essential to provide designers with the ability to conceive
ways in which building physics can translate into architecture.
ii) Empirical knowledge is needed that can show how different techniques have worked
in practice, and the extent to which their performance has satisfied the environmental
design criteria set at the design stage. This is acquired from fieldwork, with direct
observations and measurements, and by interviewing occupants after the building is
completed.
iii) Analytic tools and simulation techniques need to be used at different stages of design
to make performance predictions on which to compare and fine-tune designs thus helping
to test hypotheses derived from theoretical knowledge, as well as to draw generalized
conclusions from limited measurements and observations
Environmental i) what kind of environmental conditions need to be attained
performance ii) What materials and construction techniques should be chosen
targets iii) How much non-renewable energy use should be targeted for construction, operation,
reuse or recycling of the building
iv) How should environmental performance relate to building form and function?

If the deductions from the table are reduced to their basics, the conclusion is
that the architect needs to know his onions. Olotuah (2006) poses questions for the
architect to answer regarding his approach to design challenges and schemes when
he asks: (i) what kind of architecture do we want to produce? (ii) What kind of
architecture do we want to accept? (iii) What role is envisaged for the architect,
especially in the 21st century? (iv) What kind of architecture and architectural education
do we want to bequeath to the coming generation? These questions are pertinent
because they seek to determine if the architect is interested in finding carefully thought-
out solutions which contribute value to the profession or not. Based on the identified
issues from the processes in Table 3 above, the architect should now be prepared to
ascertain his design approach and objectives in a practical and direct way.

The Practical Approach: Having established that design with climate is essentially
driven by PLANNING a proper projection, a practical approach is to carry out a
stage-by-stage phased approach to design schemes. Haruna (2006) describes
architecture as being successful if it acts well and does the thing it is required to do.
If this success is to be achieved, a staged approach (referred to as Stages 1 and 2) is
suggested and it involves investigation/evaluation and synthetic application of design
responses.

STAGE 1: Investigation & Evaluation

Clearly, any analysis carried out will give specific results depending on the
factors determined by local conditions. The deductions from the information in Stage
1 should guide the architect subsequently.

Journal of Environmental Issues and Agriculture in Developing Countries, Volume 3 Number 1, April 2011 38
Table 4: Stage 1
Phase Issues to consider Implications
Analysis * Prevailing wind, precipitation and * Reduced energy costs and loads
temperature conditions in the area. during active life of building
* The site's location in relation to * Thermal comfort of occupants
the sun from morning to night. * Reduced impact (heat island) on the
* The ability of terrain, vegetation and nearby external environment
buildings to block winds and air currents.
* Wind direction, strength and frequency in combi-
nation with sun, precipitation and temperature.
* the determined comfort level of the area
based on the bio-climatic chart
* Occupancy
* Lux levels
* Internal heat gain

Planning * Siting of buildings

* Juxtaposition of buildings in relation to one another
* topography and vegetation.
* Orientation
* Design and arrangement of building
* Organisation of activities in and around buildings.
* Arrangement of building parts and structures
* volumes
* Management, operation and maintenance.
* Identification of Passive design elements such as walls,
openings, roofs, etc. & the use of appropriate
technology & materials
Specifications Use of Eco-friendly materials
* Materials with low embodied energy * Reduce the release of GHGs
* Materials that contain recycled content or * Safeguard health of occupants
are recyclable * Reduced impact on the external environment
* Local or rapidly renewable material
* Non-toxic/Low Toxic Materials
Use of Renewable Energy Resources
* Solar thermal for water heating * Reduce dependence on fossil fuels
* Solar Photo Voltaic for electricity * Reduce the emission of Green house gases
* Wind & hybrid systems & thus the threat of global warming
* Geothermal, tidal, micro-hydel energy * Pollution and emission-free
Fuel cells and hydrogen
Ecological landscaping
* Based on knowledge of topography, * Prevention of soil erosion &
drainage, geology as well as flora subsequent ecological devastations
and fauna of the region * Protection of native, indigenous species
* Bo-biologue: passive design with trees of vegetation
* Protection of soil and vegetationo Including * Long term ecological sustainability
water shed, waste and water management of the bio-region

STAGE 2: Synthetic Application

This involves the application of various measures to deal with the problems
identified by the analysis and evaluation process. Basically this means taking measures
to address Passive Cooling, Orientation, Shading, Insulation, Thermal Mass, Passive
Solar Heating and Renewable Energy. Table 5 suggests some design applications
which are appropriate for particular climates.

Journal of Environmental Issues and Agriculture in Developing Countries, Volume 3 Number 1, April 2011 39
CLIMATE SUGGESTED DESIGN RESPONSES
Tropical humid i) Employ lightweight (low mass) construction
ii) Maximize external wall areas (plans with one room depth are ideal) to encourage movement of breezes through the
building (cross ventilation)
iii) Ceiling fans should be used where required
iv) Site buildings for exposure to breezes and shading all year.
v) Shade whole building summer and winter (consider using a fly roof).
vi) Use reflective insulation and vapour barriers.
vii)Ventilate roof spaces
viii) Use bulk insulation if mechanically cooling
ix) Choose light coloured roof and wall materials
x) Elevate building to permit airflow beneath floors
xi) Consider high or raked ceilings
xii) Provide screened, shaded outdoor living areas
xiii) Consider creating sleepout spaces
xiv) Design and build for cyclonic conditions.
Dry i) Use passive solar principles with well insulated thermal mass
ii) Maximise night time cooling in summer.
iii)Consider convective (stack) ventilation, which vents rising hot air while drawing in cooler air.
iv)Build more compact shaped buildings with good cross ventilation for summer.
v) Maximise solar access, exposure to cooling breezes and cool air drainage.
vi) Protect from strong, cold winter and dusty summer winds.
vii Shade all east and west glass in summer.
viii Provide shaded outdoor living areas.Consider adjustable shading to control solar access.
ix Avoid air-conditioning.
x Use reflective insulation to keep out summer heat.
xi Use bulk insulation for ceilings, walls and exposed floors.
xii Consider double glazing.
xiii Use ponds and water in shaded courtyards to provide evaporative cooling.
xiv Draught seal thoroughly. Use airlocks to entries.
Mild Mid-Latitude 1. Use passive solar design with insulated thermal mass.
2. Maximise cross ventilation
3.Evaporative cooling or ceiling fans should be used if required.
4. Consider convective (stack) ventilation, which vents rising hot air while drawing in cooler air.
5. Site home for solar access and exposure to cooling breezes. Shade all east and west glass in summer.
6. Install reflective insulation to keep out heat in summer
7.Use bulk insulation in ceilings and walls.
8. Build screened, shaded summer outdoor living areas that allow winter sun penetration.
Severe Mid-Latitude 1. Use passive solar principles.
2. High thermal mass is strongly recommended.
3. Insulate thermal mass including slab edges.
4. Maximize north facing walls and glazing, especially in living areas with passive solar access.
5. Minimize east, west and south facing glazing.
6. Use adjustable shading.
7. Use double glazing, insulating frames and/or heavy drapes with sealed pelmets to insulate glass in winter.
8.Minimise external wall areas (especially east and west).
9. Use cross ventilation and night time cooling in summer.
10. Site new homes for solar access, exposure to cooling breezes and protection from cold winds.
11. Draught seal thoroughly and provide airlocks to entries.
12.Install auxiliary heating in extreme climates.
13.Use renewable energy sources.
14.Use reflective insulation to keep out heat in summer.
15.Use bulk insulation to keep heat in during winter.
Polar 1.Insulate thermal mass including slab edges.
2.Maximise north facing walls and glazing, especially in living areas with passive solar access.
3.Minimise east, west and south facing glazing.
4.Use adjustable shading.
5.Use double glazing, insulating frames and/or heavy drapes with sealed pelmets to insulate glass in winter.
6. Minimise external wall areas (especially east and west).
7.Use cross ventilation and night time cooling in summer.
8.Site new homes for solar access, exposure to cooling breezes and protection from cold winds.
9.Draught seal thoroughly and provide airlocks to entries.
10.Install auxiliary heating in extreme climates.
11. Use renewable energy sources.
12.Use reflective insulation to keep out heat in summer.
13.Use bulk insulation to keep heat in during winter.
14 Bulk insulate walls, ceilings and exposed floors.

Journal of Environmental Issues and Agriculture in Developing Countries, Volume 3 Number 1, April 2011 40
Illustrated Examples of Climate-responsive Design Solutions

Journal of Environmental Issues and Agriculture in Developing Countries, Volume 3 Number 1, April 2011 41
 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The challenges before architects are numerous. While in the past the factors
they had to contend with in approaching design schemes were clear cut, the
requirements today have greatly increased. The architect can no longer design in
isolation disregarding the environmental effects of his buildings. Projections about
the effects of climate change which has been caused by man's activities make it
imperative for the design of buildings which are energy efficient and cause minimal
negative environmental impact. The architect possesses a powerful tool which if
used wisely can achieve all of the design objectives and promote the ideals of
environmental sustainability. Based on the findings, the following are recommended:
i Architects should embrace a proper interpretation of location and climate
parameters.
ii Planning regulations should require all designs to show a greater synthesis
between building elements and local climate conditions.
iii Architectural designs must harmonize passive and active cooling/heating
strategies. This may include sun shading, thermal insulation and cross-
ventilation in combination with active systems, such as air conditioning.
iv The impact of buildings on the environment must be assessed and minimum
acceptable requirements established before any building approvals are issued
v Stricter enforcement of planning strategies as they concern gross floor area
to control the total site coverage and building footprint

Journal of Environmental Issues and Agriculture in Developing Countries, Volume 3 Number 1, April 2011 42
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