IEEE Terms Used by Power System Protection Engineers PDF

IEEE Power & Energy Society TECHNICAL REPORT
Jul 1997 PES-TR8

Formerly TP130
Terms Used by Power

System Protection
Engineers
PREPARED BY THE
Power System Relaying Committee
Relay Standards Subcommittee
Power System Engineers Working Group
IEEE 2013 The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Inc.

No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form, in an electronic retrieval system or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
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Terms Used by Power System Protection Engineers
A Special Publication of the

IEEE
Power System Relaying Oommittee

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Prepared by the
Terms Used by Power System Engineers Working Group
of the
Relay Standards Subcommittee
1997 -July-31
This special report was prepared for and approved by the "Power System Relaying Committee" of the "IEEE Power Engi-
neering Society". It was prepared by the "Terms Used by Power System Engineers Working Group" of the "Relaying Stan-
dards Subcommittee".
At the time of its approval, January 1997, the Working Group Membership was
M.S. Sachdev, Chair

Department of Electrical Engineering
University of Saskatchewan
57 Campus Drive
SASKA TOON SK
Canada S7N 5A9
B.D. Nelson, Vice Chair

Wisconsin Power and Light
222 W. Washington Avenue
MADISON
WI 53703
Bajpai, M., Phoenix, AZ Elmore, W.A., Coral Springs, FL

Beckwith, B.L., Lavina, MT lIar, F., Baden, Switzerland
Clough, G.K., Vancouver, WA Plumptre, F.P., Vancouver, BC
Dalke, G.R., Edmond, OK Wiedman, T.E., Chicago, IL
Darlington, A.N., Tampa, FL Whittaker, J., London, UK
Zugris, D., Washington, DC
Abstracting is permitted with credit to the source. For other copying, reprint, or republication permission, write to the
IEEE Copyright Manager, IEEE Operations Center, 445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08855-1331. All rights reserved.
Copyright 1998 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
IEEE Catalog Number: TP130-0-031998-1-0
Additional copies of this publication are available from
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email: [email protected]
Foreword
Members of the "Power System Relaying Committee" entrants in the area of power system protection in under-
have expressed concern from time to time that recently standing them properly.
graduated engineers, technologists and engineers from
To keep the explanations from conflicting with the defmi-
other disciplines usually experience difficulty with prop-
tions of terms provided in the standards, the Working
erly interpreting the terminology used in the area of Power
Group maintained liaison with the "Terminology Usage
System Protection. The consequence is that they experi-
Review Working Group" (of the "Relay Standards Sub-
ence difficulty in communicating effectively with their
committee" of the "Power System Relaying Committee"
colleagues.
of the IEEE "Power Engineering Society") that recom-
To overcome this difficulty, the "Power System Relaying mends adoption of new definitions for inclusion in the
Committee" of the IEEE formed, in January 1991, the IEEE dictionary and IEEE/ANSI standards.
"Terms Used by Power System Protection Engineers
The explanations of the terms were written and then re-
Working Group". This working group was assigned the
vised several times to avoid conflict with the official defi-
task of preparing a special publication which should de-
nitions and to make the explanations suitable for achieving
scribe in a straight forward manner the terms commonly
the intended objectives of this report. The Working Group
used by power system protection engineers.
hopes that this document will be found useful by recent
Almost all the terms, discussed in this report, are defined engineering graduates, technologists, and engineers who
in the IEEE Std 100-1992 "The New IEEE Dictionary of do not have formal training in Power System Protection
Electrical and Electronics Terms", the "International Elec- but have to interact with protection engineers.
trotechnical Commission's" publication, "IEC Multilin-
gual Dictionary of Electricity" and standards published by
various organizations. The objective of the report was not M.S. Sachdev
to redefine the terms but provide brief explanations to as- Working Group Chair
sist the recent graduate engineers, technologists and new
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CopyrightCO The Instituteof Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
Table of Contents
Working Group Membership............ ii 5.1 Distance Relay ..................... 13

Foreword.................................... iii 5.2 Impedance Relay ...................... 13
Table of Contents........................... iv 5.3 Mho Relay ......................... 14
List of Figures................................... v 5.4 Blinder.............................. 15
6. Other Relays............................. 16
1. Introduction.............................. 1
6.1 Differential Relays ................ 16
2. General Terms........................... 2 6.1.1 Transformer differential
2.1 Accuracy ........................... 2 protection.................... 17
2.2 Accuracy Class .................... 2 6.1.2 Magnetizing inrush currents 17
2.3 Reliability............................. 2 6.2 Other Relays for Transformer
2.3.1 Dependability.............. 3 Protection.......................... 18
2.3.2 Security..................... 3 6.2.1 Combustible gas relay ...... 18
2.4 Sensitivity.......................... 3 6.2.2 Gas accumulation relay .... 18
2.5 Relay Stability..................... 3 6.2.3 Static pressure relay ........ 18
2.6 Primary Protection................ 3 6.2.4 Sudden pressure relay ...... 18
2.7 Backup Protection................ 3 6.3 Thermal Relay ..................... 18
2.8 Dual Protection..................... 3 6.4 Temperature Relay ............... 18
2.9 Device Number................... 3 6.4.1 Replica Relay or replica
temperature relay .......... 19
3. Relay Types............................... 5 6.4.2 RTD Relay ................... 20
3.1 Relay ................................ 5 6.5 Loss of field (excitation) Relay. 20
3.2 Electromagnetic Relay ............ 5 6.6 Out-of-step Relay ................. 20
3.3 Electromechanical Relay .......... 5
3.4 Solid-state and Static Relay ...... 6 7. Circuit Breaker Applications......... 21
3.5 Microprocessor-based Relay .... 6 7.1 Breaker Failure ..................... 21
3.5.1 Multi-function Relay ........ 7 7.2 Poie Disagreement................ 22
7.3 Pole Flashover..................... 22
4. Overcurrent Relay....................... 9 7.4 Single-Pole Tripping............. 22
4.1 Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay 9
4.2 Overcurrent Relay Time-Current 8. System Disturbances................... 23
Characteristic...................... 9 8.1 Underfrequency Relay ............ 23
4.2.1 Time dial, (Time lever, Time 9. Disturbance Analysis..................... 24
multiplier).................. 9 9.1 Sequential Events Recorder....... 24
4.3 Directional Overcurrent. .............. 10 9.2 Transient Fault Recorder.......... 24
4.3.1 Connection angle ........... 11 9.2 Pre-fault, Fault and Post-fault
4.3.2 Polarizing quantity .......... 11 Periods .............................. 24
5. Ohmic Relay Applications............ 13 Bibliography..................................... 25
- iv -
Copyright The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
List of Figures
Fig. Title of Figure Page Fig. Title of Figure Page

No. No.
1. A line protected by a current re-
13. Typical operating characteristic of a
lay......................................... 2
mho relay......... 15
2. An Electromagnetic (current operated)
14. A typical current differential re-
plunger relay. .. ... ... ... .. . ... ..... 6
lay.......................................... 16
3. Block diagram of a microprocessor-
15. A typical percentage differential re-
based relay. .. ... ... ... .. . .. . ... . .. .. . ... . 7
lay......................................... 16
4. Signal and data flow of a microproc-
16. Zero sequence currents in a delta-wye
essor based relay 8
transformer.......................... 17
0
5. Time current characteristics com-

17. Typical magnetizing inrush currents in
monly used in inverse time overcur-
a delta-wye transformer.............. 18
rent relays , " 9
18. Mounting and schematic arrangement
6. Electrical and mechanical arrange-
of a sudden pressure relay... 19
ment of a typical inverse time over-
current relay....................... ..... 10 19. Thermal relay monitors 12R losses in
the protected equipment... . .. .. . ... ... 19
7. Impact of time dial adjustment on the
operating time of an overcurrent re- 20. The mounting of a typical temperature
lay......................................... 10 relay...... 19
8. Voltage phasors used in 60 and 90 21. The circuit diagram of a replica re-
connection angles..................... 12 lay........................................ 20
9. (a) Phase and polarizing voltages, and 22. Circuit ofa typical RTD relay....... 20
phase currents during normal opera-
23. Single bus switching arrangement;
tion ,., 12
circuit breaker A fails to interrupt cur-
9. (b) Phase currents and polarizing volt- rent.................................... 21
ages for identifying the direction of a
24. A breaker-and-a-half switching ar-
phase-b to phase-c fault. 12
rangement; circuit breaker A fails to
10. "Zones of protection" of relays pro- interrupt current to fault on the line to
tecting a transmission line... ... .. . .. . 13 circuit breaker J.. . ...... ....... .. .. ... 21
11. Generally used characteristics of ge- 25. Circuit breaker failure in a ring bus
neric distance relays... ... .. . .. . ... ... .. . 14 switching station....................... 22
12. Operating characteristics of imped- 26. Contact arrangement of the a three
ance and offset impedance relays.. ... ,. 15 phase circuit breaker which has two
poles per phase.. 22
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Copyright o The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
1. INTRODUCTION
There is considerable concern among power system engi- The Working Group appreciated at the outset that defini-
neers in general, and power system protection engineers in tions of almost all the terms used by power system protec-
particular, that recent graduates and engineers from other tion engineers are included in the IEEE Std 100-1992
disciplines usually experience difficulty with properly "The New IEEE Dictionary of Electrical and Electronics
interpreting the terminology used in applying relays, ana- Terms" [2], the "International Electrotechnical Commis-
lyzing their performance and designing protection sys- sion's" publication, "IEC Multilingual Dictionary of Elec-
tems. tricity" [9] and standards published by various organiza-
tions.
This makes it difficult for relay engineers to communicate
effectively with their colleagues and convey their inter- The Working Group discussed and decided
pretations of relaying issues and questions effectively. To
neither to redefme the terms already included in the
overcome this difficulty, the "Power System Relaying
dictionaries and standards,
Committee" of the IEEE "Power Engineering Society"
nor to reproduce the established definitions from
decided to prepare a special publication that would pro-
standards, and also
vide, in simple and straightforward language, interpreta-
not to provide historical development of terms.
tions of the terms used in the area of power system pro-
tection. The "Terms Used by Power System Protection The Working Group decided to provide, in its special re-
Engineers Working Group" was formed in January 1991 port, explanations of the terms in a straight forward man-
and was assigned the task of preparing a special publica- ner so that recent graduate engineers, technologists and
tion describing the terms commonly used by power system new entrants in the area of power system protection can
protection engineers. understand them properly and become useful participants
in their work without unnecessary frustration.
- 1-
2. GENERAL TERMS
The terms concerning the quality of measurements and

philosophy of protection are described in this section. The Ct Ratio 600/5
specific terms included in this section are ---+ ---+ Fault
accuracy,
Ct secondary
accuracy class,
current> IOOA
reliability, 12,000 A
security,
dependability,
sensitivity,
relay stability, Figure 1. A line protected by a current relay.
primary protection,
backup protection,
2.2 Accuracy Class
dual protection, and
device number. This term is used to define the quality of the steady state
performance of a current transformer. The accuracy class
2.1 Accuracy of a current transformer (ct) used for protection functions
is described by a letter which indicates whether the accu-
This term is used for at least two different purposes, one to racy can be calculated (class C) or it must be obtained
describe the accuracy of a device and the other to specify from physical tests (class T). This letter is followed by a
the accuracy of a measurement. number which is equal to the maximum secondary tenni-
In the first context, accuracy is the degree to which a de- nal voltage that the ct will produce at 20 times the rated
vice (relay, instrument or meter) conforms to an accepted secondary current with no more than 10% error.
standard. The statement of an accuracy is only as good as Examples of accuracy classes for 10% error class C cts are
the methods used to express it for individual components CIOO, C200, C400 and C800. At this time, there is no
and the manner in which they affect the overall accuracy accuracy class higher than C800. Examples of accuracy
of the device. classes for 10% error class T cts are TI05, 1250, T375
In the second case, the accuracy of a measurement speci- and T750.
fies the difference between the measured and true values
of a quantity. The deviation from the true value is the 2.3 Reliability
indication of how accurately a reading has been taken or a
Reliability is an index that expresses the attribute of a
setting has been made.
protective relay or a system to operate correctly for situa-
Example: If a relay is specified to have 5% accu- tions in which it is designed to operate. This also includes
racy, it means that the relay should operate when its the attribute of not operating (incorrectly) for all other
exciting quantity (current or voltage) is between -5% situations. Reliability is expressed in terms of two com-
and +5% of its setting. peting fundamental attributes, dependability and security.
Let us consider the case of Figure 1 and assume that
the ct provides secondary current which is an accurate 2.3.1 Dependability
representation of the primary current. When the fault Dependability is the aspect of reliability that expresses the
current is12,000 A, the current in the relay will be degree of certainty that a relay will operate correctly. For
100 A. If the relay accuracy is 5%, it could interpret relay systems, dependability is assured by using redundant
the current to be of any level from 95 A to 105 A. In protection systems and backup relays.
case the relay is set to operate at 100 A, it mayor may
not operate depending on its interpretation of the level Example: The primary protection for a transmis-
of current in the circuit. sion line may be provided by using a phase comparison
protection scheme. The degree of certainty that this
scheme will operate for all faults on the transmission
line is the dependability index of the scheme. To in-
crease this index for the transmission line protection
-2-
Terms Usedby PowerSystem Protection Engineers
Copyright (Q The Instituteof Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
system, distance relays can be included to act as Example: A differential relay protecting a transformer
backup relays. is expected to operate when a fault is experienced in its
protection zone. Other devices used to protect the
2.3.2 Security transformer, such as overcurrent relays, are expected to
operate if the differential relay fails to detect the fault.
Security is the aspect of reliability that expresses the de- In this case, the differential relay provides primary
gree of certainty that a relay will not operate incorrectly protection for faults in its zone of protection.
irrespective of the nature of the operating state of the
power system. 2.7 Backup Protection
Example: If a differential relay is designed to operate Relays used to provide second line of defense are said to
for faults in a transformer it is protecting, the degree of provide backup protection. The operating time of these
certainty that the relay will not operate for faults out- relays is longer than the operating time of primary relays,
side the transformer zone is the security index of the and, therefore, they operate but trip appropriate circuit
relay. breakers only if the primary relays fail to detect the pres-
ence of the disturbance or fail to open the circuit breakers.
2.4 Sensitivity These relays could be physically in the substation in which
the primary relays are located or may be located in a re-
This term is used to express different attributes of devices.
mote substation.
One definition expresses it as a ratio of the response of the
device to the change of the input. In the power system Example: A phase comparison system can be used to
protection field, sensitivity is the minimum value of an provide primary protection of a transmission line.
input (or change of an input) that would cause a relay to Distance relays may be used, without permissive over-
operate. reach or transfer trip, to provide backup protection of
the line.
Example: An instantaneous ground fault directional
relay designed to operate at a minimum current of O.5A
would be classified as having a sensitivity of 0.5 A. 2.8 Dual Protection
Power system equipment of bulk transmission systems is
2.5 Relay Stability often protected with dual primary relays. Both primary
A relay is considered to be stable if, starting from a steady protection systems are kept independent of each other as
state, it returns to the same steady state following the in- far as possible. Depending on the protection philosophy
troduction and removal of inputs representing a distur- adopted, each protection system may be connected to its
bance in the system to which it is connected. own cts, vts, relays, trip coils of circuit breakers and bat-
teries. These systems are sometimes referred to as "Pro-
Example: A solid-state timing relay, whose timing ac- tection system A" and "Protection system B".
curacy is not affected by the changes in the dc voltage
supply used to operate it, is considered to be stable. Example: A transmission line may be protected by a
differential protection system, which is expected to op-
Example: Consider that a relay system experiences a erate in 10 to 15 ms, and a distance protection system
momentary loss of de supply used for performing logic with transfer trip, which is also expected to operate in
and/or tripping functions. If the relay system returns to comparable time. The differential protection in this
a normal steady state mode on restoration of the de case could be classified as "Protection system A" or
supply, the relay is considered to be stable. "Protection system 1" and the distance protection sys-
Stability differs from security. A stable but insecure pilot tem could be classified as "Protection system B" or
relay system may trip incorrectly due to a weakness in the "Protection system 2."
tripping logic or design. A secure but unstable pilot relay 2.9 Device Number
system may experience wide variations in the input and
output levels but will not trip incorrectly. The circuit diagrams used in power systems use nomen-
clatures and device numbers as specified in the
2.6 Primary Protection ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.2. A device number is assigned
for each type of relay and instrument. The phases are
The protection system that is designed to operate before identified as A, B, C or a, b, c. The numerals 1, 2 and 3
other devices respond to a disturbance due to its sensitivity are not used because I is used to identify positive se-
and speed, is said to provide primary protection.
- 3-
Copyright ~ The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
quence quantities and 2 is used to identify negative se-
quence quantities.
Examples: Some of the device numbers specified in
the Standard are listedin the following table.
Device Assigned
Number
Distance relay 21
Undervoltage relay 27
Instantaneous overcurrent relay 50
Ac time overcurrent relay 51
Overvoltage relay 59
Ac directional overcurrent relay 67
Frequency relay 81
Differential relay 87
- 4-
Terms Used by Power SystemProtectionEngineers
CopyrightCO The Instituteof Electrical and ElectronicsEngineers, Inc.
3. RELAY TYPES
This section briefly describes the following terms used for Most electromagnetic relays use one of the following phe-
describing different types of relays. nomena.
Relay Electromagnetic attraction (or repulsion)

Electromagnetic relay Electromagnetic induction
Electromechanical relay Magnetic amplification
Solid-state and static relays
Microprocessor-based relay The phenomena of electromagnetic attraction (or repul-
sion) and electromagnetic induction are used to cause
3.1 Relay physical movement of parts of a relay causing the relay
contacts to open or close.
A relay is a device which operates when the input provided
A magnetic amplifier relay usually has an ac and a de coil
to it exceeds (or decreases below) a specified level and
(or two ac coils) on a magnetic core. Interaction between
other specified conditions are met. The relay may open or
the fields generated by the two coils can be used to com-
close an electrical contact directly, or indirectly by operat-
pare either the levels of two inputs or the relative phase
ing another relay. Electromagnetic, electromechanical,
angle between the inputs. These devices can also be de-
analog electronic, digital electronic, or a combination of
signed to amplify input signals of small levels.
these technologies, are used in manufacturing them.
The operation of any protection relay is based on compari- 3.3 Electromechanical Relay
sons of perceived values, calculated from the inputs, with
pre-specified limits for operation. The following table An electromechanical relay is a device which has one or
illustrates the characteristic values compared in different more mechanical parts that move when current flow in its
technologies. electrical circuit exceeds a specified level. Typical elec-
tromechanical relays used for power system protection are
Technology Comparison of based on the principle of electromagnetic attraction (or
repulsion) or electromagnetic induction.
Electromechanical Electromagnetic forces
A typical electromagnetic attraction relay is shown in Fig-
Solid-state Electrical signals ure 2. When the electromagnetic force generated by the
Digital Numerically processed quan- flow of current (ac or de) in its electrical circuit exceeds
tized samples the force of the restraining spring and the gravitational
force on the plunger, the plunger moves. The shorting bar
Example: Overcurrent relay, directional relay, differ- mounted on the plunger bridges the output contacts caus-
ential relay, distance relay, frequency relay and under- ing current to flow in that circuit. Several variations of
voltage relay are a few examples of relays used in elec- such relays are used in power system protection applica-
tric power systems. tions.
Example: An overcurrent relay may be designed to In an electromagnetic induction relay, ac current flowing in
operate when the current applied to it exceeds a speci- the relay produces a flux which generates eddy currents in
fied level and remains above that level for a pre- its rotor which can either be a disc or a cup. The interac-
specified time. tion between the magnetic flux and the eddy currents gen-
erates a force which tries to rotate the disk. The disk is
3.2 Electromagnetic Relay free to rotate but is restrained by a spring. When the force
generated by induction exceeds the restraining force of the
An electromagnetic relay is a device which uses electro-
spring, electrical contacts attached to the rotor move to
magnetic energy, directly or indirectly, to operate. The
bridge stationary contacts. For more details, see overcur-
operation of the relay may close some of its contacts while
rent relays, and time-dial / time-lever / time-multiplier sec-
opening the remaining contacts. These contacts are used in
tions.
external circuits energizing or de-energizing those circuits.
-5-
Copyright (g The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
galvanic isolation for the relay from the power system,
1-----. Contact
Output
reduces the level of the input voltages, converts currents to
equivalent voltages and removes high frequency compo-
I nents from the signals using analog filters. Other relays

could be monitoring temperature, pressure, flow and other
parameters. The outputs of the analog input subsystem are
applied to the analog interface, which includes amplifiers,
up multiplexers and analog-to-digital (AID) converters. These
components sample the reduced level signals and convert
their analog levels to equivalent digital numbers which are
stored in memory. The status of switches and circuit
breakers in the power system is provided to the relay via
the digital input subsystem and are read into the micro-
computer memory.
The acquired information is processed by a relaying algo-
rithm, which is a part of the software. The algorithm uses
signal processing techniques to measure magnitudes and
Figure 2. An Electromagnetic (current operated) phase angles of voltages and currents. In some cases, the
plunger relay. frequency of the system is also measured. These meas-
urements are used to calculate other quantities, such as
3.4 Solid-state and Static Relay impedances. The computed quantities are compared with
pre-specified thresholds (settings) to decide whether the
A solid-state or static relay uses semi-conductor technol-
power system is experiencing a fault or not. If it is, the
ogy to perform its intended functions. It may also use
relay sends a command to open one or more circuit break-
magnetic or optical elements.
ers for isolating the faulted zone of the power system. The
Sometimes a distinction is made between solid-state relays trip output is transmitted to the power system through the
and static relays. Relays with solid-state output circuits are digital output subsystem.
classified as solid-state relays. A static relay may have an
The software, relay settings and other vital information are
electromechanical relay to energize the trip circuit.
stored in non-volatile memory of the relay. Random-
Microprocessor relays, which utilize semi-conductor com- access memory (RAM) is used for storing data temporar-
ponents, have a special defmition reserved for them; they ily. The power supply to a relaying microcomputer must
are not referred to as solid-state relays. For more details be available even when the system supply is interrupted.
of those relays refer to the sections on microprocessor re- Arrangements are, therefore, made to provide energy to the
lays, digital relays and numerical relays. relay during normal and abnormal operating conditions of
the power system.
3.5 Microprocessor-based Relay Sometimes, these relays are called numerical relays spe-
Early relays for power system protection used electrome- cifically if they calculate the algorithm numerically. The
chanical technology which was later supplemented by signal and data flows in these relays are shown in Figure 4.
solid-state electronics. A large number of electromechani- The relay is isolated from the power system by using aux-
cal and solid-state relays are in operation at this time. With iliary transformers which receive analog signals and reduce
the advent of digital processing technology, designers their levels to make them suitable for use in the microproc-
started to use microprocessors in relay designs. These re- essor- based relay. Since the analog to digital converters
lays are now marketed by several manufacturers. can handle voltages only, the currents are passed through
shunts to convert them to voltages proportional to the cur-
Figure 3 shows an example of the block diagram of a mi- rents.
croprocessor-based relay. This relay monitors voltages and
currents, which, at the power system level, are in the range During digital processing, high frequency components can
of hundreds of kilo volts and kilo amperes respectively. appear to belong to the fundamental frequency class. This
The levels of these signals are reduced by vts and cts typi- phenomenon is referred to as aliasing. To prevent aliasing
cally to 67 V and 5 A nominal values. from affecting the relaying functions, anti-aliasing filters
are used along with the analog input isolation block.
The outputs of the vts and cts are applied to the analog
input subsystem of the relay. This subsystem provides
-6-
Copyright <0 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
After being quantized by the AID converter, analog electri- 3.5.1 Multi-function relay
cal signals are described by discrete values of the samples
taken at specified instants of time. These discrete numbers Microprocessor relays were initially developed to replace
are processed by using numerical methods. For example, the existing single-function relays. For example, separate
quantized values of current and voltage samples may be relays were used to perform differential, loss of field, over-
used to estimate the magnitudes and phase angles of their current and unbalanced loading protections of generators.
pha-sors. Voltage and current phasors may be further used During the past few years, relays that perform more than
to calculate impedances as seen from a relay location. two protective functions have been developed. These are
classified as multi-function relays.
The digital signals are applied to the relay via optic isola-
tors which insure physical disconnection of the relay from
the power system.
POWER. SYSTEM
cts & vts
,r
Analog Input
Subsystem
"
Digital Input
Subsystem
Digital Output
Subsystem
,r I
Analog Micro-
Interface processor
RAM ROM
Control Communication
MICRO-COMPUTER
Power
Supply
RELAY
Figure 3. Block diagram of a microprocessor-based relay.
-7-
Analog Input Low pass Sample Multi- AID
Isolation Shunt Filter Amplifier and Hold plexer Conversion
1'1 * -{>-
Analog to
AI S/H MUX AID Digital
Converson
Digital
Filters Numerical
*
COM MMI Signal
Z<
~
Processing
I>
etc. Serial
Com m unication
Fault/Event
Binary Input Trip Recording Binary Output
Isolation Algorithm PLC Isolation Binary
Processing AR Signal
etc. Processing
BI
V~k
Logic Function
~ DO
Processing
Figure 4. Signal and data flow of a microprocessor-based relay.
- 8-
TermsUsed by Power SystemProtection Engineers
Copyright ~ The Instituteof Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
4. OVERCURRENT RELAY
The terms used in the area of overcurrent relay are de- air gap of an electro-magnet which is excited by current
scribed in this section. These include flowing in its coil. The current in the coil produces flux in
the air gap. Because the current in the coil is alternating in
instantaneous overcurrent relay,
nature, the flux in the air gap is also time varying. The
inverse time overcurrent relay,
flux induces eddy currents in the disk. The air gap flux
directional overcurrent relay,
and the eddy currents interact with each other producing a
time dial (time lever, time multiplier),
torque that tries to rotate the disk. Since the disk is held
connection angle, and
back with a spring, it does not start to rotate until the
polarizing quantity.
torque exceeds a specified level.
4.1 Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay A moving contact, which is attached to the shaft, as well as
a stationary contact are provided in the relay. The coil of
This type of relay has been assigned by ANSI the device the electromagnet is provided with taps which allows the
number 50. The term instantaneous has at least two relay engineers to change the effective turns on the elec-
meanings and functions. The first concerns the operation tromagnet. These settings are used to select the pickup
of a relay or the tripping of a circuit breaker. It means that current of the relay.
no intentional time delay is added to the trip function. The
relay operates when it detects that the current level has
4.2.1 Time dial (Time lever, Time multiplier)
exceeded the threshold setting. These relays operate typi-
cally in 4 to 16 ms on a 60 Hz system. The second func- The time dial (also referred to as time lever or time multi-
tion concerns the reclosing of circuit breakers. In this plier) is the means for controlling the operating time of the
context, it means that reclosing of a circuit breaker is not relay. This is achieved by changing the angle through
intentionally delayed after it has been tripped. There is, which the disk must rotate before its contacts are closed.
however, an inherent albeit small time delay in performing Since the moving contact travels in an arc, it can be length-
these functions. ened or shortened by selecting an appropriate time dial
setting. The adjustment of the arc is calibrated in the form
4.2 Overcurrent Relay Time-Current of an index which is known as the time dial.
Characteristic Figure 7 shows how the operating time of a relay changes
Inverse time overcurrent relays (device number 51), oper- when the time dial setting is changed from 0.5 to 7.
t
ate when the current in the relay exceeds a threshold. In-
\
verse time delay means that the higher the relay current,
the lower is the operating time. Some of the commonly
used time delay characteristics are ~ Extremely inverse
CI)
E
inverse time, ;
Very inverse
very inverse time,
extremely inverse time, and
definite minimum time.
Sample current-time characteristics are shown in Figure 5.
These curves represent the operating time of the relay
within specified tolerance. Notice that the definite mini-
mum time characteristic has approximately constant time
delay for relay currents larger than three times the set
value. Relay engineers use these curves, that are published
by the manufacturers, to predict the time the relay would
take to operate for different levels of relay current. current
An induction disk inverse time overcurrent relay is shown Figure 5. Time current characteristics commonly
in Figure 6. It has a non-magnetic disk, usually made of used in inverse time overcurrent relays.
aluminum, mounted on a shaft. The disk is placed in the
-9-
~-1IllIIo... Time Dial - only dial
C.T.
6 numbers 6-9 shown
Stationary
cont~
~~ingContact
Disk rotor,
Figure 6. Electrical and mechanical arrangement of a typical inverse time overcurrent relay.
relay location. This is sometimes not desirable. For ex-

ample, in a line of a network, fault currents at a relay loca-
tion could be flowing for faults on the line side of the relay
as well as for faults on the bus side of the relay. A line
protection relay must be restrained from operating for
faults on the bus side of the relay.
Directional overcurrent relays are used in such situations.
Time dial These relays (classified as device number 67), when de-
7 signed with electromechanical or analog electronic tech-
nologies, consist of an overcurrent element supervised by a
directional element. The overcurrent element responds
only if the fault is in the specified direction.
0.5
Some directional relay applications use single-phase direc-
tional relays; one relay is applied in each phase of the
10 100 1000 three-phase power system. Another application is for
CURRENT-A ---+ ground directional protection, which use ground (or resid-
ual current) and the sum of the three phase voltages (or
Figure 7. Impact of time dial adjustment on the oper- current in the neutral connection of the source).
ating time of an overcurrent relay. In the phase directional relays, the phase angle of the cur-
rent with respect to the voltage is checked. In the ground
4.3 Directional Overcurrent directional relays, the phase angle of the ground or residual
Overcurrent relays respond to currents during faults expe- current is checked with respect to the phase angle of the
rienced on the power system in either direction from the sum of the three-phase voltages. Alternatively, the phase
- 10 -
Terms Used by Power SystemProtection Engineers
angle of the residual current is checked with respect to a Example: Consider that directional relays using Op-
neutral current of a source that provides a constant refer- tion 2 for connecting the voltage elements have been
ence no matter where the fault is located. applied at a relay location. Figure 9 (a) shows the
phase voltages, Va' Vb and Vc' and the currents I, , I,
4.3.1 Connection angle and I, when the system is operating normally. The
polarizing voltages (Vb-Vc ' v.v, and Va-Vb) and the
In the phase directional relays, the phase angle between the currents during normal operation are also shown in this
current and voltage is used to decide if the fault is in the figure. Now consider that a phase A to phase B fault
forward direction. Different combinations of currents and has occurred on the line side of the relay and the fault is
voltages can be used for this comparison. Consider that very close to the relay location. The voltages and cur-
the three directional relays are applied currents from rents for this situation are shown in Figure 9 (b). No-
phases A, B and C. Two of the several options for select- tice that the current I, leads the polarizing voltage (Ve-
ing the voltages for use in these relays are listed in Table 1. V J by a small angle, from 10 to 30. Also, the current
In Option 1, the voltage element of the relay, which re- I, leads the polarizing voltage (Va-Vc) by a small angle.
ceives phase A current, is applied voltage from phase C. This ensures that the relays sense that the fault is in the
As shown in Figure 8, unity power factor load current forward direction.
leads the applied voltage by 60. This is also true for the
relays which receive phase B and phase C currents using 4.3.2 Polarizing quantity
connections of Option 1. The relays which use this combi- Many relays use a voltage or current as a reference for
nation of currents and voltages are identified as having a comparing their operating signal. This quantity has a pre-
connection angle of 60. dictable phasor relationship to the current flowing to a
Similarly, when connections of Option 2 are used, the re- fault, irrespective of the location of the fault. The refer-
lay, which receives phase A current, is applied the voltage ence voltage or current is referred to as the polarizing sig-
from phase B minus the voltage from phase C. In this nal.
case, the unity power factor current leads the applied volt- Example: A healthy phase voltage, in addition to the
age by 90. This is also true for the relays that receive faulted phase voltage, is sometimes used in a relay as a
phase B and phase C currents. The relays using this com- polarizing voltage to assist in accurately determining
bination of currents and voltages are identified as having a the direction of the fault. This helps in correctly iden-
connection angle of 90. The phasor diagram for this tifying the direction of the fault especially when the
situation is also shown in Figure 8. The polarizing voltage, magnitude of the faulted phase voltage is small. If a
Vb-Vc, and fault current for phase A to ground fault. la' are fault, between phase b and phase c is experienced very
also shown in this figure. Notice that the phase displace- close to the relay location, the phase b to phase c volt-
ment between the fault current and the polarizing voltage is age collapses. The phase voltages for this situation and
less than 30. the currents are shown in Figure 9 (b). The polarizing
The voltages, which are referred to as polarizing voltages, voltages and fault currents are also shown in this fig-
are selected in such a manner that they remain relatively ure. It is obvious from this figure that even if the phase
unchanged during a fault. This ensures that during system b and phase c voltages have collapsed to low values, the
faults, when the currents have substantial magnitudes, the polarizing voltages are substantial to ensure relay op-
polarizing voltages are as close to the nominal value as eration.
possible.
Table 1. Voltage and current combinations for 60 and 90 connections for directional relays.
Relay 1 Relay 2 Relay 3
I~:Vc ~:v. I~~Vb

Current applied
Voltage applied Option 1
Voltage applied Option 2 I
- 11 -
Vc Vc
\
Va I~ Ia Va
\
~ Ib
Vb Vpo1= -Vc Vb
y
6cP Connection Vpo1= 'b-Vc
9cP Connection 9cP Connection

Phase A Fault
Figure 8. Voltage phasors used in 60 and 90 connection angles.
v c-V a V -V
a b
V -V
b c
Phase voltages andcurrents Polarizing voltages andcurrents
during normal operation during normal operation
Figure 9 (a). Phase and polarizing voltages, and phase currents during normal operation.
Phase voltages andcurrents Phase B current andthe Phase C current andthe

fora twophase fault close to polarizing voltage V c-Va polarizing voltage V a-Vb
the relay location
Figure 9 (b). Phase currents and polarizing voltages for identifying the direction of a phase-b to phase-c fault.
- 12 -
Terms Usedby Power SystemProtectionEngineers
Copyright C The Instituteof Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
5. OHMIC RELAY APPLICATIONS
This class of relays was originally used to protect transmis- predominantly resistive. But, during faults, this impedance
sion lines and were believed to measure the distance from is lower and highly reactive in nature. A change in the
the relay location to a fault. Currently, several types are detected impedance is used to determine if a fault has oc-
applied to power systems for protecting lines during faults, curred, and also if the fault is in its zone of protection or is
generators during loss of excitation, and the system during elsewhere on the system. This is accomplished by limiting
power swings. The terms most commonly used and de- the operation of the relay to a certain range of the observed
scribed in this section are impedance, commonly called, "reach." When a fault oc-
curs within the protected zone of a distance relay protect-
distance relay,
ing an end to end line, only the faulted transmission line is
impedance relay,
isolated.
mho relay, and
Blinder. The operating characteristics of these relays are expressed
in terms of impedance or its components, resistance and
5.1 Distance Relay reactance. Plotted on a rectangular coordinate system,
(using resistance, R, as the abscissa and reactance, X, as
Faults on transmission lines are commonly detected by the ordinate) the characteristics usually form simple geo-
protective relays that measure and respond to one or an- metric figures. Commonly used operating characteristics
other form of the ratio of voltage to current. This ratio is are shown in Figure 11. The point of measurement for a
impedance or a component of impedance. These relays are distance relay is located at the origin of the figures, and the
termed distance relays because (ideally) the measured im- relay is designed to generally operate when the measured
pedance is proportional to the distance along a homogene- impedance falls within the shaded area in the figures.
ous transmission line from the relay location to the fault.
This class of relays is assigned device number 21. The major advantage of using a distance relay for multi-
phase faults, not involving ground, is that its zone of op-
The portion of line that is being protected by a distance eration is a function of only the impedance of the protected
relay is called the "zone of protection" or the "protected line and the fault resistance (except for the situations when
zone." Figure 10 shows that the zone of protection of Re- there is current in-feed from the remote terminal of the line
lay A, installed at bus 1, is from the relay location to a lo- or there is mutual coupling with lines on the same right of
cation close to bus 2. Similarly, the zone of protection of way). This is approximately a fixed constant, irrespective
Relay B, installed at bus 2, is from the relay location to a of the levels of fault current magnitudes. Therefore, a dis-
location close to bus 1. If the line impedance is Z, the tance relay has a fixed reach, as opposed to an overcurrent
reach of each relay is nZ; n ranging from 0.75 to 0.90 in relay whose reach varies as the system operating condi-
some applications, and more than 1.0 in some others. tions change. Consequently, it is not necessary to change
the settings of distance relays unless the line characteristics
Relay A Reach Location of
~l
Zone of Protection of Relay A I
-----nZ .1
jaYB change. This makes distance relays ideally suited for pri-
mary and backup protection for faults on transmission
lines.
I
t--_----
Y I
Z I
1 Transmission Line I 5.2 Impedance Relay
I"
Busl I~ nZ----- Bus 2
1 Zone of Protecuon of Relay 8 Relays that respond to the magnitude of the measured im-
Location of pedance are classified as impedance relays. The measure-
Relay A Relay BReach ment is taken by determining the ratio of the rms voltage of
the line at the relay location to the rms current flowing in
the line at the relay location. These relays are commonly
Figure 10. Protection zones for relays protecting a applied to detect faults on transmission lines. A compari-
transmission line. son of the measured impedance with the line impedance
provides an indication whether the fault is in the protected
The impedance measured during normal operation of a line zone of the relay or not. This type of relay is also assigned
is the ratio of the voltage at the line terminal and the cur- a device number of21.
rent flowing in the line; this value is usually high and is
- 13 -
Terms Used by PowerSystem Protection Engineers
jX Line Impedance jX Line Impedance
Restraint
Maximum
R Sensitivity Angle
Mho Characteristic
Impedance Characteristic
- Forward Reach
jX jX
Restraint Restraint
R R
Offset Mho Characteristic

- Forward Reach Reverse Offset Mho
Characteristic
Figure 11. Generally used characteristics of generic distance relays.
The operating characteristics of the impedance relay, and power crossing the air gap being less than the load on the
the "reach," plotted on a rectangular coordinate system, is shaft, which is a function of the supply voltage and its
shown in Figure 12. Since an impedance relay responds to phase displacement from the voltage of the receiving sys-
measurements in all quadrants, a directional unit is gener- tem.
ally used to limit the reach to the line side of the relay, as is
shown in this figure. With this combination, the impedance 5.3 Mho Relay
relay responds only to the measured impedances which are
Distance relays can be designed to have circular operating
in the shaded portion of this diagram.
characteristics, plotted on an impedance plane, that passes
A variation of the impedance relays, called "offset imped- through the origin of the plane as shown in Figure 13. This
ance relays," whose characteristic is also shown in Figure type of relay is called a Mho relay or Admittance relay. A
12, are used to start power line carrier protection. These fraction n of the line impedance ZL is a measure of dis-
relays look from the circuit breaker towards the line as well tance of the fault on the line from the relay location. The
as the station bus. In addition, impedance relays can be Mho relay is inherently directional; that is, it will "see"
used to protect generators and transmission lines from out- and, therefore, respond only to transmission line faults in
of-step conditions. On generators, this condition is due to one direction from the relay location. Maximum torque
- 14 -
angle is the impedance angle at which the relay is most the reach of the third zone setting of the line protection
sensitive. relays. A distance relay which has a straight-line non-
directional characteristic is used to block the line relay
5.4 Blinder
from tripping during normal operation of the line. The
Sometimes transmission lines are heavily loaded . The characteristic takes advantage of the fact that the apparent
power being transmitted is such that the voltage to current impedance is predominantly resistive. The typical charac-
ratio (apparent impedance) at the line terminal is less than teristic ofa blinder is shown in Figure 13.
jX Line Impedance
Restraint
Maximum
Sensitivity Angle
R
Operating characteristic
of an impedance and a
directional relay
Figure 12. Operating characteristics of impedance and offset impedance relays.
jX jX
Line Impedance
Maximum Torque Line
Restraint
Maximum
Sensitivity Angle
Restraint
R R
Mho Characteristic
- Forward Reach Blinder Characteristic
Figure 13. Typical operating characteristic of a mho relay and a blinder.
- 15 -
Copyright The Institute of Electricaland Electronics Engineers, Inc.
6. OTHER RELAYS
Several other relays are used in power systems. Terms differential relay is used and an internal fault occurs, the
used for the following relays are described in this section. total ct secondary current flows through the high imped-
ance overvoltage coil, producing operation.
Differential relays
Inrush phenomenon
Combustible gas relay
Gas accumulation relay Protected ...._..,......~. ._ _
Static pressure relay ---. Device
Sudden pressure relay I.
In
Thermal relay
Replica or replica temperature relay
RTD relay
Phase disagreement
Breaker failure
Pole flash-over
Single phase tripping ---. I-
In
---. I
out
Figure 14. A typical current differential relay.
6.1 Differential Relays
Differential relays, which are assigned the device number Since the fault currents are large and the cts are not perfect,
87 by ANSI, are used for protecting lines, transformers, there is always a relay operating current when a fault oc-
generators, buses and other components of power systems. curs outside the differential relay zone. This current could
They function on the principal of comparing two or more cause an undesired operation of the relay. One of the
electrical quantities (usually currents) and operating if the measures used to keep the differential relays from operat-
difference between the values of any signal, observed at ing during external faults is the use of the percentage dif-
the input and output terminals of the protected component ferential principle. Figure 15 shows one phase of a typical
of the power system, exceeds a specified threshold. percentage current differential relay. Two restraining
coils, R1 and R2, are included to provide the restraint. The
Current differential relays are based on Kirchhoffs current
operating coil is excited by the difference between the cur-
law which states that the sum of currents entering a node in
rents lin and lout, but the relay operates only when the
a network must be zero. Cts are used to provide the cur-
operating current, lin-lout, is more than a specified per-
rents entering and leaving a zone to a current differential
centage of the restraint currents.
relay. The currents entering a zone are compared with
those leaving the zone. The operating current is the phasor
difference between these currents.
When there is a fault in the protected zone, the currents Protected t--..,....~...--
entering and leaving the protected zone do not add to zero ---. Device
and, therefore, the differential relay operates. On the other I-In
hand, when there is a fault outside the protected zone, the
currents entering and leaving the zone add to approxi-
mately zero and the differential relay does not operate. tI I.In
Figure 14 shows one phase of a differential relay circuit. j Iop=1.-1
In out
The cts are connected to each other and to the operating
coil of the differential relay. The current in the operating
coil is the difference between lin and lout. ---.
I.
---.
I
In low impedance current differential relays, the difference In out
current flows in the operating coil and the relay operates
like an overcurrent relay. When a high impedance current Figure 15. A typical percentage differential relay.
- 16 -
TermsUsedby PowerSystem Protection Engineers
Copyright (0 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
6.1.1 Transformer differential protection The phase shift matching can also be achieved (incorrectly)
by connecting the wye-side cts in wye and delta-side cts in
The ratio of the cts provided at the two terminals of the delta. This arrangement would not compensate for the
protected zone and the differences in their characteristics zero-sequence currents that would flow in the wye-
are always of concern in most applications. When differ- connected winding and not in the delta-connected winding.
ential relays are used to protect transformers, the issues In the arrangement of Figure 16, zero-sequence currents
that are given special consideration include flow in the wye-connected winding but circulate in the
matching of ct ratios and performance, delta winding when a single phase to ground fault on the
phase shift due to transformer winding interconnec- system connected to the wye winding of the transformer is
tions, experienced. The outputs of the cts provided on the delta
elimination of zero sequence currents, and side do not contain the zero-sequence currents. The solu-
transformer inrush. tion is to eliminate the zero-sequence currents from the
outputs of the cts connected to the wye connected winding.
The volt-amperes at the primary and secondary terminals This can be done by using a zero-sequence shunt (or trap)
of a two-winding transformer are equal if the magnetizing or by connecting the ct secondaries in delta, which also
currents are negligible. If a transformer steps up the pri- solves the phase shift problem described above.
mary voltage to a higher level, the current at the high volt-
age terminal is proportionately reduced. Selection of ap-
propriate ct ratios is used to match the magnitudes of the
currents entering and leaving the protected zone as applied
to the relay.
The connections of the windings of the protected trans-
former may introduce a phase shift. For example, a trans-
former with the high-side winding connected in delta and No 10 flow Singleline-
the low-side winding connected in wye, would shift the to-ground
phase angle of the low-side current by 30. To compensate fault
for this phase shift, the cts of the wye side are connected in Figure 16. Zero-sequence currents in a delta-wye
delta and cts outside the delta winding are connected in transformer.
wye.
Example: Consider a three-phase 100 MV A delta-
6.1.2 Magnetizing inrush currents
wye 13.8/230 kV transformer. The nominal currents on When a transformer is disconnected from the system and
the 13.8 kV and 230 kV sides are the flow of current is interrupted, the transformer core re-
tains a residual flux. The next time the transformer is en-
100 *1000.;. (13.8 *~) = 4,184 A ergized, the core may saturate and, therefore, draw large
100 * 1000.;. (230 *~) =
magnetizing currents from the source even if no load is
251 A
connected to the transformer. Since the magnetizing cur-
If the primary cts are of 5,000/5 ratio and the secondary rent is supplied by the source and is not reflected on the
cts are of 400/5 ratio, the outputs of the primary and output side of the transformer, it shows up as operating
secondary cts will be 4.18 A and 3. 14 A respectively, current in the differential relay circuit. Therefore, the relay
when the transformer is supplying rated current. must be restrained from operating for this current.
Since cts on the wye-side of the transformer are connected The waveforms of magnetizing inrush currents are not si-
in delta, the outputs applied to the relay by the secondary nusoids of a single frequency; they contain substantial
cts will be 3.14*"3 = 5.43 A. The difference between the amounts of harmonics. Figure 17 shows two examples of
4.18 A current from the primary cts and 5.43 A current the magnetizing inrush currents flowing into a delta wind-
from the secondary cts is eliminated by using ratio matching of a delta-wye transformer. These currents decay over
ing cts provided in the relays (or installed outside the relay) a period of time, which depends on the size and type of the
or taps provided on the relay. In some microprocessor transformer and the nature of the system.
relays, this is achieved by including a multiplier in the re-
lay software.
- 17 -
2O',-------,-----.----..------r---
-.---,---~
portion of the gas released by the protected equipment. It
operates when the volume of gas reaches a certain level.
The accumulator relay can only be applied to transformers
with conservator tanks . Another name for this device is a
gas detection relay .
20 eo 00' 100 120 ,ao 6.2.3 Static pressure relay

(a>
m,oe.,..
This relay (assigned the device number 71) can be used on
101,--- ----,- - - - - , - - - - - , - - - - . -- - - - , - - - - , - - -- - , all types of oil-immersed transformers. It is mounted be-
!
~
5
011--------"
low the oil level on the transformer tank wall and is acti-
vated by the pressure in the tank . Because of the many
incorrect operations of the static pressure relays over the
jl<
years, most have been superseded by sudden pressure re-
~ -5 lays.
.'O!----=----f;;---~-__.;;---___,;il-____,;O-_;:
IO , 40
20 eo
(b)
00 '00 120
TlWE-'" 6.2.4 Sudden pressure relay
Two types of sudden pressure relays (assigned device
Figure 17. Typical magnetizing inrush currents in a number 63) generally used to protect transformers are the
delta-wye transformer. sudden gas pressure and sudden oil pressure relays.
6.2 Other Relays for Transformer Protection Sudden gas pressure relays operate if the rate of rise of
pressure in the transformer exceeds a specified level.
Other relays generally used for transformer protection in- These relays can be applied on all gas cushioned oil-
clude immersed transformers and are mounted in the gas space
combustible gas relay, above the oil.
gas accumulation relay, Sudden oil pressure relays measure the rate of rise of oil
static pressure relay, pressure and operate if it exceeds a specified value. These
sudden pressure relay, relays can be applied on all oil-immersed transformers and
thermal replica relay , are usually mounted near the bottom of the transformer
RTD relay, tank wall.
loss-of-field (excitation) relay, and
out-of-step relay. These relays are commonly used to protect transformers
and are generally connected to trip circuit breakers to dis-
These relays are briefly described in this section . connect the transformer from the rest of the power system.
Because the micro-switch contacts used in sudden pressure
6.2.1 Combustible gas relay relays are sensitive to control circuit disturbances, an aux-
iliary relay is often included in the sudden pressure circuit.
The combustible gas relay is applied to transformers which
are equipped with positive pressure inert gas-oil preserva-
tion systems . This device measures the presence of com- 6.3 Thermal Relay
bustible gas in the transformer in the inert gas blanket. The A thermal relay, (assigned device number 49) operates if
presence of the combustible gas indicates the decomposi- the heat developed within the relay as a result of external
tion of insulating materials due to faults or corona. Since and internal conditions exceeds a specified level. The re-
these faults are not accompanied with large fault currents, lay uses input(s) from ct(s) to monitor the 12R heating in
they are usually not detected by other relays until they de- the protected equipment. This relay is different from a
velop into major short circuits which usually cause sub- temperature relay which uses a temperature sensing device,
stantial damage . The combustible gas relay is expensive either in or on the equipment being monitored. The circuit
and is not normally applied on substation transformers. of a typical thermal relay is shown in Figure 19.
6.2.2 Gas accumulation relay 6.4 Temperature Relay

Commonly known as a Buchholz relay, the gas accumula- A temperature relay (assigned device number 49) measures
tion relay is constructed so that it accumulates all or a fixed the external temperature of the protected equipment.
- 18 -
Terms Usedby Power SystemProtectionEngineers
Copyright <I} The Instituteof Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
Monitoring of the temperature is accomplished by using an temperature rise of the protected apparatus, or conductor,
RTD, gas bulb, thermocouple or another temperature over a range of values. A current proportional to the cur-
sensing device located at the point to be monitored. The rent in the protected equipment is passed through a heating
mounting of a typical temperature relay is shown in Figure element in the relay. The relay is designed to simulate the
20. heating and cooling of the protected apparatus. The mod-
eling of the cooling of the equipment is essential to protect
6.4.1 Replica relay or replica temperature the equipment from being returned to service too soon after
relay a thermal overload. A typical circuit for a replica relay is
shown in Figure 21.
These relays (assigned device number 49) are designed to
achieve an internal temperature rise proportional to the
Transformer
tank wall
Bellows Enlarged
. --. -
view
~
Trip
circuit Sudden / .....
Micro-switch
pressure relay
T r ansformer tank
Sealed
chamber Equalizing
mounted on orifice
the outside
of the tank
wall
Simplified scheme for a sudden gaspressure relay Sudden gas pressure relay mounting onthe
sideof a transformer above theoillevel
Figure 18. Mounting and schematic arrangement of a sudden gas pressure relay.
Electrical To protected!
Source monitored equipment Electrical Source to Equipment
Thermal
Relay
Figure 19. Thermal relay monitors IZR losses in the Figure 20. The mounting of a typical temperature re-
protected equipment. lay.
- 19 -
of the system experiencing a disturbance, the magnetic
Electrical To protected! field must be changed to maintain the system voltage (at or
Source monitored equipment near the generator terminals) at the nominal value.
The excitation system can be supplied current from an
auxiliary generator mounted on the shaft of the main tur-
Bi-metal
bine-generator unit, or from the plant auxiliary bus, or the
main generator. Several circumstances can result in loss-
of-field; these include
Resistoror
accidental tripping of the field circuit breaker,
heat source
poor brush contact in the slip rings of the rotor, and
loss of ac supply to the excitation system.
Figure 21. The circuit diagram of a replica relay. Reduced levels of excitation, or complete loss of field can
result in loss of synchronism, instability and, possibly,
6.4.2 RTD relay damage to the generator. When a disturbance is experi-
enced, the generator output oscillates (accompanied with
A temperature relay, assigned device number 49, uses a
rotor oscillations) in an attempt to stay in synchronous op-
resistance temperature detector (RTO) to monitor the tem-
eration with the system. If the disturbance is accompanied
perature of the protected equipment. An RTO is a resistor
by a substantial decrease in the terminal voltage, system
made of a material whose resistance changes in a prede-
stability is threatened. For these reasons, a loss-of-field
termined manner when the temperature changes. Electro-
relay is applied to protect the generator and the system to
mechanical RTD relays normally use a Wheatstone bridge
which it is connected. The relay is usually designed to trip
(or an equivalent circuit) to sense the temperature changes
the generator when the relationship between the alternating
and respond with a predetermined output. One form of
voltages and currents, measured at the generator terminals,
microprocessor RTD relay applies a low level of current to
indicates that a loss-of-field condition has occurred. ANSI
the resistor and measures the voltage drop across the re-
has assigned device number 40 to loss-of-field relays.
sistor. From this measurement, it calculates the resistance
and the temperature. The electrical circuit of a RTD relay
is shown in Figure 22.
6.6 Out-or-step Relay
When two or more interconnected synchronous generators
or systems have lost synchronism with respect to one an-
other and are operating at different frequencies, they are
To~ said to be operating under an out-of-step condition. This
condition can be caused by a mismatch between the elec-
Power
trical output of the generator and the mechanical input to
SUP~
--I----~--t_'
the generator. Distance relays (in conjunction with blind-
Monitored ers) are applied to detect and trip the generators when this
Equipment is suspected to have happened. Generally, the protection is
designed either to trip the generator breaker or to open the
Figure 22. Circuit of a typical RTD relay. line interconnecting the two systems. The disconnected
generator, or the interconnecting line are brought back in
6.5 Loss-or-field (excitation) Relay service after the condition has stabilized. The out-of-step
The magnetic field is set up in a generator by providing dc relays are assigned the device number 78.
currents to the field winding of the generator. In the event
- 20-
Terms Used by Power SystemProtection Engineers
Copyright C The Instituteof Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
7. CIRCUIT BREAKER APPLICATIONS
A few terms concerning circuit breakers often used by

protection engineers are
breaker failure, B c D
phase disagreement,
pole flashover, or
single-phase tripping.
These terms are briefly described in this section.
Circuit breaker A fails to
7.1 Breaker Failure interrupt the fault current
The failure of a circuit breaker to interrupt fault current

following the attempt to energize its trip coil by a protec- Figure 23. Single bus switching arrangement; circuit
tive relay is described as breaker failure. The reason for breaker A fails to interrupt current.
such failures include
- - -I
inadequate or damaged interrupter,
mechanically damaged mechanism, and Remote I
lack of electrical continuity of the trip circuit. Station I
J
"'-I-I-
I
A breaker failure relay (assigned device number 50BF)
recognizes the condition of current continuing to flow in
the circuit breaker after a reasonable period of time has I
elapsed since a relay made an attempt to energize the trip K I Fault
coil of the circuit breaker. On recognizing such a condi- -0-- 1- - -
tion, the breaker failure relay initiates the clearing of all the I
circuits that can feed current to the fault via the failed I
breaker. _I
The following three examples show the circuit breakers

that are tripped by a breaker failure relay. Circuit breaker A fails to interrupt current to
the fault on the lineto the remote station.
Example: Circuit breaker A of a single bus switching
station, shown in Figure 23, has failed to interrupt cur- Figure 24. A breaker-and-a-half switching arrange-
rent flowing to a fault on the line it controls. The con- ment; circuit breaker A fails to interrupt
dition is identified by the breaker failure relay which is- current to fault on the line to circuit
sues commands to trip circuit breakers B, C and D. The breaker J.
relay also issues a trip command to trip circuit breaker
A. Example: Circuit breaker A of the switching station,
shown in Figure 25, has failed to interrupt current
Example: Circuit breaker A of the switching station,
flowing to a fault on the line to circuit breaker H at the
shown in Figure 24, has failed to interrupt current
remote station Y. Circuit breakers D and H have suc-
flowing to a fault on line to circuit breaker J at the re-
cessfully interrupted the flow of current through them.
mote station. Circuit breakers Band J have success-
On detecting circuit breaker failure, the breaker failure
fully interrupted the flow of current through them. On
relay issues trip commands to circuit breakers Band J,
detecting circuit breaker failure, the breaker failure re-
as well as A, D and H.
lays issues trip commands to circuit breakers 0 and G,
as well as A and B. If communication facilities are
available, the trip command is also sent to circuit
breaker J.
- 21 -
Terms Usedby PowerSystemProtection Engineers
Copyright0 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
,-- the contacts of interrupters in the other two
-------------,
Remote i __[L-II- H phases are closed
Station X 1 D I Remote is identified as pole disagreement. If the contacts of

Fault I Station Y interrupter A, or A and B, are open and the contacts
!
--e--:_--
J
of interrupters C, D, E and F are closed, pole dis-
agreement has occurred.
E
L
Pole disagreement is supervised by auxiliary contact arrays
("a" and "b" switches) or by comparing phase currents in
F the three phases. On identifying a pole disagreement, the
pole disagreement relay starts a timer and, if the disagree-
ment continues for a specified time, either all three poles of
Circuit breaker A fails to interrupt current the circuit breaker are tripped or backup clearing of the
to the fault on the line to the remote station. condition is initiated.
Figure 25. Circuit breaker failure in a ring bus JI' Jt

switching station. A B
- .......I HI
..... -
The three examples, one for a single bus switching station, C D
one for a breaker-and-a-half switching arrangement and the
third for a ring bus switching station show the local, as ----I H 1--1-
E F
well as, remote circuit breakers that could supply fault cur-
rent through the failed circuit breaker. The breaker failure Figure 26. Contact arrangement of a three phase cir-
relay issues trip commands to these circuit breakers as well cuit breaker which has two interrupters per
as the circuit breakers that have successfully interrupted phase. The contacts of interrupters "A"
the flow of fault current. and "B" are closed whereas the interrupters
"C", "D", "E" and "F" are open.
7.2 Pole Disagreement
7.3 Pole Flashover
This is the condition in which one pole of a three-phase
circuit breaker is open while the remaining poles are A flashover across an open or partially open pole of a
closed. It also includes the condition in which two poles of three-phase circuit beaker can occur due to lightning,
a three-phase circuit breaker are open while the remaining switching surges or loss of dielectric in a pressurized inter-
pole is closed. Such conditions cause negative-sequence rupter. This phenomenon is called pole flashover. Flash-
currents to flow in the equipment controlled by the circuit over can occur on circuit breakers which have one operat-
breaker. Since the flow of negative-sequence currents can ing mechanism for all three poles and also on circuit
damage equipment, especially the rotating machines, these breakers which have independent operating mechanisms
conditions must be recognized and the circuit breaker for each pole.
opened. This condition also causes zero-sequence currents
to flow in the system which can result in ground fault re- 7.4 Single-Pole Tripping
lays to operate. This condition is sometimes called "pole
When a single-phase fault is experienced on a system, fault
disagreement".
current flows in one phase only. In many situations, only
Example: Figure 26 shows the contact arrangement of one pole of the circuit breaker controlling a line is opened
a three-phase breaker which has two breaks per pole. during these faults. Most power system protection engi-
The condition in which neers call this practice "single-pole tripping" but some-
times it is called single phase tripping".
the contacts of an interrupter, or interrupters in one
phase are open, and Faults other than single phase to ground faults are usually
isolated by tripping all three poles.
- 22-
8. SYSTEM DISTURBANCES
The importance of protection from system disturbances has ating frequency decreases to a specified level below the
increased with the development of interconnections be- nominal frequency or if its rate of decay (df/dt) exceeds a
tween power systems. Load generation unbalance may be specified level. They trip selected loads to prevent a sys-
caused in a system by loss of generators or interconnec- tem from collapsing, or experiencing a major blackout, by
tions with the neighboring utilities. If the load of a system restoring the balance between load and generation.
exceeds the available generation, the frequency decreases.
Underfrequency relays are usually installed at distribution
Severe overloads produce rapid frequency decay. Rotating
substations and industrial installations, and are generally
machinery, especially steam turbines, cannot operate safely
set between 59.7 and 58.5 Hz. Time delays are usually
at frequencies less than a few percent below the rated fre-
applied to provide system security. In addition, particu-
quency. Frequency relays are, therefore, used to shed load
larly for solid-state underfrequency relays, an undervoltage
to restore generation-load balance.
inhibit function is included to further improve security.
Relays may have multiple settings to ensure that loads are
8.1 Underfrequency Relay tripped in small increments as the frequency decreases.
Underfrequency relays (assigned device number 81) are
applied to automatically shed load when the system oper-
- 23 -
Copyright (g The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
9. DISTURBANCE ANALYSIS
Fault analysis has become an important activity because it records the state of discrete events, such as, "on" or "off'
provides a better insight in the operation of the system as status of a circuit breaker, "closing" or "opening" of a cir-
well as its equipment. Power system engineers, especially cuit breaker, activation of an alarm or its deactivation. In
protection engineers had been recording waveforms of addition to this binary information, the sequential event
voltages and currents during faults for many year. recorders note the absolute or relative time of the occur-
rence of the observed events. Other names used for a se-
Before the use of the digital electronics technology became
quential event recorder include sequence of events re-
wide spread in power systems, light beam oscilloscopes
corder, SER and data logger.
were being used. As the manufacturers developed digital
relays, they found that some capabilities for recording
waveforms of power system signals could be include in the 9.2 Transient Fault Recorder
relays. Consequently, several devices were made available A transient fault recorder is a device that records the mag-
that could record voltages and currents during systems nitudes of system quantities (typically currents, voltages,
disturbances. However, many stand-alone devices have etc.) along with the time when those magnitudes were ob-
been developed and used in power systems to record volt- served. Each recorder has a frequency response and a dy-
ages and currents during system disturbances. The differ- namic range that dictates the quality of the observations.
ence between the capabilities of the commercial relays and Depending on the design of the recorder, the signals can be
dedicated recording devices is that the resolution of the recorded for monitoring transient system changes, includ-
recording made by the relays are usually not as good as the ing the high frequency components in them, or for ob-
recordings made by the dedicated devices. serving long term changes, such as monitoring power sys-
Out of the several terms used in this area, the following tem swings. Often, a transient recorder includes the ability
terms are briefly described in this section. to record binary changes of states as described for the se-
quential events recorder.
Sequential events recorder
Transient fault recorder 9.3 Pre-fault, Fault and Post-Fault Periods
Pre-fault, fault and post-fault periods
Pre-fault period is the time before the inception of a fault.
9.1 Sequential Events Recorder Fault period is the time during which the system continues
to experience a fault. The post-fault period is the time that
A sequential events recorder is a system that monitors and starts from the instant a fault has been cleared.
- 24-
Copyright C The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
Bibliography
Books 13. Sachdev, M.S. (Coordinator), "Computer

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- 25 -
Standards 39. ANSI/IEEE C37.97-1979 (R 1990), Guide
25. ANSI/IEEE C37.90-1989 (R 1994), Stan- for Protective Relay Applications to
dard for Relays and Relay Systems Asso- Power System Buses.
ciated with Electric Power Apparatus. 40. ANSI/IEEE C37.99-1990 (R 1994), Guide
26. ANSI/IEEE C37.90.1-1989 (R 1994), Stan- for Protection of Shunt Capacitor Banks.
dard Surge Withstand Capability (SWC) 41. ANSI/IEEE C37.101-1993, Guide for Gen-
Tests for Protective Relays and Relay erator Ground Protection.
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42. ANSI/IEEE C37.102-1987 (R 1990), Guide
27. ANSI/IEEE C37.90.2-1995, Standard With- for AC Generator Protection.
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diated Electromagnetic Interference from 43. ANSI/IEEE C37.103-1990, Guide for Dif-
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28. ANSI/IEEE C37.98-1987 (R 1990), Stan-
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31. ANSI/IEEE C37.111-1991, Standard Com- 47.
mon Format for Transient Data Exchange ANSI/IEEE C57.13.1-1981 (R 1992), Guide
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Guides Recommended Practices

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36. ANSI/IEEE C37.93-1987 (R 1992), Guide 52. ANSI/IEEE 1094-1991, Recommended

for Power System Relay Applications of Practice for the Electrical Design and Op-
Audio Tones over Telephone Channels. eration of Windfann Generating Stations.

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4 PWR, 1976.
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Lines." IEEE Publication No. 79TH Sources of Generation." IEEE Publica-
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Analysis." IEEE Publication No. 87 TH
0195-8 PWR, 1987.
- 27-

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IEEE Power & Energy Society TECHNICAL REPORT

Jul 1997 PES-TR8

Terms Used by Power

IEEE 2013 The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Inc.

A Special Publication of the

M.S. Sachdev, Chair

B.D. Nelson, Vice Chair

Bajpai, M., Phoenix, AZ Elmore, W.A., Coral Springs, FL

IEEE Catalog Number: TP130-0-031998-1-0

Additional copies of this publication are available from

IEEE Operations Center

1-800-678-IEEE (IndividuallMember Orders)

Working Group Membership............ ii 5.1 Distance Relay ..................... 13

Fig. Title of Figure Page Fig. Title of Figure Page

5. Time current characteristics com-

The terms concerning the quality of measurements and

Relay Electromagnetic attraction (or repulsion)

I nents from the signals using analog filters. Other relays

cts & vts

Figure 3. Block diagram of a microprocessor-based relay.

Figure 4. Signal and data flow of a microprocessor-based relay.

relay location. This is sometimes not desirable. For ex-

Relay 1 Relay 2 Relay 3

I~:Vc ~:v. I~~Vb

9cP Connection 9cP Connection

Figure 8. Voltage phasors used in 60 and 90 connection angles.

Phase voltages andcurrents Phase B current andthe Phase C current andthe

Offset Mho Characteristic

Figure 11. Generally used characteristics of generic distance relays.

Figure 12. Operating characteristics of impedance and offset impedance relays.

Maximum Torque Line

Figure 13. Typical operating characteristic of a mho relay and a blinder.

20 eo 00' 100 120 ,ao 6.2.3 Static pressure relay

6.2.2 Gas accumulation relay 6.4 Temperature Relay

A few terms concerning circuit breakers often used by

The failure of a circuit breaker to interrupt fault current

The following three examples show the circuit breakers

Station X 1 D I Remote is identified as pole disagreement. If the contacts of

Figure 25. Circuit breaker failure in a ring bus JI' Jt

Books 13. Sachdev, M.S. (Coordinator), "Computer

Guides Recommended Practices

36. ANSI/IEEE C37.93-1987 (R 1992), Guide 52. ANSI/IEEE 1094-1991, Recommended

37. ANSI/IEEE C37.95-1989 (R 1994), Guide

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