WOOD-FRAME HOUSE CONSTRUCTION

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE FOREST SERVICBAGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 73

 WOOD-FRAME
HOUSE CONSTRUCTION

By L. O. ANDERSON, Engineer
Forest Products Laboratory Forest Service
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Agriculture Handbook No. 73 Revised July 1970

Slightly revised April 1975

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washincfton, D.C. 20402
Price: $2.60
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Acknowledgment is made to the following members of the Forest Products

Laboratory (FPL) for their contributions to this Handbook:

John M. Black, for information on painting and finishing; Theodore C.

Scheffer, for information on protection against termites and decay; and
Herbert W. Eickner, for information on protection against fire.

Acknowledgment is also made to Otto C. Heyer (retired) for his part as

a co-author of the first edition and to other FPL staff members who have
contributed valuable information for this revision.

The wood industry has also contributed significantly to many sections of

the publication.

11
 CONTENTS

Page Page

Introduction 1 Chapter 6.Wall Framing 31

Requirements 31
Chapter 1.Location and Excavation 1 Platform Construction 31
Condition at Site 1 Balloon Construction 33
Placement of the House 3 Window and Door Framing 34
Height of Foundation Walls 3 End-wall Framing 36
Excavation 4 Interior Walls 38
Chapter 2.Concrete and Masonry 5 Lath Nailers 39
Mixing and Pouring 5 Chapter 7.Ceiling and Roof Framing 40
Footings 5 Ceiling Joists 40
Draintile 7 Flush Ceiling Framing 42
Post and Beam Framing 42
Chapter 3.Foundation Walls and Piers 8
Roof Slopes 44
Poured Concrete Walls 8
Flat Roofs 45
Concrete Block Walls 9
Pitched Roofs 45
Masonry Construction for Crawl Spaces 11
Valleys 48
Sill Plate Anchors 11
Dormers 48
Reinforcing in Poured Walls 11
Overhangs 48
Masonry Veneer over Frame Walls 12
Ridge Beam Roof Details 49
Notch for Wood Beams 12
Lightweight Wood Roof Trusses 49
Protection Against Termites 12
Chapter 8.Wall Sheathing 53
Chapter 4.Concrete Floor Slabs on Ground 15 Types of Sheathing 53
Types of Floor Construction 15 Corner Bracing 54
Basic Requirements 15 Installation of Sheathing 54
Combined Slab and Foundation 15
Independent Concrete Slab and Foundation Chapter 9.Roof Sheathing 58
Walls 15 Lumber Sheathing 58
Vapor Barrier Under Concrete Slab 17 Plywood Roof Sheathing 59
Insulation Requirements for Concrete Floor Plank Roof Decking 59
Slabs on Ground 18 Fiberboard Roof Decking 59
Insulation Types 18 Extension of Roof Sheathing at Gable Ends 59
Protection Against Termites 19 Sheathing at Chimney Openings 61
Finish Floors over Concrets Slabs on the Sheathing at Valleys and Hips 61
Ground 19 Chapter 10.Exterior Trim and Millwork 63
Materials Used for Trim 63
Chapter 5.Floor Framing 19
Cornice Construction 63
Factors in Design 19
Rake or Gable-end Finish 65
Recommended Nailing Practices 19
Posts and Girders 20 Chapter 11.Roof Coverings 71
Girder-joist Installation 23 Materials 71
Wood Sill Construction 23 Wood Shingles 71
Floor Joists 23 Asphalt Shingles 73
Bridging 29 Built-up Roofs 74
Subfloor 29 Other Roof Coverings 74
Floor Framing at Wall Projections 31 Finish at the Ridge and Hip 74
 Page Page
Chapter 12.Exterior Frames, Windows, and Types and Location of Inlet Ventilators 112
Doors 77 Crawl-Space Ventilation and Soil Cover 113
Types of Windows 77
Chapter 17.Sound Insulation 114
Double-hung Windows 78
How Sound Travels 114
Casement Windows 78
Wall Construction 114
Stationary Windows 78
Floor-Ceiling Construction 116
Awning Windows 81
Sound Absorption 119
Horizontal-sliding Window Units 81
Exterior Doors and Frames 82 Chapter 18.Basement Rooms 119
Types of Exterior Doors 84 Floors 119
Walls 120
Chapter 13.Exterior Coverings 85 Ceilings 121
Wood Siding 85
Chapter 19.Interior Wall and Ceiling Finish-- 123
Horizontal Sidings 85
Types of Finishes 124
Sidings for Horizontal or Vertical Applica-
Lath and Plaster 124
tions 85
Dry-wall Finish 128
Sidings for Vertical Application 87
Siding with Sheet Materials 87 Chapter 20.Floor Coverings 133
Wood Shingles and Shakes 88 Flooring Materials 133
Other Exterior Finish 88 Wood-Strip Flooring 134
Installation of Siding 89 Wood and Particleboard Tile Flooring 138
Installation of Wood Shingles and Shakes __ 93 Base for Resilient Floors 139
Nonwood Coverings 95 Types of Resilient Floors 141
Carpeting 141
Chapter 14.Framing Details for Plumbing, Ceramic Tile 141
Heating, and Other Utilities 97 Chapter 21.Interior Doors, Frames, and Trim 142
Plumbing Stack Vents 97 Decorative Treatment 143
Bathtub Framing 98
Trim Parts for Doors and Frames 143
Cutting Floor Joists 98 Installation of Door Hardware 146
Alterations for Heating Ducts 99 Wood-trim Installation 149
Framing for Convectors 99 Base and Ceiling Moldings 150
Wiring . 100
Chapter 22.Cabinets and Other Millwork 151
Chapter 15.Thermal Insulation and Vapor Kitchen Cabinets 152
Barriers 100 Closets and Wardrobes 152
Insulating Materials 100 Mantels 152
Flexible Insulation 101 China Cases 153
Loose Fill Insulation 102 Chapter 23.Stairs 155
Reflective Insulation 103 Construction 155
Rigid Insulation 103 Types of Stairways 155
Miscellaneous Insulation 103 Ratio of Riser to Tread 155
Where to Insulate 104 Stair Widths and Handrails 161
How to Install Insulation 104 Framing for Stairs 161
Precautions in Insulating 107 Stairway Details 162
Vapor Barriers 107 Attic Folding Stairs 165
Exterior Stairs 165
Chapter 16.^Ventilation 108
Area of Ventilators 109 Chapter 24.Flashing and Other Sheet Metal
Gable Roofs 109 Work 166
Hip Roofs 110 Materials 166
Flat Roofs 110 Flashing 166
Types and Location of Outlet Ventilators __ 110 Gutters and Downspouts 170

IV
 Page Page
Chapter 25.Porches and Garages 174 Chapter 30.Protection Against Fire 200
Porches 174 Fire Stops 200
Garages 178 Chimney and Fireplace Construction 200
Heating Systems 200
Chapter 26.Chimneys and Fireplaces 181 Flame Spread and Interior Finish 201
Chimneys 181 Fire-Resistant Walls 201
Flue Linings 182
Fireplaces 183 Chapter 31.Methods of Reducing Building
Costs 201
Chapter 27.Driveways, Walks, and Basement Design 201
Floors 185 Choice of Materials 202
Driveways 185 Construction 203
Sidewalks 186 Chapter 32.Protection and Care of Materials at
Basement Floors 188 the Building Site 204
Protection Requirements 204
Chapter 28.Painting and Finishing 188
Protection of Framing Materials 204
Effect of Wood Properties 188
Window and Door Frames 204
Natural Finishes for Exterior Wood 188
Siding and Lath 204
Paints for Exterior Wood 190
Plastering in Cold Weather 205
Finishes for Interior Woodwork 192
Interior Finish 205
Finishes for Floors 193
Moisture-Excluding Effectiveness of Coatings 194 Chapter 33.^Maintenance and Repair 205
Basement 206
Chapter 29.Protection Against Decay and Crawl-Space Area 206
Termites 194 Roof and Attic 206
Decay 195 Exterior Walls 207
Subterranean Termites 196 Interior 208
Dry-Wood Termites 197
Literature Cited 209
Safeguards Against Decay 197
Safeguards Against Termites 199 Glossary of Housing Terms 210
 WOOD-FRAME HOUSE CONSTRUCTION
By L. 0. ANDERSON, engineer
Forest Products Laboratory ^

INTRODUCTION

This publication presents sound principles for wood- While designing and planning are beyond the scope
frame house contruction and suggestions for selecting of this publication, the information on materials and
suitable materials that will greatly assist in the con- building practices is intended to guide builders and
struction of a good house. It is also meant as a guide prospective homeowners in erecting a good house with
and handbook for those without this type of construc- a minimum of maintenance. This Handbook can also
tion experience. be used as a training aid for apprentices or as a
Many wood houses are in existence today that were standard by which to judge the quality of house con-
built more than 200 years ago when early settlers struction.
arrived. The modern conventional wood-frame house, It sets forth what are considered to be acceptable
with wood or wood product covering materials, is practices in assembling and arranging the parts of a
economical, long lasting, and can be constructed in well-designed wood-frame house. While details of con-
any location. The United States is well supplied with struction may vary in different localities, the funda-
timber and has a diversified industry that manufac- mental principles are the same. This handbook deals
tures lumber and other wood products used in the essentially with established methods of construction,
house. Few, if any, materials can compete with wood and does not attempt to show new ones that are used
framing in the construction of houses. However, to in various parts of the country.
provide this efficient wood house, good construction Construction details for houses are given in a series
details are important as well as the selection of mate^ of drawings with accompanying text, which show the
methods used in assembling the various parts.
rials for each specific use.
In general, the order of presentation conforms to
Three essentials to be considered in building a satis-
the normal sequence of constructing the building
factory house are: (1) An efficient plan, (2) suitable from foundation to finish work. The final chapters add
materials, and (3) sound construction. The house may information on painting, protecting wood from decay
be large or small, elaborate or unpretentious, modern and fire, and maintenance. A glossary of housing terms
or traditional, yet without all three of these essentials is also included at the back of the handbook to aid
it may be neither permanent nor satisfactory. with unfamiliar or specific word usage.^

CHAPTER 1

LOCATION AND EXCAVATION

Condition at Site a high water table may require design changes from
Before excavating for the new home, determine the a full basement to crawl space or concrete slab con-
subsoil conditions by test borings or by checking struction. If the area has been filled, the footings ^
existing houses constructed near the site. A rock ledge should always extend through to undisturbed soil. Any
may be encountered, necessitating costly removal; or variation from standard construction practices will
increase the cost of the foundation and footings. Thus
^ Maintained at Madison, Wis., in cooperation with the Uni-
versity of Wisconsin.
^For a list of references, see p. 209. ^ Key words in italics appear in the glossary, p. 210.
 NOTE LINE OF EXCAVATION AT
LEAST I'-O" OUTSIDE WALL.

OUTSIDE LINE OF
FOUNDATION WALL.

DIAGONALS ARE EQUAL

IF BUILDING IS SQUARE

BATTER BOARD

STAKE

-OUTSIDE LINE OF
FOUNDATION WALL

Figure 1.Staking and laying out the house. M 134 661

it is good practice to examine the type of foundations Height of Foundation Walls
used in neighboring housesthis might influence the It is common practice to establish the depth of the
design of the new house. excavation, and consequently the height of the founda-
Placement of the House tion, on ungraded or graded sites, by using the highest
elevation of the excavation's perimeter as the control
After the site is cleared, the location of the outer
point (fig. 2). This method will insure good drainage
walls of the house is marked out. In general, the
if sufficient foundation height is allowed for the slop-
surveyor will mark the corners of the lot after making
ing of the final grade (fig. 3). Foundation walls at
a survey of the plot of land. The corners of the pro-
least 7 feet 4 inches high are desirable for full base-
posed house also should be roughly marked by the
ments, but 8-foot walls are commonly used.
surveyor.
Before the exact location of the house is determined,
FOUNDATION WALL
check local codes for minimum setback and side-yard OUTLINE
requirements; the location of the house is usually
determined by such codes. In some cases, the setback
may be established by existing houses on adjacent
property. Most city building regulations require that
a plot plan be a part of the house plans so its location
is determined beforehand.
The next step, after the corners of the house have
been established, is to determine lines and grades as
aids in keeping the work level and true. The batter
hoard (fig. 1) is one of the methods used to locate
and retain the outline of the house. The height of the
M 134 663
boards is sometimes established to conform to the
Figure 2.Establishing depth of excavation.
height of the foundation wall.
Small stakes are first located accurately at each
corner of the house with nails driven in their tops to
indicate the outside line of the foundation walls. To MINIMUM 8" CLEARANCE
assure square corners, measure the diagonals to see if DRAIN AWAY
they are the same length. The comers can also be FROM HOUSE

squared by measuring along one side a distance in

3-foot units such as 6, 9, and 12 and along the adjoin-
ing side the same number of 4-foot units as 8, 12, and
16. The diagonals will then measure the equal of 5-
foot units such as 10, 15, and 20 when the unit is
square. Thus, a 9-foot distance on one side and a 12-
foot distance on the other should result in a 15-foot
diagonal measurement for a true 90 corner.
After the corners have been located, three 2- by
4-inch or larger stakes of suitable length are driven
at each location 4 feet (minimum) beyond the lines
M 134 660
of the foundation; then 1- by 6- or 1- by 8-inch boards
Figure 3.Finish grade sloped for drainage.
are nailed horizontally so the tops are all level at the
same grade. Twine or stout string (carpenter chalk-
line) is next held across the top of opposite boards at Foundation walls should be extended above the
two corners and adjusted so that it will be exactly finished grade around the outside of the house so that
over the nails in the corner stakes at either end; a the wood finish and framing members will be ade-
plumb bob is handy for setting the lines. Saw kerfs at quately protected from soil moisture and be well above
the outside edge are cut where the lines touch the the grass line. Thus, in termite-infested areas, there
boards so that they may be replaced if broken or will be an opportunity to observe any termite tubes
disturbed. After similar cuts are located in all eight between the soil and the wood and take protective
batter boards, the lines of the house will be established. measures before damage develops. Enough height
Check the diagonals again to make sure the corners should be provided in crawl spaces to permit periodic
are square. An "L" shaped plan, for example, can be inspection for termites and for installation of soil
divided into rectangles, treating each separately or as covers to minimize the effects of ground moisture on
an extension of one or more sides. framing members.
 The top of the foundation wall should usually be at space, if soil is stable enough to prevent caving. This
least 8 inches above the finish grade at the wall line. eliminates the need for forming below grade when
The finish grade at the building line might be 4 to 12 footings are not required.
inches or more above the original ground level. In lots Excavation is preferably carried only to the top of
sloping upward from front to rear (fig. 3), this the footings or the bottom of the basement floor, be-
distance may amount to 12 inches or more. In very cause some soil becomes soft upon exposure to air or
steeply sloped lots, a retaining wall to the rear of the water. Thus it is advisable not to make the final ex-
wall line is often necessary. cavation for footings until nearly time to pour the
For houses having crawl space, the distance between concrete unless formboards are to be used.
the ground level and underside of the joist should be Excavation must be wide enough to provide space
at least 18 inches above the highest point within the to work when constructing and waterproofing the wall
area enclosed by the foundation wall. Where the in- and laying drain tile, if it is necessary in poor drain-
terior ground level is excavated or otherwise below the age areas (fig. 4). The steepness of the back slope of
outside finish grade, adequate precautionary measures the excavation is determined by the subsoil en-
should be made to assure positive drainage at all countered. With clay or other stable soil, the back
times. slope can be nearly vertical. When sand is encountered,
Excavation an inclined slope is required to prevent caving.
Some contractors, in excavating for basements, only
Excavation for basements may be accomplished
roughstake the perimeter of the building for the re-
with one of several types of earth-removing equipment.
Top soil is often stockpiled by bulldozer or front-end moval of the earth. When the proper floor elevation
loader for future use. Excavation of the basement has been reached, the footing layout is made and the
area may be done with a front-end loader, power earth removed. After the concrete is poured and set,
shovel, or similar equipment. the building wall outhne is then established on the
Power trenchers are often used in excavating for footings and marked for the formwork or concrete
the walls of houses built on a slab or with a crawl block wall.

SAW

SPACE FOR TILING

OR WATERPROOFING
WALL

NO FILL
M 134 662
Figure 4.Establishing comers for excavation and footings.

4
 CHAPTER 2

CONCRETE AND MASONRY

Concrete and masonry units such as concrete block Rapid drying lowers its strength and may injure the
serve various purposes in most house designs, includ- exposed surfaces of sidewalks and drives.
ing concrete-slab and crawl-space houses which have In very cold weather, keep the temperature of the
poured concrete or concrete block foundation walls concrete above freezing until it has set. The rate at
of some type. However, developments in treated wood which concrete sets is affected by temperature, being
foundation systems will permit all-weather construc- much slower at 40 F. and below than at higher tem-
tion and provide reliable foundations for crawl-space peratures. In cold weather, the use of heated water
houses. and aggregate during mixing is good practice. In
A great amount of concrete is supplied by ready-mix severe weather, insulation or heat is used until the
plants, even in rural areas. Concrete in this form is concrete has set.
normally ordered by the number of bags per cubic
yard, in addition to aggregate size and water-content Footings
requirements. Five-bag mix is considered minimum for The footings act as the base of the foundation and
most work, and where high strength or reinforcing is transmit the superimposed load to the soil. The type
used, six-bag mix is commonly specified. and size of footings should be suitable for the soil
The size of gravel or crushed rock which can be condition, and in cold climates the footings should be
obtained varies in different locations and it may be far enough below ground level to be protected from
necessary to change the cement ratio normally recom- frost action. Local codes usually establish this depth,
mended. Generally speaking, when gravel size is which is often 4 feet or more in northern sections of
smaller than the normal 1^2- to 14-inch size, it is the United States.
good practice to use a higher cement ratio. When Poured concrete footings are more dependable than
gravel size is a maximum of 1 inch, add one-quarter those of other materials and are recommended for use
sack of cement to the 5-bag mix; when gravel size in house foundations. Where fill has been used, the
is a maximum of %-inch, add one-half bag; and for foundations should extend below the fill to undisturbed
%-inch size add one bag. earth. In areas having adobe soil or where soil mois-
ture may cause soil shrinkage, irregular settlement of
Mixing and Pouring
the foundation and the building it supports may occur.
Proportions of fine and coarse aggregate, amount Local practices that have been successful should be
of cement, and water content should follow the recom- followed in such cases.
mendations of the American Concrete Institute. Mix-
ing plants are normally governed by these quantities. Wall Footings
It is common practice to limit the amount of water to Well-designed wall footings are important in pre-
not more than 7% gallons for each sack of cement, venting settling or cracks in the wall. One method of
including that contained in the sand and gravel. Tables determining the size, often used with most normal
of quantities for field mixing on small jobs are avail- soils, is based on the proposed wall thickness. The
able. For example, one combination utilizing a 1-inch footing thickness or depth should be equal to the wall
maximum size of coarse aggregate uses: 5.8 sacks of thickness (fig. 5,^). Footings should project beyond
cement per cubic yard, 5 gallons of water per sack of each side of the wall one-half the wall thickness. This
cement, and a cement to fine aggregate to coarse is a general rule, of course, as the footing bearing
aggregate ratio of 1 to 2% to 3%. Size of coarse area should be designed to the load capacity of the
aggregate is usually governed by the thickness of the soil. Local regulations often relate to these needs.
wall and the spacing of reinforcing rods, when used. This also applies to column and fireplace footings.
The use of 2-inch coarse aggregate, for example, is
If soil is of low load-bearing capacity, wider rein-
not recommended for slabs or other thin sections.
forced footings may be required.
Concrete should be poured continuously wherever
A few rules that apply to footing design and con-
possible and kept practically level throughout the
struction are:
area being poured. All vertical joints should be keyed.
Rod or vibrate the concrete to remove air pockets and 1. Footings must be at least 6 inches thick, with 8
force the concrete into all parts of the forms. inches or more preferable.
In hot weather, protect concrete from rapid drying. 2. If footing excavation is too deep, fill with con-
It should be kept moist for several days after pouring. cretenever replace dirt.
 3. Use formboards for footings where soil condi- set in the pedestal to anchor a wood post. Bolts for the
tions prevent sharply cut trenches. bottom plate of steel posts are usually set when the
4. Place footings below the frostline. pedestal is poured. At other times, steel posts are set
5. Reinforce footings with steel rods where they directly on the footing and the concrete floor poured
cross pipe trenches. around them.
6. Use key slot for better resistance to water entry Footings vary in size depending on the allowajble
at wall location. soil pressure and the spacing of the piers, posts, or
7. In freezing weather, cover with straw or supply columns. Common sizes are 24 by 24 by 12 inches and
heat. 30 by 30 by 12 inches. The pedestal is sometimes
poured after the footing. The minimum height should
Per, Post, and Column Footings be about 3 inches above the finish basement floor and
12 inches above finish grade in crawl-space areas.
Footings for piers, posts, or columns (fig. 5,^) Footings for fireplaces, furnaces, and chimneys
should be square and include a pedestal on which the should ordinarily be poured at the same time as other
member will bear. A protruding steel pin is ordinarily footings.

WALL THICKNESS

WALL THICKNESS AND

NOT MORE THAN
DEPTH
2x4 KEY FOR
POURED WALL

WIDTH EQUALS DEPTH EQUALS

2 X WALL THICKNESS WALL THICKNESS

.PIN
I I

. ^^WOOD POST OR
K STEEL POST
HORED WITH BOLTS
PEDES
FLOOR LINE

FOOTING

B
M 134 669
Figure 5.Concrete footing: A, Wall footing; B, post footing.

6
Stepped Footings
BASEMENT WALL
Stepped footings are often used where the lot slopes
to the front or rear and the garage or living areas are
at basement level. The vertical part of the step should
be poured at the same time as the footing. The bottom
of the footing is always placed on undisturbed soil and
located below the frostline. Each run of the footing
should be level.
The vertical step between footings should be at
least 6 inches thick and the same width as the footings
(fig. 6). The height of the step should not be more
6"-8" GRAVEL
than three-fourths of the adjacent horizontal footing. COVER
On steep slopes, more than one step may be required. ASPHALT FELT COVER
It is good practices, when possible, to limit the vertical
DRAIN TILE
step to 2 feet. In very steep slopes, special footings FOOTING
2" GRAVEL
may be required.
M 134 667
Figure 7, intile for soil drainage at outer wall.
Draintile
Foundation or footing drains must often be used necessary to drain away subsurface water. This pre-
around foundations enclosing basements, or habitable caution will prevent damp basements and wet floors.
spaces below the outside finish grade (fig. 7). This may Draintile is often necessary where habitable rooms are
be in sloping or low areas or any location where it is developed in the basement or where houses are located

DOORWAYv

GR

FLOOR LEVEL

FINISH GRADE

FOOTING

BELOW FROSTLINE

M 134 671
Figure 6.Stepped footings.

7
near the bottom of a long slope subjected to heavy placed end to end and spaced about % inch apart.
runoff. The top of the joint between the tile is covered with a
Drains are installed at or below the area to be pro- strip of asphalt felt or similar paper; 6 to 8 inches of
tected, and drain toward a ditch or into a sump where gravel is used over the tile. Drainage is toward the out-
fall or ditch. Dry wells for drainage water are used
the water can be pumped to a storm sewer. Clay or
only when the soil conditions are favorable for this
concrete draintile, 4 inches in diameter and 12 inches method of disposal. Local building regulations vary
long, is ordinarily placed at the bottom of the footing somewhat and should be consulted before construction
level on top of a 2-inch gravel bed (fig. 7). Tile are of drainage system is started.

CHAPTER 3

FOUNDATION WALLS AND PIERS

Foundation walls form an enclosure for basements and are fastened together with clips or other ties
or crawl spaces and carry wall, floor, roof, and other (fig. 8). Wood sheathing boards and studs with hori-
building loads. The two types of walls most commonly zontal members and braces are sometimes used in the
used are poured concrete and concrete block. Treated construction of forms in small communities. As in
wood foundations might also be used when accepted reusable forms, formwork should be plumb, straight,
by local codes. and braced sufficiently to withstand the pouring opera-
Preservative-treated posts and poles offer many tions.
possibilities for low-cost foundation systems and can Frames for cellar windows, doors, and other open-
also serve as a structural framework for the walls and ings are set in place as the forming is erected, along
roof. with forms for the beam pockets which are located to
support the ends of the floor beam.
Wall thicknesses and types of construction are ordi-
Reusable forms usually require little bracing other
narily controlled by local building regulations. Thick-
than horizontal members and sufficient blocking and
nesses of poured concrete basement walls may vary
bracing to keep them in place during pouring opera-
from 8 to 10 inches and concrete block walls from
tions. Forms constructed with vertical studs and water-
8 to 12 inches, depending on story heights and length
proof plywood or lumber sheathing require horizontal
of unsupported walls.
whalers and bracing.
Clear wall height should be no less than 7 feet from Level marks of some type, such as nails along the
the top of the finish basement floor to the bottom of form, should be used to assure a level foundation top.
the joists; greater clearance is usually desirable to This will provide a good level sill plate and floor
provide adequate headroom under girders, pipes, and framing.
ducts. Many contractors pour 8-foot-high walls above Concrete should be poured continuously without
the footings, which provide a clearance of 7 feet 8 interruption and constantly puddled to remove air
inches from the top of the finish concrete floor to the pockets and work the material under window frames
bottom of the joists. Concrete block walls, 11 courses and other blocking. If wood spacer blocks are used,
above the footings with 4-inch solid cap-block, will they should be removed and not permitted to become
produce about a 7-foot 4-inch height to the joists from buried in the concrete. Anchor bolts for the sill plate
the basement floor. should be placed while the concrete is still plastic.
Concrete should always be protected when tempera-
Poured Concrete Walls
tures are below freezing.
Poured concrete walls (fig. 8) require forming that
Forms should not be removed until the concrete has
must be tight and also braced and tied to withstand
hardened and acquired sufficient strength to support
the forces of the pouring operation and the fluid
loads imposed during early construction. At least 2
concrete.
days (and preferably longer) are required when tem-
Poured concrete walls should be double-formed peratures are well above freezing, and perhaps a week
(formwork constructed for each wall face). Reusable when outside temperatures are below freezing.
forms are used in the majority of poured walls. Panels Poured concrete walls can be dampproofed with
may consist of wood framing with plywood facings one heavy cold or hot coat of tar or asphalt. It should
 REUSABLE FORMS
(PLYWOOD OR
OTHER FACING)

ANCHOR BOLT

HORIZONTAL
BRACE

DIAGONAL BRACE
(WHEN REQUIRED)

FOOTING

M 136 291
Figure 8.Forming for poured concrete walls.

be applied to the outside from the footings to the courses start at the footing and are laid up with about
finish gradeline. Such coatings are usually sufficient %-inch mortar joints, usually in a common bond
to make a wall watertight against ordinary seepage (fig. 9). Joints should be tooled smooth to resist water
(such as may occur after a rainstorm), but should seepage. Full bedding of mortar should be used on
not be applied until the surface of the concrete has all contact surfaces of the block. When pilasters
dried enough to assure good adhesion. In poorly (column-like projections) are required by building
drained soils, a membrane (such as described for con- codes or to strengthen a wall, they are placed on the
crete block walls) may be necessary. interior side of the wall and terminated at the bottom
of the beam or girder supported.
Concrete Block Wells Basement door and window frames should be set
with keys for rigidity and to prevent air leakage
Concrete blocks are available in various sizes and
(% 9).
forms, but those generally used are 8, 10, and 12
Block walls should be capped with 4 inches of solid
inches wide. Modular blocks allow for the thickness
masonry or concrete reinforced with wire mesh.
and width of the mortar joint so are usually about Anchor bolts for sills are usually placed through the
7% inches high by 15% inches long. This results in top two rows of blocks and the top cap. They should
blocks which measure 8 inches high and 16 inches be anchored with a large plate washer at the bottom
long from centerline to centerline of the mortar joints. and the block openings filled solidly with mortar or
Concrete block walls require no formwork. Block concrete, (fig. 9).
 4" SOLID
CAP BLOCK

ANCHOR BOLT

KEY

WINDOW FRAME

REINFORCED JOINTS
Figure 9.Concrete block walls. M 134 668

When an exposed block foundation is used as a Freshly laid block walls should be protected in tem-
finished wall for basement rooms, the stack bond pat- peratures below freezing. Freezing of the mortar be-
tern may be employed for a pleasing effect. This con- fore it has set will often result in low adhesion, low
sists of placing blocks one above the other, resulting strength, and joint failure.
in continuous vertical mortar joints. However, when To provide a tight, waterproof joint between the
this system is used, it is necessary to incorporate some footing and wall, an elastic calking compound is often
type of joint reinforcing every second course. This used. The wall is waterproofed by applying a coating
usually consists of small diameter steel longitudinal of cement-mortar over the block with a cove formed
and cross rods arranged in a grid pattern. The com- at the juncture with the footing (fig. 9). When the
mon bond does not normally require this reinforcing, mortar is dry, a coating of asphalt or other water-
but when additional strength is desired, it is good proofing will normally assure a dry basement.
practice to incorporate this bonding system into the For added protection when wet soil conditions may
wall. be encountered, a waterproof membrane of roofing

10
felt or other material can be mopped on, with shingle- exceed 8 feet on center under exterior wall beams and
style laps of 4 to 6 inches, over the cement-mortar interior girders set at right angles to the floor joists,
coating. Hot tar or hot asphalt is commonly used over and 12 feet on center under exterior wall beams set
the membrane. This covering will prevent leaks if parallel to the floor joists. Exterior wall piers should
minor cracks develop in the blocks or joints between not extend above grade more than four times their
the blocks. least dimension unless supported laterally by masonry
or concrete walls. As for wall footing sizes, the size
Masonry Construction for Cravl Spaces of the pier footings should be based on the load and
In some areas of the country, the crawl-space house the capacity of the soil.
is often used in preference to those constructed over a
basement or on a concrete slab. It is possible to con- Sill Plate Anchors
struct a satisfactory house of this type by using (a) In wood-frame construction, the sill plate should be
a good soil cover, (b) a small amount of ventilation, anchored to the foundation wall with %-inch bolts
and (c) sufficient insulation to reduce heat loss. These hooked and spaced about 8 feet apart (fig. 10,^).
details will be covered in later chapters. In some areas, sill plates are fastened with masonry
nails, but such nails do not have the uplift resistance
One of the primary advantages of the crawl-space
of bolts. In high-wind and storm areas, well-anchored
house over the full basement house is, of course, the
plates are very important. A sill sealer is often used
reduced cost. Little or no excavation or grading is
under the sill plate on poured walls to take care of any
required except for the footings and walls. In mild
irregularities which might have occured during curing
climates, the footings are located only slightly below
of the concrete. Anchor bolts should be embedded 8
the finish grade. However, in the northern Str .^ where
inches or more in poured concrete walls and 16 inches
frost penerates deeply, the footing is often located 4
or more in block walls with the core filled with con-
or more feet below the finish grade. This, of course,
crete. A large plate washer should be used at the head
requires more masonry work and increases the cost.
end of the bolt for the block wall. If termite shields
The footings should always be poured over undis-
are used, they should be instilled under the plate and
turbed soil and never over fill unless special piers and
sill sealer.
grade beams are used.
Although not the best practice, some contractors
The construction of a masonry wall for a crawl
construct wood-frame houses without the use of a sill
space is much the same as those required for a full
plate. Anchorage of the floor system must then be
basement (figs. 8 and 9), except that no excavation is
provided by the use of steel strapping, which is placed
required within the walls. Waterproofing and draintile
during the pour or between the block joints. Strap is
are normally not required for this type of construc-
bent over the joist or the header joist and fastened by
tion. The masonry pier replaces the wood or steel posts
nailing (fig. 10,5). The use of a concrete or mortar
of the basement house used to support the center beam.
beam fill provides resistance to air and insect entry.
Footing size and wall thicknesses vary somewhat by
location and soil conditions. A common minimum Reinforcing in Poured Wails
thickness for walls in single-story frame houses is Poured concrete walls normally do not require steel
8 inches for hollow concrete block and 6 inches for reinforcing except over window or door openings
poured concrete. The minimum footing thickness is located below the top of the wall. This type of con-
6 inches and the width is 12 inches for concrete block struction requires that a properly designed steel or
and 10 inches for the poured foundation wall for reinforced-concrete lintel be built over the frame (fig.
crawl-space houses. However, in well constructed 11,^4). In poured walls, the rods are laid in place while
houses, it is common practice to use 8-inch walls and the concrete is being poured so that they are about
16- by 8-inch footings. 11/2 inches above the opening. Frames should be prime
Poured concrete or concrete block piers are often painted or treated before installation. For concrete
used to support floor beams in crawl-space houses. block walls, a similar reinforced poured concrete or
They should extend at least 12 inches above the a precast lintel is commonly used.
groundline. The minimum size for a concrete block Where concrete work includes a connecting porch
pier should be 8 by 16 inches with a 16- by 24- by or garage wall not poured with the main basement
8-inch footing. A solid cap block is used as a top wall, it is necessary to provide reinforcing-rod ties
course. Poured concrete piers should be at least 10 (fig. 11,5). These rods are placed during pouring of
by 10 inches in size with a 20- by 20- by 8-inch foot- the main wall. Depending on the size and depth, at
ing. Unreinforced concrete piers should be no greater least three %-inch deformed rods should be used at
in height than 10 times their least dimension. Con- the intersection of each wall. Keyways may be used in
crete block piers should be no higher than four times addition to resist lateral movement. Such connecting
the least dimension. The spacing of piers should not walls should extend below normal frostline and be

11
 SUBFLOOR

SILL PLATE
ANCHOR BOLT- 8'O.C.
SILL SEALER
FOUNDATION
WALL

HEADER
JOIST
BEAM FILL
STEEL STRAP

M 134 666
Figure 10.Anchoring floor system to concrete or masonry walls:
A, With sill plate; b, without sill plate.

supported by undisturbed ground. Wall extensions in tooled to a smooth finish to get the maximum resist-
concrete block walls are also of block and are con- ance to water penetration.
structed at the same time as the main walls over a
footing placed below frostline. Masonry laid during the cold weather should be
protected from freezing until after the mortar has
Masonry Veneer Over Frame Walls set.
If masonry veneer is used for the outside finish over
Notch for Wood Beams
wood-frame walls, the foundation must include a sup-
porting ledge or offset about 5 inches wide (fig. 12). When basement beams or girders are wood, the wall
This results in a space of about 1 inch between the notch or pocket for such members should be large
masonry and the sheathing for ease in laying the enough to allow at least 1/2 inch of clearance at sides
brick. A base flashing is used at the brick course below and ends of the beam for ventilation (fig. 13). Unless
the bottom of the sheathing and framing, and should the wood is treated there is a decay hazard where
be lapped with sheathing paper. Weep holes, to pro- beams and girders are so tightly set in wall notches
vide drainage, are also located at this course and are that moisture cannot readily escape. A waterproof
formed by eliminating the mortar in a vertical joint. membrane, such as roll roofing, is commonly used
Corrosion-resistant metal tiesspaced about 32 inches under the end of the beam to minimize moisture ab-
apart horizontally and 16 inches verticallyshould sorption (fig. 13).
be used to bond the brick veneer to the framework.
Where other than wood sheathing is used, secure the Protection Against Termites
ties to the studs. Certain areas of the country, particularly the Atlan-
Brick and stone should be laid in a full bed of tic Coast, Gulf States, Mississippi and Ohio Valleys,
mortar; avoid dropping mortar into the space between and southern California, are infested with wood-
the veneer and sheathing. Outside joints should be destroying termites. In such areas, wood construction

12
 FOUNDATION WALL

REINFORCING RODS

KEY

FRAME

FOUNDATION WALL

REINFORCING
RODS

BEND RODS^.

PORCH WALLS
EXTEND BELOW
FROSTLINE

B
M 134 672
Figure 11.Steel reinforcing rods in concrete walls: A, Rods used over window or doorframes;
B, rod ties used for porch or garage walls.

13
 .STUDS

SHEATHING PAPER

METAL TIES.
FASTEN TO STUDS

BASE FLASHING
EXTEND BEHIND
SHEATHING PAPER

WEEP HOLES
( O.e.)

FOUNDATION

MASONRY VENEER

M 134 665
Figure 12.Wood-frame wall with masonry veneer.

over a masonry foundation should be protected by one

or more of the following methods:
1. Poured concrete foundation walls.
2. Masonry unit foundation walls capped with rein-
BEAM NOTCH-
forced concrete.
"CLEARANCE
3. Metal shields made of rust-resistant material. SIDES AND END-
(Metal shields are effective only if they extend "--^^WOOD BEAM

beyond the masonry walls and are continuous,

with no gaps or loose joints. This shield is of
primary importance under most conditions.)
f<ir,V ^"MINIMUM
4. Wood-preservative treatment. (This method pro- - ^^''=!:;
BEARING

tects only the members treated.) ; > :-'^ ^.';/; " " ROLL. ROOFING

5. Treatment of soil with soil poison. (This is per-

; ^^\
- \.
haps one of the most common and effective :'^' s ^FOUNDATION WALL

' '. 0 ;
means used presently.)
See Chapter 29 for further details on protection
M 134 658
against termites.
Figure 13.Notch for wood beam.

14
 CHAPTER 4

CONCRETE FLOOR SLABS ON GROUND

The number of new one-story houses with full base- Basic Requirements
ments has declined in recent years, particularly in the Certain basic requirements should be met in the
warmer areas of the United States. This is due in part construction of concrete floor slabs to provide a satis-
to lower construction costs of houses without base- factory floor. They are:
ments and an apparent decrease in need for the base- 1. Establish finish floor level high enough above the
ment space. natural ground level so that finish grade around the
The primary function of a basement in the past has house can be sloped away for good drainage. Top of
been to provide space for a central heating plant and slab should be no less than 8 inches above the ground
for the storage and handling of bulk fuel and ashes. and the siding no less than 6 inches.
It also houses laundry and utilities. With the wide 2. Top soil should be removed and sewer and water
use of liquid and gas fuels, however, the need for fuel lines installed, then covered with 4 to 6 inches of
and ash storage space has greatly diminished. Because gravel or crushed rock well-tamped in place.
space can be compactly provided on the ground-floor
3. A vapor barrier consisting of a heavy plastic
level for the heating plant, laundry, and utilities, the
film, such as 6-mil polyethylene, asphalt laminated
need for a basement often disappears.
duplex sheet, or 45-pound or heavier roofing, with
Types of Floor Construction minimum of l/^-perm rating should be used under the
One common type of floor construction for base- concrete slab. Joints should be lapped at least 4 inches
mentless houses is a concrete slab over a suitable and sealed. The barrier should be strong enough to
foundation. Sloping ground or low areas are usually resist puncturing during placing of the concrete.
not ideal for slab-on-ground construction because 4. A permanent, waterproof, nonabsorptive type of
structural and drainage problems would add to costs. rigid insulation should be installed around the perime-
Split-level houses often have a portion of the founda- ter of the wall. Insulation may extend down on the
tion designed for a grade slab. In such use, the slope inside of the wall vertically or under the slab edge
of the lot is taken into account and the objectionable horizontally.
features of a sloping ground become an advantage. 5. The slab should be reinforced with 6- by 6-inch
The finish flooring for concrete floor slabs on the No. 10 wire mesh or other effective reinforcing. The
ground was initially asphalt tile laid in mastic directly concrete slab should be at least 4 inches thick and
on the slab. These concrete floors did not prove satis- should conform to information in Chapter 2, "Con-
factory in a number of instances, and considerable crete and Masonry." A monolithic slab (fig. 14) is
prejudice has been built up against this method of preferred in termite areas.
construction. The common complaints have been that 6. After leveling and screeding, the surface should
the floors are cold and uncomfortable and that con- be floated with wood or metal floats while concrete is
densation sometimes collects on the floor, near the still plastic. If a smooth dense surface is needed for
walls in cold weather, and elsewhere during warm, the installation of wood or resilient tile with adhesives,
humid weather. Some of these undesirable features of the surface should be steel troweled.
concrete floors on the ground apply to both warm and
cold climates, and others only to cold climates. Combined Slab and Foundation
Improvements in methods of construction based on The combined slab and foundation, sometimes re-
past experience and research have materially reduced ferred to as the thickened-edge slab, is useful in warm
the common faults of the slab floor but consequently climates where frost penetration is not a problem and
increased their cost. where soil conditions are especially favorable. It con-
Floors are cold principally because of loss of heat sists of a shallow perimeter reinforced footing poured
through the floor and the foundation walls, with most integrally with the slab over a vapor barrier (fig. 14).
loss occurring around the exterior walls. Suitable The bottom of the footing should be at least 1 foot
insulation around the perimeter of the house will below the natural gradeline and supported on solid,
help to reduce the heat loss. Radiant floor heating unfilled, and well-drained ground.
systems are effective in preventing cold floors and floor
condensation problems. Peripheral warm-air heating Independent Concrete Slab and
ducts are also effective in this respect. Vapor barriers Foundation Walls
over a gravel fill under the floor slab prevent soil When ground freezes to any appreciable depth dur-
moisture from rising through the slab. ing winter, the walls of the house must be supported

15
 SHEATHING

STUD

WOOD-BLOCK OR
RESILIENT TILE

ADHESIVE

8 MINIMUM

WIRE MESH CONCRETE SLAB

VAPOR BARRIER

'REINFORCING RODS
M 134 664
Figure 14.Combined slab and foundation (thickened edge slab.)

HOT TAR (TERMITES)

JILE FLOORING
,4" CONCRETE FLOOR
iVAPOR BARRIER
;^OCi>--.;..-;-..-f :-;,;A / ,HEAT DUCT FOR
/PERIMETER HEATING

-6 GRAVEL FILL

GRADE BEAM
-2" RIGID INSULATION

'";/ RIGID INSULATION

BEAM REINFORCEMENT
STEEL DOWEL
I REINFORCEMENT
SPACED CONCRETE PIER -FOOTING (BELOW FROSTLINE)
(SPREAD AT BOTTOM)
M 134 652 M 134 653
Figure 15.Reinforced grade beam for concrete slab. Beam spans Figure 16.Full foundation wall for cold climates. Perimeter heat
between concrete piers located below frostline. duct insulated to reduce heat loss.

16
 WALL STUDS

ANCHORED
SLEEPERS

WOOD STRIP
FLOORING

HOT TAR SEAL

SILL CALK

8" MIMIMUM
CONCRETE SLAB

VAPOR BARRIER

RIGID INSULATION

FOUNDATION
WALL
GRAVEL FILL

FOOTING
M 134 659
Figure 17.Independent concrete floor slab and wall. Concrete block is used over poured footing which is below frostline. Rigid in-
sulation may also be located along the inside of the block wall.

by foundations or piers which extend below the frost- Such properties are included in the following types of
line to solid bearing on unfilled soil. In such construc- materials :
tion, the concrete slab and foundation wall are usually 1. 55-pound roll roofing or heavy asphalt laminated
separate. Three typical systems are suitable for such duplex barriers.
conditions (figs. 15, 16, and 17).
2. Heavy plastic film, such as 6-mil or heavier
Vapor Barrier Under Concrete Slab polyethylene, or similar plastic film laminated
to a duplex treated paper.
The most desirable properties in a vapor barrier to
be used under a concrete slab are: (a) Good vapor- 3. Three layers of roofing felt mopped with hot
transmission rating (less than 0.5 perm) ; (b) resist- asphalt.
ance to damage by moisture and rot; and (c) ability 4. Heavy asphalt impregnated and vapor-resistant
to withstand normal usage during pouring operations. rigid sheet material with sealed joints.

17
 Insulation Requirements for Concrete Floor 1. Cellular-glass insulation board, available in slabs
2, 3, 4, and 5 inches thick. R factor, or resistivity,
Slabs on Ground
1.8 to 2.2 per inch of thickness. Crushing strength,
The use of perimeter insulation for slabs is neces- approximately 150 pounds per square inch. Easily cut
sary to prevent heat loss and cold floors during the and worked. The surface may spall (chip or crumble)
heating season, except in warm climates. The proper away if subjected to moisture and freezing. It should
locations for this insulation under several conditions be dipped in roofing pitch or asphalt for protection.
are shown in figures 15 to 17. Insulation should be located above or inside the vapor
barrier for protection from moisture (figs. 15 to 17).
The thickness of the insulation will depend upon
This type of insulation has been replaced to a large
requirements of the climate and upon the materials extent by the newer foamed plastics such as poly-
used. Some insulations have more than twice the insu- styrene and Polyurethane.
lating value of others (see Chapter 15). The resistance
2. Glass fibers with plastic binder, coated or un-
(R) per inch of thickness, as well as the heating coated, available in thicknesses of %, 1, 1%, and 2
design temperature, should govern the amount re- inches. R factor, 3.3 to 3.9 per inch of thickness.
quired. Perhaps two good general rules to follow are: Crushing strength, about 12 pounds per square inch.
1. For average winter low temperatures of 0 F. and Water penetration into coated board is slow and in-
higher (moderate climates), the total R should consequential unless the board is exposed to a constant
be about 2.0 and the depth of the insulation head of water, in which case this water may disinte-
or the width under the slab not less than 1 foot. grate the binder. Use a coated board or apply coal-tar
pitch or asphalt to uncoated board. Coat all edges.
2. For average winter low temperatures of 20 F. Follow manufacturer's instructions for cutting. Place-
and lower (cold climates), the total R should ment of the insulation inside the vapor barrier will
be about 3.0 without floor heating and the afford some protection.
depth or width of insulation not less than 2 feet. 3. Foamed plastic (polystyrene, polyurethane, and
Table 1 shows these factors in more detail. The values others) insulation in sheet form, usually available in
shown are minimum and any increase in insulation will thicknesses of %, 1, 1^, and 2 inches. At normal
result in lower heat losses. temperatures the R factor varies from 3.7 for poly-
styrenes to over 6.0 for polyurethane for a 1-inch
thickness. These materials generally have low water-
TABLE 1.Resistance values used in determining
vapor transmission rates. Some are low in crushing
minimum amount of edge insulation for concrete strength and perhaps are best used in a vertical posi-
floors slabs on ground for various design tempera- tion (fig. 15) and not under the slab where crushing
tures. could occur.

Resistance (R) factor

4. Insulating concrete. Expanded mica aggregate,
Low Depth insulation 1 part cement to 6 parts aggregate, thickness used as
temper- extends below No floor Floor required. R factor, about 1.1 per inch of thickness.
atures grade heating heating
Crushing strength, adequate. It may take up moisture
F. Ft. when subject to dampness, and consequently its use
-20 2 3.0 4.0 should be limited to locations where there will be no
-10 IH 2.5 3.5
3.0
contact with moisture from any source.
0 1 2.0
+ 10 1 2.0 3.0 5. Concrete made with lightweight aggregate, such
+20 1 2.0 3.0 as expanded slag, burned clay, or pumice, using 1 part
cement to 4 parts aggregate; thickness used as re-
quired. R factor, about 0.40 per inch of thickness.
Insulation Types Crushing strength, high. This lightweight aggregate
The properties desired in insulation for floor slabs may also be used for foundation walls in place of stone
are: 1) High resistance to heat transmission, 2) per- or gravel aggregate.
manent durability when exposed to dampness and Under service conditions there are two sources of
frost, and 3) high resistance to crushing due to floor moisture that might affect insulating materials: (1)
loads, weight of slab, or expansion forces. The slab Vapor from inside the house and (2) moisture from
should also be immune to fungus and insect attack, soil. Vapor barriers and coatings may retard but not
and should not absorb or retain moisture. Examples of entirely prevent the penetration of moisture into the
materials considered to have these properties are: insulation. Dampness may reduce the crushing strength

18
of insulation, which in turn may permit the edge of the Finish Floors Over Concrete Slabs
slab to settle. Compression of the insulation, moreover, on the Ground
reduces its efficiency. Insulating materials should per-
A natural concrete surface is sometimes used for the
form satisfactorily in any position if they do not
finish floor, but generally is not considered wholly
change dimensions and if they are kept dry.
satisfactory. Special dressings are required to prevent
Protection Against Termites dusting. Moreover, such floors tend to feel cold.
Asphalt or vinyl-asbestos tile laid in mastic in accord-
In areas where termites are a problem, certain pre-
ance with the manufacturer's recommendations is
cautions are necessary for concrete slab floors on the
comparatively economical and easy to clean, but it also
ground. Leave a countersink-type opening 1-inch wide
feels cold. Wood tile in various forms and wood
and 1-inch deep around plumbing pipes where they
parquet flooring may be used, also laid in mastic
pass through the slab, and fill the opening with hot
(fig. 14) in accordance with the manufacturer's recom-
tar when the pipe is in place. Where insulation is used mendations. Tongued-and-grooved wood strip flooring
between the slab and the foundation wall, the insula- 25/32 inch thick may be used but should be used over
tion should be kept 1 inch below the top of the slab pressure-treated wood sleepers anchored to the slab
and the space should also be filled with hot tar (fig. {g. 17). For existing concrete floors, the use of a
15). Further discussion of protection against termites, vaporproof coating before installation of the treated
such as soil poisoning, is given in Chapter 29. sleepers is good practice.

CHAPTER 5

FLOOR FRAMING

The floor framing in a wood-frame house consists Moisture content of beams and joists used in floor
specifically of the posts, beams, sill plates, joists, and framing should not exceed 19 percent. However, a
subfloor. When these are assembled properly on a moisture content of about 15 percent is much more
foundation, they form a level anchored platform for desirable. Dimension material can be obtained at these
the rest of the house. The posts and center beams of moisture contents when so specified. When moisture
wood or steel, which support the inside ends of the contents are in the higher ranges, it is good practice
joists, are sometimes replaced with a woodframe or to allow joists and beams to approach their moisture
masonry wall when the basement area is divided into equilibrium before applying inside finish and trim,
rooms. Wood-frame houses may also be constructed such as baseboard, base shoe, door jambs, and casings.
upon a concrete floor slab or over a crawl-space area Grades of dimension lumber vary considerably by
with floor framing similar to that used for a full base- species. For specific uses in this publication, a se-
ment. quence of first, second, third, fourth, and sometimes
Factors in Design fifth grade material is used. In general, the first grade
is for a high or special use, the second for better than
One of the important factors in the design of a wood average, the third for average, and the fourth and
floor system is to equalize shrinkage and expansion fifth for more economical construction. Joists and
of the wood framing at the outside walls and at the girders are usually second grade material of a species,
center beam. This is usually accomplished by using while sills and posts are usually of third or fourth
approximately the same total depth of wood at the grade.
center beam as the outside framing. Thus, as beams
and joists approach moisture equilibrium or the mois-
ture content they reach in service, there are only small
Recommended Nailing Practices
differences in the amount of shrinkage. This will mini- Of primary consideration in the construction of a
mize plaster cracks and prevent sticking doors and house is the method used to fasten the various wood
other inconveniences caused by uneven shrinkage. If members together. These connections are most com-
there is a total of 12 inches of wood at the foundation monly made with nails, but on occasions metal straps,
wall (including joists and sill plate), this should be lag screws, bolts, and adhesives may be used.
balanced with about 12 inches of wood at the center Proper fastening of frame members and covering
beam. materials provides the rigidity and strength to resist

19
severe windstorms and other hazards. Good nailing is STEEL BEAM OR
WOOD GIRDER
also important from the standpoint of normal per-
formance of wood parts. For example, proper fasten-
ing of intersecting walls usually reduces plaster crack-
ing at the inside corners. BOLT TO STEEL BEAM
LAG TO WOOD GIRDER
The schedule in table 2 outlines good nailing prac-
tices for the framing and sheathing of a well-
constructed wood-frame house. Sizes of common wire
PIPE COLUMN
nails are shown in i>gure 18.
When houses are located in hurricane areas, they
should be provided with supplemental fasteners. De-
tails of these systems are outlined in "Houses Can
Resist Hurricanes" (see p. 209). E CONCRETE
TAL FOR BASE

Posts and Girders TE FLOOR

Wood or steel posts are generally used in the base-

ment to support wood girders or steel beams. Masonry
piers might also be used for this purpose and are
commonly employed in crawl-space houses.
The round steel post can be used to support both
wood girders and steel beams and is normally sup-
plied with a steel bearing plate at each end. Secure
anchoring to the girder or beam is important (fig. 19).
M 134 655
Wood posts should be solid and not less than 6 by 6
Figure 19.Steel post for wood or steel girder: k, Connection
inches in size for freestanding use in a basement. When to beam; 6, base plate also may be mounted on and anchored
combined with a framed wall, they may be 4 by 6 to a concrete pedestal.

SAGE |2) 11/2 10/4 10/4 9

iNCHfS

T 'W
I
hd 5d
6d "
7d
8d ?
fia. 9d
lOd
J2d.
16 d

en
50 d
o>
60d
M 68169 F
Figure 18.Sizes of common wire nails.

20
 TABLE 2.Recommended schedule for nailing the framing and sheathing of a
well-constructed wood-frame house
Nails

Joining Nailing method Num- Size P]

Placement
ber

Header to joist End-nail 3 16d

Joist to sill or girder Toenail 2 lOd or
3 8d
Header and stringer joist to sill Toenail lOd 16 in. on center
Bridging to joist Toenail each end 2 8d
Ledger strip to beam, 2 in. thick 3 16d At each joist
Subfloor, boards:
1 by 6 in. and smaller 2 8d To each joist
1 by 8 in. 3 8d To each joist
Subfloor, plywood:
At edges 8d 6 in. on center
At intermediate joists 8d 8 in. on center
Subfloor (2 by 6 in., T&G) to joist or girder Blind-nail (casing)
and face-nail 2 16d
Soleplate to slud, horizontal assembly End-nail 2 16d At each stud
Top plate to stud End-nail 2 16d
Stud to soleplate Toenail 4 8d
Soleplate to joist or blocking Face-nail 16d 16 in. on center
Doubled studs Face-nail, stagger lOd 16 in. on center
End stud of intersecting wall to exterior wall stud Face-nail 16d 16 in. on center
Upper top plate to lower top plate Face-nail 16d 16 in. on center
Upper top plate, laps and intersections Face-nail 2 16d
Continuous header, two pieces, each edge 12d 12 in. on center
Ceiling joist to top wall plates Toenail 3 8d
Ceiling joist laps at partition Face-nail 4 16d
Rafter to lop plate Toenail 2 8d
Rafter to ceiling joist Face-nail 5 lOd
Rafter to valley or hip rafter Toenail 3 JOd
Ridge board to rafter End-nail 3 lOd
Rafter to rafter through ridge board Toenail 4 8d
Edge-nail 1 lOd
Collar beam to rafter:
2 in. member Face-nail 2 12d
1 in. member Face-nail 3 8d
1-in. diagonal let-in brace to each stud and plate
(4 nails at top) 8d
Built-up corner studs:
Studs to blocking Face-nail lOd Each side
Intersecting stud to corner studs Face-nail 16d 12 in. on center
Built-up girders and beams, three or more mem-
bers Face-nail 20d 32 in. on center, each side
Wall sheathing:
1 by 8 in. or less, horizontal Face-nail 8d At each stud
1 by 6 in. or greater, diagonal Face-nail 8d At each stud
Wall sheathing, vertically applied plywood:
5^ in. and less thick Face-nail 6d| 6 in. edge
3^^ in. and over thick Face-nail 8d| 12 in. intermediate
Wall sheathing, vertically applied fiberboard:
\'2 in. thick Face-nail \}/2 in roofing naill 3 in. edge and
25^ in. thick Face-nail 1^ in. roofing nail) 6 in. intermediate
Roof sheathing, boards, 4-, 6-, 8-in. width Face-nail 8d At each rafter
Roof sheathing, plywood:
5^ in. and less thick Face-nail 6d
Vo in. and over thick Face-nail 8d 6 in. edge and 12 in. intermediate

21
inches to conform to the depth of the studs. Wood
posts should be squared at both ends and securely
fastened to the girder (fig. 20). The bottom of the post
should rest on and be pinned to a masonry pedestal
2 to 3 inches above the finish floor. In moist or wet ANOLC IRON
LAO SCREWS WOOD OIROER
conditions it is good practice to treat the bottom end
of the post or use a moisture-proof covering over the
pedestal.
Both wood girders and steel beams are used in
present-day house construction. The standard I-beam
and wide flange beam are the most commonly used
steel beam shapes. Wood girders are of two types
solid and built up. The built-up beam is preferred be-
cause it can be made up from drier dimension material
and is more stable. Commercially available glue-lami-
nated beams may be desirable where exposed in
finished basement rooms.
The built-up girder (fig. 21) is usually made up of CONCRETE PEDESTAL

two or more pieces of 2-inch dimension lumber spiked

together, the ends of the pieces joining over a sup-
porting post. A two-piece girder may be nailed from
one side with tenpenny nails, two at the end of each
piece and others driven stagger fashion 16 inches
apart. A three-piece girder is nailed from each side
with twentypenny nails, two near each end of each M 134 670
piece and others driven stagger fashion 32 inches Figure 20.Wood post for wood girder: A, Connection to
apart. girder; B, base.

SILL PLATE

1/2' CLEARANCE
( SIDES-END ) SILL SEALER

STAGGER

M 134 656
Figure 21.Built-up wood girder.

22
 Ends of wood girders should bear at least 4 inches Wood Sill Construction
on the masonry walls or pilasters. When wood is un- The two general types of wood sill construction used
treated, a V2-inch air space should be provided at each over the foundation wall conform either to platform
end and at each side of wood girders framing into or balloon framing. The box sill is commonly used in
masonry (fig. 21). In termite-infested areas, these platform construction. It consists of a 2-inch or thicker
pockets should be lined with metal. The top of the plate anchored to the foundation wall over a sill sealer
girder should be level with the top of the sill plates on which provides support and fastening for the joists
the foundation walls, unless ledger strips are used. If and header at the ends of the joists (fig. 25). Some
steel plates are used under ends of girders, they should houses are constructed without benefit of an anchored
be of full bearing size. sill plate although this is not entirely desirable. The
floor framing should then be anchored with metal
Girder-joist Installation
strapping installed during pouring operations (fig.
Perhaps the simplest method of floor-joist framing
10,).
is one where the joists bear directly on the wood girder
Balloon-frame construction uses a nominal 2-inch
or steel beam, in which case the top of the beam coin-
or thicker wood sill upon which the joists rest. The
cides with the top of the anchored sill (fig. 21). This
studs also bear on this member and are nailed both
method is used when basement heights provide ade-
to the floor joists and the sill. The subfloor is laid
quate headroom below the girder. However, when
diagonally or at right angles to the joists and a fire-
wood girders are used in this manner, the main dis-
stop added between the studs at the floorline (fig. 26).
advantage is that shrinkage is usually greater at the When diagonal subfloor is used, a nailing member is
girder than at the foundation. normally required between joists and studs at the wall
For more uniform shrinkage at the inner beam and lines.
the outer wall and to provide greater headroom, joist Because there is less potential shrinkage in exterior
hangers or. a supporting ledger strip are commonly walls with balloon framing than in the platform type,
used. Depending on sizes of joists and wood girders, balloon framing is usually preferred over the platform
joists may be supported on the ledger strip in several type in full two-story brick or stone veneer houses.
ways (fig. 22). Each provides about the same depth
of wood subject to shrinkage at the outer wall and at Floor Joists
the center wood girder. A continuous horizontal tie Floor joists are selected primarily to meet strength
between exterior walls is obtained by nailing notched and stiffness requirements. Strength requirements de-
joists together (fig. 22,A). Joists must always bear pend upon the loads to be carried. Stiffness require-
on the ledgers. In figure 22,, the connecting scab at ments place an arbitrary control on deflection under
each pair of joists provides this tie and also a nailing load. Stiffness is also important in limiting vibrations
area for the subfloor. A steel strap is used to tie the from moving loadsoften a cause of annoyance to
joists together when the tops of the beam and the occupants. Other desirable qualities for floor joists are
joists are level (fig. 22,C). It is important that a small good nail holding ability and freedom from warp.
space be allowed above the beam to provide for shrink- Wood floor joists are generally of 2-inch (nominal)
age of the joists. thickness and of 8-, 10-, or 12-inch (nominal) depth.
When a space is required for heat ducts in a parti- The size depends upon the loading, length of span,
tion supported on the girder, a spaced wood girder is spacing between joists, and the species and grade of
sometimes necessary (fig. 23). Solid blocking is used lumber used. As previously mentioned, grades in spe-
at intervals between the two members. A single post cies vary a great deal. For example, the grades gen-
support for a spaced girder usually requires a bolster, erally used for joists are "Standard" for Douglas-fir,
preferably metal, with sufficient span to support the "No. 2 or No. 2KD" for southern pine, and compar-
two members. able grades for other species.
Joists may be arranged with a steel beam generally Span tables for floor joists, published by the National
the same way as illustrated for a wood beam. Perhaps Forest Products Association (see p. 209) or local
the most common methods, depending on joist sizes, building codes can be used as guidelines. These sizes
are: are of course often minimum, and it is sometimes the
1. The joists rest directly on the top of the beam. practice in medium- and higher-priced houses to use
2. Joists rest on a wood ledger or steel angle iron, the next larger size than those listed in the tables.
which is bolted to the web (fig. 24,^4).
3. Joists bear directly on the flange of the beam Joist Installation
(fig. 24,). After the sill plates have been anchored to the
In the third method, wood blocking is required be- foundation walls or piers, the joists are located accord-
tween the joists near the beam flange to prevent over- ing to the house design. (Sixteen-inch center-to-center
turning. spacing is most commonly used.)

23
 NOTCH

WOOD GIRDER

ALLOW SPACE
UNDER
-JOIST

SPACE SCAB

JOIST

WOOD GIRDER
LEDGER

5r-Mi_LOW SPACE
\ rSTRAP IRON TIE

JOIST

WOOD GIRDER
LEDGER
M 134 654
Figure 22.Ledger on center wood girder: A, Notched joist; B, scab tie between joist; C, flush joist.

24
 (NAIL TO JOISTS)

SPACED GIRDERS

LEDGER

ALLOW SPACE
UNDER
JOIST
SOLID BLOCKING

SPACE FOR
UTILITIES
STEEL BOLSTER

POST
M 134 657
Figure 23.Spaced wood girder.

(NAIL TO EACH JOIST)

ALLOW SPACE

LEDGER

-JOIST

BEAM

JOIST

STRAP TIES- BLOCKING

B
M 134 639
Figure 24.Steel beam and joists: A, Bearing on ledger; B, bearing on flange.

25
 STUD

SUBFLOOR

WOOD OR
PLYWOOD \
SHEATHING

HEADER
JOIST SILL
NAIL TO JOIST BOLT (8' O.e.)
TOENAIL TO SILL
SILL SEALER

M 134 649
Figure 25.Platform construction.

Any joists having a slight bow edgewise should be are outlined in table 2.
so placed that the crown is on top. A crowned joist The "in-line" joist splice is sometimes used in
will tend to straighten out when subfloor and normal framing for floor and ceiling joists. This system nor-
floor loads are applied. The largest edge knots should mally allows the use of one smaller joist size when
be placed on top, since knots on the upper side of a center supports are present. Briefly, it consists of
joist are on the compression side of the member and uneven length joists, the long overhanging joist is
will have less effect on strength. cantilevered over the center support, then spliced to
The header joist is fastened by nailing into the end the supported joist (fig. 28). Overhang joists are
of each joist with three sixteenpenny nails. In addi- alternated. Depending on the span, species, and joist
tion, the header joist and the stringer joists parallel to size, the overhang varies between about 1 foot 10
the exterior walls in platform construction (fig. 27) inches and 2 feet 10 inches. Plywood splice plates are
are toenailed to the sill with tenpenny nails spaced used on each side of the end joints."^
16 inches on center. Each joist should be toenailed to It is good practice to double joists under all parallel
the sill and center beam with two tenpenny or three bearing partition walls; if spacing is required for heat
eightpenny nails; then nailed to each other with three ducts, solid blocking is used between the joists
or four sixteenpenny nails when they lap over the (fif. 27).
center beam. If a nominal 2-inch scab is used across
butt-ended joists, it should be nailed to each joist with
at least three sixteenpenny nails at each side of the 4 Details of this type of construction can be obtained from
builders, lumber dealers, or architects, or by contacting the
joint. These and other nailing patterns and practices American Plywood Association, Tacoma, Wash. 98401.

26
 SHEATHING 2x4 FIRESTOP

STUD ADD NAILER FOR

DIAGONAL SUBFLOOR

ANCHOR BOLT
( 8' O.e.)
SILL
JOIST
SEALER

M 134 638
Figure 26.Sill for balloon framing.

DIAGONAL SUBFLOOR 8" MAXIMUM

WIDTH - SQUARE EDGE

JOINT OVER JOISTS

DOUBLE JOISTS
UNDER PARTITIONS

SOLID BRIDGING PLYWOOD SUBFLOOR

ANCHORED SILL
LAP JOISTS
OVER GIRDER
( 4" MINIMUM )
OR BUTT
AND SCAB

3/V SPACE
FOR SHEATHING
STRINGER JOIST

M 134 647
Figure 17.Floor framing: (1) Nailing bridging to oists; (2) nailing board subfloor to joists;
(3) nailing header to joists; (4) toenalling header to sill.

27
 PLYWOOD JOIST SPLICE

O.J. OVERHANG JOIST

S.J. SUPPORTED JOIST

M 136 292
Figure 28."In-Line" joist system. Alternate extension of oists over the center support with plywood gusset joint allows the
use of a smaller joist size.

Details At Floor Openings method of framing and nailing is shown in figure 29.
When framing for large openings such as stairwells, Joist hangers and short sections of angle iron are
fireplaces, and chimneys, the joists and headers around often used to support headers and tail beams for large
the opening should be doubled. A recommended openings. For further details on stairwells, see Chapter
23"Stairs."

FIRST HEADER

SECOND HEADER LENGTH OF

OPENING

TAIL BEAM
FIRST TRIMMER JOIST"

SECOND TRIMMER JOIST-

M 134 637
Figure 29.Framing for floor openings: (1) Nailing trimmer to first header; (2) nailing header to tail beams; (3) nailing header to-
gether; (4) nailing trimmer to second header; (5) nailing trimmers together.

28
 Bridging Plywood suitable for subfloor, such as Standard
Cross-bridging between wood joists has often been sheathing. Structural I and II, and C-C Exterior
used in house construction, but research by several grades, has a panel identification index marking on
laboratories has questioned the benefits of bridging each sheet. These markings indicate the allowable
in relation to its cost, especially in normal house con- spacing of rafters and floor joists for the various thick-
struction. Even with tight-fitting, well-installed bridge- nesses when the plywood is used as roof sheathing or
ing, there is no significant ability to transfer loads subfloor. For example, an index mark of 32/16 indi-
after subfloor and finish floor are installed. However, cates that the plywood panel is suitable for a maximum
some building codes require the use of cross-bridging spacing of 32 inches for rafters and 16 inches for
or solid bridging (table 2). floor joists. Thus, no problem of strength differences
Solid bridging is often used between joists to pro- between species is involved as the correct identification
vide a more rigid base for partitions located above is shown for each panel.
joist spaces. Well-fitted solid bridging securely nailed Normally, when some type of underlayment is used
to the joists will aid in supporting partitions above over the plywood subfloor, the minimum thickness of
them (fig. 27). Load-bearing partitions should be the subfloor for species such as Douglas-fir and south-
supported by doubled joists. ern pine is % inch when joists are spaced 16 inches on
center, and %-inch thick for such plywood as western
Subfloor hemlock, western white pine, ponderosa pine, and
Sub flooring is used over the floor joists to form a similar species. These thicknesses of plywood might
working platform and base for finish flooring. It be used for 24-inch spacing of joists when a finish
usually consists of (a) square-edge or tongued-and- 2%2"i"ch strip flooring is installed at right angles
grooved boards no wider than 8 inches and not less to the joists. However, it is important to have a solid
than % inch thick or (b) plywood % to % inch and safe platform for workmen during construction of
thick, depending on species, type of finish floor, and the remainder of the house. For this reason, some
spacing of joists (fig. 27). builders prefer a slightly thicker plywood subfloor
especially when joist spacing is greater than 16 inches
Boards
on center.
Subflooring may be applied either diagonally (most Plywood can also serve as combined plywood sub-
common) or at right angles to the joists. When sub- floor and underlayment, eliminating separate under-
flooring is placed at right angles to the joists, the finish layment because the plywood functions as both struc-
floor should be laid at right angles to the subflooring. tura] subfloor and a good substrate. This applies to
Diagonal subflooring permits finish flooring to be laid thin resilient floorings, carpeting, and other non-
either parallel or at right angles (most common) to structural finish flooring. The plywood used in this
the joists. End joints of the boards should always be manner must be tongued and grooved or blocked with
made directly over the joists. Subfloor is nailed to 2-inch lumber along the unsupported edges. Following
each joist with two eightpenny nails for widths under
are recommendations for its use:
8 inches and three eightpenny nails for 8-inch widths.
Grade: Underlayment, underlayment with exterior
The joist spacing should not exceed 16 inches on
glue, C-C plugged
center when finish flooring is laid parallel to the
Spacing and thickness: (a) For species such as
joists, or where parquet finish flooring is used; nor
Douglas-fir (coast type), and southern pine
exceed 24 inches on center when finish flooring at
Y2 inch minimum thickness for 16-inch joist
least 25^2 inch thick is at right angles to the joists. spacing, % inch for 20-inch joist spacing, and
Where balloon framing is used, blocking should be
% inch for 24-inch joist spacing.
installed between ends of joists at the wall for nailing
(b) For species such as western hemlock,
the ends of diagonal subfloor boards (fig. 26).
western white pine, and ponderosa pine%
Plywood inch minimum thickness for 16-inch joist spac-
Plywood can be obtained in a number of grades ing, % inch for 20-inch joist spacing, and %
designed to meet a broad range of end-use require- inch for 24-inch joist spacing.
ments. All Interior-type grades are also available with Plywood should be installed with the grain direc-
fully waterproof adhesive identical with those used in tion of the outer plies at right angles to the joists and
Exterior plywood. This type is useful where a hazard be staggered so that end joints in adjacent panels
of prolonged moisture exists, such as in underlayments break over different joists. Plywood should be nailed
or subfloors adjacent to plumbing fixtures and for roof to the joist at each bearing with eightpenny common
sheathing which may be exposed for long periods or sevenpenny threaded nails for plywood % inch to
during construction. Under normal conditions and % inch thick. Space nails 6 inches apart along all
for sheathing used on walls. Standard sheathing grades edges and 10 inches along intermediate members.
are satisfactory. When plywood serves as both subfloor and underlay-

29
 JOIST DIRECTION
JOIST

SINGLE
OR DOUBLE-
STRINGER JOIST

HEADER

"20d NAIL
HEADER JOIST

DOUBLE JOIST
TAIL BEAM

JOIST HANGER

STRINGER

M 136 20
Figure 30.Floor framing at wall projections: A, Projection of joists for bay window extensions;
B, projection at right angles to joists.

ment, nails may be spaced 6 to 7 inches apart at all Plywood location and use Spacing
Edges Ettds
joists and blocking. Use eight- or ninepenny common (In.) (In.)
nails or seven- or eightpenny threaded nails. Underlayment or interior wall lining
For the best performance, plywood should not be Panel sidings and combination sub- He Ms
laid up with tight joints whether used on the interior floor underlayment
or exterior. The following spacings are recommenda- Roof sbeathing, subflooring, and wall Mi
sheathing (Under wet or humid
tions by the American Plywood Association on the conditions, spacing should be
basis of field experience: doubled.)

30
 Floor Framing at Wall Projections openings. The subflooring is carried to and sawed
flush with the outer framing member. Rafters are often
The framing for wall projections such as a bay
carried by a header constructed in the main wall over
window or first or second floor extensions beyond the
the bay area, which supports the roofload. Thus the
lower wall should generally consist of projection of wall of the bay has less load to support.
the floor joists (fig. 30). This extension normally Projections at right angles to the length of the floor
should not exceed 24 inches unless designed specifi- joists should generally be limited to small areas and
cally for greater projections, which may require spe- extensions of not more than 24 inches. In this con-
cial anchorage at the opposite ends of the joists. The struction, the stringer should be carried by doubled
joists forming each side of the bay should be doubled. joists (fig. 30B). Joist hangers or a ledger will provide
Nailing, in general, should conform to that for stair o;ood connections for the ends of members.

CHAPTER 6

WALL FRAMING

The floor framing with its subfloor covering has now Ceiling height for the first floor is 8 feet under most
been completed and provides a convenient working conditions. It is common practice to rough-frame the
platform for construction of the wall framing. The wall (subfloor to top of upper plate) to a height of
term "wall framing" includes primarily the vertical 8 feet IV2 inches. In platform construction, precut
studs and horizontal members (soleplates, top plates, studs are often supplied to a length of 7 feet 8%
and window and door headers) of exterior and in- inches for plate thickness of 1% inches. When dimen-
terior walls that support ceilings, upper floors, and sion material is 1% inches thick, precut studs would
the roof. The wall framing also serves as a nailing be 7 feet 9 inches long. This height allows the use of
base for wall covering materials. 8-foot-high dry-wall sheets, or six courses of rock lath,
The wall framing members used in conventional and still provides clearance for floor and ceiling finish
construction are generally nominal 2- by 4-inch studs or for plaster grounds at the floor line.
spaced 16 inches on center. Depending on thick- Second-floor ceiling heights should not be less than
ness of covering material, 24-inch spacing might be 7 feet 6 inches in the clear, except that portion under
considered. Top plates and soleplates are also nominal sloping ceilings. One-half of the floor area, however,
2 by 4 inches in size. Headers over doors or windows should have at least a 7-foot 6-inch clearance.
in load-bearing walls consist of doubled 2- by 6-inch
As with floor construction, two general types of
and deeper members, depending on span of the
wall framing are commonly usedplatform construc-
opening.
tion and balloon-frame construction. The platform
Requirements method is more often used because of its simplicity.
Balloon framing is generally used where stucco or
The requirements for wall-framing lumber are
masonry is the exterior covering material in two-story
good stiffness, good nail-holding ability, freedom from
houses, as outlined in the chapter "Floor Framing."
warp, and ease of working. Species used may
include Douglas-fir, the hemlocks, southern pine, the Platform Construction
spruces, pines, and white fir. As outlined under "Floor
Framing," the grades vary by species, but it is com- The wall framing in platform construction is erected
mon practice to use the third grade for studs and above the subfloor which extends to all edges of the
plates and the second grade for headers over doors building (fig. 31). A combination of platform con-
and windows. struction for the first floor sidewalls and full-length
All framing lumber for walls should be reasonably studs for end walls extending to end rafters of the
dry. Material at about 15 percent moisture content is gable ends is commonly used in single-story houses.
desirable, with the maximum allowable considered to One common method of framing is the horizontal
be 19 percent. When the higher moisture content assembly (on the subfloor) or "tilt-up" of wall sec-
material is used (as studs, plates, and headers), it is tions. When a sufficient work crew is available, full-
advisable to allow the moisture content to reach in- length wall sections are erected. Otherwise, shorter
service conditions before applying interior trim. length sections easily handled by a smaller crew can

31
be used. This system involves laying out precut studs, and braced, the remaining nailing is completed. Sole-
window and door headers, cripple studs (short-length plates are nailed to the floor joists and headers or
studs), and windowsills. Top and soleplates are then stringers (through the subfloor), corner braces (when
nailed to all vertical members and adjoining studs to used) are nailed to studs and plates, door and window
headers and sills with sixteenpenny nails. Let-in corner headers are fastened to adjoining studs, and corner
bracing should be provided when required. The entire studs are nailed together. These and other recom-
section is then erected, plumbed, and braced (fig. 31). mended nailing practices are shown in table 2 and
A variation of this system includes fastening the figure 31.
studs only at the top plate and, when the wall is In hurricane areas or areas with high winds, it is
erected, toenailing studs to the soleplates which have often advisable to fasten wall and floor framing to
been previously nailed to the floor. Corner studs and the anchored foundation sill when sheathing does not
headers are usually nailed together beforehand to form provide this tie. Figure 32 illustrates one system of
a single unit. Many contractors will also install sheath- anchoring the studs to the floor framing with steel
ing before the wall is raised in place. Complete straps.
finished walls with windows and door units in place Several arrangements of studs at outside corners
and most of the siding installed can also be fabricated can be used in framing the walls of a house. Figure 31
in this manner. shows one method commonly used. Blocking between
When all exterior walls have been erected, plumbed, two corner studs is used to provide a nailing edge for

TEMPORARY
BRACE

STUD

WINDOW SILL

SOLE PLATE
HEADER

^SUBFLOOR

STRINGER JOIST

FOUNDATION WALL ANCHORED SILL PLATE

SPACER BLOCK

M 134 646
Figur 31.Wall framing usd with platform construction.

32
 HEADER OR
STRINGER JOIST

3-8d NAILS SILL PLATE

STEEL STRAP

ANCHOR BOLT

SILL SEALER

M 134 642
Figure 32.Anchoring wail to floor framing.

interior finish (fig. 33,A). Figure 33, and C show top of the wall and to a 2- by 4-inch block fastened to
other methods of stud arrangement to provide the the subfloor or joists. The temporary bracing is left
needed interior nailing surfaces as well as good corner in place until the ceiling and the roof framing are
support. completed and sheathing is applied to the outside
Interior walls should be well fastened to all exterior walls.
walls they intersect. This intersection should also pro-
vide nailing surfaces for the plaster base or dry-wall Balloon Construction
finish. This may be accomplished by doubling the out- As described in the chapter on "Floor Framing,"
side studs at the interior wall line (fig. S4,A). Another the main difference between platform and balloon
method used when the interior wall joins the exterior framing is at the floor-lines. The balloon wall studs
wall between studs is shown in figure 34,. extend from the sill of the first floor to the top plate
Short sections of 2- by 4-inch blocking are used or end rafter of the second floor, whereas the platform-
between studs to support and provide backing for a framed wall is complete for each floor.
1- by 6-inch nailer. A 2- by 6-inch vertical member In balloon-frame construction, both the wall studs
might also be used. and the floor joists rest on the anchored sill (fig. 35).
The same general arrangement of members is used The studs and joists are toenailed to the sill with eight-
at the intersection or crossing of interior walls. Nail- penny nails and nailed to each other with at least three
ing surfaces must be provided in some form or another tenpenny nails.
at all interior corners. The ends of the second-floor joists bear on a 1- by
After all walls are erected, a second top plate is 4-inch ribbon that has been let into the studs. In addi-
added that laps the first at corners and wall intersec- tion, the joists are nailed with four tenpenny nails to
tions (fig. 31). This gives an additional tie to the the studs at these connections (fig. 35). The end joists
framed walls. These top plates can also be partly parallel to the exterior on both the first and second
fastened in place when the wall is in a horizontal floors are also nailed to each stud.
position. Top plates are nailed together with sixteen- Other nailing details should conform in general to
penny nails spaced 16 inches apart and with two nails those described for platform construction and in table 2.
at each wall interesection (table 2). Walls are normally In most areas, building codes require that firestops
plumbed and alined before the top plate is added. By be used in balloon framing to prevent the spread of
using 1- by 6- or 1- by 8-inch temporary braces on the fire through the open wall passages. These firestops
studs between intersecting partitions, a straight wall is are ordinarily of 2- by 4-inch blocking placed between
assured. These braces are nailed to the studs at the the studs (fig. 35) or as required by local regulations.

33
 2x4 BLOCK

A -SUBFLOOR

WOOD LATH
FILLER

NAILING AREAS FOR

NSIDE FINISH

M 134 643
Figure 33.Examples of corner stud assembly: A, Standard outside corner; , special corner
with lath filler; C, special corner without lath filler.

Window and Door Framing used as a guide for headers:

The members used to span over window and door Maximum span Header size
openings are called headers or lintels (fig. 36). As the (Ft.) (In.)
span of the opening increases, it is necessary to in- 2 by 6
crease the depth of these members to support the ceil- 5 2 by 8
ing and roofloads. A header is made up of two 2-inch 6M 2 by 10
2 by 12
members, usually spaced with %-inch lath or wood
strips, all of which are nailed together. They are sup- For other than normal light-frame construction, in-
ported at the ends by the inner studs of the double- dependent design may be necessary. Wider openings
stud joint at exterior walls and interior bearing walls. often require trussed headers, which may also need
Two headers of species normally used for floor joists special design.
are usually appropriate for these openings in normal Location of the studs, headers, and sills around
light-frame construction. The following sizes might be window openings should conform to the rough open-

34
 EXTERIOR WALL
NAIL TO
OUTSIDE STUDS

INTERIOR SOLE PLATE

WALL

EXTERIOR
WALL

M 134 640
Figure 34.Intersection of interior wail with exterior wall: A, With doubled studs on outside wall; B,
Partition between outside studs.

ing sizes recommended by the manufacturers of the Rough opening sizes for exterior door and window
millwork. The framing height to the bottom of the frames might vary slightly between manufacturers,
window and door headers should be based on the but the following allowances should be made for the
door heights, normally 6 feet 8 inches for the main stiles and rails, thickness of jambs, and thickness and
floor. Thus to allow for the thickness and clearance slope of the sill:
of the head jambs of window and door frames and Double-Hun g Window (Single Unit)
the finish floor, the bottoms of the headers are usually Rough opening width = glass width plus 6 inches
located 6 feet 10 inches to 6 feet 11 inches above the Rough opening height = total glass height plus
subfloor, depending on the type of finish floor used. 10 inches

35
 FI RESTOP 1x4. RIBBON
( LET-IN )

STUD

x4. DIAGONAL
BRACE

st-FLOOR
JOIST

2x4 FIRESTOP
ANCHORED SILL

M 134 710
Figure 35.Wall framing used in balloon construction.

For example, the following tabulation illustrates sev- Doors

eral glass and rough opening sizes for double-hung Rough opening width = door width plus 2%
windows: inches
Window glass size (each sash) Rough frame opening Rough opening height = door height plus 3
Width Height Width Height inches
(In.) (In.) (In,) (In.)
24 by 16 30 by 42 End-wall Framing
28 by 20 34 by 50
38 by 58 The framing for the end walls in platform and
32 by 24
36 by 24 42 by 58 balloon construction varies somewhat. Figure 37 shows
a commonly used method of wall and ceiling framing
Casement Window (One Pair -Two Sash)
for platform construction in 1%- or 2-story houses
Rough opening width =^ total glass width plus
with finished rooms above the first floor. The edge
111^4 inches
Rough opening height = total glass height plus floor joist is toenailed to the top wall plate with eight-
6% inches penny nails spaced 16 inches on center. The subfloor,

36
 SPACER

NAIL STUD TO HEADER

1^

ROUGH OPENING

STUD

SOLE PLATE

M 134 636
Figure 36.Headers for windows and door openings.

37
 2nd FLOOR STUD

SOLE PLATE

EDGE JOIST
INSULATION

TOP PLATES

2nd-FLOOR
JOISTS
M 134 645
Figure 37.- -End-wall framing for platform construction (junction of first-floor ceiling with upper-story floor framing).

soleplate, and wall framing are then installed in the walls. However, most contractors use 2 by 4's through-
same manner used for the first floor. out. Spacing of the studs is usually controlled by the
In balloon framing, the studs continue through the thickness of the covering material. For example, 24-
first and second floors {g. 38). The edge joist can inch stud spacing will require %-inch gypsum board
be nailed to each stud with two or three tenpenny for dry wall interior covering.
nails. As for the first floor, 2- by 4-inch firestops are The interior walls are assembled and erected in the
cut between each stud. Subfloor is applied in a normal same manner as exterior walls, with a single bottom
manner. Details of the sidewall supporting the ends of (sole) plate and double top plates. The upper top
the joists are shown in figure 35. plate is used to tie intersecting and crossing walls to
each other. A single framing stud can be used at each
interior Walls side of a door opening in nonload-bearing partitions.
The interior walls in a house with conventional joist They must be doubled for load-bearing walls, however,
and rafter roof construction are normally located to as shown in figure 36. When trussed rafters (roof
serve as bearing walls for the ceiling joists as well as trusses) are used, no load-bearing interior partitions
room dividers. Walls located parallel to the direction are required. Thus, location of the walls and size and
of the joists are commonly nonload bearing. Studs are spacing of the studs are determined by the room size
nominal 2 by 4 inches in size for load-bearing walls desired and type of interior covering selected. The
b\it can be 2 by 3 inches in size for nonload-bearing bottom chords of the trusses are used to fasten and

38
 END WALL STUD

2x4 FIRESTOP

EDGE JOIST

NAIL TO STUD

2nd-STORY
FLOOR JOIST
M 134 644
Figur* 38.End-wall framing for balloon construction (junction of first-floor ceiling and upper-story floor framing).

anchor crossing partitions. When partition walls are Horizontal lath nailers at the junction of wall and
parallel to and located between trusses, they are fast- ceiling framing may be provided in several ways.
ened to 2- by 4-inch blocks which are nailed between Figure 39,A shows doubled ceiling joists above the
the lower chords. wall, spaced so that a nailing surface is provided by
each joist. In figure 39,B the parallel wall is located
between two ceiling joists. A 1- by 6-inch lath nailer
is placed and nailed to the top plates with backing
Lath Nailers blocks spaced on 3- to 4-foot centers. A 2- by 6-inch
During the framing of walls and ceilings, it is member might also be used here in place of the 1 by 6.
necessary to provide for both vertical and horizontal When the partition wall is at a right angle to the
fastening of plaster-base lath or dry wall at all inside ceiling joists, one method of providing lath nailers is
corners. Figures 33 and 34, which illustrate corner to let in 2- by 6-inch blocks between the joists (fig.
and intersecting wall construction, also show methods 39,C). They are nailed directly to the top plate and
of providing lath nailers at these areas. toenailed to the ceiling joists.

39
 CEILING JOIST

SPACE FOR
LATH NAILING
STUD

BACKING BLOCK

I x6 LATH NAILER
CEILING JOIST

STUD

CEILING JOIST

TOE NAIL

2x6 LATH NAILER

STUD

M 134 648
Figure 39.Horizontal lath catchers at ceiling: A, Using ceiling {oists over stud wall;
B, lath nailer between ceiling oists; C, stud wall at right angle to |olst.

CHAPTER 7

CEILING AND ROOF FRAMING

Ceiling Joists ceiling joists of even lengths (10, 12, 14, and 16 ft.
or longer) can be used without waste to span from
After exterior and interior walls are plumbed, exterior walls to load-bearing interior walls. The sizes
braced, and top plates added, ceiling joists can be of the joists depend on the span, wood species, spacing
positioned and nailed in place. They are normally between joists, and the load on the second floor or
placed across the width of the house, as are the rafters. attic. The correct sizes for various conditions can be
The partitions of the house are usually located so that found in joist tables or designated by local building

40
requirements. When preassembled trussed rafters (roof members to resist the thrust of the rafters of pitched
trusses) are used, the lower chord acts as the ceiling roofs, they must be securely nailed to the plate at
joist. The truss also eliminates the need for load-bearing outer and inner walls. They are also nailed together,
partitions. directly or with wood or metal cleats, where they cross
Second grades of the various species are commonly or join at the load-bearing partition (fig. 40,^4) and
used for ceiling joists and rafters. This has been to the rafter at the exterior walls (fig. 40,). Toenail
more fully described in Chapter 5, "Floor Framing." at each wall.
It is also desirable, particularly in two-story houses In areas of severe windstorms, the use of metal
and when material is available, to limit the moisture strapping or other systems of anchoring ceiling and
content of the second-floor joists to no more than 15 roof framing to the wall is good practice. When ceil-
percent. This applies as well to other lumber used ing joists are perpendicular to rafters, collar beams
throughout the house. Maximum moisture content for and cross ties should be used to resist thrust. Recom-
dimension material should be 19 percent. mended sizes and spacing of nails for the framing are
Ceiling joists are used to support ceiling finishes. listed in table 2. The in-line joist system as shown in
They often act as floor joists for second and attic Figure 28 and described in the section on joist installa-
floors and as ties between exterior walls and interior tion can also be adapted to ceiling or second floor
partitions. Since ceiling joists also serve as tension joists.

NAIL JOISTS TO
EACH OTHER

TOENAIL TO PLATE

CEILING JOIST SPLICE CLEAT

LOAD-BEARING
PARTITION

METAL ST
RAFTER
ANCHOR

JOIST

NAIL RAFTER AND

JOIST TOGETHER
TOENAIL TO PLATE

WALL

M 134 620
Figure 40.- Cviling joist connections: A, At center partition with joists lapped or butted;
8, at outside wall.

41
 Flush Ceiling Framing Post and Beam Framing
In many house designs, the living room and the In contemporary houses, exposed beams are often
dining or family room form an open "L." A wide, a part of the interior design and may also replace
continuous ceiling area between the two rooms is interior and exterior load-bearing walls. With post
often desirable. This can be created with a flush beam, and beam construction, exterior walls can become fully
which replaces the load-bearing partitions used in the glazed panels between posts, requiring no other sup-
remainder of the house. A nail-laminated beam, de- port. Areas below interior beams within the house can
signed to carry the ceiling load, supports the ends of remain open or can be closed in with wardrobes, cabi-
the joists. Joists are toenailed into the beam and sup- nets, or light curtain walls.
ported by metal joist hangers (fig. 41,^4) or wood This type of construction, while not adaptable to
hangers (fig. 41,). To resist the thrust of the rafters many styles of architecture, is simple and straight-
for longer spans, it is often desirable to provide added forward. However, design of the house should take
resistance by using metal strapping. Strapping should into account the need for shear or racking resistance
be nailed to each opposite joist with three or four of the exterior walls. This is usually accomplished by
eightpenny nails. solid masonry walls or fully sheathed frame walls

METAL STRAPPING

CEILING JOIST

BEAM

METAL JOIST KITCHEN DINING

HANGER

>FLUSH
LIVING ROOM BEAM

METAL STRAPPING

2x4- PLAN

CEILING JOIST

TOENAIL
(EACH SIDE)
WOOD JOIST HANGER

BEAM

M T34 711
Figure 41.Flush ceiling framing: A, Metal joist hanger; B, wood hanger.

42
between open glazed areas. wood cleat extending between and nailed to the spaced
Roofs of such houses are often either flat or low- members (fig. 42,). A wall header member between
pitched, and may have a conventional rafter-joist com- beams can be fastened with joist hangers.
bination or consist of thick wood decking spanning Continuous headers are often used with spaced posts
between beams. The need for a well-insulated roof in the construction of framed walls or porches requir-
often dictates the type of construction that might be ing large glazed openings. The beams should be well
used. fastened and reinforced at the corners with lag screws
The connection of the supporting posis at the floor or metal straps. Figure 43,A illustrates one connection
plate and beam is important to provide uplift resist- method using metal strapping.
ance. Figure 42 shows connections at the soleplate and In low-pitch or flat roof construction for a post and
at the beam for solid or spaced members. The solid beam system, wood or fiberboard decking is often
post and beam are fastened together with metal angles used. Wood decking, depending on thickness, is fre-
nailed to the top plate and to the soleplate as well as quently used for beam spacings up to 10 or more feet.
the roof beam (fig. 42,^). The spaced beam and post However, for the longer spans, special appHcation in-
are fastened together with a %-inch or thicker ply- structions are required (i). Depending on the type,

TOP PLATE

METAL ANGLE
(ONE IN EACH
CORNER)

JOIST HANGER

M 134 63S
Figure 42.Post and beam connections: A, Solid post and beam; B, spaced post and beam.

43
 3/8" PLYWOOD

CONTINUOUS
HEADER

METAL STRAP

METAL ANGLE
( POST TO BEAM )
CORNER POST

WOOD DECKING

BEAM
EDGE NAILING
i^" THICK ONLY)

FACIA

ANGLE IRON
( FASTENS POST,
BEAM AND HEADER )

M 134 650
Figure 43.Post and beam details: A, Corner connection with continuous header;
B, with roof decking.

2- to 3-inch thick fiberboard decking normally is Roof Slopes

limited to a beam or purlin spacing of 4 feet. The architectural style of a house often determines
Tongued-and-grooved solid wood decking, 3 by 6 the type of roof and roof slope which are best suited.
and 4 by 6 inches in size, should be toe-nailed and / contemporary design may have a flat or slightly
face-nailed directly to the beams and edge-nailed to pitched roof, a rambler or ranch type an intermediate
each other with long nails used in predrilled holes slope, and a Cape Cod cottage a steep slope. Generally,
(fig. 43,). Thinner decking is usually only face- however, the two basic types may be called flat or
nailed to the beams. Decking is usually square end- pitched, defined as (a) flat or slightly pitched roofs in
trimmed to provide a good fit. If additional insulation which roof and ceiling supports are furnished by one
is required for the roof, fiberboard or an expanded type of member, and (b) pitched roofs where both
foamed plastic in sheet form is fastened to the decking ceiling joists and rafters or trusses are required.
before the built-up or similar type of roof is installed. The slope of the roof is generally expressed as the
The moisture content of the decking should be near number of inches of vertical rise in 12 inches of hori-
its in-service condition to prevent joints opening later zontal run. The rise is given first, for example, 4 in 12.
as the wood dries. A further consideration in choosing a roof slope is

44
the type of roofing to be used. However, modern
methods and roofing materials provide a great deal of
leeway in this. For example, a built-up roof is usually
specified for flat or very low-pitched roofs, but with
different types of asphalt or coal-tar pitch and aggre-
gate surfacing materials, slopes of up to 2 in 12 are
sometimes used. Also, in sloped roofs where wood or
asphalt shingles might be selected, doubling the under-
lay and decreasing the exposure distance of the
shingles will allow slopes of 4 in 12 and less.
Second grades of the various wood species are nor-
mally used for rafters. Most species of softwood fram-
ing lumber are acceptable for roof framing, subject
to maximum allowable spans for the particular species,
grade, and use. Because all species are not equal in
strength properties, larger sizes, as determined from
the design, must be used for weaker species for a given
span.
All framing lumber should be well seasoned. Lum-
ber 2 inches thick and less should have a moisture
content not over 19 percent, but when obtainable,
lumber at about 15 percent is more desirable because
less shrinkage will occur when moisture equilibrium
is reached.

Flat Roofs M 134 634

Figure 44.Roofs using single roof construction: A, Flat roof;
Flat or low-pitched roofs, sometimes known as shed B, low-pitched roof.
roofs, can take a number of forms, two of which are
shown in figure 44. Roof joists for flat roofs are com- Pitched Roofs
monly laid level or with a slight pitch, with roof
sheathing and roofing on top and with the underside Gable Roof
utilized to support the ceiling. Sometimes a slight roof Perhaps the simplest form of the pitched roof, where
slope may be provided for roof drainage by tapering both rafters and ceiling joists are required because of
the joist or adding a cant strip to the top. the attic space formed, is the gable roof (fig. 46,^).
The house design usually includes an overhang of All rafters are cut to the same length and pattern and
the roof beyond the wall. Insulation is sometimes used erection is relatively simple, each pair being fastened
in a manner to provide for an airways just under the at the top to a ridge hoard. The ridge board is usually
roof sheathing to minimize condensation problems in a 1- by 8-inch member for 2- by 6-inch rafters and
winter. Flat or low-pitched roofs of this type require provides support and a nailing area for the rafter ends.
larger sized members than steeper pitched roofs be- A variation of the gable roof, used for Cape Cod
cause they carry both roof and ceiling loads. or similar styles, includes the use of shed and gable
The use of solid wood decking often eliminates the dormers {^^. 46,5). Basically, this is a one-story
need for joists. Roof decking used between beams house because the majority of the rafters rest on the
serves as: (a) Supporting members, (b) interior first-floor plate. Space and light are provided on the
finish, and (c) roof sheathing. It also provides a second floor by the shed and gable dormers for bed-
moderate amount of insulation. In cold climates, rigid rooms and bath. Roof slopes for this style may vary
insulating materials are used over the decking to fur- from 9 in 12 to 12 in 12 to provide the needed head-
ther reduce heat loss. room.
When overhang is involved on all sides of the flat A third style in roof designs is the hip roof (fig.
roof, lookout rafters are ordinarily used (fig. 45). 46,C). Center rafters are tied to the ridge board, while
Lookout rafters are nailed to a doubled header and toe- hip rafters supply the support for the shorter jack
nailed to the wallplate. The distance from the doubled rafters. Cornice lines are carried around the perimeter
header to the wall line is usually twice the overhang. of the building.
Rafter ends may be finished with a nailing header While these roof types are the most common, others
which serves for fastening soffit and facia boards. may include such forms as the mansard and the A-
Care should be taken to provide some type of ventila- frame (where wall and roof members are the same
tion at such areas. members).

45
 LOOKOUT
RAFTER
ROOF JOIST

NAILING HEADER DOUBLED

HEADER
LOOKOUT
RAFTER
EXTERIOR WALL
TOP PLATE

KING
RAFTER

r ^r ^ . . M 134 633
Figure 45.Typical construction of flat or low-pitched roof with side and end overhang of: A, Less than 3 feet: B, more than 3 feet.

46
 GABLE DORMER

M 134 632
Figure 46.Types of pitched roofs: A, Gable; 6, gable with dormers; C, hip.

In normal pitched-roof construction, tk, ceiling wall soleplate (fig. 47,5). With a gable (rake) over-
joists are nailed in place after the interior and the hang, a fly rafter is used beyond the end rafter and
exterior w^all framing are complete. Rafters should not is fastened with blocking and by the sheathing. Addi-
be erected until ceiling joists are fastened in place, as tional construction details applicable to roof framing
the thrust of the rafters will otherwise tend to push out are given in Chapter 10, "Exterior Trim and Mill-
the exterior walls. work."
Rafters are usually precut to length with proper Hip Roof
angle cut at the ridge and eave, and with notches pro- Hip roofs are framed the same as a gable roof at the
vided for the top plates (fig. 47,/i). Rafters are erected center section of a rectangular house. The ends are
in pairs. Studs for gable end walls are cut to fit and framed with hip rafters which extend from each out-
nailed to the end rafter and the topplate of the end side corner of the wall to the ridge board at a 45
RIDGE BOARD

COLLAR BEAM

RAFTER

RAFTER
END STUD

BLOCK

i^TOP PLATES

Figure 47a.Ceiling and roof framing: A, Overall view of gable roof framing.

47
 HIP RAFTER

JACK RAFTER

END STUD
TO END TOP PLATES
RAFTER

NAILING BLOCK
(FOR CEILING
FINISH )

c
Figure 47b.Ceiling and roof framing: B, Connection of gable end studs to end rafter; C, detail of corner of hip roof.

angle. Jack rafters extend from the top plates to the previously described. Where future expansion is con-
hip rafters (fig. 47,C). templated or additional rooms may be built in an
When roofs spans are long and slopes are flat, it is attic, consideration should be given to framing and
common practice to use collar beams between opposing enclosing such dormers when the house is built.
rafters. Steeper slopes and shorter spans may also
require collar beams but only on every third rafter. Overhangs
Collar beams may be 1- by 6-inch material. In 1%- In two-story houses, the design often involves a pro-
story houses, 2- by 4-inch members or larger are jection or overhang of the second floor for the purpose
used at each pair of rafters which also serve as ceil- of architectural effect, to accommodate brick veneer
ing joists for the finished rooms. on the first floor, or for other reasons. This overhang
Good practices to be followed in the nailing of may vary from 2 to 15 inches or more. The over-
rafters, ceiling joists, and end studs are shown in fig- hang should ordinarily extend on that side of the
ure 47 and table 2. house where joist extensions can support the wall
framing (fig. 50). This extension should be pro-
Valleys vided with insulation and a vapor barrier.
The valley is the internal angle formed by the junc- When the overhang parallels the second-floor joists,
tion of two sloping sides of a roof. The key member a doubled joist should be located back from the wall
of valley construction is the valley rafter. In the inter- at a distance about twice the overhang. These details
section of two equal-size roof sections, the valley rafter
is doubled (fig. 48) to carry the roofload, and is 2 VALLEY RAFTER
inches deeper than the common rafter to provide full
contact with jack rafters. Jack rafters are nailed to
JACK RAFTER
the ridge and toenailed to the valley rafter with three
tenpenny nails.

Dormers
In construction of small gable dormers, the rafters
at each side are doubled and the side studs and the
TOP PLATES
short valley rafter rest on these members (fig. 49).
Side studs may also be carried past the rafter and bear
on a soleplate nailed to the floor framing and sub-
floor. This same type of framing may be used for the
sidewalls of shed dormers. The valley rafter is also ^NAILER FOR
CORNICE TRIM
tied to the roof framing at the roof by a header. M 134 704
Methods of fastening at top plates conform to those Figure 48.Framing at a valley.

48
 HEADER

JACK RAFTER
DOUBLED RAFTER
RIDGE BOARD

DORMER VALLEY RAFTER

JOIST

M 134 631
Figure 49.Typical dormer framing.

are similar to those shown in figure 30 under "Floor supported by metal hangers at the ridge beam (fig.
Framing." 515) and extend beyond the outer walls to form an
overhang. Fastenings should be supplemented by
Ridge Beam Roof Details strapping or metal angles.
In low-slope roof designs, the style of architecture
often dictates the use of a ridge beam. These solid, Lightweight Wood Roof Trusses
glue-laminated, or nail-laminated beams span the open The simple truss or trussed rafter is an assembly of
area and are usually supported by an exterior wall members forming a rigid framework of triangular
at one end and an interior partition wall or a post shapes capable of supporting loads over long spans
at the other. The beam must be designed to support without intermediate support. It has been greatly re-
the roof load for the span selected. Wood decking can fined during its development over the years, and the
serve both as supporting and sheathing. Spaced rafters gusset and other preassembled types of wood trusses
placed over the ridge beam or hung on metal joist are being used extensively in the housing field. They
hangers serve as alternate framing methods. When a save material, can be erected quickly, and the house
ridge beam and wood decking are used (fig. 51,yi), can be enclosed in a short time.
good anchoring methods are needed at the ridge and Trusses are usually designed to span from one ex-
outer wall. Long ringshank nails and supplemental terior wall to the other with lengths from 20 to 32 feet
metal strapping or angle iron can be used at both or more. Because no interior bearing walls are re-
bearing areas. quired, the entire house becomes one large workroom.
This allows increased flexibility for interior planning,
A combination of large spaced rafters (purlin raft-
as partitions can be placed without regard to struc-
ers) which serve as beams for longitudinal wood or tural requirements.
structural fiberboard decking is another system which Wood trusses most commonly used for houses in-
might be used with a ridge beam. Rafters can be clude the W-type truss, the King-post, and the scissors

49
 SUBFLOOR

^^ ^2nd-FLOOR
STUD
2nd-FLOOR
FLOOR JOIST

HEADER

Ist-FLOOR STUD

INSULATION AND
VAPOR BARRIER
\4J
-OVERHANG

M 134 708
Figure 50.Construction of overhang at second floor.

METAL STRAP
(SPACE AS REQ'D.)

RING-SHANK NAILS

RIDGE
BEAM

METAL STRAP

SPACED RAFTERS
JOIST HANGERS

RIDGE BEAM

DECKING
(WOOD OR FIBERBOARD)

M !34 617
Figure 51.Ridge beam for roof: A, With wood decking; B, with rafters and decking.

50
 (fig. 52). These and similar trusses are most adaptable GUSSET
to houses with rectangular plans so that the constant WEB MEMBER UPPER CHORD
width requires only one type of truss. However,
trusses can also be used for L plans and for hip roofs
as special hip trusses can be provided for each end
and valley area. LOWER CHORD

Trusses are commonly designed for 2-foot spacing,

which requires somewhat thicker interior and exterior
sheathing or finish material than is needed for con-
ventional joist and rafter construction using 16-inch
spacing. Truss designs, lumber grades, and construc-
tion details are available from several sources includ-
ing the American Plywood Association.
W-Type Truss
The W-type truss (fig. 52,A) is perhaps the most
popular and extensively used of the light wood trusses.
Its design includes the use of three more members
than the King-post truss, but distances between con-
nections are less. This usually allows the use of lower
grade lumber and somewhat greater spans for the same
member size.
King-post truss.The King-post is the simplest form
of truss used for houses, as it is composed only of
upper and lower chords and a center vertical post
(fig. 52,). Allowable spans are somewhat less than
M 134 651
for the W-truss when the same size members are used, Figure 52.Light wood trusses: A, W'type; B, King-post;
because of the unsupported length of the upper chord. C, scissors.
For short and medium spans, it is probably more
economical than other types because it has fewer pieces
and can be fabricated faster. For example, under the members but also in stronger connections. Conse-
same conditions, a plywood gusset King-post truss quently, all conditions must be considered before the
with 4 in 12 pitch and 2-foot spacing is limited to type of truss is selected and designed.
about a 26-foot span for 2- by 4-inch members, while A great majority of the trusses used are fabricated
the W-type truss with the same size members and with gussets of plywood (nailed, glued, or bolted in
spacing could be used for a 32-foot span. Furthermore, place) or with metal gusset plates. Others are assem-
the grades of lumber used for the two types might bled with split-ring connectors. Designs for standard
also vary. W-type and King-post trusses with plywood gussets are
usually available through a local lumber dealer.
Local prices and design load requirements (for
Information on metal plate connectors for wood trusses
snow, wind, etc.) as well as the span should likely
is also available. Many lumber dealers are able to
govern the type of truss to be used.
provide the builder or homeowner with completed
Scissors Truss trusses ready for erection.
To illustrate the design and construction of a typical
The scissors truss (fig. 52,C) is a special type used
wood W-truss more clearly, the following example is
for houses in which a sloping living room ceiling is
given :
desired. Somewhat more complicated than the W-type
The span for the nail-glued gusset truss (fig. 53) is
truss, it provides good roof construction for a "cathe- 26 feet, the slope 4 in 12, and the spacing 24 inches.
dral" ceiling with a saving in materials over conven- Total roof load is 40 pounds per square foot, which is
tional framing methods. usually sufficient for moderate to heavy snow belt
areas. Examination of tables and charts (2) shows
Design and Fabrication
that the upper and lower chords can be 2 by 4 inches
The design of a truss not only includes snow and in size, the upper chord requiring a slightly higher
windload considerations but the weight of the roof grade of material. It is often desirable to use dimen-
itself. Design also takes into account the slope of the sion material with a moisture content of about 15
roof. Generally, the flatter the slope, the greater the percent with a maximum of 19 percent.
stresses. This results not only in the need for larger Plywood gussets can be made from %- or %-inch

51
Standard plywood with exterior glueline or exterior conditions. This is especially true if using the resorci-
sheathing grade plywood. The cutout size of the nol adhesives. Follow the assembly temperatures
gussets and the general nailing pattern for nail-gluing recommended by the manufacturer.
are shown in figure 53. More specifically, fourpenny
nails should be used for plywood gussets up to % inch Handling
thick and sixpenny for plywood % to % inch thick. In handling and storage of completed trusses, avoid
Three-inch spacing should be used when plywood is no placing unusual stresses on them. They were designed
more than % inch thick and 4 inches for thicker ply- to carry roofloads in a vertical position, and it is im-
wood. When wood truss members are nominal 4 portant that they be lifted and stored in an upright
inches wide, use two rows of nails with a %-inch edge position. If they must be handled in a flat position,
distance. Use three rows of nails when truss members enough men or supports should be used along their
are 6 inches wide. Gussets are used on both sides of length to minimize bending deflections. Never support
the truss. them only at the center or only at each end when in a
For normal conditions and where relative humidi- flat position.
ties in the attic area are inclined to be high, such as
might occur in the southern and southeastern States, a Erection
resorcinol glue should be used for the gussets. In dry One of the important details in erecting trusses is
and arid areas where conditions are more favorable, the method of anchoring. Because of their single mem-
a casein or similar glue might be considered. ber thickness and the presence of plywood guessets at
Glue should be spread on the clean surfaces of the the wallplates, it is usually desirable to use some type
gusset and truss members. Either nails or staples might of metal connector to supplement the toenailings. Plate
be used to supply pressure until the glue has set, anchors are available commercially or can be formed
although only nails are recommended for plywood from sheet metal. Resistance to upUft stresses as well
% inch and thicker. Use the nail spacing previously as thrust must be considered. Many dealers supply
outlined. Closer or intermediate spacing may be used trusses with a 2- by 4-inch soffit return at the end of
to insure "squeezeout" at all visible edges. Gluing each upper chord to provide nailing areas for the
should be done under closely controlled temperature soffit.
SPACE NAILS 3" O.C

SPACE NAILS 3 O.e.

<X^^/^
*r' ''

19"

D M 134 630
Figure 53.Construction of a 26-foot W truss: A, Bevel-heel gusset; B, peak gusset; C, upper
chord intermediate gusset; D, splice of lower chord; , lower chord intermediate gusset.

52
 CHAPTER 8

WALL SHEATHING

Wall sheathing is the outside covering used over and thicker, especially when the exterior finish must
the wall framework of studs, plates, and window and be nailed to the sheathing. The selection of plywood
door headers. It forms a flat base upon which the ex- thickness is also influenced somewhat by standard
terior finish can be appHed. Certain types of sheathing jamb widths in window and exterior door frames.
and methods of application can provide great rigidity This may occasionally require sheathing of 1/^-inch or
to the house, eliminating the need for corner bracing. greater thicknesses. Some modification of jambs is
Sheathing serves to minimize air infiltration and, in required and readily accomplished when other ply-
certain forms, provides some insulation. wood thicknesses are used.
Some sheet materials serve both as sheathing and
sidin. Sheathing is sometimes eliminated from houses Structural Insulating Board Sheathing
in the mild climates of the South and West. It is a The three common types of insulating board (struc-
versatile material and manufacturers produce it in tural fiberboards) used for sheathing include regular
many forms. Perhaps the most common types used in density, intermediate density, and nail-base. Insulating
construction are: boards, plywood, structural insulat- board sheathings are coated or impregnated with
ing board, and gypsum sheathing. asphalt or given other treatment to provide a water-
resistant product. Occasional wetting and drying that
Types of Sheathing occur during construction will not damage the sheath-
Wood Sheathing ing materially.
Wood sheathing is usually of nominal 1-inch boards Regular-density sheathing is manufactured in V2-
in a shiplap, a tongued-and-grooved, or a square-edge and 2i^^2-inch thicknesses and in 2- by 8-, 4- by 8-,
pattern. Resawn n/jg-inch boards are also allowed and 4- by 9-foot sizes. Intermediate-density and nail-
under certain conditions. The requirements for wood base sheathing are denser products than regular-
sheathing are easy working, easy nailing, and moderate density. They are regularly manufactured only in
shrinkage. Widths commonly used are 6, 8, and 10 V2-inch thickness and in 4- by 8- and 4- by 9-foot sizes.
inches. It may be applied horizontally or diagonally While 2- by 8-foot sheets with matched edges are used
(fig. 54,/4). Sheathing is sometimes carried only to horizontally, 4- by 8-foot and longer sheets are usually
the subfloor (fig. 54,5), but when diagonal sheathing installed with the long dimension vertical.
or sheet materials are placed as shown in figure 54,C, Corner bracing is required on horizontally applied
greater strength and rigidity result. It is desirable to sheets and usually on applications of V2-inch regular-
limit the wood moisture content to 15 percent to density sheathing applied vertically. Additional corner
minimize openings between matched boards when bracing is usually not required for regular-density
shrinkage occurs. insulating board sheathing 25^^ inch thick or for
Some manufacturers produce random-length side- intermediate-density and nail-base sheathing when
and end-matched boards for sheathing. Most softwood properly applied (fig. 55) with long edges vertical.
species, such as the spruces, Douglas-fir, southern pine, Naturally fastenings must be adequate around the
hemlock, the soft pines, and others, are suitable for perimeter and at intermediate studs, and adequately
sheathing. Grades vary between species, but sheathing fastened (nails, staples, or other fastening system).
is commonly used in the third grade. Nail-base sheathing also permits shingles to be applied
directly to it as siding if fastened with special annular-
Refer to the chapter on "Floor Framing."
grooved nails. Galvanized or other corrosion-resistant
Plywood Sheathing fasteners are recommended for installation of insulat-
ing-board sheathing.
Plywood is used extensively for sheathing of walls,
applied vertically, normally in 4- by 8-foot and longer Gypsum Sheathing
sheets (fig. 55). This method of sheathing eliminates Gypsum sheathing is I/2 inch thick, 2 by 8 feet in
the need for diagonal corner bracing; but, as with all size, and is applied horizontally for stud spacing of
sheathing materials, it should be well nailed (table 2). 24 inches or less (fig. 56). It is composed of treated
Standard sheathing grade is commonly used gypsum filler faced on two sides with water-resistant
for sheathing. For more severe exposures, this same paper, often having one edge grooved, and the other
plywood is furnished with an exterior glueUne. While with a matched V edge. This makes application easier,
the minimum plywood thickness for 16-inch stud spac- adds a small amount of tie between sheets, and pro-
ing is %6 inch, it is often desirable to use % inch vides some resistance to air and moisture penetration.

53
 Corner Bracing end-matched boards are used, no two adjoining boards
The purpose of corner bracing is to provide rigidity should have end joints over the same stud space and
to the structure and to resist the racking forces of each board should bear on at least two studs.
wind. Corner bracing should be used at all external Two arrangements of floor framing and soleplate
corners of houses where the type of sheathing used location may be used which affect wall sheathing ap-
does not provide the bracing required (figs. 31 and plication. The first method has the soleplate set in
54,^4). Types of sheathing that provide adequate from the outside wall line so that the sheathing is
bracing are: (a) Wood sheathing, when applied diago- flush with the floor framing (fig. 54,). This does not
nally; (b) plywood, when applied vertically in sheets provide a positive tie between wall and floor framing
4 feet wide by 8 or more feet high and where attached and in high wind areas should be supplemented with
with nails or staples spaced not more than 6 inches metal strapping (fig. 32) placed over the sheathing.
apart on all edges and not more than 12 inches at The second method has the sill plate located the thick-
intermediate supports; and (c) structural insulating ness of the sheathing in from the edge of the founda-
board sheathing 4 feet wide and 8 feet or longer tion wall (fig. 54,C). When vertically applied plywood
(2%2-inch-thick regular grade and 1/2-inch-thick inter- or diagonal wood sheathing is used, a good connec-
mediate-density or nail-base grade) applied with long tion between the wall and floor framing is obtained.
edges vertical with nails or staples spaced 3 inches This method is usually preferred where good wall-to-
along all edges and 6 inches at intermediate studs. floor-to-foundation connections are desirable.
Another method of providing the required rigidity Wood sheathing (fig. 54,/i) is commonly applied
and strength for wall framing consists of a %-inch horizontally because it is easy to apply and there is
plywood panel at each side of each outside corner and less lumber waste than with diagonal sheathing. Hori-
%-inch regular-density fiberboard at intermediate zontal sheathing, however, requires diagonal corner
areas. The plywood must be in 4-foot-wide sheets and bracing for wall framework.
applied vertically with full perimeter and intermediate Diagonal sheathing (fig. 54,yi) should be applied
stud nailing. at a 45 angle. This method of sheathing adds greatly
Where corner bracing is required, use 1- by 4-inch to the rigidity of the wall and eliminates the need for
or wider members let into the outside face of the studs, corner bracing. There is more lumber waste than with
and set at an angle of 45 from the bottom of the horizontal sheathing because of angle cuts, and appli-
soleplate to the top of the wallplate or corner stud. cation is somewhat more dificult. End joints should
Where window openings near the corner interfere be made over studs. This method is often specified in
with 45 braces, the angle should be increased but the hurricane areas along the Atlantic Coast and in
full-length brace should cover at least three stud Florida.
spaces. Tests conducted at the Forest Products Labora- Structural Insulating Board, Plywood, and
tory showed a full-length brace to be much more effec- Other Sheathing in 4-foot and Longer Sheets
tive than a K-brace, even though the angle was greater
Vertical application of structural insulating board
than that of a 45 K-brace.
(fig. 55) in 4- by 8-foot sheets is usually recommended
installation of Sheathing by the manufacturer because perimeter nailing is
Wood Sheathing possible. Depending on local building regulations,
The minimum thickness of wood sheathing is gener- spacing nails 3 inches on edges and 6 inches at inter-
ally % inch. However, for particular uses, depending mediate framing members usually eliminates the need
on exterior coverings, resawn boards of ly^g-inch for corner bracing when 2^^2-inch structural insulating
thickness may be used as sheathing. Widths commonly board sheathing or V2-irich medium-density structural
used are 6, 8, and 10 inches. The 6- and 8-inch widths insulating board sheathing is used. Use 1%-inch gal-
will have less shrinkage than greater widths, so that vanized roofing nails for the 25^2-inch sheathing and
smaller openings will occur between boards. lV2-inch nails for the l/^-inch sheathing (table 2). The
The boards should be nailed at each stud crossing manufacturers usually recommend %-inch spacing
with two nails for the 6- and 8-inch widths and three between sheets. Joints are centered on framing
nails for the 10- and 12-inch widths. When diagonal members.
sheathing is used, one more nail can be used at each Plywood used for sheathing should be 4 by 8 feet
stud; for example, three nails for 8-inch sheathing. or longer and applied vertically with perimeter nailing
Joints should be placed over the center of studs (fig. to eliminate the need for corner bracing (fig. 55).
54,^) unless end-matched (tongued-and-grooved) Sixpenny nails are used for plywood % inch or less
boards are used. End-matched tongued-and-grooved in thickness. Use eightpenny nails for plywood ^ inch
boards are applied continuously, either horizontally and more in thickness. Spacing should be a minimum
or diagonally, allowing end joints to fall where they of 6 inches at all edges and 12 inches at intermediate
may, even if between studs (fig. 54,^). However, when framing members (table 2).

54
 LET-IN
CORNER BRACE

END MATCHED MAY

FALL BETWEEN
STUDS
JOINT
(OVER STUD)

FOUNDATION
HORIZONTAL APPLICATION

DIAGONAL APPLICATION

SHEATHING-
SHEATHING

SUBFLOOR

JOIST

SILL PLATE

FOUNDATION WALL

M T34 775
Figur 54.Application of wood sheathing: A, Horizontal and diagonal; 6, started at subfloor;
C, started at foundation wall.

55
 SPACE NAILS
6" O.e.

SPACE NAILS
12" O.e.

SPACE NAILS
3" O.e.

SPACE NAILS
6" O.e.

STRUCTURAL INSULATING BOARD

PLYWOOD

M 134 706
Figure 55.Vertical application of plywood or structural insulating board sheathing.

Plywood may also be applied horizontally, but Insulating Board and Gypsum Sheathing in 2-
not being as efficient from the standpoint of rigidity by 8-foot Sheets
and strength, it normally requires diagonal bracing. Gypsum and insulating board sheathing in 2- by
However, blocking between studs to provide for hori- 8-foot sheets applied horizontally require corner brac-
zontal edge nailing will improve the rigidity and ing (fig. 56). Vertical joints should be staggered.
usually eliminate the need for bracing. When shingles The 2.y3o-inch board should be nailed to each crossing
or similar exterior finishes are employed, it is neces- stud with 134-inch galvanized roofing nails spaced
sary to use threaded nails for fastening when plywood about 4V2 inches apart (six nails in the 2-foot height).
is only %6 or %-inch thick. Allow l^-inch edge The l/^-inch gypsum and insulating board sheathing
spacing and i/ig-inch end spacing between plywood should be nailed to the framing members with 1%-
sheets when installing. inch galvanized roofing nails spaced about 3V2 inches
Particleboard, hardboard, and other sheet materials apart (seven nails in the 2-foot height).
may also be used as a sheathing. However, their use When wood bevel or similar sidings are used over
is somewhat restricted because cost is usually higher plywood sheathing less than % inch thick, and over
than the sheet materials previously mentioned. insulating board and gypsum board, nails must usually

56
 SPACE NAILS 7"
FOR WOOD SIDING

LET-IN
CORNER
BRACE

SPACE NAILS 3i^2"o,C.

' FOR SHINGLE SIDING

I X 3
NAILING STRIP

WOOD
SHINGLES

STRUCTURAL INSULATING BOARD ^^. ^^yizi GYPSUM BOARD

M 134 703
Figure 56.Horizontal application of 2-by 8-foot structural insulating board or gypsum sheathing.

be located so as to contact the stud. When wood entry of direct moisture. Materials such as 15-pound
shingles and similar finishes are used over gypsum and asphalt felt, rosin, and similar papers are considered
regular density insulating board sheathing, the walls satisfactory. Sheathing paper should have a "perm"
are stripped with 1- by 3-inch horizontal strips spaced value of 6.0 or more. It also serves to resist air
to conform to the shingle exposure. The wood strips infiltration.
are nailed to each stud crossing with two eightpenny
Sheathing paper should be used behind a stucco or
or tenpenny threaded nails, depending on the sheathing
masonry veneer finish and over wood sheathing. It
thickness (fig. 56). Nail-base sheathing board usually
should be installed horizontally starting at the bottom
does not require stripping when threaded nails are use.
of the wall. Succeeding layers should lap about 4
Sheathing Paper inches. Ordinarily, it is not used over plywood, fiber-
board, or other sheet materials that are water-resistant.
Sheathing paper should be water-resistant but not However, 8-inch or wider strips of sheathing paper
vapor-resistant. It is often called "breathing" paper should be used around window and door openings to
as it allows the movement of water vapor but resists minimize air infiltration.

57
 CHAPTER 9

ROOF SHEATHING
Roof sheathing is the covering over the rafters or out and shrink in width causing buckling or lifting of
trusses and usually consists of nominal 1-inch lumber the shingles, along the length of the board. Twelve
or plywood. In some types of flat or low-pitched roofs percent is a desirable maximum moisture content for
with post and beam construction, wood roof planking wood sheathing in most parts of the country. Plywood
or fiberboard roof decking might be used. Diagonal for roofs is commonly standard sheathing grade.
wood sheathing on flat or low-pitched roofs provides
racking resistance where areas with high winds de- Lumber Sheathing
mand added rigidity. Plywood sheathing provides the
same desired rigidity and bracing effect. Sheathing Closed Sheathing
should be thick enough to span between supports and Board sheathing to be used under such roofing as
provide a solid base for fastening the roofing material. asphalt shingles, metal-sheet roofing, or other materials
Roof sheathing boards are generally the third that require continuous support should be laid closed
grades of species such as the pines, redwood, the (without spacing) (fig. 57). Wood shingles can also
hemlocks, western larch, the firs, and the spruces. It is be used over such sheathing. Boards should be
important that thoroughly seasoned material be used matched, shiplapped, or square-edged with joints made
with asphalt shingles. Unseasoned wood will dry over the center of rafters. Not more than two adjacent

NAILING STRIP

SPACED

RAFTER

JOINT
JOIST

ROOF BOARDS

CLOSED
STUD
PLATE

M 134 613
Figure 57.Installation of board roof sheathing, showing both closed and spaced types.

58
boards should have joints over the same support. It is nail or fivepenny threaded nail should be used for
preferable to use boards no wider than 6 or 8 inches %6- and %-inch plywood, and eightpenny common or
to minimize problems which can be caused by shrink- sevenpenny threaded nail for greater thicknesses. Un-
age. Boards should have a minimum thickness of less plywood has an exterior glueline, raw edges should
% inch for rafter spacing of 16 to 24 inches, and be not be exposed to the weather at the gable end or at
nailed with two eightpenny common or sevenpenny the cornice, but should be protected by the trim. Allow
threaded nails for each board at each bearing. End- a Vs-inch edge spacing and 146-i'^ch end spacing
matched tongued-and-grooved boards can also be used between sheets when installing.
and joints made between rafters. However, in no case
should the joints of adjoining boards be made over Plank Roof Decking
the same rafter space. Each board should be supported Plank roof decking, consisting of 2-inch and thicker
by at least two rafters. tongued-and-grooved wood planking, is commonly used
Use of long sheathing boards at roof ends is desir- in flat or low-pitched roofs in post and beam construc-
able to obtain good framing anchorage, especially in tion. Common sizes are nominal 2- by 6-, 3- by 6-,
gable roofs where there is a substantial rake overhang. and 4- by 6-inch V-grooved members, the thicker
planking being suitable for spans up to 10 or 12 feet.
Spaced Sheathing Maximum span for 2-inch planking is 8 feet when
When wood shingles or shakes are used in damp continuous over two supports, and 6 feet over single
climates, it is common to have spaced roof boards spans in grades and species commonly used for this
(fig. 57). Wood nailing strips in nominal 1- by 3- or 1- purpose. Special load requirements may reduce these
by 4-inch size are spaced the same distance on centers allowable spans. Roof decking can serve both as an
as the shingles are to be laid to the weather. For ex- interior ceiling finish and as a base for roofing. Heat
ample, if shingles are laid 5 inches to the weather and loss is greatly reduced by adding fiberboard or other
nominal (surfaced) 1- by 4-inch strips are used, there rigid insulation over the wood decking.
would be spaces of 1% to 1^ inches between each The decking is blind-nailed through the tongue and
board to provide the needed ventilation spaces. also face-nailed at each support. In 4- by 6-inch size,
it is predrilled for edge nailing (fig. 43,). For
Plywood Roof Sheathing thinner decking, a vapor barrier is ordinarily installed
When plywood roof sheathing is used, it should be between the top of the plank and the roof insulation
laid with the face grain perpendicular to the rafters when planking does not provide sufficient insulation.
(fig. 58). Standard sheathing grade plywood is com-
monly specified but, where damp conditions occur, it Fiberboard Roof Decking
is desirable to use a standard sheathing grade with Fiberboard roof decking is used the same way as
exterior glueline. End joints are made over the center wood decking, except that supports are spaced much
of the rafters and should be staggered by at least one closer together. Planking is usually supplied in 2- by 8-
rafter 16 or 24 inches, or more. foot sheets with tongued-and-grooved edges. Thick-
For wood shingles or shakes and for asphalt shin- nesses of the plank and spacing of supports ordinarily
gles, %6-inch-thick plywood is considered to be a comply with the following tabulation:
minimum thickness for 16-inch spacing of rafters. inimum thickness Maximum joist spacing
When edges are blocked to provide perimeter nailing, (In.) (In.)
%-inch-thick plywood can be used for 24-inch rafter Wi 24
spacing. A system which reduces costs by eliminating 2 32
the blocking is acceptable in most areas for %-inch 3 48
plywood when rafters are spaced 24 inches on center. Manufacturers of some types of roof decking recom-
This is with the use of plyclips or similar H clips mend the use of 1 %-inch thickness for 48-inch spacing
between rafters instead of blocking. of supports.
To provide better penetration for nails used for the Nails used to fasten the fiberboard to the wood mem-
shingles, better racking resistance, and a smoother roof bers are corrosion-resistant and spaced not more than
appearance, it is often desirable to increase the mini- 5 inches on center. They should be long enough to
mum thicknesses to % and % inch. U.S. Volun- penetrate the joist or beam at least 1^4 inches. A
tary Standard PS 1 provides that standard grades built-up roof is normally used for flat and low-pitched
be marked for allowable spacing of rafters. For slate roofs having wood or fiberboard decking.
and similar heavy roofing materials, %-inch plywood
is considered minimum for 16-inch rafter spacing. Extension of Roof Sheathing at Gable Ends
Plywood should be nailed at each bearing, 6 inches Method of installing board or plywood roof sheath-
on center along all edges and 12 inches on center ing at the gable ends of the roof is shown in figure 59.
along intermediate members. A sixpenny common Where the gable ends of the house have little or no

59
 RAFTER

JOINT

JOIST

M 134 629
Figure 58.Application of plywood roof sheathing.

60
 RAFTER

ROOF BOARDS
OR PLYWOOD

PROJECTION

SHEATHING

FLUSH BOARDS

M 134 615
Figure 59.Board roof sheathing at ends of gable.

extension (rake projection), roof sheathing is placed Sheathing at Chimney Openings

flush with the outside of the wall sheathing. (See
Where chimney openings occur within the roof area,
Chapter 10, "Exterior Trim and Millwork.")
the roof sheathing and subfloor should have a clear-
Roof sheathing that extends beyond end walls for a
ance of % inch from the finished masonry on all sides
projected roof at the gables should span not less than
three rafter spaces to insure anchorage to the rafters (fig. 60, sec. A-A). Rafters and headers around the
and to prevent sagging (fig. 59). When the projection opening should have a clearance of 2 inches from the
is greater than 16 to 20 inches, special ladder fram- masonry for fire protection.
ing is used to support the sheathing, as described in
Chapter 10, "Exterior Trim and Millwork."
Sheathing at Valleys and Hips
Plywood extension beyond the end wall is usually
governed by the rafter spacing to minimize waste. Wood or plywood sheathing at the valleys and hips
Thus, a 16-inch rake projection is commonly used should be installed to provide a tight joint and should
when rafters are spaced 16 inches on center. Butt be securely nailed to hip and valley rafters (fig. 60).
joints of the plywood sheets should be alternated so This will provide a solid and smooth base for metal
they do not occur on the same rafter. flashing.

61
 ROOF BOARDS
RAFTER OR PLYWOOD

CHIMNEY
OPENING
HEADER

I..^MASONRY CHIMNEY

ROOF BOARDS
OR PLYWOOD

RAFTERS

%" CLEARANCE

SECTION A-A
M 134 612
Figure 60.Board roof sheathing detail at valley and chimney openings. Sect/on >\-4 shows clearance from
masonry.

62
 CHAPTER 10

EXTERIOR TRIM AND MILLWORK

Exterior trim is usually considered as being that the roof and sidewalls. In gable roofs it is formed on
part of the exterior finish other than the wall cover- each side of the house, and in hip roofs it is continu-
ing. It includes such items as window and door trim, ous around the perimeter. In flat or low-pitched roof
cornice moldings, facia boards and soffits, rake or designs, it is usually formed by the extension of the
gable-end trim, and porch trim and moldings. Con- ceiling joists which also serve as rafters.
temporary house designs with simple cornices and The three general cornice types might be considered
moldings will contain little of this material, while to be the box, the close (no projection), and the open.
traditionally designed houses will have considerably The box cornice is perhaps the most commonly used
more. Much of the exterior trim, in the form of finish in house design and not only presents a finished ap-
lumber and moldings, is cut and fitted on the job. pearance, but also aids in protecting the sidewalls from
Other materials or assemblies such as shutters, louvres, rain. The close cornice with little overhang does not
railings, and posts are shop-fabricated and arrive on provide as much protection. The open cornice may be
the job ready to be fastened in place. used in conjunction with exposed laminated or solid
beams with wood roof decking and wide overhangs in
Material Used for Trim
contemporary or rustic designs or to provide protec-
The properties desired in materials used for
tion to side walls at a reasonable cost in low-cost
trim are good painting and weathering characteristics, houses.
easy working qualities, and maximum freedom from
warp. Decay resistance is also desirable where mate-
rials may absorb moisture in such areas as the caps Narrow Box Cornice
and the bases of porch columns, rails, and shutters. The narrow box cornice is one in which the projec-
Heartwood of the cedars, cypress, and redwood has tion of the rafter serves as a nailing surface for the
high decay resistance. Less durable species may be soffit board as well as the facia trim (fig. 61). Depend-
treated to make them decay resistant. ing on the roof slope and the size of the rafters, this
Many manufacturers predip at the factory such extension may vary between 6 and 12 or more inches.
materials as siding, window sash, window and door The soffit provides a desirable area for inlet ventila-
frames, and trim using a water-repellent preservative. tors. (See Chapter 16, "Ventilation.")
On-the-job dipping of end joints or miters cut at the A frieze board or a simple molding is often used
building site is recommended when resistance to water to terminate the siding at the top of the wall. Some
entry and increased protection are desired. builders slope the soffit slightly outward, leaving a
Fastenings used for trim, whether nails or screws, 1/4-inch open space behind the facia for drainage of
should preferably be rust-resistant, i.e., galvanized, water that might enter because of snow and ice dams
stainless steel, aluminum, or cadmium-plated. When a on the overhang. However, good attic ventilation and
natural finish is used, nails should be stainless steel proper cornice ventilators, in addition to good insula-
or aluminum to prevent staining and discoloration. tion, will minimize ice dams under normal conditions.
Cement-coated nails are not rust-resistant.
Siding and trim are normally fastened in place with
Wide Box Cornice (With Lookouts)
a standard siding nail, which has a small flat head.
However, finish or casing nails might also be used for A wide box cornice normally requires additional
some purposes. If not rust-resistant, they should be members for fastening the soffit. This is often supplied
set below the surface and puttied after the prime coat by lookout members which can be toenailed to the
of paint has been applied. Most of the trim along the wall and face-nailed to the ends of the rafter exten-
shingle line, such as at gable ends and cornices, is sions (fig. 62). Soffit material is often lumber, ply-
installed before the roof shingles are applied. wood, paper-overlaid plywood, hardboard, medium-
Material used for exterior trim should be of the density fiberboard, or other sheet materials. Thick-
better grade. Moisture content should be approxi- nesses should be based on the distance between sup-
mately 12 percent, except in the dry Southwestern States, ports, but %-inch plywood and ^^-inch fiberboard are
where it should average about 9 percent. often used for 16-inch rafter spacing. A nailing header
at the ends of the joists will provide a nailing area
Cornice Construction for soffit and facia trim. The nailing header is some-
The cornice of a building is the projection of the times eliminated in moderate cornice extensions when
roof at the eave line that forms a connection between a rabbeted facia is used. Inlet ventilators, often narrow

63
 ROOF SHEATHING

SHINGLE
STARTING
COURSE

RAFTER

CEILING JOIST

WALL PLATE SHINGLE

MOLDING

FACIA

VENTILATOR
SOFFIT BOARD

FRIEZE BOARD AND MOLDING

SHEATHING

SIDING

M 134 628
Figure 61.Narrow box cornice.

continuous slots, can be installed in the soffit areas. wide overhangs (fig. 63). The soffit material is nailed
This type cornice is often used in a hip-roofed house. directly to the underside of the rafter extensions. In
The projection of the cornice beyond the wall should gable houses, this sloping soffit extends around the
not be so great as to prevent the use of a narrow roof extension at each gable end. Except for elimina-
frieze or a frieze molding above the top casing of the tion of the lookout members, this type of cornice is
windows. A combination of a steeper slope and wide much the same as the wide box cornice previously
projection will bring the soffit in this type of cornice described. Inlet ventilators, singly or a continuous
too low, and a box cornice, without the lookouts, screened slot, are installed in the soffit area.
should be used.
Open Cornice
Boxed Cornice Without Lookouts
The open cornice is much the same structurally as
A wide boxed cornice without lookouts provides a the wide box cornice without lookouts (fig. 63), except
sloped soffit and is sometimes used for houses with that the soffit is eliminated. It might be used on post

64
 RAFTER ROOF SHEATHING

SHINGLE
STARTING
COURSE
(DOUBLE FOR
WOOD SHINGLES)

PLATE

INGLE MOLDING
FACIA
NAILING HEADER
(FACIA BACKER)
FRIEZE BOARD VENTILATOR
AND MOLDING
LOOKOUT
SOFFIT

-WALL SHEATHING

M 134 627
Figure 62.Wide box cornice (with horizontal lookouts)

and beam construction in which spaced rafters extend convenient area for inlet ventilators. Appearance can
beyond the wall line. In widely spaced rafters, the roof be improved somewhat by the use of a formed wood
sheathing may consist of wood decking, the underside gutter.
of which would be visible. When rafters are more
closely spaced, paper-overlaid plywood or V-grooved Rake or Gable-end Finish
boards might be used for roof sheathing at the over- The rake section is the extension of a gable roof
hanging section. This type of cornice might also be beyond the end wall of the house. This detail might be
used for conventionally framed low-cost houses, utility classed as being (a) a close rake with little projection
buildings, or cottages, with or without a facia board. or (b) a boxed or open extension of the gable roof,
Close Cornice varying from 6 inches to 2 feet or more. Sufficient
projection of the roof at the gable is desirable to
A close cornice is one in which there is no rafter
provide some protection to the sidewalls. This usually
projection beyond the wall (fig. 64). Sheathing is
results in longer paint life.
often carried to the ends of the rafters and ceiling
joists. The roof is terminated only by a frieze board When the rake extension is only 6 to 8 inches, the
and shingle molding. While this cornice is simple to facia and soffit can be nailed to a series of short look-
build, it is not too pleasing in appearance and does not out blocks (fig. 65,^). In addition, the facia is further
provide much weather protection to the sidewalls or a secured by nailing through the projecting roof sheath-

65
 WOOD SHINGLES

FRIEZE BOARD
AND MOLDING
SHINGLE MOLDING
FACIA
SIDING NAILING HEADER
(FACIA BACKER)
SOFFIT (NAILED TO RAFTER)
VENTILATOR

-WALL SHEATHING

M 134 626
Figure 63.Wide box cornice (without loolcouts)

ing. A frieze board and appropriate moldings complete This framing is often called a "ladder" and may be
the construction. constructed in place or on the ground or other con-
In a moderate overhang of up to 20 inches, both the venient area and hoisted in place.
extending sheathing and a fly rafter aid in supporting When ladder framing is preassembled, it is usually
the rake section (fig. 65,B). The fly rafter extends made up with a header rafter on the inside and a fly
from the ridge board to the nailing header which con- rafter on the outside. Each is nailed to the ends of the
nects the ends of the rafters. The roof sheathing lookouts which bear on the gable end wall. When the
boards or the plywood should extend from inner raft- header is the same size as the rafter, be sure to provide
ers to the end of the gable projection to provide a notch for the wall plates the same as for the regular
rigidity and strength. rafters. In moderate width overhangs, nailing the
The roof sheathing is nailed to the fly rafter and header and fly rafter to the lookouts with supplemental
to the lookout blocks which aid in supporting the rake toenailing is usually sufficiently strong to eliminate
section and also serve as a nailing area for the soffit. the need for the metal hangers shown in figure 66.
Additional nailing blocks against the sheathing are The header rafters can be face-nailed directly to the
sometimes required for thinner soffit materials. end rafters with twelvepenny nails spaced 16 to 20
Wide gable extensions (2 feet or more) require rigid inches apart.
framing to resist roof loads and prevent deflection of Other details of soffit, facia, frieze board, and mold-
the rake section. This is usually accomplished by a ings can be similar to those used for a wide gable over-
series of purlins or lookout members nailed to a fly hang. Lookouts should be spaced 16 to 24 inches apart,
rafter at the outside edge and supported by the end depending on the thickness of the soffit material.
wall and a doubled interior rafter (fig. 66, and B). A close rake has no extension beyond the end wall

66
 SHEATHING PAPER

ROOF
SHEATHING
SHINGLES

RAFTER

CEILING SHINGLE
JOIST MOLDING

FRIEZE
BOARD
PLATE

STUD SIDING

SHEATHING PAPER
'SHEATHING
M 134 625
Figure 64.Close cornice.

Other than the frieze board and moldings. Some addi- Cornice Return
tional protection and overhang can be provided by The cornice return is the end finish of the cornice
using a 2- by 3- or 2- by 4-inch facia block over the on a gable roof. In hip roofs and flat roofs, the cornice
sheathing (fig. 66,C). This member acts as a frieze is usually continuous around the entire house. In a
board, as the siding can be butted against it. The gable house, however, it must be terminated or joined
facia, often 1 by 6 inches, serves as a trim member. with the gable ends. The type of detail selected de-
Metal roof edging is often used along the rake section pends to a great extent on the type of cornice and the
as flashing. projection of the gable roof beyond the end wall.

67
 SHINGLES

ROOF SHEATHING

SHINGLE MOLDING

FACIA

LOOKOUT BLOCK

FRIEZE BOARD
AND MOLDING

STUD SOFFIT

SHEATHING ^NAILING BLOCK (FOR SOFFIT)

FRIEZE BOARD AND MOLDING

SIDING
B
M 134 731
Figure 65.Normal gable-end extensions: A, Narrow overhang; B, moderate overhang.

A narrow box cornice often used in houses with A close rake (a gable end with little projection) may
Cape Cod or colonial details has a boxed return when be used with a narrow box cornice or a close cornice.
the rake section has some projection (fig, 67,^4). The In this type, the frieze board of the gable end, into
facia board and shingle molding of the cornice are which the siding butts, joints the frieze board or
carried around the corner of the rake projection. facia of the cornice (fig, 67,C).
When a wide box cornice has no horizontal lookout While close rakes and cornices with little overhang
members {g. 63), the soffit of the gable-end overhang are lower in cost, the extra material and labor required
is at the same slope and coincides with the cornice for good gable and cornice overhangs are usually justi-
soffit (fig, 67,B). lilis is a simple system and is often fied. Better sidewall protection and lower paint main-
used when there are wide overhangs at both sides and tenance costs are only two of the benefits derived from
ends of the house. good roof extensions.

68
 SHINGLES
ROOF
SHEATHING

FLY RAFTER

FACIA

SOFFIT 'PURLIN (CROSS MEMBER)

FRIEZE BOARD AND MOLDING

OVERHANG

HANGER
GABLE END STUDS

END WALL STUDS

SHINGLES

METAL ROOF-EDGE

FACIA
ROOF SHEATHING
FACIA BLOCK
RAFTER

M T34 732
Figure 66.Special gable-end extensions: A, Extra wide overhang; B, ladder framing for wide overhang; C, close rake.

69
 -ROOF SHEATHING

SHINGLES

ROOF SHEATHING

SHINGLES

ROOF SHEATHING

SHEATHING PAPER
SHINGLES

FRIEZE
BOARD
(RAKE)
CORNICE FACIA

SIDING

M 134 786
Figure 67.Cornice returns: A, Narrow cornice with boxeci return; B, wide overhang at cornice and rake;
C, narrow box cornice and close rake.

70
 CHAPTER 11

ROOF COVERINGS
Roof coverings should provide a long-lived water- porches, or entryways. Joints should be watertight and
proof finish that will protect the building and its the deck properly flashed at the juncture with the
contents from rain, snow, and wind. Many materials house. Nails should be of the same metal as that used
have withstood the test of time and have proved satis- on the roof, except that with tin roofs, steel nails may
factory under given service conditions. be used. All exposed nailheads in tin roofs should be
soldered with a rosin-core solder.
Materials
Materials used for pitched roofs are wood, asphalt,
Wood Shingles
and asbestos shingles, and also tile and slate. Sheet Wood shingles of the types commonly used for
materials such as roll roofing, galvanized iron, alumi- house roofs are No. 1 grade. Such shingles (5) are
num, copper, and tin are also used. Perhaps the most all-heartwood, all-edgegrain, and tapered. Second grade
common covering for flat or low-pitched roofs is the shingles make good roofs for secondary buildings as
built-up roof with a gravel topping or cap sheet. Plastic well as excellent sidewalls for primary buildings.
films, often backed with an asbestos sheet, are also Western redcedar and redwood are the principal com-
being applied on low-slope roofs. While these materials mercial shingle woods, as their heartwood has high
are relatively new, it is likely that their use will in- decay resistance and low shrinkage.
crease, especially for roofs with unusual shapes. How- Four bundles of 16-inch shingles laid 5 inches "to
ever, the choice of roofing materials is usually influ- the weather" will cover 100 square feet. Shingles are
enced by first cost, local code requirements, house of random widths, the narrower shingles being in the
design, or preferences based on past experience. lower grades. Recommended exposures for the stand-
In shingle application, the exposure distance is ard shingle sizes are shown in table 3.
important and the amount of exposure generally de-
pends on the roof slope and the type of material used. TABLE 3.Recommended exposure for wood shingles^
This may vary from a 5-inch exposure for standard
Maximum exposure
size asphalt and wood shingles on a moderately steep
slope to about 3^4 inches for flatter slopes. However, Shingle Shingle thickness Slope Slope
even flatter slopes can be used for asphalt shingles length (G reen) less 2 5 in 12
with double underlay and triple shingle coverage. than and
4 in 12 over
Built-up construction is used mainly for flat or low-
pitched roofs but can be adapted to steeper slopes by In. In. In.
the use of special materials and methods. 16 5 butts in 2 in. ^H 5
Roof underlay material usually consists of 15- or 18 5 butts in 2^ in. 41^ 5^
24 4 butts in 2 in. SH l'A
30-pound asphalt-saturated felt and should be used in
moderate and lower slope roofs covered with asphalt, ^ As recommended by the Red Cedar Shingle and Handsplit
asbestos, or slate shingles, or tile roofing. It is not Shake Bureau.
commonly used for wood shingles or shakes. In areas * Minimum slope for main roofs4 in 12.
Minimum slope for porch roofs3 in 12.
where moderate to severe snowfalls occur, cornices
without proper protection will often be plagued with
ice dams (fig. 68,^4 ). These are formed when snow Figure 69 illustrates the proper method of applying
melts, runs down the roof, and freezes at the colder a wood-shingle roof. Underlay or roofing felt is not
cornice area. Gradually, the ice forms a dam that backs required for wood shingles except for protection in
up water under the shingles. Under these conditions, ice-dam areas. Spaced roof boards under wood shin-
it is good practice to use an undercourse (36-in. gles are most common, although spaced or solid sheath-
width) of 45-pound or heavier smooth-surface roll ing is optional.
roofing along the eave line as a flashing (fig. 6S,B). The following general rules should be followed in
This will minimize the chance of water backing up the application of wood shingles:
and entering the wall. However, good attic ventilation 1. Shingles should extend about 1% inches be-
and sufficient ceiling insulation are of primary im- yond the eave line and about % inch beyond the rake
portance in eliminating this harmful nuisance. These (gable) edge.
details are described in Chapter 16, "Ventilation." 2. Use two rust-resistant nails in each shingle; space
Metal roofs (tin, copper, galvanized iron, or alumi- them about % inch from the edge and 1% inches
num) are sometimes used on flat decks of dormers. above the butt line of the next course. Use threepenny

71
 TRAPPED WATER

ICE DAM

SiJ WATER ENTRY

INSUFFICIENT
INSULATION

FLASHING
(ROLL ROOFING)

RAFTER

AIRWAY

SUFFICIENT
INSULATION

GUTTER

SOFFIT VENTILATION

B
M 134 787
Figure 68.Snow and ice dams: A, Ice dams often build up on the overhang of roofs and
in gutters, causing melting snow water to back up under shingles and under the facia
board of closed cornices. Damage to ceilings inside and to paint outside results, , Eave
protection for snow and ice dams. Lay smooth-surface 45-pound roll roofing on roof sheath-
ing over the eaves extending upward well above the inside line of the wall.

72
 VV EDGE DISTANCE

SPACE !4" - 'A"

2 NAILS
PER SHINGLE

IV2

ROLL ROOFING FOR WOOD SHINGLES

ICE-DAM PROTECTION
EXPOSURE

PROJECT SHINGLES
FOR DRIP

FACIA BOARD

FIRST SHINGLE COURSE

(DOUBLE )

M 34 624
Figure 69.Installation of wood shingles.

nails for 16- and 18-inch shingles and fourpenny for tance is usually 1^2 inches for 18-inch shakes, 10
24-inch shingles in new construction. A ring-shank nail inches for 24-inch shakes, and 13 inches for 32-inch
(threaded) is often recommended for plywood roof shakes. Shakes are not smooth on both faces, and be-
sheathing less than ^2 inch thick. cause wind-driven snow might enter, it is essential to
3. The first course of shingles should be doubled. use an underlay between each course. An 18-inch-wide
In all courses, allow %- to %,-inch space between each layer of 30-pound asphalt felt should be used between
shingle for expansion when wet. The joints between each course with the bottom edge positioned above the
shingles should be offset at least 1% inches from the butt edge of the shakes a distance equal to double the
joints between shingles in the course below. Further, weather exposure. A 36-inch wide starting strip of the
the joints in succeeding courses should be spaced so asphalt felt is used at the eave line. Solid sheathing
that they do not directly line up with joints in the should be used when wood shakes are used for roofs in
second course below. areas where wind-driven snow is experienced.
4. When valleys are present, shingle away from the
valleys, selecting and precutting wide valley shingles. Asphalt Shingles
5. A metal edging along the gable end will aid in The usual minimum recommended weight for
guiding the water away from the sidewalls. asphalt shingles is 235 pounds for square-butt strip
6. In laying No. 1 all-heartwood edge-grain shingles shingles. This may change in later years, as 210
no splitting of wide shingles is necessary. pounds (weight per square) was considered a mini-
Wood shakes are applied much the same as wood mum several years ago. Strip shingles with a 300-
shingles. Because shakes are much thicker (longer pound weight per square are available, as are lock-
shakes have the thicker butts), long galvanized nails type and other shingles weighing 250 pounds and
are used. To create a rustic appearance, the butts are more. Asphalt shingles are also available with seal-
often laid unevenly. Because shakes are longer than type tabs for wind resistance. Many contractors apply
shingles, they have a greater exposure. Exposure dis- a small spot of asphalt roof cement under each tab

73
after installation of regular asphalt shingles to pro- nails for each strip when tabs are sealed. When a nail
vide similar protection. penetrates a crack or knothole, it should be removed,
The square-butt strip shingle is 12 by 36 inches, the hole sealed, and the nail replaced in sound wood;
has three tabs, and is usually laid with 5 inches ex- otherwise, it will gradually work out and cause a hump
posed to the weather. There are 27 strips in a bundle, in the shingle above it.
and three bundles will cover 100 square feet. Bundles
should be piled flat for storage so that strips will not Built-up Roofs
curl when the bundles are opened for use. The method Built-up roof coverings are installed by roofing com-
of laying an asphalt-shingle roof is shown in figure panies that specialize in this work. Roofs of this type
70,A. A metal edging is often used at the gable end may have 3, 4, or 5 layers of roofer's felt, each mopped
to provide additional protection (fig. 70,B). down with tar or asphalt, with the final surface coated
Data such as that in table 4 are often used in deter- with asphalt and covered with gravel embedded in
mining the need for and the method of applying asphalt or tar, or covered with a cap sheet. For con-
underlayment for asphalt shingles on roofs of various venience, it is customary to refer to built-up roofs as
slopes. Underlayment is commonly 15-pound saturated 10-, 15-, or 20-year roofs, depending upon the method
felt. of application.
For example, a 15-year roof over a wood deck (fig.
TABLE 4.Underlayment requirements for asphalt 71,A) may have a base layer of 30-pound saturated
shingles roofer's felt laid dry, with edges lapped and held down
(Headlap for single coverage of underlayment should with roofing nails. All nailing should be done with
be 2 inches and for double coverage 19 inches.) either (a) roofing nails having %-inch heads driven
through 1-inch-diameter tin caps or (b) special roofing
nails having 1-inch-diameter heads. The dry sheet is
Minimum roof slope
Underlayment intended to prevent tar or asphalt from entering the
Double coverage ^ Tripie coverage ^ rafter spaces. Three layers of 15-pound saturated felt
shingles shingles follow, each of which is mopped on with hot tar rather
than being nailed. The final coat of tar or asphalt may
Not required 7 in 12 M in 12
Single M in 12 3 3 in 12 be covered with roofing gravel or a cap sheet of roll
Double 2 in 12 2 in 12 roofing.
The cornice or eave line of projecting roofs is
^ Double coverage for a 12- by 36-in. shingle is usually an
usually finished with metal edging or flashing, which
exposure of about 5 in. and about 4 in. for triple coverage.
^ May be 3 in 12 for porch roofs. acts as a drip. A metal gravel strip is used in con-
^ May be 2 in 12 for porch roofs. junction with the flashing at the eaves when the roof
is covered with gravel (fig. 71,B). Where built-up
An asphalt-shingle roof can also be protected from roofing is finished against another wall, the roofing is
ice dams by adding an initial layer of 45-pound or turned up on the wall sheathing over a cant strip and
heavier roll roofing, 36 inches wide, and insuring good is often also flashed with metal (fig. 71,C). This flash-
ventilation and insulation within the attic space (fig. ing is generally extended up about 4 inches above the
68,B). bottom of the siding.
A course of wood shingles or a metal edging should
be used along the eave line before application of the Other Roof Coverings
asphalt shingles. The first course of asphalt shingles is Other roof coverings, including asbestos, slate, tile,
doubled; or, if desired, a starter course may be used metal and others, many of which require specialized
under the first asphalt-shingle course. This first course applicators, are perhaps less commonly used than wood
should extend downward beyond the wood shingles or asphalt shingles and built-up roofs. Several new
(or edging) about ^4 irich to prevent the water from materials, such as plastic films and coatings, are
backing up under the shingles. A %-inch projection showing promise for future moderate-cost roof cover-
should also be used at the rake. ings. However, most of them are more expensive than
Several chalklines on the underlay will help aline the materials now commonly being used for houses.
the shingles so that tab notches will be in a straight These newer materials, however, as well as other new
line for good appearance. Each shingle strip should be products, are likely to come into more general use
fastened securely according to the manufacturer's during the next decade.
directions. The use of six 1-inch galvanized roofing
nails for each 12- by 36-inch strip is considered good Finish at the Ridge and Hip
practice in areas of high winds. A sealed tab or the The most common type of ridge and hip finish for
use of asphalt sealer will also aid in preventing wind wood and asphalt shingles is known as the Boston
damage during storms. Some contractors use four ridge. Asphalt-shingle squares (one-third of a 12- by

74
 CHALKLINE FELT UNDERLAY

ROOFING NAIL
2"-^" LAP,
ROOF SHEATHING

SHEATHING

ROOF SHEATHING

SHEATHING

M 134 774
Figure 70.Application of asphalt shingles: A, Normal method with strip shingles; B, metal edging at gable end.

75
 ROOF SHEATHING
30-LB- SATURATED FELT
(NAIL DRY)
15-LB. SATURATED FELT

MOP EACH LAYER

MOP COAT
GRAVEL STOP
GRAVE

GRAVEL STOP
.GRAVEL STOP /r-6"AND
Q^^p 9"GRAVEL
STRIP STOP
MOPPED

BUILT-UP ROOF

FACIA

SIDING

UP ROOF

ROOF SHEATHING

M 134 778
Figure 71.Built-up roof: A, Installation of roof; , gravel stop; C, flashing at building line.

76
36-inch strip) are used over the ridge and blind-nailed the shingles are nailed in place so that exj>osed
(fig. 72,A). Each shingle is lapped 5 to 6 inches to trimmed edges are alternately lapped. Pre-assembled
give double coverage. In areas where driving rains hip and ridge units are available and save both time
occur, it is well to use metal flashing under the shingle and money.
ridge. The use of a ribbon of asphalt roofing cement A metal ridge roll can also be used on asphalt-
under each lap will also greatly reduce the chance of shingle or wood-shingle roofs (fig. 72,C). This ridge
water penetration. is formed to the roof slope and should be copper,
A wood-shingle roof (fig. 72,B) also should be galvanized iron, or aluminum. Some metal ridges are
finished in a Boston ridge. Shingles 6 inches wide are formed so that they provide an outlet ventilating area.
alternately lapped, fitted, and blind-nailed. As shown, However, the design should be such that it prevents
rain or snow blowing in.

ASPHALT BLIND NAIL

SHINGLE RIDGE
(BOSTON RIDGE )

ASPHALT
STRIP SHINGLES

UNDERLAY

FLASHING
BLIND NAIL-v

WOOD SHINGLE
(BOSTON RIDGE)

METAL RIDGE

WOOD SHINGLES

ROOF SHEATHING
B

M 134 777
Figure 72.Finish at ridge: A, Boston ridge with asphalt shingles; B, Boston ridge with wood shingles; C, metal ridge.

CHAPTER 12

EXTERIOR FRAMES, WINDOWS, AND DOORS

Windows, doors, and their frames are millwork but may also be an important part of the architect-
items that are usually fully assembled at the factory. ural design. Some variation may occur, but normally
Window units, for example, often have the sash fitted in habitable rooms the glass area should be not less
and weatherstripped, frame assembled, and exterior than 10 percent of the floor area. Natural ventilation
casing in place. Standard combination storms and should be not less than 4 percent of the floor area
screens or separate units can also be included. Door in a habitable room unless a complete air-condition-
frames are normally assembled ready for use in the ing system is used.
building. All such wood components are treated with
a water-repellent preservative at the factory to pro- Types of Windows
vide protection before and after they are placed in Windows are available in many types, each having
the walls. advantages. The principal types are double-hung,
Windows are mainly to allow entry of light and air, casement, stationary, awning, and horizontal sliding.

77
They may be made of wood or metal. Heat loss ings or the blind stops at the sides. Where nails are
through metal frames and sash is much greater than exposed, such as on the casing, use the corrosion-
through similar wood units. Glass blocks are some- resistant type.
times used for admitting light in places where trans- Hardware for double-hung windows includes the
parency or ventilation is not required. sash lifts that are fastened to the bottom rail, al-
Insulated glass, used both for stationary and move- though they are sometimes eliminated by providing
able sash, consists of two or more sheets of spaced a finger groove in the rail. Other hardware consists
glass with hermetically-sealed edges. This type has of sash locks or fasteners located at the meeting rail.
more resistance to heat loss than a single thickness They not only lock the window, but draw the sash
and is often used without a storm sash. together to provide a "windtight" fit.
Wood sash and door and window frames should Double-hung windows can be arranged in a num-
be made from a clear grade of all-heartwood stock ber of waysas a single unit, doubled (or mullion)
of a decay-resistant wood species or from wood which type, or in groups of three or more. One or two
is given a preservative treatment. Species commonly double-hung windows on each side of a large station-
used include ponderosa and other pines, the cedars, ary insulated window are often used to effect a win-
cypress, redwood, and the spruces. dow wall. Such large openings must be framed with
Tables showing glass size, sash size, and rough headers large enough to carry roofloads.
opening size are available at lumber dealers, so that
the wall openings can be framed accordingly. Typical Casement Windows
openings for double-hung windows are shown in the Casement windows consist of side-hinged sash,
chapter "Wall Framing." usually designed to swing outward (fig. 74) because
this type can be made more weathertight than the in-
Double-hung Windows swinging style. Screens are located inside these out-
The double-hung window is perhaps the most swinging windows and winter protection is obtained
familiar window type. It consists of an upper and with a storm sash or by using insulated glass in the
lower sash that slide vertically in separate grooves sash. One advantage of the casement window over the
in the side jambs or in full-width metal weather- double-hung type is that the entire window area can
stripping (fig. 73). This type of window provides be opened for ventilation.
a maximum face opening for ventilation of one-half Weatherstripping is also provided for this type of
the total window area. Each sash is provided with window, and units are usually received from the
springs, balances, or compression weatherstripping factory entirely assembled with hardware in place.
to hold it in place in any location. Compression Closing hardware consists of a rotary operator and
weatherstripping, for example, prevents air infiltra- sash lock. As in the double-hung units, casement
tion, provides tension, and acts as a counterbalance; sash can be used in a number of waysas a pair or
several types allow the sash to be removed for easy in combinations of two or more pairs. Style varia-
painting or repair. tions are achieved by divided lights. Snap-in muntins
The jambs (sides and top of the frames) are made provided a small, multiple-pane appearance for tra-
of nominal 1-inch lumber; the width provides for ditional styling.
use with dry-wall or plastered interior finish. Sills are Metal sash are sometimes used but, because of
made from nominal 2-inch lumber and sloped at low insulating value, should be installed carefully
about 3 in 12 for good drainage (fig. 73,Z)). Sash to prevent condensation and frosting on the interior
are normally 1% inches thick and wood combination surfaces during cold weather. A full storm-window
storm and screen windows are usually 1% inches unit is sometimes necessary to eliminate this problem
thick. in cold climates.
Sash may be divided into a number of lights by
small wood members called muntins. A ranch-type Stationary Windows
house may provide the best appearance with top and Stationary windows used alone or in combination
bottom sash divided into two horizontal lights. A with double-hung or casement windows usually con-
colonial or Cape Code house usually has each sash sist of a wood sash with a large single light of insu-
divided into six or eight lights. Some manufacturers lated glass. They are designed to provide light, as
provided preassembled dividers which snap in place well as for attractive appearance, and are fastened
over a single light, dividing it into six or eight lights. permanently into the frame (fig. 75). Because of
This simplifies painting and other maintenance. their size, (sometimes 6 to 8 feet wide) 1%-inch-
Assembled frames are placed in the rough opening thick sash is used to provide strength. The thickness
over strips of building paper put around the perim- is usually required because of the thickness of the
eter to minimize air infiltration. The frame is plumbed insulating glass.
and nailed to side studs and header through the cas- Other types of stationary windows may be used

78
 HEADER
DRIP CAP

FLASHED METAL DRIP

CASING

COMBINATION
STORM AND SCREEN
SASH

UPPER SASH

MEETING RAILS

LOWER SASH

LOWER SASH

COMBINATION
STORM AND SCREEN

M 134 720
Figure 73.Double-hung windows. Cross sections: A, Head jamb; B, meeting rails;
C, side jambs; O, sill.

79
 HEADER
DRIP CAP
CASING
HEAD JAMB, RABBETED
STOP AND WEATHERSTRIP
SASH
SCREEN

-INSULATED GLASS

^^A
-MEETING STILES
AND WEATHERSTRIP

m
B

DOUBLE STUD
INSULATION

SCREEN

SASH

SILL

INSULATION

M 134 719
Figur. 74._0tswinging casement sash. Cross sections: A. Head jamb; B, meeting stiles; C, sicJ, iambs; D^iH.'

80
 TYPICAL USE IN COMBINATION WITH OTHER
TYPES
M 134 681
Figur 75Stationory window. Cross socHons: A, Hood jamb; B, sill.

without a sash. The glass is set directly into rab- Jambs are usually ly^Q inches or more thick be-
beted frame members and held in place with stops. cause they are rabbeted, while the sill is at least
As with all window-sash units, back puttying and 1%6 inches thick when two or more sash are used in
face puttying of the glass (with or without a stop) a complete frame. Each sash may also be provided
will assure moisture-resistance. with an individual frame, so that any combination
in width and height can be used. Awning or hopper
Awning Windows window units may consist of a combination of one
An awning window unit consists of a frame in or more fixed sash with the remainder being the
which one or more operative siish are installed (fig. operable type. Operable sash are provided with hinges,
76). They often are made up for a large window wall pivots, and sash supporting arms.
and consist of three or more units in width and Weatherstripping and storm sash and screens are
height. usually provided. The storm sash is eliminated when
Sash of the awning type are made to swing out- the windows are glazed with insulated glass.
ward at the bottom. A similar unit, called the hopper
type, is one in which the top of the sash swings in- Horizontal-sliding Window Units
ward. Both types provide protection from rain when Horizontal-sliding windows appear similar to case-
open. ment sash. However, the sash (in pairs) slide hori-

81
 HEADER

CASING
HEAD JAMB

HINGED SASH
\ \
\

AWNING

ALTERNATE HOPPER TYPE

-SILL
"im
%', 2)
-SCREEN

STORM SASH

SASH

SILL
__ , . I 1

TYPICAL COMBINATION OF UNITS

M 134 682
Figure 76.Awning window. Cross sections: A, Head amb; B, horizontal mullion; C, sill.

zontally in separate tracks or guides located on the is 3 feet wide and the side or rear service door 2
sill and head jamb. Multiple window openings con- feet 8 inches wide.
sist of two or more single units and may be used The frames for these doors are made of 1%-inch
when a window-wall effect is desired. As in most or thicker material, so that rabbeting of side and
modern window units of all types, weatherstripping, head jambs provides stops for the main door (fig.
water-repellent preservative treatments, and some- 77). The wood sill is often oak for wear resistance,
times hardware are included in these fully factory- but when softer species are used, a metal nosing and
assembled units. wear strips are included. As in many of the window
units, the outside casings provide space for the 1%-
Exterior Doors and Frames inch combination or screen door.
Exterior doors are 1% inches thick and not less The frame is nailed to studs and headers of the
than 6 feet 8 inches high. The main entrance door rough opening through the outside casing. The sill

82
 FLASHING

-BLOCKING

COMBINATION DOOR

INSERT

GLASS

RABBETED STOP
AND WEATHERSTRIP

CASING

SIDE JAMB

EXTERIOR DOOR

THRESHOLD

COMBINATION DOOR

\ EXTERIOR DOOR

THRESHOLD AND
^ WEATHERSTRIP

SILL
\ / \ /
-V L\..::J

M 134 683
Figure 77.Exterior door and frame. Exterior-door and combination-door (screen and storm)
cross sections: A, Head jamb; fi, side (amb; C, slli.

83
must rest firmly on the header or stringer joist of the with raised wood or plywood lower panels. For
floor framing, which commonly must be trimmed methods of hanging doors and installing hardware,
with a saw and hand ax or other means. After see Chapter 21. "Interior Doors, Frames, and Trim."
finish flooring is in place, a hardwood or metal thresh- Exterior flush doors should be of the solid-core
old with a plastic weatherstop covers the joints be- type rather than hollow-core to minimize warping
tween the floor and sill. during the heating season. (Warping is caused by a
The exterior trim around the main entrance door difference in moisture content on the exposed and
can vary from a simple casing to a molded or plain unexposed faces.)
pilaster with a decorative head casing. Decorative Flush doors consist of thin plywood faces over a
designs should always be in keeping with the archi- framework of wood with a woodblock or particle
tecture of the house. Many combinations of door and board core. Many combinations of designs can be
entry designs are used with contemporary houses, and obtained, ranging from plain flush doors to others
manufacturers have millwork which is adaptable to with a variety of panels and glazed openings (fig.
this and similar styles. If there is an entry hall, it is 78,).
usually desirable to have glass included in the main Wood combination doors (storm and screen) are
door if no other light is provided. available in several styles (fig. 78,C). Panels which
include screen and storm inserts are normally located
Types of Exterior Doors in the upper portion of the door. Some types can
Exterior doors and outside combination and be obtained with self-storing features, similar to
storm doors can be obtained in a number of designs window combination units. Heat loss through metal
to fit the style of almost any house. Doors in the combination doors is greater than through similar
traditional pattern are usually the panel type (fig. type wood doors.
1S,A). They consist of stiles (solid vertical members), Weatherstripping of the i %-inch-thick exterior
rails (solid cross members), and filler panels in a door will reduce both air infiltration and frosting of
number of designs. Glazed upper panels are combined the glass on the storm door during cold weather.

nn

m
0 ==5^

no
1/

V 1
/.''/.'/

m
0

w/
:/: '

i:
J

J .
1 7
\ \\\\ll/l

rn
c
M 134 611
Figru 78.Extarlor doors: A, Traditional panol; B, flush; C, combination.

84
 CHAPTER 13
EXTERIOR COVERINGS
Because siding and other types of coverings used in either manner if adequate nailing areas are pro-
for exterior walls have an important influence on the vided. Following are descriptions of each of the gen-
appearance as well as on the maintenance of the house, eral types.
a careful selection of the pattern should be made. The
homeowner now has a choice of many wood and Bevel Siding
wood-base materials which may be used to cover Plain bevel siding can be obtained in sizes from
exterior walls. Masonry, veneeers, metal or plastic % by 4 inches to I/2 by 8 inches, and also in sizes
siding, and other nonwood materials are additional of % by 8 inches and % by 10 inches (fig. 79).
choices. Wood siding can be obtained in many differ- "Anzac" siding (fig. 79) is % by 12 inches in size.
ent patterns and can be finished naturally, stained, or Usually the finished width of bevel siding is about
painted. Wood shingles, plywood, wood siding or % inch less than the size listed. One side of bevel
paneling, fiberboard, and hardboard are some of the siding has a smooth planed surface, while the other
types and as exterior coverings. Many prefijiished has a rough resawn surface. For a stained finish, the
sidings are available, and the coatings and films applied rough or sawn side is exposed because wood stain is
to several types of base materials presumably eliminate most successful and longer lasting on rough wood
the need of refinishing for many years. surfaces.

Wood Siding Dolly Varden Siding

One of the materials most characteristic of the ex- Dolly Varden siding is similar to true bevel siding
teriors of American houses is wood siding. The essen- except that shiplap edges are used, resulting in a con-
tial properties required for siding are good painting stant exposure distance (fig. 79). Because is lies flat
characteristics, easy working qualities, and freedom against the studs, it is sometimes used for garages and
from warp. Such properties are present to a high similar buildings without sheathing. Diagonal bracing
degree in the cedars, eastern white pine, sugar pine, is then needed to provide racking resistance to the
western white pine, cypress, and redwood; to a good wall.
degree in western hemlock, ponderosa pine, the
spruces, and yellow-poplar; and to a fair degree in Other Horizontal Sidings
Douglas-fir, western larch, and southern pine (5). Regular drop sidings can be obtained in several
Material used for exterior siding which is to be patterns, two of which are shown in figure 79. This
painted, should preferably be of a high grade and siding, with matched or shiplap edges, can be ob-
free from knots, pitch pockets, and waney edges. Ver- tained in 1- by 6- and 1- by 8-inch sizes. This type is
tical grain and mixed grain (both vertical and flat) commonly used for lower cost dwellings and for
are available in some species such as redwood and garages, usually without benefit of sheathing. Tests
western redcedar. conducted at the Forest Products Laboratory have
The moisture content at the time of application shown that the tongued-and-grooved (matched) pat-
should be that which it would attain in service. This terns have greater resistance to the penetration of
would be approximately 10 to 12 percent except in the wind-driven rain than the shiplap patterns, when both
dry Southwestern States where the moisture content are treated with a water-repellent preservative.
should average about 8 to 9 percent. To minimize sea- Fiberboard and hardboard sidings are also avail-
sonal movement due to changes in moisture content, able in various forms. Some have a backing to provide
vertical-grain (edge-grain) siding is preferred. While rigidity and strength while others are used directly
this is not as important for a stained finish, the use of over sheathing. Plywood horizontal lap siding, with
edge-grain siding for a paint finish will result in longer medium density overlaid surface, is also avaiable as
paint life. A 3-minute dip in a water-repellent preserva- an exterior covering material. It is usually % inch
tive (Federal Specification TT-W-572) before siding is thick and 12 and 16 inches wide. It is applied in much
installed will not only result in longer paint life, but the same manner as wood siding, except that a shingle
also will resist moisture entry and decay. Some manu- wedge is used behind each vertical joint.
facturers supply siding with this treatment. Freshly cut
ends should be brush-treated on the job. Sidings for Horizontal or Vertical
Applications
Horizontal Sidings A number of siding or paneling patterns can be
Some wood siding patterns are used only hori- used horizontally or vertically (fig. 79). These are
zontally and others only vertically. Some may be used manufactured in nominal 1-inch thicknesses and in

85
 TYPE NOMINAL
SIZES
BEVEL '/2 x^ TO
3/4. X 10

"AN2AC" 3/^ X 12
(BEVEL)

DOLLY 3/4^ X 6 TO
VARDEN 3/-^ X 10

DROP 1x6 TO
(PATTERN I06) 1x8

DROP 1x6 TO
(PATTERN I2A) IX8

HORIZONTAL APPLICATION

PANELING 1x4 TO
(WC I30) I X 12

PANELING 1x4- TO
(WC I40) I X 12

HORIZONTAL OR VERTICAL APPLICATION

M 134 713
Figure 79.Wood siding types.

widths from 4 to 12 inches. Both dressed and matched Treating the edges of both drop and the matched
and shiplapped edges are available. The narrow and and shiplapped sidings with water-repellent preserva-
medium-width patterns will likely be more satisfactory tive usually prevents wind-driven rain from penetrat-
when there are moderate moisture content changes. ing the joints if exposed to weather. n areas under
Wide patterns are more successful if they are vertical wide overhangs, or in porches or other protected sec-
grain to keep shrinkage to a minimum. The correct tions, this treatment is not as important. Some manu-
moisture content is also important when tongued and facturers provide siding with this treatment applied at
grooved siding is wide, to prevent shrinkage to a point the factory.
where the tongue is exposed.

86
 Sidings for Vertical Application times required around doors and window frames when
A method of siding application, popular for some this system is used. It is good practice to use a building
architectural styles, utilizes rough-sawn boards and paper over the sheathing before applying the vertical
battens applied vertically. These boards can be ar- siding.
ranged in several ways: (a) Board and batten, (b)
Sidings with Sheet Materials
batten and board, and (c) board and board (fig. 80).
As in the vertical application of most siding materials, A number of sheet materials are now available for
nominal 1-inch sheathing boards or plywood sheathing use as siding. These include plywood in a variety of
% or % inch thick should be used for nailing surfaces. face treatments and species, paper-overlaid plywood,
When other types of sheathing materials or thinner and hardboard. Plywood or paper-overlaid plywood
is sometimes used without sheathing and is known as
plywoods are used, nailing blocks between studs com-
panel siding with %-inch often considered the mini-
monly provide the nailing areas. Nailers of 1 by 4
mum thickness for such use for 16-inch stud spacing.
inches, laid horizontally and spaced from 16 to 24 However, from the standpoint of stiffness and strength,
inches apart vertically, can be used over nonwood better performance is usually obtained by using %-
sheathing. However, special or thicker casing is some- or %-inch thickness.

BOARD TYPE

BOARD AND BATTEN

SINGLE
NAILING
BATTEN

^FIRST
I \^ NAIL I
BATTEN AND BOARD

SPACE 16" VERTICALLY

WHEN WOOD
SHEATHING IS USED

BOARD AND BOARD

NOTE : NAIL FOR FIRST BOARD - 8d OR 9d

NAIL FOR SECOND BOARD - 12d
M 134 621
Figur 80.Vertical board siding.

87
 These 4- by 8-foot and longer sheets must be applied Western redcedar shingles can be obtained in three
vertically with intermediate and perimeter nailing to grades. The first-grade (No. 1) is all heartwood, edge
provide the desired rigidity. Most other methods of grain, and knot free; it is primarily intended for roofs
applying sheet materials require some type of sheath- but is desirable in double-course sidewall application
ing beneath. When horizontal joints are necessary, they where much of the face is exposed.
should be protected by a simple flashing. Second-grade shingles (No. 2) are most often used
An exterior-grade plywood should always be used in single-course application for sidewalls, since only
for siding, and can be obtained in such surfaces as three-fourths of the shingle length is blemish-free.
grooved, brushed, and saw-textured. These surfaces are A 1-inch width of sapwood and mixed vertical and
usually finished with some type of stain. If shiplap or flat grain are permissible.
matched edges are not provided, some method of The third-grade shingle (No. 3) is clear for 6 inches
providing a waterproof joint should be used. This from the butt. Flat grain is acceptable, as are greater
often consists of calking and a batten at each joint and widths of sapwood. Third-grade shingles are likely to
a batten at each stud if closer spacing is desired for be somewhat thinner than the first and second grades;
appearance. An edge treatment of water-repellent pre- they are used for secondary buildings and sometimes
servative will also aid in reducing moisture penetra- as the undercourse in double-course application.
tion. Allow Vi^i-inch edge and end spacing when A lower grade than the third grade, known as
installing plywood in sheet form. under-coursing shingle, is used only as the under and
Exterior grade particleboard might also be con- completely covered course in double-course sidewall
sidered for panel siding. FHA Material Use Bulletin application.
No. 32 lists the requirements when this material
is used. Normally %-inch thickness is required for Shingle Sizes
16-inch stud spacing and % inch for 24-inch stud Wood shingles are available in three standard
spacing. The finish must be with an approved paint, lengths16, 18, and 24 inches. The 16-inch length is
and the stud wall behind must have corner bracing. perhaps the most popular, having five butt thicknesses
Paper-overlaid plywood has many of the advantages per 2 inches when green (designated a 5/2). These
of plywood with the addition of providing a very sat- shingles are packed in bundles with 20 courses on each
isfactory base for paint. A medium-density, overlaid side. Four bundles will cover 100 square feet of wall
plywood is most commonly used. or roof with an exposure of 5 inches. The 18- and 24-
Hardboard sheets used for siding are applied the inch-length shingles have thicker butts, we in 2^/4
same way as plywood, that is, by using battens at inches for the 18-inch shingles and four in 2 inches for
vertical points and at intermediate studs. Medium- the 24-inch lengths.
density fiberboards might also be used in some areas Shakes are usually available in several types, the
as exterior coverings over certain types of sheathing. most popular being the split-and-resawn. The sawed
Many of these sheet materials resist the passage of face is used as the back face. The butt thickness of
water vapor. Hence, when they are used, it is important each shake ranges between % and IV2 inches. They
that a good vapor barrier, well installed, be employed are usually packed in bundles (20 sq. ft.), five bundles
on the warm side of the insulated walls. These factors to the square.
are described in Chapter 15, "Thermal Insulation and
Vapor Barriers."
Other Exterior Finish
Wood Shingles and Shakes Nonwood materials, such as asbestos-cement siding
and shingles, metal sidings, and the like are available
Grades and Species and are used in some types of architectural design.
Wood shingles and shakes are desirable for side- Stucco or a cement plaster finish, preferably over a
walls in many styles of houses. In Cape Cod or wire mesh base, is most often seen in the Southwest
Colonial houses, shingles may be painted or stained. and the West Coast areas. Masonry veneers may be
For ranch or contemporary designs, wide exposures used effectively with wood siding in various finishes
of shingles or shakes often add a desired eifect. They to enhance the beauty of both materials.
are easily stained and thus provide a finish which is Some homebuilders favor an exterior covering
long-lasting on those species commonly used for which requires a minimum of maintenance. While
shingles. some of the nonwood materials are chosen for this
Western redcedar is perhaps the most available spe- reason, developments by the paint industry are pro-
cies, although northern white-cedar, baldcypress, and viding comparable long-life coatings for wood-base
redwood are also satisfactory. The heartwood of these materials. Plastic films on wood siding or plywood
species has a natural decay resistance which is desir- are also promising, so that little or no refinishing is
able if shingles are to remain unpainted or unstained. indicated for the life of the building.

88
 Installation of Siding One system used to determine the siding exposure
One of the important factors in successful per- width so that it is about equal both above and below
formance of various siding materials is the type of the window sill is described below:
fasteners used. Nails are the most common of these, Divide the overall height of the window frame by
and it is poor economy indeed to use them sparingly. the approximate recommended exposure distance for
Corrosion-resistant nails, galvanized or made of alumi- the siding used (4 for 6-inch-wide siding, 6 for 8-inch
siding, 8 for 10-inch siding, and 10 for 12-inch
num, stainless steel, or similar metals, may cost more,
but their use will insure spot-free siding under adverse siding). This will result in the number of courses be-
tween the top and bottom of the window. For example,
conditions.
Two types of nails are commonly used with siding, the overall height of our sample window from top of
the finishing nail having a small head and the siding the drip cap to the bottom of the sill is 61 inches.
nail having a moderate-size flat head. The small-head If 12-inch siding is used, the number of courses would
finishing nail is set (driven with a nail set) about %6 be 61/10 = 6.1 or six courses. To obtain the exact
inch below the face of the siding, and the hole is filled exposure distance, divide 61 by 6 and the result would
with putty after the prime coat of paint is applied. be 10% inches. The next step is to determine the
The flathead siding nail, most commonly used, is exposure distance from the bottom of the sill to just
driven flush with the face of the siding and the head below the top of the foundation wall. If this is 31
later covered with paint. inches, three courses at 10% inches each would be
Ordinary steel-wire nails tend to rust in a short time used. Thus, the exposure distance above and below the
and cause a disfiguring stain on the face of the siding. window would be almost the same (fig. 81).
In some cases, the small-head nails will show rust spots When this system is not satisfactory because of big
through the putty and paint. Noncorrosive nails that differences in the two areas, it is preferable to use an
will not cause rust are readily available. equal exposure distance for the entire wall height and
Siding to be "natural finished" with a water-repel- notch the siding at the window sill. The fit should be
lent preservative or stain should be fastened with stain- tight to prevent moisture entry.
less steel or aluminum nails. In some types of pre- Siding may be installed starting with the bottom
finished sidings, nails with color-matched heads are course. It is normally blocked out with a starting
supplied. strip the some thickness as the top of the siding
In recent years, nails with modified shanks have board (fig. 81). Each succeeding course overlaps
become quite popular. These include the annularly the upper edge of the lower course. Siding should
threaded shank nail and the helically threaded shank be nailed to each stud or on 16-inch centers. When
nail. Both have greater withdrawal resistance than plywood or wood sheathing or spaced wood nailing
the smooth shank nail and, for this reason, a shorter strips are used over nonwood sheathing, sevenpenny
nail is often used. or eightpenny nails (21/4 and 2^4 ii^- long) may be
Exposed nails in siding should be driven just flush used for %-inch-thick siding. However, if gypsum or
with the surface of the wood. Overdriving may not fiberboard sheathing is used, the tenpenny nail is
only show the hammer mark, but may also cause ob- recommended to penetrate into the stud. For %-inch-
jectionable splitting and crushing of the wood. In thick siding, nails may be ^ inch shorter than those
sidings with prefinished surfaces or overlays, the nails used for %^-inch siding.
should be driven so as not to damage the finished The nails should be located far enough up from
surface. the butt to miss the top of the lower siding course
(fig. 82). This clearance distance is usually % inch.
Bevel Siding This allow for slight movement of the siding due to
The minimum lap for bevel siding should not be moisture changes without causing splitting. Such an
less than 1 inch. The average exposure distance is allowance is especially required for the wider sidings
usually determined by the distance from the underside of 8 to 12 inches wide.
of the window sill to the top of the drip cap (fig. 81). It is good practice to avoid butt joints whenever
From the standpoint of weather resistance and appear- possible. Use the longer sections of siding under
ance, the butt edge of the first course of siding above windows and other long stretches and utilize the
the window should coincide with the top of the shorter lengths for areas between windows and doors.
window drip cap. In many one-story houses with an If unavoidable, butt joints should be made over a
overhang, this course of siding is often replaced with stud and staggered between courses as much as prac-
a frieze board (fig. 62). It is also desirable that the tical (fig. 81).
bottom of a siding course be flush with the underside Siding should be square-cut to provide a good
of the window sill. However, this may not always be joint at window and door casings and at butt joints.
possible because of varying window heights and types Open joints permit moisture to enter, often leading
that might be used in a house. to paint deterioration. It is good practice to brush

89
 FLASHING>
SIDING TO CLEAR
NO SHEATHING DRIP CAP
PAPER REQUIRED
FOR PLYWOOD
OR FIBERBOARD
SHEATHING
BUILDING PAPER
AROUND AND
UNDER FRAME

SIDING FLUSH
WITH BOTTOM
OF SILL
USE SHEATHING
PAPER OVER
LUMBER
SHEATHING

BUTT JOINTS
MADE OVER STUD

8 MINIMUM CLEARANCE

STARTING STRIP

M 134 712
Figure 81.Installation of bevel siding.

or dip the fresh-cut ends of the siding in a water- 1- by 6-inch siding and 7^ inches for 1- by 8-inch
repellent preservative before boards are nailed in siding. Normally, one or two eightpenny or nine-
place. Using a small finger-actuated oil can to apply penny nails should be used at each stud crossing,
depending on the width (fig. 82). Length of nail
the water-repellent preservative at end and butt joints
depends on type of sheathing used, but penetration
after siding is in place is also helpful.
into the stud or through the wood backing should
be at least 1% inches.
Drop and Similar Sidings Horizontally applied matched paneling in narrow
Drop siding is installed much the same as lap sid- widths should be blind-nailed at the tongue with a
ing except for spacing and nailing. Drop, Dolly corrosion-resistant finishing nail (fig. 82). For widths
Varden, and similar sidings have a constant exposure greater than 6 inches, an additional nail should be
distance. This face width is normally 514 inches for used as shown.

90
 BEVEL SIDING

NAIL TO STUD OR
WOOD SHEATHING
(TO CLEAR TOP OF
LOWER SIDING COURSE)

RABBETED

2 NAILS FOR
WIDTHS 8" AND OVER
AND WHEN USED
WITHOUT SHEATHING

LIND NAIL
(FINISHING NAIL)

'FOR WIDTHS GREATER

THAN 6" USE EXTRA FACE
NAIL OR 2 FACE NAILS
M 134 623
Figure 82.Nailing of siding.

Other materials such as plywood, hardboard, or Vertical Sidings

medium-density fiberboard, which are used horizon-
Vertically applied matched and similar sidings hav-
tally in widths up to 12 inches, should be applied in
ing interlapping joints are nailed in the same manner
the same manner as lap or drop siding, depending on as when applied horizontally. However, they should
the pattern. Prepackaged siding should be applied be nailed to blocking used between studs or to wood
ac-cording to manufacturers' directions. or plywood sheathing. Blocking is spaced from 16 to

91
24 inches apart. With plywood or nominal 1-inch with a water-repellent preservative prior to nailing.
board sheathing, nails should be spaced on 16-inch Metal corners {^. 83,) are perhaps more com-
centers. monly used than the mitered corner and give a
When the various combinations of boards and mitered effect. They are easily placed over each corner
battens are used, they should also be nailed to block- as the siding is installed. The metal corners should
ing spaced from 16 to 24 inches apart between studs, fit tightly without openings and be nailed on each
or closer for wood sheathing. The first boards or side to the sheathing or corner stud beneath. If made
battens should be fastened with one eightpenny or of galavanized iron, they should be cleaned with a
ninepenny nail at each blocking, to provide at least mild acid wash and primed with a metal primer be-
1%-inch penetration. For wide under-boards, two fore the house is painted to prevent early peeling of
nails spaced about 2 inches apart may be used rather the paint. Weathering of the metal will also prepare
than the single row along the center (fig. 80). The it for the prime paint coat.
second or top boards or battens should be nailed with Corner boards of various types and sizes may be
twelvepenny nails. Nails of the top board or batten used for horizontal sidings of all types (fig. 83,C).
should always miss the under-boards and not be nailed They also provide a satisfactory termination for ply-
through them (fig. 80). In such applications, double wood and similar sheet materials. Vertical applica-
nails should be spaced closely to prevent splitting if tions of matched paneling or of boards and battens
the board shrinks. It is also good practice to use a are terminated by lapping one side and nailing into
sheathing paper, such as 15 pound asphalt felt, under the edge of this member, as well as to the nailing
vertical siding. members beneath. Corner boards are usually 1%-
or 1%-inch material and for a distinctive appearance
Plywood and Other Sheet Siding might be quite narrow. Plain outside casing com-
Exterior grade plywood, paper-overlaid plywood, monly used for window and door frames can be
and similar sheet materials used for siding are adapted for corner boards.
usually applied vertically. When used over sheathing, Prefinished shingle or shake exteriors sometimes
plywood should be at least ^4: inch thick, although are used with color-matched metal corners. They can
%6 and % inch will normally provide a more even also be lapped over the adjacent corner shingle, alter-
surface. Hardboard should be Y^ inch thick and ma- nating each course. This is called "lacing." This type
terials such as medium-density fiberboard should be of corner treatment usually requires that some kind
% inch. of flashing be used beneath.
All nailing should be over studs and total effective When siding returns against a roof surface, such
penetration into wood should be at least IV2 inches. as at a dormer, there should be a clearance of about
For example, %-inch plywood siding over %-inch 2 inches (fig. 83,Z)). Siding cut tight against the
wood sheathing would require about a sevenpenny shingles retains moisture after rains and usually re-
nail, which is 2% inches long. This would result in a sults in paint peeling. Shingle flashing extending well
IVs-inch-penetration into the stud, but a total effec- up on the dormer wall will provide the necessary
tive penetration of 1% inches into wood. resistance to entry of wind-driven rain. Here again, a
Plywood should be nailed at 6-inch intervals water-repellent preservative should be used on the
around the perimeter and 12 inches at intermediate ends of the siding at the roofline.
members. Hardboard siding should be nailed at 4- Interior corners (fig. 83,^) are butted against a
and 8-inch intervals. All types of sheet material square corner board of nominal 1^/4- or 1%-inch
should have a joint calked with mastic unless the size, depending on the thickness of the siding.
joints are of the interlapping or matched type or
battens are installed. A strip of 15-pound asphalt felt Material Transition
under uncalked joints is good practice. At times, the materials used in the gable ends and
in the walls below differ in form and application.
Corner Treatment The details of construction used at the juncture of
The method of finishing wood siding or other ma- the two materials should be such that good drainage
terials at exterior corners is often influenced by the is assured. For example, if vertical boards and bat-
overall design of the house. A mitered corner effect tens are used at the gable end and horizontal siding
on horizontal siding or the use of corner boards are below, a drip cap or similar molding might be used
perhaps the most common methods of treatment. [g. 84). Flashing should be used over and above
Mitering corners (fig. 83,^) of bevel and similar the drip cap so that moisture wifl clear the gable
sidings, unless carefully done to prevent openings, material.
is not always satisfactory. To maintain a good joint, Another method of material transition might also
it is necessary that the joint fit tightly the full depth be used. By extending the plate and studs of the
of the miter. It is also good practice to treat the ends gable end out from the wall a short distance, or by

92
 MITER NAIL

ALLOW 2-INCH
CLEARANC

SHINGLES
SIDING
FLASHING

M 134 776
Figure 83.Siding details: A, Miter corner; B, metal corners; C, corner boards;
D, siding return at roof; E, interior corner.

the use of furring strips, the gable siding will project is simply laid over the other as lap siding is applied.
beyond the wall siding and provide good drainage The shingles can be second grade because only one-
(fig. 85). half or less of the butt portion is exposed (fig. 86).
Shingles should not be soaked before application but
Installation of Wood Shingles and Shakes should usually be laid up with about % to ^/4 ii^ch
Wood shingles and hakes are applied in a single- space between adjacent shingles to allow for expan-
or double-course pattern. They may be used over sion during rainy weather. When a ''siding effect"
wood or plywood sheathing. If sheathing is %-inch is desired, shingles should be laid up so that they are
plywood, use threaded nails. For nonwood sheathing, only lightly in contact. Prestained or treated shingles
1- by 3- or 1- by 4-inch wood nailing strips are used provide the best results for this system.
as a base. In the single-course method, one course In a double-course system, the undercourse is ap-

93
 GABLE (BOARDS
AND BATTENS)

SIDING

M 134 622
Figure 84.Gable-end finish (material transition).

plied over the wall and the top course nailed directly As in roof shingles, joints should be "broken" so
over a Y^- to i/^-inch projection of the butt (fig. 87). that butt joints of the upper shingles are at least
The first course should be nailed only enough to IY2 inches from the under-shingle joints,
hold it in place while the outer course is being ap- Closed or open joints may be used in the applica-
plied. The first shingles can be a lower quality, such tion of shingles to sidewalls at the discretion of the
as third grade or the undercourse grade. The top builder (fig. 86). Spacing of V^ to % inch produces
course, because much of the shingle length is ex- an individual effect, while close spacing produces a
posed, should be first-grade shingles. shadow line similar to bevel siding.
Exposure distance for various length shingles and Shingles and shakes should be applied with rust-
shakes can be guided by the recommendations in resistant nails long enough to penetrate into the wood
table 5. backing strips or sheathing. In .single coursing, a
threepenny or fourpenny zinc-coated "shingle" nail
is commonly used. In double coursing, where nails
TABLE 5. -Exposure distances for wood shingles ^^^^ exposed, a fivepenny zinc-coated nail with a
and shakes on sidewalls small flat head is used for the top course and three-
penny or fourpenny size for the undercourse. Use
Maximum exposure building paper over lumber sheathing.
Nails should be placed in from the edge of the
j . .. , Double coursing ^j^. j^ ^ distance of % inch (fig. 86). Use two
Material Length Smgle M r i i 1 o i / j 1
coursing No. 1 No. 2 nails for each shingle up to 0 inches wide and three
grade grade nails for shingles over 8 inches. In single-course
applications, nails should be placed 1 inch above the
butt line of the next higher course. In double cours-
Shingles
^g gi^ ^^ ^^ ing, the use of a piece of shiplap sheathing as a guide
24 111/^ 16 14 allows the outer course to extend ^2 ii^ch below the
Shakes (hand split 18 83^ 14 undercourse, producing a shadow line (fig. 87).
and resawn) 24 11/^ 20 Nails should be placed 2 inches above the bottom of
the single or shake. Rived or fluted processed shakes.

94
 GABLE
(VERTICAL BOARDS),

SHEATHING

SIDING

SHEATHING

M 134 614
Figure 85.Gable-end projection (material transition).

usually factory-stained, are available and have a dis- Cement-Plaster Finish

tinct effect when laid with closely fitted edges in a Stucco and similar cement-mortar finishes, most
double-course pattern. commonly used in the Southwest, are applied over
a coated expanded-metal lath and, usually, over some
type of sheathing. However, in some areas where
Nonfood Coverings local building regulations permit, such a finish is
applied to metal lath fastened directly to the braced
wall framework. Waterproof paper is used over the
Asbestos-Cement Shingles studs before the metal lath is applied.
When a plastered exterior is applied to two-story
Asbestos-cement shingles and similar nonwood ex- houses, balloon framing is recommended (fig. 35).
terior coverings should be applied in accordance If platform framing is used for one-story houses
with the manufacturer's directions. They are used (fig. 31), shrinkage of joists and sills may cause an
over wood or plywood sheathing or over spaced nail- unsightly bulge or break in the cement-plaster at
ing strips. Nails are of the noncorrosive type and those points unless joists have reached moisture
usually are available to match the color of the equilibrium. This stresses the need for proper mois-
shingles. Manufacturers also supply matching color ture content of the framing members when this type
corners. of finish is used.

95
 NAIL ABOVE
BUTT OF
NEXT COURSE

CLOSED JOINT

USE BUILDING R\PER SPACED JOINT

OVER BOARD SHEATHING

MAXIMUM FOR
16" SHINGLE

DOUBLE STARTING COURSE

USE 2 NAILS FOR SHINGLES
UP TO 8" WIDE AND 3 NAILS
FOR WIDER SHINGLES
USE THREADED NAILS
PLYWOOD SHEATHING

M 134 610
Figure 86.Single-coursing of sidewalis (wood shingles - shakes)

Masonry Veneer delay applying the masonry finish over platform

Brick or stone veneer is used for all or part of the framing until the joists and other members reach
exterior wall finish for some styles of architecture. moisture equilibrium. The use of a waterproof paper
The use of balloon framing for brick-veneered two- backing and sufficient wall ties is important. Details
story houses will prevent cracks due to shrinkage of on the installation of masonry veneer are shown in
floor joists. It is good practice, when possible, to fiojure 12.

96
 NO. I SHINGLE

SUBFLOOR

2 NAILS FOR SHINGLES

UP TO 8" WIDE
3 NAILS FOR SHINGLES
OVER 8" WIDE
USE THREADED NAILS
'NO. 3 OR FOR PLYWOOD SHEATHING
UNDERCOURSE
SHINGLE
SHEATHING

M 134 609
Figur 87.Double-coursing of sidewalls (wood shingles-shakes).

CHAPTER 14

FRAMING DETAILS FOR PLUMBING, HEATING, AND OTHER UTILITIES

It is desirable, when framing a house, to limit ceiling joists. Thus, it is sometimes necessary to cut
cutting of framing members for installation of plumb- or notch joists, but this should be done in a manner
ing lines and other utilities. A little planning before least detrimental to their strength.
framing is started will reduce the need for cutting
joists and other members. This is more easily accom- Plumbing Stack Vents
plished in one-story houses, however, than in two- One wall of the bath, kitchen, or utility room is
story houses. In a single-story house, many of the normally used to carry the water, vent, and drainage
connections are made in the basement area; in two- lines. This is usually the wall behind the water closet
story houses they must be made between the first-floor where connections can be easily made to the tub or

97
shower and to the lavatory. When 4-inch cast-iron bell
USE BLOCKING
pipe is used in the soil and vent stack, it is necessary FOR DRY-WALL
NAILING
to use 2- by 6- or 2- by 8-inch plates to provide space
for the pipe and the connections. Some contractors
use a double row of studs placed flatwise so that no
_ SUBFLOOR
drilling is required for the horizontal runs (fig. 88,^). HANGER OR
SUPPORT
BLOCK
Building regulations in some areas allow the use
of 3-inch pipe for venting purposes in one-story
houses. When this size is used, 2- by 4-inch plates and
studs may be employed. However, it is then necessary
to reinforce the top plates, which have been cut, by
using a double scab (fig. 8S,B). Scabs are well nailed
on each side of the stack and should extend over two
M 134 608
studs. Small angle irons can also be used.
Figure 89.Framing for bathtub.

Bathtub Framing
A bathtub full of water is heavy; so floor joists
must be arranged to carry the load without excessive
deflection. Too great a deflection will sometimes cause possible, sometimes such alterations are required.
an opening above the edge of the tub. Joists should be Joists or other structural members should then be rein-
doubled at the outer edge (fig. 89). The intermediate forced by nailing a reinforcing scab to each side or
joist should be spaced to clear the drain. Metal hangers by adding an additional member. Well-nailed plywood
or wood blocking support the inner edge of the tub at scabs on one or both sides of altered joists also pro-
the wall line. vide a good method of reinforcing these members.
Notching the top or bottom of the joist should only
Cutting Floor Joists be done in the end quarter of the span and not more
Floor joists should be cut, notched, or drilled only than one-sixth of the depth. When greater alterations
where the effect on strength is minor. While it is are required, headers and tail beams should be added
always desirable to prevent cutting joists whenever around the altered area. This may occur where the
closet bend must cross the normal joist locations. In
other words, it should be framed out similar to a stair
opening (fig. 28).
When necessary, holes may be bored in joists if
the diameter is no greater than 2 inches and the edge
of the hole is not less than 2% to 3 inches from the
top or bottom edge of the joists (fig. 90). This usually
limits the joist size to a 2 by 8 or larger member.

^TOP PLATES

ZxA' SCABS

2y^ STUD

M 134 616
M 134 606
Figure 88.Plumbing stacks: A, 4-inch cast-iron stack;
B, 3-inch pipe for vent. Figure 90.Drilled holes in oists.

98
Such a method of installation is suitable where joist
direction changes and the pipe can be inserted from
the long direction, such as from the plumbing wall
to a tub on the second floor. Connections for first-floor
plumbing can normally be made without cutting or
drilling of joists.

Alterations for Heating Ducts

A number of systems are used to heat a house, from
a multi-controlled hot-water system to a simple floor
or wall furnace. Central air conditioning combined
with the heating system is becoming a normal part of
house construction. Ducts and piping should be laid
out so that framing or other structural parts can be
adjusted to accommodate them. However, the system
which requires heat or cooling ducts and return lines
is perhaps the most important from the standpoint
of framing changes required.
-SPACE FOR DUCT
M 34 607
Supply and Cold Air Return Ducts Figure 91.Spaced oists for supply ducts.
The installation of ducts for a forced-warm-air or
air-conditioning system usually requires the removal
of the soleplate and the subfloor at the duct location. more usable space in the room and improve appear-
Supply ducts are made to dimensions that permit them ance by the installation of a decorative grill. Such
to be placed between studs. When the same duct system framing usually requires the addition of a doubled
is used for heating and cooling, the duct sizes are header to carry the wall load from the studs above
generally larger than when they are designed for heat- (fig. 93). Size of the headers depends on the span and
ing alone. Such systems often have two sets of regis- should be designed the same as those for window or
ters; one near the floor for heat and one near the door openings. The sizes in the tabulation listed under
ceiling for more efficient cooling. Both are furnished window and door framing in Chapter 6, "Wall
with dampers for control. Framing", should be used to determine the correct
Walls and joists are normally located so that they
do not have to be cut when heating ducts are installed.
This is especially true when partitions are at right
angles to the floor joists.
When a load-bearing partition requires a doubled
parallel floor joist as well as a warm-air duct, the joists
can be spaced apart to allow room for the duct (fig.
91 I. This will eliminate the need for excessive cutting
of framing members or the use of intricate pipe angles.
SUBFLOOR
Cold-air returns are generally located in the floor
COLD-AIR REGISTER T PLATE AND
between joists or in the walls at floor level (fig. 92). SUBFLOOR
They are sometimes located in outside walls, in which
case they should be lined with metal. Unlined ducts
in exterior walls have been known to be responsible for
exterior-wall paint failures, especially those from a
second-floor room.
The elbow from the return duct below the floor is
usually placed between floor joists. The space between
floor joists, when enclosed with sheet metal, serves as
a cold-air return. Other cold-air returns may connect
with the same joist-space return duct.

Framing for Convectors

Convectors and hot-water or steam radiators are M 134 605
sometimes recessed partly into the wall to provide Figure 92.Cold-air return.

99
sizes. Because only 1% inches of space in the wall is
available for insulation, a highly efficient insulation
(one with a low "k" value) is sometimes used.

Wiring
House wiring for electrical services is usually started
some time after the house has been closed in. The
initial phase, of it, termed "roughing in," includes the HALF STUD

installation of conduit or cable and the location of

VAPOR BARRIER
switch, light, and outlet boxes with wires ready to
connect. This roughing-in work is done before the
plaster base or dry-wall finish is applied, and before
the insulation is placed in the walls or ceilings. The SHEATH/NG

placement of the fixtures, the switches, and switch

plates is done after plastering.
Framing changes for wiring are usually of a minor
nature and, for the most part, consist of holes drilled
in the studs for the flexible conduit. Although these
holes are small in diameter, they should comply with
locations shown in figure 90. Perhaps the only area
which requires some planning to prevent excessive
cutting or drilling is the location of wall switches at M 134 604
entrance door frames. By spacing the doubled framing Figure 93.- -Framing for a convector recess.
studs to allow for location of multiple switch boxes,
little cutting will be required. ment. Sealing of the vapor barrier around the box is
Switches or convenience outlet boxes on exterior important and will be discussed further in Chapter 15,
walls must be sealed to prevent water vapor move- "Thermal Insulation and Vapor Barriers."

CHAPTER 15

THERMAL INSULATION AND VAPOR BARRIERS

Most materials used in houses have some insulating costs but also because units of smaller capacity are
value. Even air spaces between studs resist the passage required. Thus, whether from the standpoint of ther-
of heat. However, when these stud spaces are filled or mal insulation alone in cold climates or whether for
partially filled with a material high in resistance to the benefit of reducing cooling costs, the use of 2
heat transmission, namely thermal insulation, the stud inches or more of insulation in the walls can certainly
space has many times the insulating value of the air be justified.
alone. Average winter low-temperature zones of the United
The inflow of heat through outside walls and roofs States are shown in figure 94. These data are used in
in hot weather or its outflow during cold weather have determining the size of heating plant required after
important effects upon (a) the comfort of the occu- calculating heat loss. This information is also useful
pants of a building and (b) the cost of providing in selecting the amount of insulation for walls, ceil-
either heating or cooling to maintain temperatures at ings, and floors.
acceptable limits for occupancy. During cold weather,
high resistance to heat flow also means a saving in Insulating Materials
fuel. While the wood in the walls provides good insula- Commercial insulation is manufactured in a variety
tion, commercial insulating materials are usually in- of forms and types, each with advantages for specific
corporated into exposed walls, ceilings, and floors to uses. Materials commonly used for insulation may be
increase the resistance to heat passage. The use of grouped in the following general classes: (1) Flexible
insulation in warmer climates is justified with air insulation (blanket and batt) ; (2) loose-fill insulation;
conditioning, not only because of reduced operating (3) reflective insulation; (4) rigid insulation (struc-

100
 M 134 601
Figure 94. Average outside design temperature zones of the United States.

tural and nonstructural) ; and (5) miscellaneous types. insulation may be found in "Thermal Insulation from
The thermal properties of most building materials Wood for Buildings: Effects of Moisture and Its
.are known, and the rate of heat flow or coefficient of Control."
transmission for most combinations of construction
Flexible Insulation
can be calculated (4). This coefficient, or U-value, is
a measure of heat transmission between air on the Flexible insulation is manufactured in two types,
warm side and air on the cold side of the construc- blanket and batt. Blanket insulation (fig. 95,A) is
tion unit. The insulating value of the wall will vary furnished in rolls or packages in widths suited to 16-
with diierent types of construction, with materials and 24-inch stud and joist spacing. Usual thicknesses
used in construction, and with different types and are ll^, 2, and 3 inches. The body of the blanket is
thickness of insulation. Comparisons of U-values may made of felted mats of mineral or vegetable fibers,
be made and used to evaluate different combinations such as rock or glass wool, wood fiber, and cotton.
of materials and insulation based on overall heat loss, Organic insulations are treated to make them resistant
potential fuel savings, influence on comfort, and in- to fire, decay, insects, and vermin. Most blanket insula-
stallation costs. tion is covered with paper or other sheet material
Air spaces add to the total resistance of a wall sec- with tabs on the sides for fastening to studs or joists.
tion to heat transmission, but an air space is not as One covering sheet serves as a vapor barrier to resist
effective as it would be if filled with an insulating movement of water vapor and should always face the
material. Great importance is frequently given to dead- warm side of the wall. Aluminum foil or asphalt or
air spaces in speaking of a wall section. Actually, the plastic laminated paper are commonly used as barrier
air in never dead in cells where there are differences in materials.
temperature on opposite sides of the space, because Batt insulation (fig. 95,) is also made of fibrous
the difference causes convection currents. material preformed to thicknesses of 4 and 6 inches for
Information regarding the calculated U-values for 16- and 24-inch joist spacing. It is supplied with or
typical constructions with various combinations of without a vapor barrier. One friction type of fibrous

101
 VAPOR BARRIER

M 134 602
Figure 95.Types of Insulation: A, Blanket; B, bott; C, fill; D, reflective (one type), , rigid.

glass batt is supplied without a covering and is desig- bales, and placed by pouring, blowing, or packing by
ned to remain in place without the normal fastening hand. This includes rock or glass wool, wood fibers,
methods. shredded redwood bark, cork, wood pulp products,
vermiculite, sawdust, and shavings.
Loose Fill Insulation Fill insulation is suited for use between first-floor
Loose fill insulation (fig. 95,C) is usually composed ceiling joists in unheated attics. It is also used in
of materials used in bulk form, supplied in bags or sidewalls of existing houses that were not insulated

102
during construction. Where no vapor barrier was in- Roof insulation is nonstructural and serves mainly
stalled during construction, suitable paint coatings, as to provide thermal resistance to heat flow in roofs. It
described later in this chapter, should be used for is called "slab" or "block" insulation and is manufac-
vapor barriers when blown insulation is added to an tured in rigid units Vi> to 3 inches thick and usually
existing house. 2 by 4 feet in size.
In house construction, perhaps the most common
Reflective Insulation forms of rigid insulation are sheathing and decorative
coverings in sheets or in tile squares. Sheathing board
Most materials reflect some radiant heat, and some is made in thicknesses of ^ and 25^2 inch. It is coated
materials have this property to a very high degree (4). or impregnated with an asphalt compound to provide
Materials high in reflective properties include alumi- water resistance. Sheets are made in 2- by 8-foot size
num foil, sheet metal with tin coating, and paper for horizontal application and 4- by 8-feet or longer
products coated with a reflective oxide composition. for vertical application.
Such materials can be used in enclosed stud spaces,
in attics, and in similar locations to retard heat trans- Miscellaneous Insulation
fer by radiation. These reflective insulations are effec- Some insulations do not fit in the classifications
tive only when used where the reflective surface faces previously described, such as insulation blankets made
an air space at least % inch or more deep. Where a up of multiple layers of corrugated paper. Other types,
reflective surface contacts another material, the reflec- such as lightweight vermiculite and perlite aggregates,
tive properties are lost and the material has little or are sometimes used in plaster as a means of reducing
no insulating value. heat transmission.
Reflective insulations are equally effective regardless Other materials are foamed-in-place insulations,
of whether the reflective surface faces the warm or which include sprayed and plastic foam types. Sprayed
cold side. However, there is a decided difference in insulation is usually inorganic fibrous material blown
the equivalent conductance and the resistance to heat against a clean surface which has been primed with an
flow. The difference depends on (a) the orientation of adhesive coating. It is often left exposed for acoustical
the reflecting material and the dead air space, (b) the as well as insulating properties.
direction of heat flow (horizontal, up, or down), and
Expanded polystyrene and urethane plastic foams
(c) the mean summer or winter temperatures. Each
may be molded or foamed-in-place. Urethane insula-
possibility requires separate consideration. However,
tion may also be applied by spraying. Polystyrene and
reflective insulation is perhaps more effective in pre-
urethane in board form can be obtained in thicknesses
venting summer heat flow through ceilings and walls.
from Y2 to 2 inches.
It should likely be considered more for use in the
southern portion of the United States than in the Values in table 6 will provide some comparison of
northern portion. the insulating value of the various materials. These
are expressed as "k" values or heat conductivity and
Reflective insulation of the foil type is sometimes
are defined as the amount of heat, in British thermal
applied to blankets and to the stud-surface side of gyp-
units, that will pass in 1 hour through 1 square foot
sum lath. Metal foil suitably mounted on some sup-
of material 1 inch thick per 1^ F. temperature differ-
porting base makes an excellent vapor barrier. The
type of reflective insulation shown in figure 95,Z>
includes reflective surfaces and air spaces between the TABLE 6.Thermal conductivity values of some
outer sheets. insulating materials

Insulation group
Rigid Insulation "k" range
Rigid insulation is usually a fiberboard material General Specific type (conductivity)
manufactured in sheet and other forms (fig. 95,^). Flexible 0.25 - 0.27
However, rigid insulations are also made from such Fill Standard materials .28 - .30
materials as inorganic fiber and glass fiber, though not Vermiculite .45 - .48
commonly used in a house in this form. The most com- Reflective {')
(2 sides)
mon types are made from processed wood, sugarcane, Rigid Insulating fiberboard .35 - .36
or other vegetable products. Structural insulating Sheathing fiberboard .42 - .55
boards, in densities ranging from 15 to 31 pounds Foam Polystyrene .19 - .29
per cubic foot, are fabricated in such forms as build- Urethane .15 - .17
Wood Low density .60 - .65
ing boards, roof decking, sheathing, and wallboard.
While they have moderately good insulating proper- ^ Insulating value is equal to slightly more than 1 inch of
ties, their primary purpose is structural. flexible insulation. (Resistance, "R" = 4.3)

103
ence between faces of the material. Simply expressed, stripped to prevent heat loss. Walls adjoining an
"k" represents heat loss; the lower this numerical unheated garage or porch should also be insulated.
value, the better the insulating qualities. In houses with flat or low-pitched roofs (fig. 96,/)),
Insulation is also rated on its resistance or "R" insulation should be used in the ceiling area with
value, which is merely another expression of its in- sufficient space allowed above for clear unobstructed
sulating value. The "R" value is usually expressed as ventilation between the joists. Insulation should be
the total resistance of the wall or of a thick insulating used along the perimeter of houses built on slabs. A
blanket or batt, whereas "k" is the rating per inch of vapor barrier should be included under the slab.
thickness. For example, a "k" value of 1 inch of in- In the summer, outside surfaces exposed to the
direct rays of the sun may attain temperatures of
sulation is 0.25. Then the resistance, "R" is TT^ or 50 F. or more above shade temperatures and, of
4.0. If there is three inches of this insulation, the course, tend to transfer this heat toward the inside
total "R" is three times 4.0, or 12.0. of the house. Insulation in the walls and in attic areas
The "U" value is the overall heat-loss value of all retards the flow of heat and, consequently, less heat
materials in the wall. The lower this value, the better is transferred through such areas, resulting in im-
the insulating value. For comparison with table 6, the proved summer comfort conditions.
"U" value of window glass is: Where air-conditioning systems are used, insulation
should be placed in all exposed ceilings and walls in
the same manner as insulating against cold-weather
heat loss. Shading of glass against direct rays of
Glass IJ valui the sun and the use of insulated glass will aid in
Single 1.13 reducing the air-conditioning load.
Double
Insulated, with ^-inch air space .61 Ventilation of attic and roof spaces is an impor-
Storm sash over ingle glazed window ..^>3 tant adjunct to insulation. Without ventilation, an
attic space may become very hot and hold the heat
Where to Insulate for many hours. (See Chapter 16, "Ventilation.")
To reduce heat loss from the house during cold Obviously, more heat will be transmitted through the
weather in most climates, all walls, ceilings, roofs, ceiling when the attic temperature is 150 F. than
and floors that separate heated from unheated spaces if it is 100 to 120 F. Ventilation methods sug-
should be insulated. gested for protection against cold-weather conden-
Insulation should be placed on all outside walls sation apply equally well to protection against ex-
and in the ceiling (fig. 96,A). In houses involving cessive hot-weather roof temperatures.
unheated crawl spaces, it should be placed between The use of storm windows or insulated glass will
the floor joists or around the wall perimeter. If a greatly reduce heat loss. Almost twice as much heat
flexible type of insulation (blanket or batt) is used, loss occurs through a single glass as through a
it should be well-supported between joists by slats window glazed with insulated glass or protected by a
and a galvanized wire mesh, or by a rigid board with storm sash. Furthermore, double glass will normally
the vapor barrier installed toward the subflooring. prevent surface condensation and frost forming on
Press-fit or friction insulations fit tightly between inner glass surfaces in winter. When excessive con-
joists and require only a small amount of support densation persists, paint failures or even decay of the
to hold them in place. Reflective insulation is often sash rail or other parts can occur.
used for crawl spaces, but only one dead-air space
should be assumed in calculating heat loss when the How to Install Insulation
crawl space is ventilated. A ground cover of roll Blanket insulation or batt insulation with a vapor
roofing or plastic film such as polyethylene should barrier should be placed between framing members
be placed on the soil of crawl spaces to decrease the so that the tabs of the barrier lap the edge of the
moisture content of the space as well as of the wood studs as well as the top and bottom plates. This
members. method is not often popular with the contractor be-
In lV2-story houses, insulation should be placed cause it is more difficult to apply the dry wall or
along all walls, floors, and ceilings that are adjacent rock lath (plaster base), However, it assures a mini-
to unheated areas (fig. 96,B). These include stair- mum amount of vapor loss compared to the loss when
ways, dwarf (knee) walls, and dormers. Provisions tabs are stapled to the sides of the studs. To protect
should be made for ventilation of the unheated areas. the head and soleplate as well as the headers over
Where attic space is unheated and a stairway is openings, it is good practice to use narrow strips of
included, insulation should be used around the stair- vapor barrier material along the top and bottom of
way as well as in the first-floor ceiling (fig. 96,C). the wall ( fig. 91,A ). Ordinarily, these areas are not
The door leading to the attic should be weather- covered too well by the barrier on the blanket or

104
 NSULATION

HEATED

GARAGE ^. INSULATION

BASEMENT

AIRWAY

INSULATION

.PERIMETER.
INSULATION

D
M 134 618
Figure 96.-Placement of insulation: A, In walls, floor, and ceiling; B, in 1 Va-story house
C, at attic door; D, in flat roof.

105
batt. A hand stapler is commonly used to fasten the edge studs. This system is one of the best from the
insulation and the barriers in place. standpoint of resistance to vapor movement. Further-
For insulation without a barrier (press-fit or fric- more, it does not have the installation inconveniences
tion type), a plastic film vapor barrier such as 4-mil encountered when tabs of the insulation are stapled
polyethylene is commonly used to envelop the entire over the edges of the studs. After the dry wall is
exposed wall and ceiling (fig. 97,B). It covers the installed or plastering is completed, the film is
openings as well as window and door headers and trimmed around the window and door openings.

PRESS-FIT
TOP PLATES

VAPOR BARRIER

j"-PLASTIC FILM
l" VAPOR BARRIER
4' (ENVELOPING)

VAPOR BARRIER

M 134 702
Figure 97.Application of insulation: A, Wall section with blanket type;
B, wall section with "press-fit" insulation; C, ceiling with full insulation.

106
 Reflective insulation, in a single-sheet form with
two reflective surfaces, should be placed to divide the
space formed by the framing members into two ap-
proximately equal spaces. Some reflective insulations
include air spaces and are furnished with nailing
tabs. This type is fastened to the studs to provide at
least a 'yi-inch s})ace on each side of the reflective
surfaces. INSULATION
Fill insulation is commonly used in ceiling areas
and is poured or blown into place (fig. 97,C). A VAPOR BARRIER
vapor barrier should be used on the warm side (the
bottom, in case of ceiling joists) before insulation is
placed. A leveling board (as shown) will give a con-
stant insulation thickness. Thick batt insulation is also
used in ceiling areas. Batt and fill insulation might
also be combined to obtain the desired thickness with
the vapor barrier against the back face of the ceiling
finish. Ceiling insulation 6 or more inches thick
greatly reduces heat loss in the winter and also pro-
vides summertime protection.

Precautions in Insulating
Areas over door and window frames and along
side and head jambs also require insulation. Because
these areas are filled with small sections of insulation,
a vapor barrier must be used around the opening as
well as over the header above the openings (fig.
98,/i ). Enveloping the entire w all eliminates the
need for this type of vapor barrier installation.
In lY^- and 2-story houses and in basements, the
area at the joist header at outside walls should be NSULATION
insulated and protected with a vapor barrier (fig.
98. ).
Insulation should be placed behind electrical out- VAPOR BARRIER
let boxes and other utility connections in exposed
walls to minimize condensation on cold surfaces.

Vapor Barriers B
M 134 603
Some discussion of vapor barriers has been in- Figure 98.Precautions in insulating: A, Around openings;
cluded in the previous sections because vapor bar- B, joist space in outside walls.
riers are usually a part of flexible insulation. How-
ever, further information is included in the following
paragraphs. Among the effective vapor-barrier materials are
Most building materials are permeable to water asphalt laminated papers, aluminum foil, and plastic
vapor. This presents problems because considerable films. Most blanket and batt insulations are provided
water vapor is generated in a house from cooking, with a vapor barrier on one side, some of them with
dishwashing, laundering, bathing, humidifiers, and paper-backed aluminum foil. Foil-backed gypsum
other sources. In cold climates during cold weather, lath or gypsum boards are also available and serve
this vapor may pass through wall and ceiling materials
as excellent vapor barriers.
and condense in the wall or attic space; subsequently,
The perm values of vapor barriers vary, but
in severe cases, it may damage the exterior paint
and interior finish, or even result in decay in struc- ordinarily it is good practice to use those which have
tural members. For protection, a material highly values less than Vi (0.25) perm. Although a value of
resistive to vapor transmission, called a vapor bar- Y2 perm is considered adequate, aging reduces the
rier, should be used on the warm side of a wall or effectiveness of some materials.
below the insulation in an attic space. Some types of flexible blanket and batt insulations

107
have a barrier material on one side. Such flexible outdoor temperatures are 25^ F. or more below inside
insulations should be attached with the tabs at their temperatures. Paint coatings cannot be considered a
sides fastened on the inside ( narrow ) edges of the substitute for the membrane types of vapor barriers,
studs, and the blanket should be cut long enough so but they do provide some protection for houses where
that the cover sheet can lap over the face of the sole- other types of vapor barriers were not installed dur-
plate at the bottom and over the plate at the top of ing construction.
the stud space. However, such a method of attachment Of the various types of paint, one coat of aluminum
is not the common practice of most installers. When primer followed by two decorative coats of flat wall
a positive seal is desired, wall-height rolls of plastic- or lead and oil paint is quite effective. For rough
film vapor barriers should be applied over studs, plaster or for buildings in very cold climates, two
plates, and window and door headers. This system, coats of the aluminum primer may be necessary. A
called "enveloping," is used over insulation having primer and sealer of the pigmented type, followed by
no vapor barrier or to insure excellent protection decorative finish coats or two coats of rubber-base
when used over any type of insulation. The barrier paint, are also effective in retarding vapor trans-
should be fitted tightly around outlet boxes and sealed mission.
if necessary. A ribbon of sealing compound around Because no type of vapor barrier can be considered
an outlet or switch box will minimize vapor loss at 100 percent resistive, and some vapor leakage into
this area. Cold-air returns in outside walls should the wall may be expected, the flow of vapor to the
consist of metal ducts to prevent vapor loss and sub- outside should not be impeded by materials of rela-
sequent paint problems. tively high vapor resistance on the cold side of the
Paint coatings on plaster may be very effective as vapor barrier. For example, sheathing paper should
vapor barriers if materials are properly chosen and be of a type that is waterproof but not highly
applied. They do not however, offer protection during vapor resistant. This also applies to "permanent"
the period of construction, and moisture may cause outer coverings or siding. In such cases, the vapor
paint blisters on exterior paint before the interior barrier should have an equally low perm value. This
paint can be applied. This is most likely to happen will reduce the danger of condensation on cold sur-
in buildings that are constructed during periods when faces within the wall.

CHAPTER 16

VENTILATION

Condensation of moisture vapor may occur in attic the answer to the problems. With a well-insulated ceil-
spaces and under flat roofs during cold weather. Even ing and adequate ventilation, attic temperatures are
where vapor barriers are used, some vapor will prob- low and melting of snow over the attic space will be
ably work into these spaces around pipes and other greatly reduced.
inadequately protected areas and some through the In hot weather, ventilation of attic and roof spaces
vapor barrier itself. Although the amount might be offers an effective means of removing hot air and
unimportant if equally distributed, it may be suffi- thereby materially lowering the temperature in these
ciently concentrated in some cold spot to cause dam- spaces. Insulation should be used between ceiling joists
age. While wood shingle and wood shake roofs do not below the attic or roof space to further retard heat flow
resist vapor movement, such roofings as asphalt shin- into the rooms below and materially improve comfort
gles and built-up roofs are highly resistant. The most conditions.
practical method of removing the moisture is by It is common practice to install louvered openings
adequately ventilating the roof spaces. in the end walls of gable roofs for ventilation. Air
A warm attic that is inadequately ventilated and movement through such openings depends primarily
insulated may cause formation of ice dams at the on wind direction and velocity, and no appreciable
cornice. During cold weather after a heavy snowfall, movement can be expected when there is no wind or
heat causes the snow next to the roof to melt (fig. 68). unless one or more openings face the wind. More posi-
Water running down the roof freezes on the colder tive air movement can be obtained by providing open-
surface of the cornice, often forming an ice dam at ings in the soffit areas of the roof overhang in addi-
the gutter which may cause water to back up at the tion to openings at the gable ends or ridge. Hip-roof
eaves and into the wall and ceiling. Similar dams often houses are best ventilated by inlet ventilators in the
form in roof valleys. Ventilation thus provides part of soffit area and by outlet ventilators along the ridge.

108
The differences in temperature between the attic and ventilators is based on the projected ceiling area of
the outside will then create an air movement inde- the rooms below (fig. 99). The ratio of ventilator
pendent of the wind, and also a more positive move- openings as shown are net areas, and the actual area
ment when there is wind. must be increased to allow for any restrictions such
Where there is a crawl space under house or porch, as louvers and wire cloth or screen. The screen area
ventilation is necessary to remove moisture vapor ris- should be double the specified net area shown in
ing from the soil. Such vapor may otherwise condense figures 99 to 101.
on the wood below the floor and facilitate decay. A To obtain extra area of screen without adding to
permanent vapor barrier on the soil of the crawl space the area of the vent, use a frame of required size to
greatly reduces the amount of ventilating area re- hold the screen away from the ventilator opening. Use
quired. as coarse a screen as conditions permit, not smaller
Tight construction (including storm window and than No. 16, for lint and dirt tend to clog fine-mesh
storm doors) and the use of humidifiers have created screens. Screens should be installed in such a way that
potential moisture problems which must be resolved paint brushes will not easily contact the screen and
through planning of adequate ventilation as well as the close the mesh with paint.
proper use of vapor barriers. Blocking of ventilating
areas, for example, must be avoided as such practices Gable Roofs
will prevent ventilation of attic spaces. Inadequate Louvered openings are generally provided in the
ventilation will often lead to moisture problems which end walls of gable roofs and should be as close to the
can result in unnecessary costs to correct. ridge as possible (fig. 99,A), The net area for the
openings should be 1/300 of the ceiling area (fig.
Area of Ventilators 99,^4 ). For example, where the ceiling area equals
Types of ventilators and minimum recommended 1,200 square feet, the minimum total net area of the
sizes have been generally established for various types ventilators should be 4 square feet.
of roofs. The minimum net area for attic or roof-space As previously explained, more positive air move-

RATIO OF TOTAL
MINIMUM NET
VENTILATOR AREA
END ELEVATIONS CROSS SECTIONS SIDE ELEVATIONS TO CEILING AREA

V INLET OUTLET

300
( COMBINED )

>

T"

t t

G
M 134 734
Figure 99.Ventilating areas of gable roofs: A, Louvers in end walls; B, louvers in end walls with additional openings in soflRt area;
C, louvers at end walls with additional openings at eaves and dormers. Cross section of C shows free opening for air movement
between roof boards and ceiling insulation of attic room.

109
ment can be obtained if additional openings are or for bracing over bearing partitions if its use pre-
provided in the soffit area. The minimum ventilation vents the air circulation.
areas for this method are shown in figure 99,B. Perhaps the most common type of flat or low-pitched
Where there are rooms in the attic with sloping roof is one in which the rafters extend beyond the
ceilings under the roof, the insulation should follow wall, forming an overhang (fig. 101,^). When soffits
the roof slope and be so placed that there is a free are used, this area can contain the combined inlet-
opening of at least 1^/2 inches between the roof boards outlet ventilators, preferably a continuous slot. When
and insulation for air movement (fig. 99,C). single ventilators are used, they should be distributed
evenly along the overhang.
Hip Roofs A parapet-type wall and flat roof combination may
Hip roofs should have air-inlet openings in the be constructed with the ceiling joists separate from the
soffit area of the eaves and outlet openings at or near roof joists or combined. When members are separate,
the peak. For minimum net areas of openings see the space between can be used for an airway (fig.
figure 100,A, The most efficient type of inlet opening 101,). Inlet and outlet vents are then located as
is the continuous slot, which should provide a free shown, or a series of outlet stack vents can be used
opening of not less than % inch. The air-outlet open- along the centerline of the roof in combination with
ing near the peak can be a globe-type metal ventilator the inlet vents. When ceiling joists and flat rafters are
or several smaller roof ventilators located near the served by one member in parapet construction, vents
ridge. They can be located below the peak on the rear may be located as shown in figure 101,C. Wall inlet
slope of the roof so that they will not be visible from ventilators combined with center stack outlet vents is
the front of the house. Gabled extensions of a hip-roof another variable in this type of roof.
house are sometimes used to provide efficient outlet
ventilators (fig. 100,B).
Types and Location of Outlet Ventilators
Various styles of gable-end ventilators are available
Flat Roofs ready for installation. Many are made with metal
A greater ratio of ventilating area is required in louvers and frames, while others may be made of wood
some types of flat roofs than in pitched roofs because to fit the house design more closely. However, the most
the air movement is less positive and is dependent upon important factors are to have sufficient net ventilating
wind. It is important that there be a clear open space area and to locate ventilators as close to the ridge as
above the ceiling insulation and below the roof sheath- possible without affecting house appearance.
ing for free air movement from inlet to outlet open- One of the types commonly used fits the slope of the
ings. Solid blocking should not be used for bridging roof and is located near the ridge (fig. 102,^). It can

RATIO OF TOTAL
MINIMUM NET
VENTILATOR AREA
END ELEVATIONS CROSS SECTIONS SIDE ELEVATIONS TO CEILING AREA

INLET OUTLET

M 134 733
Figur 100.Ventilating areas of hip roofs: A, Inlet openings beneath eaves and outlet vent near peak;
B, inlet openings beneath eaves and ridge outlets.

110
 RATIO OF TOTAL
MINIMUM NET
VENTILATOR AREA
END ELEVATIONS CROSS SECTIONS SIDE ELEVATIONS TO CEILING AREA

^^ =a
-J
OUTLET

J ; \ ^ 250
(COMBINED )

>
-^ ^ 300
(COMBINED )

. .AIRWAY

M 134 735
Figur 101.Ventilating araa of flat roofs: k, Ventilator openings under overhanging eaves where ceiling and roof joists are combined;
B, for roof with a parapet where roof and ceiling joists are separate; C, for roof with a parapet where roof and ceiling joists are
combined.

M 134 736
Figure 102.Outlet ventilators: A, Triangular; B, typical cross section;
C, half-circle; D, square; E, vertical; F, soffit.

Ill
be made of wood or metal; in metal it is often adjust- It is important that the roof framing at the wall
able to conform to the roof slope. A wood ventilator line does not block off ventilation areas to the attic
of this type is enclosed in a frame and placed in the area. This might be accomplished by the use of a
rough opening much as a window frame (fig. 102,5). "ladder" frame extension. A flat nailing block used
Other forms of gable-end ventilators which might be at the wall line will provide airways into the attic
used are shown in figures 102,C, D, and E. ( fig. 66, ). This can also be adapted to narrower rake
A system of attic ventilation which can be used on sections by providing ventilating areas to the attic.
houses with a wide roof overhang at the gable end
consists of a series of small vents or a continuous slot
located on the underside of the soffit areas (fig. 102,F). Types and Location of Inlet Ventilators
Several large openings located near the ridge might
also be used. This system is especially desirable on Small, well-distributed ventilators or a continuous
low-pitched roofs where standard wall ventilators may slot in the soffit provide inlet ventilation. These small
not be suitable.

-ALLOW FOR AIRWAY

ABOVE INSULATION
RAFTER

NAILING BLOCK

SCREEN FACIA

"SOFFIT

INLET VENTILATOR

RAFTER

SOFFIT
(PLYWOOD, ETC.)

FACIA

SCREEN

M 134 737
Figure 103.Inlet ventilators: A, Small insert ventilator; B, slot ventilator.

112
 Crawl-space Ventilation and Soil Cover
louvered and screened vents can be obtained in most The crawl space below the floor of a basementless
lumberyards or hardware stores and are simple to house and under porches should be ventilated and
install. protected from ground moisture by the use of a soil
Only small sections need to be cut out of the soffit; cover (fig. 104). The soil cover should be a vapor
these can be sawed out before the soffit is applied. It barrier with a perm value of less than 1.0. This
is more desirable to use a number of smaller well- includes such barrier materials as plastic films, roll
distributed ventilators than several large ones (fig. roofing, and asphalt laminated paper. Such protection
103,A). Any blocking which might be required be- will minimize the effect of ground moisture on the
tween rafters at the wall line should be installed so as wood framing members. High moisture content and
to provide an airway into the attic area. humidity encourage staining and decay of untreated
A continuous screened slot, which is often desirable, members.
should be located near the outer edge of the soffit near Where there is a partial basement open to a crawl-
the facia (fig. 103,). Locating the slot in this area space area, no wall vents are required if there is some
will minimize the chance of snow entering. This type type of operable window. The use of a soil cover in
may also be used on the extension of flat roofs. the crawl space is still important, however. For crawl

VAPOR
BARRIER

SUBFLOOR

INSULATION

SCREENED
VENT

FLOOR JOIST

SOIL COVER
(VAPOR BARRIER)

M 134 738
Figure 104.Crawl-space ventilator and soil cover.

113
spaces with no basement area, provide at least four ventilating area required with a ground cover is
foundation-wall vents near corners of the building. 1/1600 of the ground area, or for the 1,200-square-
The total free (net) area of the ventilators should be foot house, an area of 0.75 square foot. This should
equal to 1/160 of the ground area when no soil cover be divided between two small ventilators located on
is used. Thus, for a ground area of 1,200 square feet, opposite sides of the crawl space. Vents should be
a total net ventilating area of about 8 square feet is covered (fig. 104) with a corrosion-resistant screen of
required, or 2 square feet for each of four ventilators. No. 8 mesh.
More smaller ventilators having the same net ratio is The use of a ground cover is normally recommended
satisfactory. under all conditions. It not only protects wood framing
When a vapor barrier ground cover is used, the members from ground moisture but also allows the use
required ventilating area is greatly reduced. The net of small, inconspicuous ventilators.

CHAPTER 17

SOUND INSULATION'

Development of the "quiet" home or the need for mate effectiveness of walls with varying STC numbers
incorporating sound insulation in a new house is be- is shown in the following tabulation:
coming more and more important. In the past, the STC \o. Effectiveness
reduction of sound transfer between rooms was more 25 IN or mal speech can be understood quite easily
important in apartments, motels, and hotels than in 35 Loud speech audible but not intelligible
private homes. However, house designs now often 4S Must strain to hear loud speech
incorporate a family room or "active" living room as 48 Some loud speech barely audible
50 Loud speech not audible
well as "quiet" living room. It is usually desirable in
such designs to isolate these rooms from the remainder Sound travels readily through the air and also
of the house. Sound insulation between the bedroom through some materials. When airborne sound strikes
area and the living area is usually desirable, as is a conventional wall, the studs act as sound conductors
isolation of the bathrooms and lavatories. Isolation unless they are separated in some way from the cover-
from outdoor sounds is also often advisable. Thus, ing material. Electrical switches or convenience outlets
sound control has become a vital part of house design placed back-to-back in a wall readily pass sound.
and construction, and will be even more important in Faulty construction, such as poorly fitted doors, often
the coming years. allows sound to travel through. Thus, good construc-
tion practices are important in providing sound-
resistant walls, as well as those measures commonly
How Sound Travels used to stop ordinary sounds.
Thick walls of dense materials such as masonry can
How does sound travel, and how is it transferred stop sound. But in the wood-frame house, an interior
masonry wall results in increased costs and structural
through a wall or floor? Airborne noises inside a
problems created by heavy walls. To provide a satis-
house, such as loud conversation or a barking dog,
factory sound-resistant wall economically has been a
create sound waves which radiate outward from the problem. At one time, sound-resistant frame construc-
source through the air until they strike a wall, floor, tion for the home involved significant additional costs
or ceiling. These surfaces are set in vibration by the because it usually meant double walls or suspended
fluctuating pressure of the sound wave in the air. ceilings. However, a relatively simple system has been
Because the wall vibrates, it conducts sound to the developed using sound-deadening insulating board in
other side in varying degrees, depending on the wall conjunction with a gypsum board outer covering. This
construction. provides good sound-transmission resistance suitable
The resistance of a building element, such as a for use in the home with only slight additional cost.
wall, to the passage of airborne sound is rated by its A number of combinations are possible with this sys-
tem, providing different STC ratings.
Sound Transmission Class (STC). Thus, the higher
the number, the better the sound barrier. The approxi- Wall Construction
As the preceding STC tabulation shows, a wall pro-
^ Data and information contained in this chapter were ob-
tained in part from literature references (p. 209). viding: sufficient resistance to airborne sound transfer

114
likely has an STC rating of 45 or greater. Thus, in this construction. An 8-inch concrete block wall (fig.
construction of such a wall between the rooms of a 105,C) has the minimum rating, but this construction
house, its cost as related to the STC rating should be is not always practical in a wood-frame house.
considered. As shown in figure 105, details A, with Good STC ratings can be obtained in a wood-frame
gypsum wallboard, and B, with plastered wall, are wall by using the combination of materials shown in
those commonly used for partition walls. However, figure 105,Z> and E, One-half-inch sound-deadening
the hypothetical rating of 45 cannot be obtained in board nailed to the studs, followed by a lamination

STC
WALL DETAIL DESCRIPTION RATING

16'

^'- -i = '/z" GYPSUM WALLBOARD 32

-2xA
SM^Z^Z^^Ci^^h^I^^uSita t if '|r"> %" GYPSUM WALLBOARD 37

A
16"
^
3/3 GYPSUM LATH (NAILED)
PLUS '/2" GYPSUM PLASTER
-2x4. WITH WHITECOAT FINISH 39
(EACH SIDE)
y-'"r' '')

8 CONCRETE BLOCK 45

-16"-

f : iM 11)1 "r-
'/2 SOUND DEADENING
BOARD (NAILED)
-2x A '/2" GYPSUM WALLBOARD 4-6
( LAMINATED )
t F^^ ( EACH SIDE )

D
16"-

E*
RESILIENT CLIPS TO
3/8" GYPSUM BACKER
BOARD
52
V' FIBERBOARD
^^ (LAMINATED)
( EACH SIDE )

M !34 740
Figure 105.Sound insulation of single walls.

115
of %-inch gypsum wallboard, will provide an STC wallboard on each side of this wall (fig. 106,yi)
value of 46 at a relatively low cost. A slightly better results in an STC value of 45. However, two layers
rating can be obtained by using %-inch gypsum wall- of %-inch gypsum wallboard add little, if any, addi-
board rather than V2-inch. A very satisfactory STC tional sound-transfer resistance (fig. 106,B). When
rating of 52 can be obtained by using resilient clips lV2-inch blanket insulation is added to this construc-
to fasten gypsum backer boards to the studs, followed tion (fig. 106,C), the STC rating increases to 49. This
by adhesive-laminated %-inch fiberboard (fig. 105,^). insulation may be installed as shown or placed between
This method further isolates the wall covering from the studs on one wall. A single wall with 3^2 inches of
framing. insulation will show a marked improvement over an
A similar isolation system consists of resilient chan- open stud space and is low in cost.
nels nailed horizontally to 2- by 4-inch studs spaced The use of %-inch sound-deadening board and a
16 inches on center. Channels are spaced 24 inches lamination of gypsum wallboard in the double wall
apart vertically and %-inch gypsum wallboard is will result in an STC rating of 50 {g. 106,/)). The
screwed to the channels. An STC rating of 47 is thus addition of blanket insulation to this combination will
obtained at a moderately low cost. likely provide an even higher value, perhaps 53 or 54.
The use of a double wall, which may consist of a
2 by 6 or wider plate and staggered 2- by 4-inch Floor-Ceiling Construction
studs, is sometimes desirable. One-half-inch gypsum Sound insulation between an upper floor and the

STC
WA L L DE TAI L DESCRIPTION RATING

r "^ n
*-r-r-
r 55 ^ W ^="
/2" GYPSUM WALLBOARD A5

1r
1. 1 : : : , : ^ . . -r, ' W

HB" GYPSUM WALLBOARD

z
U ^ ra ^- (DOUBLE
EACH
LAYER
SIDE )
4-5

2x4. _,
/2" GYPSUM WALLBOARD
^9
m ^^^^^^^^ 1 ^/' FIBROUS INSULATION
'\ *- "
^BETWEEN OR
"WOVEN"
c

1 -

ITT
r
''-

^
'

M
4 . .A

^-
'/z" SOUND DEADENING
BOARD (NAILED)
'/z" GYPSUM WALLBOARD
(LAMINATED )
50

D
M 139-739
Figure 106.Sound insulation of double wails.

116
ceiling of a lower floor not only involves resistance of A method of measuring impact noise has been
airborne sounds but also that of impact noises. Thus, developed and is commonly expressed as the Impact
impact noise control must be considered as well as Noise Ratings (INR),^ The greater the positive value
the STC value. Impact noise is caused by an object of the INR, the more resistant is the floor to impact
striking or sliding along a wall or floor surface, such noise transfer. For example, an INR of 2 is better
as by dropped objects, footsteps, or moving furniture. than one of 17, and one of +5 INR is a further
It may also be caused by the vibration of a dish- improvement in resistance to impact noise transfer.
washer, bathtub, food-disposal apparatus, or other Figure 107 shows STC and approximate INR(db)
equipment. In all instances, the floor is set into vibra-
tion by the impact or contact and sound is radiated ^ INR ratings in some publications are being abandoned in
favor of lie (Impact Insulation Class) ratings. See Glossary.
from both sides of the floor.

ESTIMATED
VALUES

DE SC R IPTIO N STC APPROX.

DETAIL RATING INR

16"-
FLOOR
"^e" T. a G. FLOORING
30 18
CEILING
2 x8- ^e" GYPSUM BOARD

1= il id
*''ifc^

FLOOR
^V SUBFLOOR
2x8 2^V FINISH FLOOR A2 -12
CEILING
VV FIBERBOARD

FLOOR
3^V SUBFLOOR
^A" FINISH FLOOR
2x8
CEILING A5 -4.
I/2" FIBERBOARD LATH
1/2" GYPSUM PLASTER
VA" FIBERBOARD

M 134 74!
Figure 107.Relative Impact and sound transfer in floor-ceiling combinations
(2- by 8-in. joists).

117
values for several types of floor constructions. Figure further by the combination of materials in figure
107,^, perhaps a minimum floor assembly with 107,C.
tongued-and-grooved floor and %-inch gypsum board The value of isolating the ceiling joists from a
ceiling, has an STC value of 30 and an approximate gypsum lath and plaster ceiling by means of spring
INR value of 18. This is improved somewhat by clips is illustrated in figure 10S,A. An STC value of
the construction shown in figure 107,, and still 52 and an approximate INR value of 2 result.

ESTIMATED
VALUES

STC APPROX,
DE TAIL DESCRIPT ION RATING INR

16"

FLOOR
4i*" SUBFLOOR
(BUILDING PAPER)
W FINISH FLOOR
2x lO- 52
CEILING
GYPSUM LATH AND
SPRING CLIPS
1/2" GYPSUM PLASTER
,*^., /,
ma^^^LAi^i^Ji^mJLmJmm^t^ihm^

FLOOR
2^8" PLYWOOD SUBFLOOR
/2" PLYWOOD
UNDERLAYMENT
2xlO- 31 17
/8" VINYL-ASBESTOS
TILE
CEILING
'/2" GYPSUM WALLBOARD
'^ 1 '!

FLOOR
5/8" PLYWOOD SUBFLOOR
1/2" PLYWOOD
UNDERLAYMENT
2xlO FOAM RUBBER PAD A5 5
3/8" NYLON CARPET
CEILING
'/2" GYPSUM WALLBOARD

Figure 108.Relative impact and sound transfer in floor-ceiling combinations M 134 742
(2- by 10-in. joists).

118
 Foam-rubber padding and carpeting improve both of noise by stopping the reflection of sound back into
the STC and the INR values. The STC value increases a room. Sound-absorbing materials do not necessarily
from 31 to 45 and the approximate INR from 17 have resistance to airborne sounds. Perhaps the most
to +5 (fig. 108,5 and C). This can likely be further commonly used sound-absorbing material is acoustic
improved by using an isolated ceiling finish with tile. Wood fiber or similar materials are used in the
spring clips. The use of sound-deadening board and a manufacture of the tile, which is usually processed to
lamination of gypsum board for the ceiling would also provide some fire resistance and designed with numer-
improve resistance to sound transfer. ous tiny sound traps on the tile surfaces. These may
An economical construction similar to (but an im- consist of tiny drilled or punched holes, fissured sur-
provement over) figure 108C, with a STC value of faces, or a combination of both.
48 and an approximate INR of -f-18, consists of the Acoustic tile is most often used in the ceiling and
following: (a) A pad and carpet over %-inch tongued- areas where it is not subjected to excessive mechancial
and-grooved plywood underlayment, (b) 3-inch fiber- damage, such as above a wall wainscoating. It is
glass insulating batts between joists, (c) resilient normally manufactured in sizes from 12 by 12 to 12
channels spaced 24 inches apart, across the bottom of by 48 inches. Thicknesses vary from % to % inch,
the joists, and (d) %-inch gypsum board screwed to and the tile is usually factory finished ready for appli-
the bottom of the channels and finished with taped cation. Paint or other finishes which fill or cover the
joints. tiny holes or fissures for trapping sound will greatly
The use of separate floor joists with staggered ceil- reduce its efficiency.
ing joists below provides reasonable values but adds a Acoustic tile may be applied by a number of
good deal to construction costs. Separate joists with methodsto existing ceilings or any smooth surface
insulation between and a soundboard between sub- with a mastic adhesive designed specifically for this
floor and finish provide an STC rating of 53 and an purpose, or to furring strips nailed to the underside
approximate INR value of 3. of the ceiling joists. Nailing or stapling tile is the
normal application method in this system. It is also
Sound Absorption used with a mechanical suspension system involving
Design of the "quiet" house can incorporate another small "H," "Z," or "T" members. Manufacturers'
system of sound insulation, namely, sound absorption. recommendations should be followed in application
Sound-absorbing materials can minimize the amount and finishing.

CHAPTER 18

BASEMENT ROOMS

Many houses are now designed so that one or more from ground moisture (fig. 109). Providing these
of the rooms in lower floors are constructed on a con- essential details, however, is somewhat more difficult
crete slab. In multilevel houses, this area may include in existing construction than in new construction.
a family room, a spare bedroom, or a study. Further- The installation of a vapor barrier over an existing
more, it is sometimes necessary to provide a room in unprotected concrete slab is normally required when
the basement of an existing house. Thus, in a new the floor is at or below the outside ground level and
house or in remodeling the basement of an existing some type of finish floor is used. Flooring manufac-
one, several factors should be considered, including turers often recommend that preparation of the slab
insulation, waterproofing, and vapor resistance. for wood strip flooring consist of the following steps:
1. Mop or spread a coating of tar or asphalt mastic
Floors followed by an asphalt felt paper.
In the construction of a new building having base- 2. Lay short lengths of 2- by 4-inch screeds in a
ment rooms, provision should be made for reduction coating of tar or asphalt, spacing the rows about 12
of heat loss and for prevention of ground moisture inches apart, starting at one wall and ending at the
movement. As previously described in Chapter 4, "Con- opposite wall.
crete Floor Slabs on Ground," perimeter insulation 3. Place insulation around the perimeter, between
reduces heat loss and a vapor barrier under the slab screeds, where the outside ground level is near the
will prevent problems caused by a concrete floor damp basement floor elevation.

119
 STRIP
FLOORING

SCREEDS
(ANCHOR)
FINISH
GRADE
^ASPHALT TILE
LAID IN MASTIC

PERIMETER INSULATION
iv^ ( RIGID TYPE )
-CONCRETE FLOOR
VAPOR BARRIER

M 134 743
Figure 109.Basement floor details for new construction.

4. Install wood strip flooring across the wood barrier, serves as a base for the tile. An adhesive
screeds. recommended by the flooring manufacturer is then
used over the vapK)r barrier, after which the wood tile
This system can be varied somewhat by placing a is applied. It is important that a smooth vapor-tight
conventional vapor barrier of good quality directly base be provided for the tile.
over the slab. Two- by four-inch furring strips spaced It is likely that such floor construction should be
12 to 16 inches apart are then anchored to the slab used only under favorable conditions where draintile is
with concrete nails or with other types of commercial placed at the outside footings and soil conditions are
anchors. Some leveling of the 2 by 4's might be re- favorable. When the slab or walls of an existing house
quired. Strip flooring is then nailed to the furring are inclined to be damp, it is often difficult to insure
strips after perimeter insulation is placed (fig. 110). a dry basement. Under such conditions, it is often ad-
If a wood block flooring is desired under these condi- visable to use resilient tile or similar finish over some
tions, a plywood subfloor may be used over the furring type of stable base such as plywood. This construc-
strips. Plywood, % or % inch thick, is normally used tion is to be preceded by installation of vapor barriers
if the edges are unblocked and furring strips are and protective coatings.
spaced 16 inches or more apart.
When insulation is not required around the perim- Walls
eter because of the height of the outside grade above The use of an interior finish over masonry basement
the basement floor, a much simpler method can be walls is usually desirable for habitable rooms. Further-
used for wood block or other type of tile finish. An more, if the outside wall is partially exposed, it is
asphalt mastic coating, followed by a good vapor advisable to use insulation between the wall and the

120
 FLOOR TILE

PLYWOOD (BASE
FOR TILE )

2xA SCREEDS (ANCHOR)

STRIP FLOORING
VAPOR BARRIER

CONCRETE FLOOR

M 134 744
Figure ITOBat.ment floor dotails for oxisting construction.

mside finish. Waterproofing the wall is important if

masonry walls without furring. It is important that the
there is any possibility of moisture entry. It can be
inner face of the wall be smooth and level without
done by applying one of the many waterproof coat-
protrusions when this method is used. After the wall
mgs available to the inner surface of the masonry.
has been waterproofed, ribbons of adhesive are applied
After the wall has been waterproofed, furring strips
to the wall and sheets of foam insulation installed
are commonly used to prepare the wall for interior
(fig. 112). Dry-wall adhesive is then applied and the
finish. A 2- by 2-inch bottom plate is anchored to the
gypsum board, plywood, or other finish pressed in
floor at the junction of the wall and floor. A 2- by 2-
place. Manufacturers' recommendations on adhesives
inch or larger top plate is fastened to the bottom of
and methods of installation should be followed. Most
the joists, to joist blocks, or anchored to the wall
foam-plastic insulations have some vapor resistance in
(fig. HI). Studs or furring strips, 2 by 2 inches or
themselves, so the need for a separate vapor barrier is
larger m size are then placed between top and bottom
not as great as when blanket type insulation is used.
plates, anchoring them at the center when necessary
with concrete nails or similar fasteners (fig. 111).
Electrical outlets and conduit should be installed and Ceilings
insulation with vapor barrier placed between the
Some type of finish is usually desirable for the ceil-
furrmg strips. The interior finish of gypsum board,
ing of the basement room. Gypsum board, plywood,
berboard, plywood, or other material is then installed,
or fiberboard sheets may be used and nailed directly
l^urring strips are commonly spaced 16 inches on cen-
to the joists. Acoustic ceiling tile and similar materials
ter, but this, of course, depends on the type and
thickness of the interior finish. normally require additional nailing areas. This may
be supplied by 1- by 2.inch or 1- by 3-inch strips
Foamed plastic insulation is sometimes used on
nailed across the joists, and spaced to conform to

121
 TOP PLATE
. (NAIL TO JOIST
^ OR NAILING BLOCK.
\ SEE DETAILS A AND B.)
WATERPROOF
COATING
INTERIOR FINISH
(PLYWOOD, ETC.)

STUDS OR FURRING
STRIPS (ANCHOR)

INSULATION WITH
VAPOR BARRIER

JOIST-
J.
I JOIST

TOP PLATE
IS NAILING
BLOCK

TOP PLATE

M 134 705
Figure 111.Basement wall finish, with furring strips.

the size of the ceiling tile (fig. 113). will also aid in decreasing sound transfer from the
A suspended ceiling may also be desirable. This can rooms above. Remember to install ceiling lights, heat
consist of a system of light metal angles hung from the supply and return ducts, or other utilities before finish
ceiling joists. Tiles are then dropped in place. This is applied.

122
 ADHESIVE (USE
CALKING GUN) WALLBOARD
ADHESIVE

GYPSUM BOARD,
PLYWOOD, ETC.

WATERPROOF
COATING

M 134 745
Figure 112.Basement wall finish, without furring strips.

CHAPTER 19

INTERIOR WALL AND CEILING FINISH

Interior finish is the material used to cover the size and thickness should generally comply with recom-
interior framed areas or structures of walls and ceil- mendations in this handbook. Finishes in bath and
ings. It should be prefinished or serve as a base for kitchen areas should have more rigid requirements
paint or other finishes including wallpaper. Depending because of moisture conditions. Several types of in-
on whether it is wood, gypsum wallboard, or plaster, terior finishes are used in the modern home, mainly:

123
 JOIST

1x2 OR 1x3
NAILING STRIP

ACOUSTIC OR
BASEMENT WALL OTHER TYPE OF
CEILING TILE

ADD INSULATION WHEN

ADDITIONAL SOUND
RESISTANCE IS REQUIRED
M 134 746
Figure 113.Installation of ceiling tile.

(a) Lath and plaster, (b) wood paneling, fiberboard, some areas. Metal lath or similar mesh forms are
or plywood, and (c) gypsum wallboard. normally used only in bathrooms and as reinforce-
ment, but provide a rigid base for plaster finish. They
Types of Finishes usually cost more, however, than other materials. Some
Though lath and plaster finish is widely used in of the rigid foam insulations cemented to masonry
home construction, use of dry-wall materials has been walls also serve as plaster bases.
increasing. Dry wall is often selected by builders be- There are many types of dry-wall finishes, but one
cause there is usually a time saving in construction. of the most widely used is gypsum board in 4- by
A plaster finish, being a wet material, requires drying 8-foot sheets and in lengths up to 16 feet which are
time before other interior work can be starteddry- used for horizontal application. Plywood, hardboard,
wall finish does not. However, a gypsum dry wall fiberboard, particleboard, wood paneling, and similar
demands a moderately low moisture content of the types, many in prefinished form, are also used.
framing members to prevent "nail-pops." These result Lath and Plaster
when frame members dry out to moisture equilibrium,
causing the nailhead to form small "humps" on the Plaster Base
surface of the board. Furthermore, stud alinement is A plaster finish requires some type of base upon
more important for single-layer gypsum finish to pre- which the plaster is applied. The base must have bond-
vent a wavy, uneven appearance. Thus, there are ad- ing qualities so that plaster adheres, or is keyed to the
vantages to both plaster and gypsum dry-wall finishes base which has been fastened to the framing members.
and each should be considered along with the initial One of the most common types of plaster base, that
cost and future maintenance involved. may be used on sidewalls or ceilings, is gypsum lath,
A plaster finish requires some type of base upon which is 16 by 48 inches and is applied horizontally
which to apply the plaster. Rock lath is perhaps the across the framing members. It has paper faces with
most common. Fiberboard lath is also used, and wood a gypsum filler. For stud or joist spacing of 16 inches
lath, quite common many years ago, is permitted in on center, %-inch thickness is used. For 24-inch on-

124
center spacing, l/^-inch thickness is required. This -GYPSUM LATH

material can be obtained with a foil back that serves

as a vapor barrier. If the foil faces an air space, it
also has reflective insulating value. Gypsum lath may
be obtained with perforations, which, by improving
the bond, would lengthen the time the plaster would
remiiin intact when exposed to fire. The building codes
in some cities require such perforation.
Insulating fiberboard lath in l^-i^ch thickness and
16 by 48 inches in size is also used as a plaster base.
It has greater insulating value than the g}psum lath,
but horizontal joints must usually be reinforced with
metal clips.
Metal lath in various forms such as diamond mesh,
flat rib, and wire lath is another type of plaster base.
It is usually 27 by 96 inches in size and is galvanized
or painted to resist rusting.
GYPSUM LATH
G" X ^8"

Installation of Plaster Base

Gypsum lath should be applied horizontally with
joints broken (fig. 114). Vertical joints should be
made over the center of studs or joists and nailed with M 134 747
12- or 13-gage gypsum-lathing nails 1^ inches long Figure 114.Application of gypsum lath.
and with a %-inch flat head. Nails should be spaced
5 inches on center, or four nails for the 16-inch height,
and used at each stud or joist crossing. Some manu-
door openings (fig. 116,^). A strip about 10 by 20
facturers specify the ring-shank nails with a slightly
inches is placed diagonally across each upper corner
greater spacing. Lath joints over heads of openings
of the opening and tacked in place.
should not occur at the jamb lines (fig. 114).
Metal lath should also be used under flush ceiling
Insulating lath should be installed much the same beams to prevent plaster cracks (fig. 116,5). On wood
as gypsum lath, except that slightly longer blued nails drop beams extending below the ceiling line, the metal
should be used. A special waterproof facing is provided
on one type of gypsum board for use as a ceramic tile
base when the tile is applied with an adhesive.
Metal lath is often used as a plaster base around tub
recesses and other bath and kitchen areas (fig. 115).
It is also used when a ceramic tile is applied over a
plastic base. It must be backed with water-resistant
sheathing paper over the framing. The metal lath is
applied horizontally over the waterproof backing with
side and end joints lapped. It is nailed with No. 11
and No. 12 roofing nails long enough to provide about
l^^-inch penetration into the framing member or WATER-
RESISTANT
blocking. SHEATHING
PAPER

Plaster Reinforcing
Because some drying usually takes place in wood
framing members after a house is completed, some
shrinkage can be expected; in turn, this may cause
plaster cracks to develop around openings and in
corners. To minimize, if not eliminate, this cracking,
expanded metal lath is used in certain key positions
over the plaster-base material as reinforcement. Strips M 134 748
of expanded metal lath may be used over window and Figure 115.Application of metal lath.

125
 CORNER STUDS
EXPANDED
f^ETAL LATH

PLASTER BASE CORNER BEAD-

PLASTER BASE

A
2"- 2'/a'

CORNERITE

JOiST HANGER ^FLUSH BEAM

B
M 134 721
Figure 117.Reinforcing of plaster at comers:
M 134 730 A, Outside; B, inside.
Figure 116.Metal lath uted to minimize cracking: A, At door
and window openings; B, under flush beams.
standard jamb widths for interior walls with a plaster
finish. They are removed after plaster has dried. Nar-
lath is applied with self-furring nails to provide space row strip grounds might also be used around these in-
for keying of the plaster. terior openings (fig. 118,).
Corner beads of expanded metal lath or of perfo- In window and exterior door openings, the frames
rated metal should be installed on all exterior corners are normally in place before plaster is applied. Thus,
(fig. 117). They should be applied plumb and level. the inside edges of the side and head jamb can, and
The bead acts as a leveling edge when walls are plas- often do, serve as grounds. The edge of the window
tered and reinforces the corner against mechanical sill might also be used as a ground, or a narrow
damage. To minimize plaster cracks, inside corners at ys-inch-thick ground strip is nailed to the edge of the
the juncture of walls and of ceilings should also be 2- by 4-inch sill. Narrow %- by 1-inch grounds might
reinforced. Metal lath or wire fabric {cornerites) are also be used around window and door openings (fig.
tacked lightly in place in these areas. Cornerites pro- 118,C). These are normally left in place and are cov-
vide a key width of 2 to 21/^ inches at each side for ered by the casing.
plaster. A similiar narrow ground or screed is used at the
bottom of the wall in controlling thickness of the gyp-
Plaster Grounds
sum plaster and providing an even surface for the
Plaster grounds are strips of wood used as guides baseboard and molding (fig. 118,^). These strips are
or strike-off edges when plastering and are located also left in place after plaster^has been applied.
around window and door openings and at the base
of the walls. Grounds around interior door openings Plaster Materials and Method of Application
are often full-width pieces nailed to the sides over the Plaster for interior finishing is made from combi-
studs and to the underside of the header (fig. 118,^). nations of sand, Hme, or prepared plaster and water.
They are S^/^ inches in width, which coincides with Waterproof-finish wall materials (Keene^s cement)

126
 PLASTER

PLASTER
GROUND

STUD

SHEATHING

GYPSUM LATH

PLASTER

WINDOW FRAME PLASTER GROUND

M 134 749
Figure 11 8.Plaster grounds: A, At doorway and floor; B, strip ground at doorway;
C^ ground at window.

are available and should be used in bathrooms, espe- The final or finish coat consists of two general types
cially in showers or tub recesses when tile is not used, the sand-float and the putty finish. In the sand-float
and sometimes in the kitchen wainscot. finish, lime is mixed with sand and results in a tex-
Plaster should be applied in three-coat or two-coat tured finish, the texture depending on the coarseness of
double-up work. The minimum thickness over %-inch the sand used. Putty finish is used without sand and
gypsum lath should be about ^2 inch. The first plaster has a smooth finish. This is common in kitchens and
coat over metal lath is called the scratch coat and is bathrooms where a gloss paint or enamel finish is
scratched, after a slight set has occurred, to insure a used, and in other rooms where a smooth finish is
good bond for the second coat. The second coat is desired. Keene's cement is often used as a finish plas-
called the brown or leveling coat, and leveling is done ter in bathrooms because of its durability.
during the application of this coat. The plastering operation should not be done in
The double-up work, combining the scratch and freezing weather without constant heat for protection
brown coat, is used on gypsum or insulating lath, and from freezing. In normal construction, the heating
leveling and plumbing of walls and ceilings are done unit is in place before plastering is started.
during application. Insulating plaster, consisting of a vermiculite, per-

127
lite, or other aggregate with the piaster mix, may also TABLE 8.Gypsum board thickness (single layer)
be used for wall and ceiling finishes.
Maximum spacing of
Dry-wall Finish Installed lonj^ M mimum supports (<on center)
direction of thickness -
Dry-wall finish is a material that requires little, if sheet Walls Ceilings
any, water for application. More specifically, dry-wall
In. In. In.
finish includes gypsum board, plywood, fiberboard, or
similar sheet material, as well as wood paneling in
Parallel to Vs 16
framing members V2 24 16
various thicknesses and forms. Vs 24 16
The use of thin sheet materials such as gypsum Vs 16 16
board or plywood requires that studs and ceiling joists Right angles lo Yi 24 24
framing members Vs 24 24
have good alinement to provide a smooth, even surface.
Wood sheathing will often correct misalined studs on
exterior walls. A "strong back" provides for alining of
only moderate contact should be made between edges
ceiling joists of unfinished attics (fig. 119,^) and
of the sheet.
can be used at the center of the span when ceiling joists
Fivepenny cooler-type nails (1% in. long) should
are uneven.
be used with 1/2-inch gypsum, and fourpenny (1% in.
Table 7 lists thicknesses of wood materials com-
long) with the %-inch-thick material. Ring-shank
monly uf^ed for interior covering.
nails, about % inch shorter, can also be used. Some
manufacturers often recommend the use of special
TABLE 7.Minimum thicknesses for plywood, fiber-
screws to reduce "bulging" of the surface ("nail-
hoard, and wood paneling.
pops" caused by drying out of the frame members).
Thickness If moisture content of the framing members is less
Framing spaced than 15 percent when gypsum board is applied, "nail-
(inches) Plywood Fiberboard Paneling pops" will be greatly reduced. It is good practice, when
Tn. Tn. In. framing members have a high moisture content, i to
allow them to approach moisture equilibrium before
16 VA H Vs
20 3/8 4 H application of the gypsum board. Nails should be
24 y^ H VG spaced 6 to 8 inches for sidewalls and 5 to 7 inches
for ceiling appHcation (fig. 119,5). Minimum edge
distance is % inch.
Gypsum Board The horizontal method of application is best adapted
Gypsum board is a sheet material composed of a to rooms in which full-length sheets can be used, as it
gypsum filler faced with paper. Sheets are normally minimizes the number of vertical joints. Where joints
4 feet wide and 8 feet in length, but can be obtained are necessary, they should be made at windows or
in lengths up to 16 feet. The edges along the length doors. Nail spacing is the same as that used in vertical
are usually tapered, although some types are tapered application. When studs are spaced 16 inches on cen-
on all edges. This allows for a filled and taped joint. ter, horizontal nailing blocks between studs are nor-
This material may also be obtained with a foil back mally not required when stud spacing is not greater
which serves as a vapor barrier on exterior walls. It than 16 inches on center and gypsum board is % inch
is also available with vinyl or other prefinished sur- or thicker. However, when spacing is greater, or an
faces. In new construction, l/4-inch thickness is recom- impact-resistant joint is required, nailing blocks may
mended for single-layer application. In laminated two- be used (fig. 119,C).
ply applications, two %-inch-thick sheets are used. Another method of gypsum-board application (lami-
The %-inch thickness, while considered minimum for na.'^ed two-ply) includes an undercourse of %-inch
16-inch stud spacing in single-layer applications, is material applied vertically and nailed in place. The
normally specified for repair and remodeling work. finish %-inch sheet is applied horizontally, usually in
Table 8 lists maximum member spacing for the room-size lengths, with an adhesive. This adhesive is
various thicknesses of gypsum board. either applied in ribbons, or is spread with a notched
When the single-layer system is used, the 4-foot-wide trowel. The manufacturer's recommendations should
gypsum sheets are applied vertically or horizontally be followed in all respects.
on the walls after the ceiling has been covered. Vertical Nails in the finish gypsum wallboard should be
application covers three stud spaces when studs are driven with the heads slightly below^ the surface. The
spaced 16 inches on center, and two when spacing is crowned head of the hammer will form a small dimple
24 inches. Edges should be centered on studs, and in the wallboard (fig. 120,^). A nail set should not

128
 STRONG BACK

TOENAIL TO JOIST
NAIL TO PLANK

NAILS 6"-8"aC.

STUD

NAILING BLOCK

^SOLE PLATE

M 134 784
Figur* 119.Application of gypsL*m board finish: A, Strong bacic; , vertical application; C, horizontal application.

129
 STUD

GYPSUM
BOARD

TAPERED EDGE
JOINT CEMENT
"DIMPLE"
TAPE

JOINT CEMENT
A
FEATHER EDGE

SHARP FOLD
NO TAPE REQUIRED

C
M 134 769
Figure 120.Finishing gypsum dry wall: A, Nail set with crowned hammer; B, cementing and
taping joint; C, taping at inside corners; D, alternate finish at ceiling.

be used, and care should be taken to avoid breaking 2. Press the tape into the recess with the putty knife
the paper face. until the joint cement is forced through the perfora-
Joint cement, "spackle," is used to apply the tape tions.
over the tapered edge joints and to smooth and level 3. Cover the tape with additional cement, fe mering
the surface. It comes in powder form and is mixed the outer edges.
with water to a soft putty consistency so that it can
4. Allow to dry, sand the joint lightly, and then
be easily spread with a trowel or putty knife. It can
apply the second coat, feathering the edges. A steel
also be obtained in premixed form. The general pro-
trowel is sometimes used in applying the second coat.
cedure for taping (fig. 120,) is as follows:
For best results, a third coat may be applied, feather-
1. Use a wide spackling knife (5 in.) and spread ing beyond the second coat.
the cement in the tapered edges, starting at the top of 5. After the joint cement is dry, sand smooth (an
the wall. electric hand vibrating sander works well).

130
 6. For hiding hammer indentations, fill with joint form must be V2 inch thick when frame members are
cement and sand smooth when dry. Repeat with the spaced 16 inches on center and % inch when 24-inch
second coat when necessary. spacing is used, as previously outlined. The casing or
Interior corners may be treated with tape. Fold the finishing nails must be slightly longer than those used
tape down the center to a right angle (fig. 120,C) for plywood or hardboard; spacing is about the same.
and (1) apply cement at the corner, (2) press the tape Fiberboard is also used in the ceiling as acoustic tile
in place, and (3) finish the corner with joint cement. and may be nailed to strips fastened to ceiling joists.
Sand smooth when dry and apply a second coat. It is also installed in 12- by 12-inch or larger tile forms
The interior corners between walls and ceilings may on wood or metal hangers which are hung from the
also be concealed with some type of molding (fig. ceiling joists. This system is called a "suspended
120,D). When moldings are used, taping this joint is ceiling."
not necessary. Wallboard corner beads at exterior cor-
ners will prevent damage to the gypsum board. They Wood Paneling
are fastened in place and covered with the joint Various types and patterns of woods are available
cement. for application on walls to obtain desired decorative
effects. For informal treatment, knotty pine, white-
Plywood pocket Douglas-fir, sound wormy chestnut, and pecky
Prefinished plywood is available in a number of cypress, finished natural or stained and varnished, may
species, and its use should not be overlooked for accent be used to cover one or more sides of a room. Wood
walls or to cover entire room wall areas. Plywood for paneling should be thoroughly seasoned to a moisture
interior covering may be used in 4- by 8-foot and content near the average it reaches in service (fig.
longer sheets. They may be applied vertically or hori- 121), in most areas about 8 percent. Allow the mate-
zontally, but with solid backing at all edges. For 16- rial to reach this condition by placing it around the
inch frame-member spacing, l/4-inch thickness is con- wall of the heated room. Boards may be applied hor-
sidered minimum. For 20- or 24-inch spacing, %-inch izontally or vertically, but the same general methods
plywood is the minimum thickness. Casing or finish- of application should pertain to each. The following
ing nails 1^4 to ly^ inches long are used. Space them may be used as a guide in the application of matched
8 inches apart on the walls and 6 inches apart on ceil- wood paneling:
ings. Edge nailing distance should be not less than %
1. Apply over a vapor barrier and insulation when
inch. Allow 1/32"^*^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ed^e distance between application is on the exterior wall framing or blocking
sheets when installing. Most wood or wood-base panel
(fig. 122).
materials should be exposed to the conditions of the
2. Boards should not be wider than 8 inches except
room before installation. Place them around the heated
when a long tongue or matched edges are used.
room for at least 24 hours.
3. Thickness should be at least % inch for 16-inch
Adhesives may also be used to fasten prefinished
spacing of frame members, V2 ii^ch for 20-inch spac-
plywood and other sheet materials to wall studs. These
ing, and % inch for 24-inch spacing.
panel adhesives usually eliminate the need for more
4. Maximum spacing of supports for nailing should
than two guide nails for each sheet. Application usually
be 24 inches on center (blocking for vertical applica-
conforms to the following procedure: (a) Position the
tions) .
sheet and fasten it with two nails for guides at the
5. Nails should be fivepenny or sixpenny casing
top or side, fb) remove plywood and spread contact
or finishing nails.
or similar adhesive on the framing members, (c)
press the plywood in place for full contact using the Use two nails for boards 6 inches or less wide and
nails for positioning, (d) pull the plywood away from three nails for 8-inch and wider boards. One nail can
the studs and allow adhesive to set, and (e) press ply- be blind-nailed in matched paneling.
wood against the framing members and tap lightly Wood paneling in the form of small plywood squares
with a rubber mallet for full contact. Manufacturers can also be used for an interior wall covering (fig.
of adhesives supply full instructions for application of 123). When used over framing and a vapor barrier,
sheet materials. blocking should be so located that each edge has full
bearing. Each edge should be fastened with casing or
Hardboard and Fiberboard finish nails. When two sides are tongued and grooved,
Hardboard and fiberboard are applied the same way one edge (tongued side) may be blind-nailed. When
as plywood. Hardboard must be at least 1/4 inch when paneling (16 by 48 in. or larger) crosses studs, it
used over open framing spaced 16 inches on center. should also be nailed at each intermediate bearing.
Rigid backing of some type is required for Vs-inch Matched (tongued-and-grooved) sides should be used
hardboard. when no horizontal blocking is provided or paneling
Fiberboard in tongued-and-grooved plank or sheet is not used over a solid backing.

131
MOISTURE CONTENT

M 134 757
Figure 121.Recommended average moisture content for interior finish woodwork
different parts of the United States.

^EXTERIOR WALL

VAPOR BARRIER
CEILING MOLDING

WOOD
PANELING

BLOCKING
BETWEEN
STUDS

SHEATHING

BLIND AND FACE NAIL

M 134 728
Figure 122.Blocking between studs for vertical wood paneling.

132
 CEILING MOLDING

VAPOR
BARRIER

SHEATHING

BASE
FINISHING NAILS

'EXTERIOR WALL

INSULATION

M 134 723
Figure 123.Application of tongued-and-grooved paneling over studs.

CHAPTER 20

FLOOR COVERINGS

The term "finish flooring" refers to the material practical properties, perhaps durability and mainte-
used as the final wearing surface that is applied to a nance ease are the most important. However, initial
floor. Perhaps in its simplest form it might be paint cost, comfort, and beauty or appearance must also be
over a concrete floor slab. One of the many resilient considered. Specific service requirements may call
tile floorings applied directly to the slab would likely for special properties, such as resistance to hard wear
be an improvement from the standpoint of mainte- in warehouses and on loading platforms, or comfort
nance, but not necessarily from the comfort stand- to users in offices and shops.
point. There is a wide selection of wood materials that may
be used for flooring. Hardwoods and softwoods are
Flooring Materials available as strip flooring in a variety of widths and
Numerous flooring materials now available may be thicknesses and as random-width planks and block
used over a variety of floor systems. Each has a flooring. Other materials include linoleum, asphalt,
property that adapts it to a particular usage. Of the rubber, cork, vinyl, and other materials in tile or sheet

133
forms. Tile flooring is also available in a particleboard Perhaps the most widely used pattern is a ^%2- ^Y
which is manufactured with small wood particles com- 2^/4-inch strip flooring. These strips are laid length-
bined with resin and fabricated under high pressure. wise in a room and normally at right angles to the
Ceramic tile and carpeting are used in many areas in floor joists. Some type of a subfloor of diagonal
ways not thought practical a few years ago. Plastic boards or plywood is normally used under the finish
floor coverings used over concrete or stable wood sub- floor. Strip flooring of this type is tongued-and-grooved
floor are another variation in the types of finishes and end-matched (fig. 124). Strips are random length
available. and may vary from 2 to 16 feet or more. End-matched
strip flooring in 2.^^2-inch thickness is generally hollow
Wood-strip Flooring backed (fig. 124^4,). The face is slightly wider than
Softwood finish flooring costs less than most hard- the bottom so that tight joints result when flooring is
wood species and is often used to good advantage in laid. The tongue fits tightly into the groove to prevent
bedroom and closet areas where traffic is light. It movement and floor "squeaks," All of these details
might also be selected to fit the interior decor. It is are designed to provide beautiful finished floors that
less dense than the hardwoods, less wear-resistant, and require a minimum of maintenance.
shows surface abrasions more readily. Softwoods most Another matched pattern may be obtained in %-
commonly used for flooring are southern pine, by 2-inch size (fig. 124,5). This is commonly used
Douglas-fir, redwood, and western hemlock. for remodeling work or when subfloor is edge-blocked
Table 9 lists the grades and description of softwood or thick enough to provide very little deflection under
strip flooring. Softwood flooring has tongued-and- loads.
grooved edges and may be hollow-backed or grooved. Square-edged strip flooring {g. 124,C) might also
Some types are also end-matched. Vertical-grain floor- be used occasionally. It is usually % by 2 inches in
ing generally has better wearing qualities than flat- size and is laid up over a substantial subfloor. Face-
grain flooring under hard usage. nailing is required for this type.
Hardwoods most commonly used for flooring are Wood-block flooring (fig. 125) is made in a number
red and white oak. beech, birch, maple, and pecan. of patterns. Blocks may vary in size from 4 by 4
Table 9 lists grades, types, and sizes. Manufacturers inches to 9 by 9 inches and larger. Thickness varies by
supply both prefinished and unfinished flooring. type from 2%2 inch for laminated blocking or plywood

TABLE 9.Grade and description of strip flooring of several species and grain orientation

Size
Species Grain First Second Third
orientation Thickness Width grade grade grade

In. In.

SOFTWOODS
Douglas-fir Edge grain 1/8-5/8 B and Better C D
and hemlock Flat grain % 1/8-5/8
Southern pine Edge grain /l6-l /4 1/8-5/8 B and Better C, Cand D (and No. 2)
and Better
Flat grain
HARDWOODS
Oak Edge grain /4 Clear Select
Flat grain ^/32 Clear Select No. 1 Common
'%2 IK, 2 /
Beech, birch, 2/32 l>^-3/4 1
maple, and % \% 2/4 First grade Second grade Third grade
peacan ^ /2 \% 2/4 J

^ Special grades are available in which uniformity of color is a requirement.

134
 TONGUE

THICKNESS^

FACE WIDTH

M 134 758
Figure 124.Types of strip flooring: A, Side- and end-matched25/32-inch;
B, thin flooring stripsmatched; C, thin flooring stripssquare-edged.

TONGUE

SLAT

M 134 759
Figure 125.Wood block flooring: A, Tongued-and-grooved; 6, square-edgedsplined.

135
block tile (fig. 125,^) to %-inch stabilized veneer. sive deflection, (b) sleepers over concrete slabs are not
Solid wood tile is often made up of narrow strips of held down tightly, (c) tongues are loose fitting, or
wood splined or keyed together in a number of ways. (d) nailing is poor. Adequate nailing is an important
Edges of the thicker tile are tongued and grooved, but means of minimizing squeaks, and another is to apply
thinner sections of wood are usually square-edged the finish floors only after the joists have dried to 12
(fig. 125,5). Plywood blocks may be % inch and percent moisture content or less. A much better job
thicker and are usually tongued-and-grooved. Many results when it is possible to nail the finish floor
block floors are factory-finished and require only wax- through the subfloor into the joists than if the finish
ing after installation. While stabilized veneer squares floor is nailed only to the subfloor.
are still in the development stage, it is likely that re- Various types of nails are used in nailing different
search will produce a low-cost wood tile which can thicknesses of flooring. For 2^^2-inch flooring, it is
even compete with some of the cheaper nonwood best to use eightpenny flooring nails; for l/2-inch, six-
resilient tile now available. penny: and for %-inch fourpenny casing nails. (All
the foregoing are blind-nailed.) For thinner square-
Installation of Wood Strip Flooring edge flooring, it is best to use a ll/2-inch flooring brad
Flooring should be laid after plastering or other and face-nail every 7 inches with two nails, one near
interior wall and ceiling finish is completed and dried each edge of the strip, into the subfloor.
out, windows and exterior doors are in place, and most Other types of nails, such as the ring-shank and
of the interior trim, except base, casing, and jambs, screw-shank type, have been developed in recent years
are applied, so that it may not be damaged by wetting for nailing of flooring. In using them, it is well to
or by construction activity. check with the floor manufacturer's recommendations
Board subfloors should be clean and level and cov- as to size and diameter for specific uses. Flooring
ered with a deadening felt or heavy building paper. brads are also available with blunted points to prevent
This felt or paper will stop a certain amount of dust, splitting of the tongue.
will somewhat deaden sound, and, where a crawl space Figure 126,B shows the method of nailing the first
is used, will increase the warmth of the floor by pre- strip of flooring placed % to % inch away from the
venting air infiltration. To provide nailing into the wall. The space is to allow for expansion of the floor-
joists wherever possible, location of the joists should ing when moisture content increases. The nail is driven
be chalklined on the paper as a guide. Plywood sub- straight down through the board at the groove edge.
floor does not normally require building paper. The nails should be driven into the joist and near
Strip flooring should normally be laid crosswise to enough to the edge so that they will be covered by
the floor joists (^. 126,A). In conventionally de- the base or shoe molding. The first strip of flooring
signed houses, the floor joists span the width of the can also be nailed through the tongue. Figure 127,A
building over a center supporting beam or wall. Thus, shows in detail how nails should be driven into the
the finish flooring of the entire floor area of a rectan- tongue of the flooring at an angle of 45 to 50. The
gular house will be laid in the same direction. Floor- nail should not be driven quite flush so as to prevent
ing with "L" or "T" shaped plans will usually have damaging the edge by the hammerhead (fig. 127,5).
a direction change at the wings, depending on joist The nail can be set with the end of a large-size nail
direction. As joists usually span the short way in a set or by laying the nail set flatwise against the floor-
living room, the flooring will be laid lengthwise to ing (fig. 127,). Nailing devices using standard floor-
the room. This is desirable appearance-wise and also ing or special nails are often used by flooring con-
will reduce shrinkage and swelling effects on the floor- tractors. One blow of the hammer on the plunger
ing during seasonal changes. drives and sets the nail.
Flooring should be delivered only during dry To prevent splitting the flooring, it is sometimes
weather and stored in the warmest and driest place desirable to predrill through the tongue, especially at
available in the house. The recommended average the ends of the strip. For the second course of flooring
moisture content for flooring at time of installation from the wall, select pieces so that the butt joints will
varies somewhat in different sections of the United be well separated from those in the first course. Under
States. The moisture content map (fig. 121) outlines normal conditions, each board should be driven up
these recommendations. Moisture absorbed after de- tightly. Crooked pieces may require wedging to force
livery to the house site is one of the most common them into alinement or may be cut and used at the
causes of open joints between flooring strips that ap- ends of the course or in closets. In completing the
pear after several months of the heating season. flooring, a Y2- to %-inch space is provided between
Floor squeaks are usually caused by movement of the wall and the last flooring strip. Because of the
one board against another. Such movement may occur closeness of the wall, this strip is usually face-nailed
because: (a) Floor joists are too light, causing exces- so that the base or shoe covers the set nailheads.

136
 STAGGER JOINTS
IN END-MATCHED
FLOORiNG
FLOORING
SUBFLOOR

BUILDING PAPER

PLASTER OR DRY WALL

BASE
SHOE

BLIND NAIL (TONGUE)

FLOORING STRIP

SOLE PLATE 'FACE NAIL

SPACE '/2" TO Vo" FROM WALL

M 134 760
Figure 126.Application of strip flooring: A, General application; B, starting strip.

Installation of Wood Flooring Over must be used when the concrete is already in place
Concrete Slabs (fig. 110.)
Installation of wood floor over concrete slabs wa.s Another system of preparing a base for wood floor-
described briefly in the chapter "Concrete Floor Slabs ing when there is no vapor barrier under the slab is
on Ground" and illustrated in figure 15. As outlined, shown in figure 128. To resist decay, treated 1- by 4-
inch furring strips are anchored to the existing slab,
one of the important factors in satisfactory perform-
shimming when necessary to provide a level base.
ance is the use of a good vapor barrier under the
Strips should be spaced no more than 16 inches on
slab to resist the movement of ground moisture and center. A good waterproof or water-vapor resistant
vapor. The vapor barrier is placed under the slab coating on the concrete before the treated strips are
during construction. However, an alternate method applied is usually recommended to aid in reducing

137
moisture movement. A vapor barrier, such as a 4-mil tongues on two edges and grooves on the other two
polyethylene or similar membrane, is then laid over edges. If the base is wood, these tiles are commonly
the anchored 1-by 4-inch wood strips and a second nailed through the tongue into the subfloor. However,
set of 1 by 4's nailed to the first. Use 1^-inch-long wood block may be applied on concrete slabs with
nails spaced 12 to 16 inches apart in a staggered an adhesive. Wood block flooring is installed by
pattern. The moisture content of these second mem- changing the grain direction of alternate blocks. This
bers should be about the same as that of the strip minimizes the effects of shrinking and swefling of the
flooring to be applied (6 to 11 pet., fig. 121). Strip wood.
flooring can then be installed as previously described. One type of wood floor tile is made up of a number
When other types of finish floor, such as a resilient of narrow slats to form 4- by 4-inch and larger squares.
tile, are used, plywood is placed over the 1 by 4's as a Four or more of these squares, with alternating grain
base. direction, form a block. Slats, squares, and blocks are
held together with an easily removed membrane. Ad-
Wood and Particleboard Tile Flooring
hesive is spread on the concrete slab or underlayment
Wood and particleboard tile are, for the most part, with a notched trowel and the blocks installed imme-
applied with adhesive on a plywood or similar base. diately. The membrane is then removed and the blocks
The exception is 2^^^.inch wood block floor, which has tamped in place for full adhesive contact. Manufac-

FLOORING

FLOORING NAIL
4-5**- 50

NAILSET
NAIL LOCATION

M 134 755
Figure 127.Nailing of flooring: A, Nail angle; B, setting of nail.

138
 STRIP FLOORING

VAPOR
BARRIER

TREATED IxA
(ANCHOR TO SLAB)
CONCRETE SLAB WATERPROOF COATING

M 134 761
Figure 128.Base for wood flooring on concrete slab (without on underlying vapor barrier).

turer's recommendations for adhesive and method of upon which the tile is to be laid. This tile should not
application should always be followed. Similar tile be used over concrete.
made up of narrow strips of wood are fastened together
with small rabbeted cleats, tape or similar fastening
methods. They too are normally applied with adhesive Base for Resilient Floors
in accordance with manufacturer's directions. Resilient floors should not be installed directly over
Plywood squares with tongued-and-grooved edges a board or plank subfloor. Underlayment grade of
are another popular form of wood tile. Installation is wood-based panels such as plywood, particleboard,
much the same as for the wood tile previously de- and hardboard is widely used for suspended floor
scribed. Usually, tile of this type is factory-finished. applications (fig. 129^4).
A wood-base product used for finish floors is parti-
Four- by 8-foot plywood or particleboard panels, in
cleboard tile. It is commonly 9 by 9 by % inches in
a range of thickness from % to % inch, are generally
size with tongued-and-grooved edges. The back face
is often marked with small saw kerfs to stabilize the selected for use in new construction. Four- by 4-foot
tile and provide a better key for the adhesive. Manu- or larger sheets of untempered hardboard, plywood,
facturer's directions as to the type of adhesive and or particleboard of ^- or %-inch thickness is used in
method of installation are usually very complete; some remodeling work because of the floor thicknesses in-
even include instructions on preparation of the base volved. The underlayment grade of particleboard is

139
 RESILIENT FLOORING

UNDERLAYMENT

SUBFLOOR
% UNDERLAYMENT
M 134 762
Figure 128.Base for wood flooring and concrete slab (without an underlying vapor barrier).

a standard product and is available from many pro- blocked edges and C-plugged or better faces to pro-
ducers. Manufacturer's instructions should be followed vide a smooth, even surface for the resilient floor
in the care and use of the product. Plywood under- covering.
layment is also a standard product and is available The method of installing plywood combination sub-
in interior types, exterior types, and interior types floor and underlayment has been covered in the sec-
with an exterior glueline. The underlayment grade tion on Plywood Subfloor. Underlayment should be
provides for a sanded panel with a C-plugged or laid up as outlined in that section with %2'nch edge
better face ply and a C-ply or better immediately and end spacing. Sand smooth to provide a level base
under the face. This construction resists damage to for the resilient flooring. To prevent nails from show-
the floor surface from concentrated loads such as ing on the surface of the tile, joists and subfloor should
chair legs, etc. have a moisture content near the average value they
Generally, underlayment panels are separate and reach in service.
installed over structurally adequate subfloors. Combi- The thickness of the underlayment will vary some-
nation subfloor-underlayment panels of plywood con- what, depending on the floors in adjoining rooms.
struction find increasing usage. Panels for this dual The installation of tile in a kitchen area, for example,
purpose use generally have tongued-and-grooved or is usually made over a %-inch underlayment when

140
finish floors in the adjoining living or dining areas include laying out a base line at or near the center of
are 2%2-inch strip flooring (fig. 129,B). When thinner the room and parallel to its length. The center or near
wood floors are used in adjoining rooms, adjustments center, depending on how the tile will finish at the
are made in the thickness of the underlayment. edges, is used as a starting point. This might also be
Concrete for resilient floors should be prepared as used as a point in quartering the room with a second
shown in figures 14, 15, or 16, with a good vapor guideline at exact right angles to the first. The tile
barrier installed somewhere between the soil and the is then laid in quarter-room sections after the adhesive
finish floor, preferably just under the slab. Concrete is spread.
should be leveled carefully when a resilient floor is
to be used directly on the slab to minimize dips and Seamless
waves. A liquid-applied seamless flooring, consisting of
Tile should not be laid on a concrete slab until it resin chips combined with a urethane binder, is a
has completely dried. One method which may be used relatively new development in floor coverings. It is
to determine this is to place a small square of poly- applied in a 2-day cycle and can be used over a con-
ethylene or other low-perm material on the slab over- crete base or a plywood subfloor. Plywood in new
night. If the underside is dry in the morning, the construction should be at least a C-C plugged exterior
slab is usually considered dry enough for the installa- grade in %-inch thickness, or %-inch plywood over
tion of the tile. existing floors. This type of floor covering can be
easily renewed.
Types of Resilient Floors
Linoleum Carpeting
Linoleum may be obtained in various thicknesses Carpeting many areas of a home from living room
and grades, usually in 6-foot-wide rolls. It should not to kitchen and bath is becoming more popular as new
be laid on concrete slabs on the ground. Manufac- carpeting materials are developed. The cost, however,
turer's directions should be followed. After the lino- may be considerably higher than a finished wood
leum is laid, it is usually rolled to insure complete floor, and the life of the carpeting before replacement
adhesion to the floor. would be much less than that of the wood floor. Many
wise home builders will specify oak floors even though
Asphalt Tile they expect to carpet some areas. The resale value of
Asphalt tile is one of the lower cost resilient cover- the home is then retained even if the carpeting is
ings and may be laid on a concrete slab which is in removed. However, the advantage of carpeting in
contact with the ground. However, the vapor barrier sound absorption and resistance to impact should be
under the slab is still necessary. Asphalt tile is about considered. This is particularly important in multi-
Ys inch thick and usually 9 by 9 or 12 by 12 inches floor apartments where impact noise reduction is an
in size. Because most types are damaged by grease extremely important phase of construction. If carpeting
and oil, it is not used in kitchens. is to be used, subfloor can consist of %-inch (mini-
Asphalt tile is ordinarily installed with an adhesive mum) tongued and grooved plywood (over 16-inch
spread with a notched trowel. Both the type of adhe- joist spacing). Top face of the plywood should be C
sive and size of notches are usually recommended by plugged grade or better. Mastic adhesives are also
the manufacturer. being used to advantage in applying plywood to floor
joists. Plywood, particleboard, or other underlayments
Other Tile Forms are also used for a carpet base when installed over a
Vinyl, vinyl asbestos, rubber, cork, and similar subfloor.
coverings are manufactured in tile form, and several
types are available for installation in 6-foot-wide rolls.
Tliese materials are usually laid over some type of Ceramic Tile
underlayment and not directly on a concrete slab. Ceramic tile and similar floor coverings in many
Standard tile size is 9 by 9 inches but it may also be sizes and patterns for bath, lavatory, and entry areas
obtained in 12- by 12-inch size and larger. Decorative may be installed by the cement-plaster method or by
strips may be used to outline or to accent the room's the use of adhesives. The cement-plaster method re-
perimeter. quires a concrete-cement setting bed of 1^ inches
In installing all types of square or rectangular minimum thickness (fig. 130). Joists are chamfered
tile, it is important that the joints do not coincide (beveled) and cleats used to support waterproof ply-
with the joints of the underlayment. For this reason, wood subfloor or forms cut between the joists. The
it is recommended that a layout be made before cement base is reinforced with woven wire fabric or
tile is laid. Normally, the manufacturer's directions expanded metal lath.

141
 CERAMIC FLOOR
TILE

REIN

MENT

NIMUM

PLYWOOD
FORMING

CLEATS (LEDGER)

M 134 763
Figure 130.Cement base for ceramic floor tile.

Tile should be soaked before it is installed. It is thick with perimeter and intermediate nailing provides
pressed firmly in place in the still plastic setting bed, a good base. Before installing tile, a waterproof sealer
mortar is compressed in the joints, and the joints or a thin coat of tile adhesive is applied to the ply-
tooled the same day tile is laid. Laying tile in this wood. Tile should be set over a full covering of adhe-
manner normally requires a workman skilled in this sive using the "floating method" with a slight twisting
system. It should then be covered with waterproof movement for full embedment. "Buttering" or using
paper for damp curing. small pats of adhesive on each tile is not acceptable.
Adhesive used for ceramic floor tile should be the Tile should not be grouted until volatiles from the
type recommended by the manufacturer. When in- adhesive have evaporated. After grouting, joints should
stalled over wood joists, a waterproof plywood %-inch be fullv tooled.

CHAPTER 21

INTERIOR DOORS, FRAMES, AND TRIM

Interior trim, doorframes, and doors are normally frames before the finish floor is in place, allowing for
installed after the finish floor is in place. Cabinets, the flooring at the bottom of the jambs. This is usually
built-in bookcases and fireplace mantels, and other done when the jambs act as plaster grounds. However,
because excessive moisture is present and edges of the
millwork units are also placed and secured at this
jambs are often marred, this practice is usually unde-
time. Some contractors may install the interior door- sirable.

142
 Decorative Treatment feet 8 inches for first floors, but 6-foot 6-inch doors
are sometimes used on the upper floors.
The decorative treatment for interior doors, trim,
and other millwork may be paint or a natural finish Casing
with stain, varnish, or other non-pigmented material.
The paint or natural finish desired for the woodwork Casing is the edge trim around interior door open-
ings and is also used to finish the room side of win-
in various rooms often determines the type of species
dows and exterior door frames. Casing usually varies
of wood to be used. Interior finish that is to be painted
should be smooth, close-grained, and free from pitch in width from 2% to 3^2 inches, depending on the
style. Casing may be obtained in thicknesses from %
streaks. Some species having these requirements in a
to % inch, although i^i inch is standard in many
high degree include ponderosa pine, northern white
pine, redwood, and spruce. When hardness and re- of the narrow-line patterns. Two common patterns are
shown in figure 131,D and E.
sistance to hard usage are additional requirements,
species such as birch, gum, and yellow-poplar are de- Interior Doors
sirable.
As in exterior door styles, the two general interior
For natural finish treatment, a pleasing figure, hard-
types are the flush and the panel door. Novelty doors,
ness, and uniform color are usually desirable. Species
such as the folding door unit, might be flush or lou-
with these requirements include ash, birch, cherry,
vered. Most standard interior doors are 1% inches
maple, oak, and walnut. Some require staining for
thick.
best appearance.
The flush interior door is usually made up with a
The recommended moisture content for interior
hollow core of light framework of some type with thin
finish varies from 6 to 11 percent, depending on the
plywood or hardboard (fig. 132,^). Plywood-faced
climatic conditions. The areas of varying moisture
flush doors may be obtained in gum, birch, oak, ma-
content in the United States are shown in figure 121.
hogany, and woods of other species, most of which
are suitable for natural finish. Nonselected grades are
Trim Parts for Doors and Frames usually painted as are hardboard-faced doors.
Doorframes The panel door consists of solid stiles (vertical side
members), rails (cross pieces), and panel filters of
Rough openings in the stud walls for interior doors
various types. The five-cross panel and the Colonial-
are usually framed out to be 3 inches more than the
type panel doors are perhaps the most common of this
door height and 2^4 inches more than the door width.
style (fig. 132,5 and C). The louvered door (fig.
This provides for the frame and its plumbing and
132,Z)) is also popular and is commonly used for
leveling in the opening. Interior doorframes are made
up of two side jambs and a head jamb and include closets because it provides some ventilation. Large
stop moldings upon which the door closes. The most openings for wardrobes are finished with sliding or
common of these jambs is the one-piece type (fig. folding doors, or with flush or louvered doors (fig.
131,/i). Jambs may be obtained in standard 514-inch 132,E). Such doors are usually 1% inches thick.
widths for plaster walls and 4%-inch widths for walls Hinged doors should open or swing in the direction
with 1/2-inch dry-wall finish. The two-and three-piece of natural entry, against a blank wall whenever pos-
adjustable jambs are also standard types (fig. 131, sible, and should not be obstructed by other swinging
and C). Their principal advantage is in being adapt- doors. Doors should never be hinged to swing into a
able to a variety of wall thicknesses. hallway.
Some manufacturers produce interior doorframes
with the door fitted and prehung, ready for installing. Doorframe and Trim Installation
Application of the casing completes the job. When When the frame and doors are not assembled and
used with two- or three-piece jambs, casings can even
prefitted, the side jambs should be fabricated by nail-
be installed at the factory.
ing through the notch into the head jamb with three
Common minimum widths for single interior doors
sevenpenny or eightpenny coated nails (fig. 131,^).
are: (a) Bedroom and other habitable rooms, 2 feet
The assembled frames are then fastened in the rough
6 inches; (b) bathrooms, 2 feet 4 inches; (c) small
closet and linen closets. 2 feet. These sizes vary a openings by shingle wedges used between the side jamb
great deal, and sliding doors, folding door units, and and the stud (fig. 133,^). One jamb is plumbed and
similar types are often used for wardrobes and may leveled using four or five sets of shingle wedges for
be 6 feet or more in width. However, in most cases, the height of the frame. Two eightpenny finishing nails
the jamb, stop, and casing parts are used in some man- are used at each wedged area, one driven so that the
ner to frame and finish the opening. doorstop will cover it (fig. 133,^). The opposite side
Standard interior and exterior door heights are 6 jamb is now fastened in place with shingle wedges and

143
 NAIL- SIDEJAMB
TO HEADJAMB

HEADJAMB

NOTCH

STOP

M 134 764
Figure 131.Interior door parts: A, Door ambs and stops; B, two-piece jamb;
C, three-piece jamb; D, Colonial casing; E, ranch casing.

00
1' ,' \ \
1 1
1
r n1
lU u
1
1 lU y
\ B C o E
M 134 753
Figure 132.Interior doors: A, Flush; B, panel (flve-cross); C, panel (Colonial); D, louvered; f, folding (louvered).

144
inishing nails, using the first jamb as a guide in keep- depending on the thickness of the casing, are used to
ng a uniform width. nail into the stud. Fourpenny or fivepenny finishing
Casings are nailed to both the jamb and the fram- nails or lV2-iiich brads are used to fasten the thinner
ing studs or header, allowing about a %6-inch edge edge of the casing to the jamb. In hardwood, it is
distance from the face of the jamb (fig. 133,^4) Fin- usually advisable to predrill to prevent splitting. Nails
ish or casing nails in sixpenny or sevenpenny sizes, in the casing are located in pairs (fig. 133,^) and

NG STUDS

GROUND
NAIL

SHINGLE WEDGE

NAIL

BEVEL CUT

CASING-
NAIL--
(DRILL)
D-
MITER JOINT \ ^BUTT JOINT

C
M 134 766
Figure 133.Doorframe and trim: A, Installation; B, miter oint for casing; C, butt joint for casing.

145
spaced about 16 inches apart along the full height of
the opening and at the head jamb.
Casing with any form of molded shape must have
a mitered joint at the corners (fig. 133,iB) When cas-
ing is square-edged, a butt joint may be made at the
junction of the side and head casing (fig. 133,C). If -HINGE
the moisture content of the casing is well above that
recommended in figure 121, a mitered joint may open
slightly at the outer edge as the material dries. This
can be minimized by using a small glued spline at
the corner of the mitered joint. Actually, use of a i/e"
spline joint under any moisture condition is considered
good practice, and some prefitted jamb, door, and
casing units are provided with splined joints. Nailing
into the joint after drilling will aid in retaining a '/IS"
close fit (fig. 133, and C).
KNOB.
The door opening is now complete except for fitting
and securing the hardware and nailing the stops in
proper position. Interior doors are normally hung
with two 3^2- by 3Vi>-inch loose-pin butt hinges. The
door is fitted into the opening with the clearances
shown in figure 134. The clearance and location of
hinges, lock set, and doorknob may vary somewhat, 36"-38"
but they are generally accepted by craftsmen and
conform to most millwork standards. The edge of 'HINGE
the lock stile should be beveled slightly to permit the
door to clear the jamb when swung open. If the
door is to swing across heavy carpeting, the bottom
clearance may be slightly more.
Thresholds are used under exterior doors to close
the space allowed for clearance. Weather strips
'/a" OR MORE
around exterior door openings are very efi^ective in
M 134 765
reducing air infiltration.
Figure 1 34.Door clearances.
In fitting doors, the stops are usually temporarily
nailed in place until the door has been hung. Stops
for doors in single-piece jambs are generally % Hinges
inch thick and may be % to 2^4 inches wide. They Using three hinges for hanging 1%-inch exterior
are installed with a mitered joint at the junction of doors and two hinges for the lighter interior doors
the side and head jambs. A 45 bevel cut at the bot- is common practice. There is some tendency for
tom of the stop, about 1 to 1% inches above the exterior doors to warp during the winter because of
finish floor, will eliminate a dirt pocket and make the difference in exposure on the opposite sides. The
cleaning or refinishing of the floor easier (fig. 133,^) three hinges reduce this tendency. Three hinges are
Some manufacturers supply prefitted door jambs also useful on doors that lead to unheated attics
and doors with the hinge slots routed and ready for and for wider and heavier doors that may be used
installation. A similar door buck of sheet metal with within the house.
formed stops and casing is also available. Loose-pin butt hinges should be used and must be
of the proper size for the door they support. For
1%-inch-thick doors, use 4- by 4-inch butts; for 1%-
Installation of Door Hardware inch doors, SVii- by 3V2-inch butts. After the door is
Hardware for doors may be obtained in a num- fitted to the framed opening, with the proper clear-
ber of finishes, with brass, bronze, and nickel per- ances, hinge halves are fitted to the door. They
haps the most common. Door sets are usually classed are routed into the door edge with about a %6-inch
as: (a) Entry lock for exterior doors, (b) bath- back distance (fig. 135,^). One hinge half should
room set (inside lock control with safety slot for open- be set flush with the surface and must be fastened
ing from the outside), (c) bedroom lock (keyed square with the edge of the door. Screws are in-
lock), and (d) passage set (without lock). cluded with each pair of hinges.

146
 3/16
HOLE FOR ,
SPINDLE v-^
HINGE \
FACEPLATE
ROUTING

DOOR DRILL FOR

EDGE LOCK

HOLE FOR-^
KEY

FACEPLATE
ROUTING

M 134 767
Figure 135.Installation of door hardware; A, Hinge; , mortise lock; C, bored lock set.

147
 The door is now placed in the opening and blocked type (fig. 135,C) is much easier to install as it re-
up at the bottom for proper clearance. The jamb is quires only one hole drilled in the edge and one in
marked at the hinge locations, and the remaining the face of the door. Boring jigs and faceplate
hinge half is routed and fastened in place. The door is markers are available to provide accurate installation.
then positioned in the opening and the pins slipped The lock should be installed so that the doorknob
in place. If hinges have been installed correctly and is 36 to 38 inches above the floorline. Most sets come
the jambs are plumb, the door will swing freely. with paper templates marking the location of the
lock and size of the holes to be drilled.
Locks
Types of door locks differ with regard to instal- Strike Plate
lation, first cost, and the amount of labor required The strike plate, which is routed into the door
to set them. Lock sets are supplied with instructions jamb, holds the door in place by contact with the
that should be followed for installation. Some types latch. To install, mark the location of the latch on
require drilling of the edge and face of the door the door jamb and locate the strike plate in this
and routing of the edge to accommodate the lock way. Rout out the marked outline with a chisel and
set and faceplate (fig. L35,5). A more common bored also rout for the latch (fig. 136,^4). The strike plate

FRAMING STUDS

SIDEJAMB

STOP

CASINO
NAILS
STRIKE PLATE
(ROUT)

'CASING

JAMB
/ STOP STOP
>;^^^-'/32" CLEARANCE SLIGHT BEVEL

HINGE
w^
'y--'vm L\1
SIDE
a a ana a a
DOOR
rn^
LOCK SIDE
P LAN VIEW

M 134 768
Figure 136.Door details: A, Installation of strike plate; B, location of stops.

148
should be flush with or slightly below the face of place. Remember that when door and trim are
the door jamb. When the door is latched, its face painted, some of the clearances will be taken up.
should be flush with the edge of the jamb.
Wood-trim Installation
Doorstops The casing around the window frames on the
The stops which have been set temporarily during interior of the house should be the same pattern
fitting of the door and installation of the hardware as that used around the interior door frames. Other
may now be nailed in place permanently. Finish trim which is used for a double-hung window frame
nails or brads, 1% inches long, should be used. The includes the sash stops, stool, and apron (fig. 137,^).
stop at the lock side should be nailed first, setting it Another method of using trim around windows has
tight against the door face when the door is latched. the entire opening enclosed with casing (fig. 137,5).
Space the nails 16 inches apart in pairs (fig. 136,^). The stool is then a filler member between the bottom
The stop behind the hinge side is nailed next, and sash rail and the bottom casing.
a 1/32-inch clearance from the door face should be The stool is the horizontal trim member that laps
allowed (fig. 133,) to prevent scraping as the door the window sill and extends beyond the casing at the
is opened. The head-jamb stop is then nailed in sides, with each end notched against the plastered

OUTSIDE CASING-

JAMB
PARTING STRIP
PLASTER
CASING

NAIL STCX>L TO SILL

JAMB

SILL

-CASING
APRON
TOENAIL
STOP

CASING
NARROW STOOL

M 134 770
Figure 137.Installation of window trim: A, With stool and apron; B^ enclosed with casing.

149
wall. The apron serves as a finish member below subjambs into which the upper and lower sash slide,
the stool. The window^ stool is the first piece of replacing the parting strip. Stops are located against
window trim to be installed and is notched and these instead of the sash to provide a small amount
fitted against the edge of the jamb and the plaster of pressure. The apron is cut to a length equal to
line, with the outside edge being flush against the the outer width of the casing line (fig. 137,^). It is
bottom rail of the window^ sash (fig. 137,^). The nailed to the window sill and to the 2- by 4-inch
stool is blind-nailed at the ends so that the casing framing sill below.
and the stop will cover the nailheads. Predrilling is When casing is used to finish the bottom of the
usually necessary to prevent splitting. The stool window frame as well as the sides and top, the nar-
should also be nailed at midpoint to the sill and to row stool butts against the side window jamb. Cas-
the apron with finishing nails. Face-nailing to the ing is then mitered at the bottom corners (fig. 137,)
sill is sometimes substituted or supplemented with and nailed as previously described.
toenailing of the outer edge to the sill {.^. 137,y4).
The casing is applied and nailed as described for Base and Ceiling Moldings
doorframes (fig. 133,^), except that the inner edge Base Moldings
is flush with the inner face of the jambs so that the
Base molding serves as a finish between the finished
stop will cover the joint between the jamb and casing. wall and floor. It is available in several widths and
The window stops are then nailed to the jambs so forms. Two-piece base consists of a baseboard topped
that the window sash slides smoothly. Channel-type with a small base cap (fig. 138,^). When plaster
weather stripping often includes full-width metal is not straight and true, the small base moldinof will

. BASE CAP

ii-INSIDE CORNER

COPE

Figure 138.Base molding: A, Square-edge base; , narrow ranch base; C, wide ranch base;
0, installation; B, cope.

150
conform more closely to the variations than will the
wider base alone. A common size for this type of
baseboard is % by 3^4 inches or wider. One-piece
base varies in size from V^Q by 21/4 inches to % by
3^4 inches and wider (g. 138,5 and C). Although
a wood member is desirable at the junction of the n 1X ^^^^
^^^^s^-COPE^x^

r^
wall and carpeting to serve as a protective "bumper",
wood trim is sometimes eliminated entirely.
Most baseboards are finished with a base shoe,
V2 by % inch in size (fig. 138,.^, B, and C). A single-
PI \
r \
-BUTT P
AGAINS

base molding without the shoe is sometimes placed A /

/
at the wall-floor junction, especially where carpeting
might be used.

Installation of Base Molding CUT-BACK EDGE

Square-edged baseboard should be installed with a

butt joint at inside corners and a mitered joint at
outside corners (fig. 138,/)). It should be nailed to
each stud with two eightpenny finishing nails. Molded
single-piece base, base moldings, and base shoe
should have a coped joint at inside corners and a
mitered joint at outside corners. A coped joint is
one in which the first piece is square-cut against the
plaster or base and the second molding coped. This M 134 771
is accomplished by sawing a 45 miter cut and with Figure 139.Ceiling moldings; A, Installation (inside corner); fi,
a coping saw trimming the molding along the inner crown molding; C, small crown molding.

line of the miter (fig. 138,^). The base shoe should corners should also be cope-jointed. This insures a
be nailed into the subfloor with long slender nails tight joint and retains a good fit if there are minor
and not into the baseboard itself. Thus, if there is a moisture changes.
small amount of shrinkage of the joists, no opening A cutback edge at the outside of the molding will
will occur under the shoe. partially conceal any unevenness of the plaster and
make painting easier where there are color changes
Ceiling Moldings (fig. 139, B). For gypsum dry-wall construction, a
Ceiling moldings are sometimes used at the junc- small simple molding might be desirable (fig. 139,C).
tion of wall and ceiling for an architectural effect or Finish nails should be driven into the upper wall-
to terminate dry-wall paneling of gypsum board or plates and also into the ceiling joists for large
wood (fig. 139,y4). As in the base moldings, inside moldings when possible.

CHAPTER 22

CABINETS AND OTHER MILLWORK

Millwork, as a general term, usually includes most ordered directly from stock. For example, kitchen
of those wood materials and house components which cabinets are often stock items which may be obtained
require manufacturing. This not only covers the in- in 3-inch-width increments, usually beginning at
terior trim, doors, and other items previously described, widths of 12 or 15 inches and on up to 48 inch
but also such items as kitchen cabinets, fireplace man- widths.
tels, china cabinets, and similar units. Most of these As in the case of interior trim, the cabinets, shelv-
units are produced in a millwork manufacturing plant ing, and similar items can be made of various wood
and are ready to install in the house. They differ from species. If the millwork is to be painted, ponderosa
some other items because they usually require only pine, southern pine, Douglas-fir, gum, and similar
fastening to the wall or floor. species may be used. Birch, oak, redwood, and knotty
While many units are custom made, others can be pine, or other species with attractive surface varia-

151
tions, are some of the woods that are finished with Wall cabinets vary in height depending on the type of
varnish or sealers. installation at the counter. The tops of wall cabinets
Recommended moisture content for book cases are located at the same height, either free or under a
and other interior millwork may vary from 6 to 11 12- to 14-inch drop ceiling or storage cabinet. Wall
percent in different parts of the country. These areas, cabinets are normally 30 inches high, but not more
together with the moisture contents, are shown on the than 21 inches when a range or sink is located under
moisture-content map (fig. 121). them. Wall cabinets can also be obtained in 12-, 15-,
18-, and 24-inch heights. The shorter wall cabinets
Kitchen Cabinets are usually placed over refrigerators.
The kitchen usually contains more millwork than Narrow wall cabinets are furnished with single doors
the rest of the rooms combined. This is in the form of and the wider ones with double doors (fig. 141,^).
wall and base cabinets, broom closets, and other items. Base cabinets may be obtained in full-door or full-
An efficient plan with properly arranged cabinets will drawer units or with both drawers and doors (fig.
not only reduce work and save steps for the housewife, 141,5). Sink fronts or sink-base cabinets, comer cabi-
but will often reduce costs because of the need for a nets, broom closets, and desks are some of the special
smaller area. Location of the refrigerator, sink, dish- units which may be used in planning the ideal kitchen.
washer, and range, together with the cabinets, is also Cabinets are fastened to the wall through cleats located
important from the standpoint of plumbing and elec- at the back of each cabinet. It is good practice to use
trical connections. Good lighting, both natural and long screws to penetrate into each wall stud.
artificial, is also important in designing a pleasant Four basic layouts are commonly used in the design
kitchen. of a kitchen. The U-type with the sink at the bottom
Kitchen cabinets, both base and wall units, should of the U and the range and refrigerator on opposite
be constructed to a standard of height and depth. sides is very efficient ihg, 142,^).
Figure 140 shows common base cabinet counter The L-type (fig. 142,5), with the sink and range
heights and depths as well as clearances for wall cabi- on one leg and the refrigerator on the other, is some-
nets. While the counter height limits range from 30 times used with a dining space in the opposite corner.
to 38 inches, the standard height is usually 36 inches. The "parallel wall" or pullman kitchen plan (fig.
142,C) is often used in narrow kitchens and can be
quite efficient with proper arrangement of the sink,
range, and refrigerator.
DROP CEILING The sidewall type (fig. 142,/)) usually is preferred
for small apartments. All cabinets, the sink, range,
and refrigerator are located along one wall. Counter
18" MA)^ space is usually somewhat limited in this design when
kitchens are small.

>- WALL CABINET Closets and Wardrobes

The simple clothes closet is normally furnished with
a shelf and a rod for hanging clothes. Others may have
small low cabinets for the storage of shoes and similar
items. Larger wardrobes with sliding or folding doors
- OVER RANGE may be combined with space for hanging clothes as
OR SINK
well as containing a dresser complete with drawers
STANDARD and mirror. Many built-in combinations are possible,
all of which reduce the amount of bedroom furniture
needed.
h Linen closets may be simply a series of shelves
I
CD behind a flush or panel door. Others may consist of an
lil X
I< V BASE CABINET
open cabinet with doors and drawers built directly into
a notch or corner of the wall located near the bed-
UJ 00
rooms and bath.
Z
3
O
u Mantels
The type of mantel used for a fireplace depends on
M 134 751 the style and design of the house and its interior fin-
Figure 140.Kitchen cabinet dimensions. ish. The contemporary fireplace may have no mantel

152
 M 134 772
Figure 141.Kitchen cabinets: A, Wall cabinets; fi^ base cabinets.

at all, or at best a simple wood molding used as a China Cases

transition between the masonry and the wall finish.
However, the colonial or formal interior usually has Another millwork item often incorporated in the
a well-designed mantel enclosing the fireplace open- dining room of a formal or traditional design is the
ing. This may vary from a simple mantel (fig. 143), china case. It is usually designed to fit into one or two
to a more elaborate unit combining paneling and corners of the room. This corner cabinet often has
built-in cabinets along the entire wall. In each design, glazed doors above and single- or double-panel doors
however, it is important that no wood or other com- below (fig. 144). It may be 7 feet or more high with
bustible material be placed within 31/^ inches of the a drop ceiling above with a face width of about 3
edges of the fireplace opening. Furthermore, any pro- feet. Shelves are supplied in both the upper and lower
cabinets.
jection more than \y< inches in front of the fireplace,
China cases or storage shelves in dining rooms of
such as the mantel shelf, should be at least 121/2 inches
contemporary houses may be built in place by the
above the opening. Mantels are fastened to the header
contractor. A row of cabinets or shelves may act as a
and framing studs above and on each side of the fire- separator between dining room and kitchen and serve
place. as a storage area for both rooms. .

153
 il-

11I I h SINK f'

I I RANGE! I ^ '

R^R M 134 750

Figure 143.Fireplace mantel.
=) c

ft '
EAT
Il II T

D
M 134 752
Figure 142.Kitchen layouts A, U-type; B, L-type;
C, "parallel wall" type; D, sidewall type. M 134 756
Figure 144.Corner china case.

154
 CHAPTER 23

STAIRS

Stairways in houses should be designed and con- stairway, such as on a stair to the basement. This land-
structed to afford safety and adequate headroom for ing, as well as middle landings, should not be less than
the occupants as well as space for the passage of 2 feet 6 inches long (fig. 147,5).
furniture. The two types of stairs commonly used Sufficient headroom in a stairway is a primary
in houses are (a) the finished main stairs leading to requisite. For main stairways, clear vertical distance
the second floor or split-level floors and (b) the base- should not be less than 6 feet 8 inches (fig. 148,^).
ment or service stairs leading to the basement or Basement or service stairs should provide not less
garage area. The main stairs are designed to pro- than a 6-foot 4-inch clearance.
vide easy ascent and descent and may be made a fea- The minimum tread width and riser height must
ture of the interior design. The service stairs to base- also be considered. For closed stairs, a 9-inch
ment areas are usually somewhat steeper and are con- tread width and an 8^/4-inch riser height should be
structed of less expensive materials, although safety considered a minimum even for basement stairways
and convenience are still prime factors in their design. (fig. 148,). Risers with less height are always more
desirable. The nosing projection should be at least
Construction 1% inches; however, if the projection is too much
Most finish and service stairs are constructed in greater, the stairs will be awkward and difficult to
place. The main stairs are assembled with prefabri- climb.
cated parts, which include housed stringers, treads,
and risers. Basement stairs may be made simply of 2- Ratio of Riser to Tread
by 12-inch carriages and plank treads. In split-level There is a definite relation between the height of
design or a midfloor outside entry, stairways are of- a riser and the width of a tread, and all stairs should
ten completely finished with plastered walls, hand- be laid out to conform to well-established rules govern-
rails, and appropriate moldings. ing these relations. If the combination of run and rise
Wood species appropriate for main stairway com- is too great, there is undue strain on the leg muscles
ponents include oak, birch, maple, and similar hard- and on the heart of the climber; if the combination is
woods. Treads and risers for the basement or service too small, his foot may kick the riser at each step and
stairways may be of Douglas-fir, southern pine, and an attempt to shorten stride may be tiring. Experience
similar species. A hardwood tread with a softwood or has proved that a riser 7V2 to 1% inches high with
lower grade hardwood riser may be combined to pro- appropriate tread width combines both safety and
vide greater resistance to wear. comfort.
A rule of thumb which sets forth a good relation
Types of Stairways between the height of the riser and the width of the
Three general types of stairway runs most com- tread is:
monly used in house construction are the straight run The tread width multiplied by the riser height in
(fig. 145,^), the long "L" (fig. 145,5), and the nar- inches should equal to 72 to 75. The stairs shown in
row "U" (fig. 146,^). Another type is similar to the figure 148,5 would conform to this rule9 times
Long "L" except that "winders" or "pie-shaped" treads S^/4 = '^41/4- If the tread is 10 inches, however, the
(fig. 146,) are substituted for the landing. This type riser should be 7^/4 inches, which is more desirable
of stairs is not desirable and should be avoided when- for common stairways. Another rule sometimes used
ever possible because it is obviously not as convenient is: The tread width plus twice the riser height should
or as safe as the long "L." It is used where the stair equal about 25.
run is not sufficient for the more conventional stairway These desirable riser heights should, therefore, be
containing a landing. In such instances, the winders used to determine the number of steps between floors.
should be adjusted to replace the landings so that the For example, 14 risers are commonly used for main
width of the tread, 18 inches from the narrow end, stairs between the first and second floors. The 8-foot
will not be less than the tread width on the straight ceiling height of the first floor plus the upper-story
run (fig. 147,^). Thus if the standard tread is 10 floor joists, subfloor, and finish floor result in a
inches wide, the winder tread should be at least 10 floor-to-floor height of about 105 inches. Thus, 14
inches wide at the 18-inch line. divided into 105 is exactly 7^/2 inches, the height of
Another basic rule in stair layout concerns the land- each riser. Fifteen risers used for this height would
ing at the top of a stairs when the door opens into the result in a 7-inch riser heio;ht.

155
 lO'-O" MIN.

TOTAL RUN

A
up

up

} r

1 M 134 727
Figure 145.Common types of stair runs: A, Straight; , long "L.'

156
 I
j
I

UP

1^
r^
1

B
M 134 722
Figure 146.Space-saving stairs: A, Narrow "U"; B, winder.

157
 LANDING STAIRS

2-6"
MIN.

B M 134 684
Figure 147.Stair layout: A, Winder treads; B, landings.

158
 PARALLEL
LINES

MINIMUM
L = 6-8" MAIN STAIR
L = 6'-^" BASEMENT STAIR

MIN- RUN

-A 1/8 MIN. NOSING

TREAD-
I
C"
MAX. RISE

cr^
RISER

B
M 134 70I
Figure 148.Stairway dimensions: A, Minimum headroom; B, closed stair dimensions.

159
 LOAD-BEARING WALL
OR BEAM

STAIRWAY OPENING

DOUBLE
HEADERS

TAIL JOIST

DOUBLE TRIMMER JOISTS

WALL OR FOUNDATION

DOUBLE TRIMMER
JOIST

BEAM OR WALL

DOUBLE
HEADER

DOUBLE TRIMMER
TAIL JOIST

POST SUPPORT FOR

HEADER AND TRIMMER

M 136 293
Figure 149.Framing for stairs: A, Length of opening parallel to joists; , length of opening perpendicular
to joists.

160
 Stair Widths and Handrails frame a stairway opening when its length is parallel
to the joists. For basement stairways, the rough open-
The width of the main stairs should be not less than
ings may be about 9 feet 6 inches long by 32 inches
2 feet 8 inches clear of the handrail. However, many
wide (two joist spaces). Openings in the second floor
main stairs are designed with a distance of 3 feet 6
for the main stair are usually a minimum of 10 feet
inches between the centerline of the enclosing side-
long. Widths may be 3 feet or more. Depending on
walls. This will result in a stairway with a width of
the short header required for one or both ends, the
about 3 feet. Split-level entrance stairs are even wider.
opening is usually framed as shown in figure 149,^
For basement stairs, the minimum clear width is 2
when joists parallel the length of the opening. Nailing
feet 6 inches.
should conform to that shown in figures 27 and 29.
A continuous handrail should be used on at least
one side of the stairway when there are more than When the length of the stair opening is perpendicu-
three risers. When stairs are open on two sides, there lar to the length of the joists, a long doubled header
should be protective railings on each side. is required (fig. 149,5). A header under these condi-
tions without a supporting wall beneath is usually
Framing for Stairs limited to a 10-foot length. A load-bearing wall under
Openings in the floor for stairways, fireplaces, and all or part of this opening simplifies the framing
chimneys are framed out during construction of the immensely, as the joists will then bear on the top
floor system (figs. 27 and 29). The long dimension of plate of the wall rather than be supported at the header
stairway openings may be either parallel or at right by joist hangers or other means. Nailing should con-
angles to the joists. However, it is much easier to form to that shown in figures 27 and 29.

STUD

STUD

FRAMING FOR LANDING

NAIL
BUILT-UP POST

STAIR
CARRIAGE
M 134 715
Figure 150.Framing for stair landing.

161
 The framing for an L-shaped stairway is usually Perhaps the simplest system is one in which the
supported in the basement by a post at the corner of carriages are not cut out for the treads and risers.
the opening or by a load-bearing wall beneath. When Rather, cleats are nailed to the side of the unnotched
a similar stair leads from the first to the second floor, carriage and the treads nailed to them. This design,
the landing can be framed-out (fig, 150). The plat- however, is likely not as desirable as the notched
form frame is nailed into the enclosing stud walls and carriage system when walls are present. Carriages can
provides a nailing area for the subfloor as well as a also be supported by walls located below them.
support for the stair carriages. The bottom of the stair carriages may rest and be
anchored to the basement floor. Perhaps a better
Stairway Details method is to use an anchored 2- by 4- or 2- by 6-inch
Basement Stairs treated kicker plate (fig. 151,C).
Stair carriages which carry the treads and support Basement stair treads can consist of simple lV2-inch-
the loads on the stair are made in two ways. Rough thick plank treads without risers. However, from the
stair carriages commonly used for basement stairs are standpoint of appearance and maintenance, the use of
made from 2- by 12-inch planks. The effective depth P/s-inch finished tread material and nominal 1-inch
below the tread and riser notches must be at least boards for risers is usually justified. Finishing nails
3^2 inches (fig. 151,^). Such carriages are usually fasten them to the plank carriages.
placed only at each side of the stairs; however, an A somewhat more finished staircase for a fully
intermediate carriage is required at the center of the enclosed stairway might be used from the main floor
stairs when the treads are IVus inches thick and the to the attic. It combines the rough notched carriage
stairs wider than 2 feet 6 inches. Three carriages are with a finish stringer along each side (fig. 152,^).
The finish stringer is fastened to the wall, before car-
also required when treads are 1% inches thick and
riages are fastened. Treads and risers are cut to fit
stairs are wider than 3 feet. The carriages are fas-
snugly between the stringers and fastened to the rough
tened to the joist header at the top of the stairway or
carriage with finishing nails (fig. 152,^). This may be
rest on a supporting ledger nailed to the header (fig. varied somewhat by nailing the rough carriage directly
151,^). to the wall and notching the finished stringer to fit
Firestops should be used at the top and bottom of (fig. 152,). The treads and risers are installed as
all stairs, as shown (fig. \S\,A]. previously described.

HEADER HEADER

USE FIRESTOP
FOR ALL
ENCLOSED STAIRS

STAIR CARRIAGE

TREAD

c>,\SSSSSSS
^/a'MIN.

.BASEMENT FLOOR
[l^L
A KICKER PLATE
(ANCHOR)

M 134 707
Figure 15T.Basement stairs: A, Carriage details; B, ledger for carriage; C, kicker plate.

162
 FINISH
STRINGER

STAIR CARRIAGE

BASE

STAIR
CARRIAGE

M 134 688
Figure 152.Enclosed stairway details: A, With full stringer; B, with notched stringer.

163
 BASE MOLDING

HOUSED STRINGER

TREAD

RISER

NAIL (RISER TO TREAD)

I '/a

COVE MOLDING

M 134 729
Figure 153.Main stair detail with: A, Housed stringer; B, combination of treads and risers.

164
Main Stairway

An open main stairway with its railing and bal-

usters ending in a newel post can be very decorative
and pleasing in the traditional house interior. It can
also be translated to a contemporary stairway design
and again result in a pleasing feature.
The main stairway differs from the other types
previously described because of: (a) The housed
stringers which replace the rough plank carriage;
(b) the routed and grooved treads and risers;
(c) the decorative railing and balusters in open stair-
ways; and (d) the wood species, most of which can
be given a natural finish.

The supporting member of the finished main stair-

way is the housed stringer (fig. 153,^4). One is used
on each side of the stairway and fastened to the
plastered or finished walls. They are routed to fit both
the tread and riser. The stair is assembled by means of
hardwood wedges which are spread with glue and
driven under the ends of the treads and in back of the
risers. Assembly is usually done from under and the
rear side of the stairway. In addition, nails are used
to fasten the riser to the tread between the ends of the
step (fig. 153,). When treads and risers are wedged
and glued into housed stringers, the maximum allow-
able width is usually 3 feet 6 inches. For wider stairs, M 134 724
Figure 154.Details of open main stairway.
a notched carriage is used between the housed
stringers.

When stairs are open on one side, a railing and

balusters are commonly used. Balusters may be fast-
ened to the end of the treads which have a finished mon size of folding stairs requires only a 26- by 54-
return (fig. 154). The balusters are also fastened to a inch rough opening. These openings should be framed
railing which is terminated at a newel post. Balusters out as described for normal stair openings.
may be turned to form doweled ends, which fit into
drilled holes in the treads and the railing. A stringer
and appropriate moldings are used to complete the Exterior Stairs
stairway trim.
Proportioning of risers and treads in laying out
porch steps or approaches to terraces should be as
Attic Folding Stairs carefully considered as the design of interior stairways.
Similar riser-to-tread ratios can be use; however, the
Where attics are used primarily for storage and riser used in principal exterior steps should normally
where space for a fixed stairway is not available, be between 6 and 7 inches in height. The need for a
hinged or folding stairs are often used and may be good support or foundation for outside steps is often
purchased ready to install. They operate through an overlooked. Where wood steps are used, the bottom
opening in the ceiling of a hall and swing up into the step should be concrete or supported by treated wood
attic space, out of the way when not in use. Where members. Where the steps are located over backfill or
such stairs are to be installed, the attic floor joists disturbed ground, the foundation should be carried
should be designed for limited floor loading. One com- down to undisturbed ground.

165
 CHAPTER 24

FLASHING AND OTHER SHEET METAL WORK

In house construction, the sheet-metal work normally various metals, are important to prevent corrosion or
consists of flashing, gutters, and downspouts, and deterioration when unlike metals are used together.
sometimes attic ventilators. Flashing is often pro- For aluminum, only aluminum or stainless steel fasten-
vided to prevent wicking action by joints between ers should be used. For copper flashing, use copper
moisture-absorbent materials. It might also be used nails and fittings. Galvanized sheet metal or terneplate
to provide protection from wind-driven rain or from should be fastened with galvanized or stainless-steel
action of melting snows. For instance, damage from fasteners.
ice dams is often the result of inadequate flashing.
Thus, proper installation of these materials is im- Flashing
portant, as well as their selection and location. Flashing should be used at the junction of a roof
Gutters are installed at the cornice line of a pitched- and a wood or masonry wall, at chimneys, over ex-
roof house to carry the rain or melted snow to the posed doors and windows, at siding material changes,
downspouts and away from the foundation area. They in roof valleys, and other areas where rain or melted
are especially needed for houses with narrow roof snow may penetrate into the house.
overhangs. Where positive rain disposal cannot be
Material Changes
assured, downspouts should be connected with storm
sewers or other drains. Poor drainage away from the One wall area which requires flashing is at the inter-
wall is often the cause of wet basements and other section of two types of siding materials. For example,
moisture problems. a stucco-finish gable end and a wood-siding lower wall
should be flashed (fig. 155,^). A wood molding such
Materials as a drip cap separates the two materials and is cov-
Materials most commonly used for sheet-metal work ered by the flashing which extends behind the stucco.
are galvanized metal, terneplate, aluminum, copper, The flashing should extend at least 4 inches above the
and stainless steel. Near the seacoast, where the salt intersection. When sheathing paper is used, it should
in the air may corrode galvanized sheet metal, copper lap the flashing (fig. 155,^4).
or stainless steel is preferred for gutters, downspouts, When a wood-siding pattern change occurs on the
and flashings. Molded wood gutters, cut from solid same wall, the intersection should also be flashed. A
pieces of Douglas-fir or redwood, are also used in vertical board-sided upper wall with horizontal siding
coastal areas because they are not affected by the below usually requires some type of flashing (fig.
corrosive atmosphere. Wood gutters can be attractive 155,). A small space above the molding provides a
in appearance and are preferred by some builders. drip for rain. This will prevent paint peeling which
could occur if the boards were in tight contact with
Galvanized (zinc-coated) sheet metal is used in two
the molding. A drip cap is sometimes used as a termi-
weights of zinc coatings: 1.25 and 1.50 ounces per
nating molding (fig. 84). When the upper wall, such
square foot (total weight of coating on both sides).
as a gable end, projects slightly beyond the lower wall
When the lightly coated 1.25-ounce sheet is used for
(fig. 85), flashing is usually not required.
exposed flashing and for gutters and downspouts, 26-
gage metal is required. With the heavier 1.50-ounce Doors and Windows
coating, a 28-gage metal is satisfactory for most metal The same type of flashing shown in figure 155,/4
work, except that gutters should be 26-gage. should be used over door and window openings ex-
Aluminum flashing should have a minimum thick- posed to driving rain. However, window and door-
ness of 0.019 inch, the same as for roof valleys. Gutters heads protected by wide overhangs in a single-story
should be made from 0.027-inch-thick metal and house with a hip roof do not ordinarily require such
downspouts from 0.020-inch thickness. Copper for flashing. When building paper is used on the sidewalls,
flashing and similar uses should have a minimum it should lap the top edge of the flashing. To protect
thickness of 0.020 inch (16 oz.). Aluminum is not the walls behind the window sill in a brick veneer ex-
normally used when it comes in contact with concrete terior, flashing should extend under the masonry sill
or stucco unless it is protected with a coat of asphal- up to the underside of the wood sill.
tum or other protection against reaction with the
alkali in the cement. Flat Roof
The types of metal fastenings, such as nails and Flashing is also required at the junctions of an
screws, and the hangers and clips used with the exterior wall and a flat or low-pitched built-up roof

166
 SHEATHING

SHEATHING PAPER

WIRE LATH

SHEATHING

VERTICAL
SIDING BOARDS

HORIZONTAL
SIDING

M 134 779
Figure 155.Flashing at material changes: A, Stucco above, siding below;
fl, vertical siding above, horizontal below.

167
(fig. 71,C). When a metal roof is used, the metal is Roof-Wall Intersections
turned up on the wall and covered by the siding. A When shingles on a roof intersect a vertical wall,
clearance of 2 inches should be allowed at the bottom shingle flashing is used at the junction. These tin or
of the siding for protection from melted snow and galvanized-metal shingles are bent at a 90 angle and
water. extend up the side of the wall over the sheathing a
minimum of 4 inches (fig. 157,^4). When roofing felt
Ridge and Roof is used under the shingle, it is turned up on the wall
Ridge flashing should be used under a Boston ridge and covered by the flashing. One piece of flashing is
in wood shingle or shake roofs to prevent water entry used at each shingle course. The siding is then applied
(fig. 12,B), The flashing should extend about 3 inches over the flashing, allowing about a 2-inch space be-
on each side of the ridge and be nailed in place only tween the bevel edge of the siding and the roof.
at the outer edges. The ridge shingles or shakes, which If the roof intersects a brick wall or chimney, the
are 6 to 8 inches wide, cover the flashing. same type of metal shingle flashing is used at the end
of each shingle course as described for the wood-sided
Stack vents and roof ventilators are provided with
wall. In addition, counterflashing or brick flashing is
flashing collars which are lapped by the shingles on
used to cover the shingle flashing (fig. 157,i5). This
the upper side. The lower edge of the collar laps the
counterflashing is often preformed in sections and is
shingles. Sides are nailed to the shingles and calked
inserted in open mortar joints. Unless soldered
with a roofing mastic.
together, each section should overlap the next a mini-
mum of 3 inches with the joint calked. In laying up
VaUey the chimney or the brick wall, the mortar is usually
The valley formed by two intersecting rooflines is raked out for a depth of about 1 inch at flashing
usually covered with metal flashing. Some building locations. Lead wedges driven into the joint above the
regulations allow the use of two thicknesses of mineral- flashing hold it in place. The joint is then calked to
surfaced roll roofing in place of the metal flashing. provide a watertight connection. In chimneys, this
As an alternate, one 36-inch-wide strip of roll roofing counterflashing is often preformed to cover one entire
with closed or woven asphalt shingles is also allowed. side.
This type of valley is normally used only on roofs with Around small chimneys, chimney flashing often
a slope of 10 in 12 or steeper. consists of simple counterflashing on each side. For
Widths of sheet-metal flashing for valleys should single-flue chimneys, the shingle flashing on the high
side should be carried up under the shingles. The ver-
not be less than:
tical distance at top of the flashing and the upturned
(a) 12 inches wide for roof slopes of 7 in 12 and edge should be about 4 inches above the roof boards
over. (fig. 158,^).
(b) 18 inches wide for 4 in 12 to 7 in 12 roof slopes. A wood saddle usually constructed on the high side
(c) 24 inches wide for slopes less than 4 in 12. of wide chimneys for better drainage, is made of a
ridgeboard and post and sheathed with plywood or
The width of the valley between shingles should boards (fig. 158,5). It is then covered with metal,
increase from the top to the bottom (fig. 156,^4). The which extends up on the brick and under the shingles.
minimum open width at the top is 4 inches and should Counterflashing at the chimney is then used (as pre-
be increased at the rate of about % inch per foot. viously described) by lead plugging and calking. A
These widths can be chalklined on the flashing before very wide chimney may contain a partial gable on the
shingles are applied. high side and be shingled in the same manner as the
When adjacent roof slopes vary, such as a low- main roof.
slope porch roof intersecting a steeper main roof, a
1-inch crimped standing seam should be used (fig. Roof Edge
1S6,B). This will keep heavy rains on the steeper The cornice and the rake section of the roof are
slopes from overrunning the valley and being forced sometimes protected by a metal edging. This edging
under the shingles on the adjoining slope. Nails for forms a desirable drip edge at the rake and prevents
the shingles should be kept back as far as possible to rain from entering behind the shingles (fig. 70,B).
eliminate holes in the flashing. A ribbon of asphalt- At the eave line, a similar metal edging may be used
roofing mastic is often used under the edge of the to advantage (fig. 159,^). This edging, with the ad-
shingles. It is wise to use the wider valley flashings dition of a roll roof flashing (fig. 6S,B,) will aid in
supplemented by a width of 15- or 30-pound asphalt resisting water entry from ice dams. Variations of it
felt where snow and ice dams may cause melting snow are shown in figure 159,i5 and C. They form a good
water to back under shingles. drip edge and prevent or minimize the chance of rain

168
 4-" MIN. WIDTH

WIDER AT VALLEY
BOTTOM FLASHING

STANDING SEAM
VALLEY
FLASHING

B
M 134 687
Figure 156.Valley flashing: A, Valley; B, standing seam.

169
 SHINGLES

2" CLEARANCE
FOR SIDING

BRICK SHINGLE FLASHING

SHINGLES
LEAD WEOJEU;
AND CALK

COUNTERFL ASHING

M 134 780
Figure 157.Roof and wall intersection: A, Wood siding wall; B, brick wall.

being blown back under the shingles. This type of Perhaps the most commonly used gutter is the type
drip edge is desirable whether or not a gutter is used. hung from the edge of the roof or fastened to the edge
of the cornice facia. Metal gutters may be the half-
Gutters and Downspouts round (fig. 160,^) or the formed type (fig. 160,)
Types and may be galvanized metal, copper, or aluminum.
Several types of gutters are available to guide the Some have a factory-applied enamel finish.
rainwater to the downspouts and away from the foun- Downspouts are round or rectangular (fig. 160, C
dation. Some houses have built-in gutters in the cor- and D), the round type being used for the half-round
nice. These are lined with sheet metal and connected gutters. They are usually corrugated to provide extra
to the downspouts. On flat roofs, water is often drained stiffness and strength. Corrugated patterns are less
from one or more locations and carried through an likely to burst when plugged with ice.
inside wall to an underground drain. All downspouts Wood gutters have a pleasing appearance and are
connected to an underground drain should contain bas- fastened to the facia board rather than being carried
ket strainers at the junction of the gutter. by hangers as are most metal gutters. The wood should

170
COUNTERFL ASHING,
WEDGE AND CALK

COUNTERFL ASHING

METAL COVER

BOARDS OR
PLYWOOD

SHINGLES

M 134 788
Figure 158,Chimney flashing: A, Flashing without saddle; , chimney saddle.

171
 SHINGLES

ROLL ROOFING
(FOR ICE DAMS)

EDGING

MOLDING

FACIA

A SOFFIT

SHINGL.ES
SHINGLES

EDGING
EDGIN

BLOCK
FACIA

M 134 781
Figure 159.Cornice flashing: A, Formed flashing; B, flashing without wood blocking; C, flashing with wood blocking.

172
 Size
The size of gutters should be determined by the
size and spacing of the downspouts used. One square
inch of downspout is required for each 100 square feet
of roof. When downspouts are spaced up to 40 feet
apart, the gutter should have the same area as the
A downspout. For greater spacing, the width of the gut-
ter should be increased.

Installation
On long runs of gutters, such as required around a
hip-roof house, at least four downspouts are desirable.
Gutters should be installed with a slight pitch toward
the downspouts. Metal gutters are often suspended
from the edge of the roof with hangers (fig. 161,^).
Hangers should be spaced 48 inches apart when made
of galvanized steel and 30 inches apart when made of
M 134 700 copper or aluminum. Formed gutters may be mounted
Figure 160.Gutters and downspouts: A, Half-round gutter; B, on furring strips, but th gutter should be reinforced
formed gutter; C, round downspout; D^ rectangular downspout. with wrap-around hangers at 48-inch intervals. Gut-
ter splices, downspout connections, and corner joints
should be soldered or provided with watertight joints.
be clear and free of knots and preferably treated, un- Wood gutters are mounted on the facia using fur-
less made of all heartwood from such species as red- ring blocks spaced 24 inches apart (fig. 161,i5). Rust-
wood, western redcedar, and cypress. Continuous sec- proof screws are commonly used to fasten the gutters
tions should be used wherever possible. When splices to the blocks and facia backing. The edge shingle
are necessary, they should be square-cut butt joints should be located so that the drip is near the center of
fastened with dowels or a spline. Joints should be set the gutter.
in white lead or similar material. When untreated Downspouts are fastened to the wall by straps or
wood gutters are used, it is good practice to brush hooks (fig. 162,^). Several patterns of these fasteners
several generous coats of water-repellent preservative allow a space between the wall and downspout. One
on the interior. common type consists of a galvanized metal strap with

SHINGLES

ROLL ROOFING
FOR CE-DAM
PROTECTION

METAL GUTTER

HANGER (OR SPIKE

AND FERRULE)

FURRING STRIP
^ FACIA

Figure 161a.Gutter installation: A, Formed metal gutter.

173
 SHINGLES

ROOF SHEATHINTG

FURRING BLOCK WOOD GUTTER

( 24-"O.C.)

SCREW (GALV.)

FACIA

M 134 693
Figure 161b.Gutter installation: B, Wood gutter.

a spike and spacer collar. After the spike is driven An elbow should be used at the bottom of the down-
through the collar and into the siding and backing spout, as well as a splash block, to carry the water
stud, the strap is fastened around the pipe. Down- away from the wall. However, a vitrified tile line is
spouts should be fastened at the top and bottom. In sometimes used to carry the water to a storm sewer.
addition, for long downspouts a strap or hook should In such installations, the splash block is not required
be used for every 6 feet of length. (fig. 162,).

CHAPTER 25

PORCHES AND GARAGES

An attached porch or garage which is in keeping foundations, piers, or slabs are added, they should
with the house design usually adds to overall pleas- also be structurally correct. Footings should be of
ing appearance. Thus, any similar attachments to the sufficient size, the bottoms located below the frost-
house after it has been built should also be in keep- line, and the foundation wall anchored to the house
ing structurally and architecturally with the basic foundation when possible.
design. In such additions, the connections of the
porch or garage to the main house should be by Porches
means of the framing members and roof sheathing. There are many types and designs of porches, some
Rafters, ceiling joists, and studs should be securely with roof slopes continuous with the roof of the house
attached by nailing to the house framing. itself. Other porch roofs may have just enough pitch
When additions are made to an existing house, to provide drainage. The fundamental construction
the siding or other finish is removed so that fram- principles, however, are somewhat alike no matter
ing members can be easily and correctly fastened to what type is built. Thus, a general description,
the house. In many instances, the siding can be cut together with several construction details, can apply
with a skill saw to the outline of the addition and to several types.
removed only where necessary. When concrete Figure 163 shows the construction details of a

174
 GUTTER
( SLOPE TO DOWNSPOUT )

DOWNSPOUT

M 134 694
Figure 162.Downspout instaiiation: k, Downspout with splash block; B, drain to storm sewer.

typical flat-roofed porch with a concrete slab floor. details of the ceiling and roof framing are covered
An attached porch can be open or fully enclosed; or in Chapter 7, "Ceiling and Roof Framing."
it can be constructed with a concrete slab floor, in- Porch floors, whether wood or concrete, should
sulated or uninsulated. A porch can also be con- have sufficient slope away from the house to pro-
structed using wood floor framing over a crawl space vide good drainage. Weep holes or drains should
(fig. 164). Most details of such a unit should comply be provided in any solid or fully sheathed perimeter
with those previously outlined for various parts of wall. Open wood balusters with top and bottom rail-
the house itself. ings should be constructed so that the bottom rail
is free of the floor surface.
Porch Framing and Floors
Floor framing for wood floor construction should
Structural framing for the floors and walls should be at least 18 inches above the soil. The use of a
comply with the details given in Chapter 5, "Floor soil cover of polyethylene or similar material under
Framing," and Chapter 6, "Wall Framing." General a partially open or a closed porch is good practice.

175
 ,RAFTER
.WALL PLATE
.BUILT-UP ROOF

ROOF SHEATHING

SLOPE

WALL LUJ \l. FACIA

SHEATHING -^-O > PORCH RAFTER
(SLOPE)
SOFFIT (VENTILATE)
TRIM FOR BEAM

POST

PORCH FOUNDATION

M 134 726
Figure 163.Details of porch consfrucfion for concrete slab.

Slats or grillwork used around an open crawl Porch Columns

space should be made with a removable section for Supports for enclosed porches usually consist of
entry in areas where termites may be present. (See fully framed stud walls. The studs are doubled at
Chapter 29, "Protection Against Decay and Ter- openings and at corners. Because both interior and
mites.") A fully enclosed crawl-space foundation exterior finish coverings are used, the walls are con-
should be vented or have an opening to the basement. structed much like the walls of the house. In open
Wood species used for finish porch floor should or partially open porches, however, solid or built-up
have good decay and wear resistance, be nonsplinter- posts or columns are used. A more finished or cased
ing, and be free from warping. Species commonly column is often made up of doubled 2 by 4's which
used are cypress, Douglas-fir, western larch, southern are covered with 1- by 4-inch casing on two opposite
pine, and redwood. Only treated material should be sides and 1- by 6-inch finish casing on the other sides
used where moisture conditions are severe. (fig. 165,^). Solid posts, normally 4 by 4 inches in

176
 STUDS OF HOUSE

PORCH
FLOORING

FLOOR JOISTS
(SLOPE OUTWARD)

SOIL COVER

PORCH FOUNDATION
(INCLUDE VENTILATORS)
M 134 725
Figure 164.Porch floor with wood framing.

size, are used mainly for open porches. An open rail- signed for an open porch to provide protection and
ing may be used between posts. to improve the appearance. There are innumerable
A formal design of a large house entrance often combinations and arrangements of them. A closed
includes the use of round built-up columns topped balustrade may be used with screens or combination
by Doric or Ionic capitals. These columns are factory- windows above (fig. 166, A). A balustrade with dec-
made and ready for installation at the building site. orative railings may be used for an open porch
The base of posts or columns in open porches (fig. 166,). This type can also be used with full-
should be designed so that no pockets are formed height removable screens.
to retain moisture and encourage decay. In single All balustrade members that are exposed to water
posts, a steel pin may be used to locate the post and and snow should be designed to shed water. The top
a large galvanized washer or similar spacer used to of the railing should be tapered and connections with
keep the bottom of the post above the concrete or balusters protected as much as possible (fig. 167,^).
wood floor (fig. 165,). The bottom of the post Railings should not contact a concrete floor but
should be treated to minimize moisture penetration. should be blocked to provide a small space beneath.
Often single posts of this type are made from a When wood must be in contact with the concrete, it
decay-resistant wood species. A cased post can be should be treated to resist decay.
flashed under the base molding (fig. 165,C). Post Connection of the railing with a post should be
anchors which provide connections to the floor and made in a way that prevents moisture from being
to the post are available commercially, as are post trapped. One method provides a small space be-
caps. tween the post and the end of the railing (fig. 167,).
When the railing is treated with paint or water-
Balustrade repellent preservative, this type connection should
A porch balustrade usually consists of one or two provide good service. Exposed members, such as
railings with balusters between them. They are de- posts, balusters, and railings, should be all-heart-

177
 2 - 2x^ POST

CASED POST

BASE MOLDING

ALLOW SPACE

M 134 782
Figure 165.Post details: A, Cased post; 6, pin anchor and spacer; C, flashing at base.

wood stock of decay-resistant or treated wood to a short, direct entrance to the house.
minimize decay. Building regulations often require that detached
Garages garages be located away from the house toward the
rear of the lot. Where there is considerable slope to
Garages can be classified as attached, detached, a lot, basement garages may be desirable, and gen-
basement, or carport. The selection of a garage type erally such garages will cost less than those above
is often determined by limitations of the site and the grade.
size of the lot. Where space is not a limitation, the Carports are car-storage spaces, generally attached
attached garage has much in its favor. It may give to the house, that have roofs and often no sidewalls.
better architectural lines to the house, it is warmer To improve the appearance and utility of this type
during cold weather, and it provides covered protec- of structure, storage cabinets are often used on a
tion to passengers, convenient space for storage, and side and at the end of the carport.

178
 M 134 789
Figure 166.Types of balustrades: A, Closed; B, open.

179
 TAPERED therefore, would be 14 by 22 feet. A double garage
should be not less than 22 by 22 feet in outside
TOP RAIL dimensions to provide reasonable clearance and use.
The addition of a shop or storage area would in-
crease these minimum sizes.
For an attached garage, the foundation wall should
BALUSTER
extend below the frostline and about 8 inches above
the finish-floor level. It should be not less than 6
inches thick, but is usually more because of the dif-
ficulty of trenching this width. The sill plate should
be anchored to the foundation wall with anchor bolts
spaced about 8 feet apart, at least two bolts in each
sill piece. Extra anchors may be required at the sides
BOTTOM RAIL of the main door. The framing of the sidewalls and
roof and the application of the exterior covering
material of an attached garage should be similar to
BLOCK that of the house.
The interior finish of the garage is often a matter
of choice. The studs may be left exposed or covered
with some type of sheet material or they may be
A plastered. Some building codes require that the wall
POST-
^^^ between the house and the attached garage be made
of fire-resistant material. Local building regulations
LEAVE SMALL SPACE and fire codes should be consulted before construc-
tion is begun.
RAILING If fill is required below the floor, it should prefer-
ably be sand or gravel well-compacted and tamped.
If other types of soil fill are used, it should be wet
down so that it will be well compacted and can then
be well-tamped and time allowed before pouring. Un-
GALVANIZED less these precautions are taken, the concrete floor will
ANGLE IRON likely settle and crack.
The floor should be of concrete not less than 4 inches
B thick and laid with a pitch of about 2 inches from the
M 134 696
Figure 167.Railing details: A, Balustrade assembly; back to the front of the garage. The use of wire rein-
, rail-to-post connection. forcing mesh is often advisable. The garage floor
should be set about 1 inch above the drive or apron
level. It is desirable at this point to have an expansion
joint between the garage floor and the driveway or
Size apron.
It is a mistake to design the garage too small for
convenient use. Cars vary in size from the small Garage Door
import models to the large foreign and domestic The two overhead garage doors most commonly
sedans. Many popular models are now up to 215 used are the sectional and the single-section swing
inches long, and the larger and more expensive models types. The swing door (fig. 168,^) is hung with side
are usually over 230 inchesalmost 20 feet in length. and overhead brackets and an overhead track, and
Thus, while the garage need not necessarily be de- must be moved outward slightly at the bottom as it is
signed to take all sizes with adequate room around opened. The sectional type (fig. 168,5), in four or
the car, it is wise to provide a minimum distance of five horizontal hinged sections, has a similar track
21 to 22 feet between the inside face of the front extending along the sides and under the ceiling fram-
and rear walls. If additional storage or work space is ing, with a roller for the side of each section. It is
required at the back, a greater depth is required. opened by lifting and is adaptable to automatic elec-
The inside width of a single garage should never tric opening with remote control devices. The standard
be less than 11 feet with 13 feet much more satis- desirable size for a single door is 9 feet in width by
factory. 61/2 or 7 feet in height. Double doors are usually
The minimum outside size for a single garage, 16 by 6y2 or 7 feet in size.

180
 1

J J

L _. 1 J

M 134 699
Figur 168.Garage doors: A, One-section swing; B, sectional.

Doors vary in design, but those most often used are signed for the snow load which might be imposed on
the panel type with solid stiles and rails and panel the roof above. In wide openings, this may be a steel
fillers. A glazed panel section is often included. Clear- I-beam or a built-up wood section. For spans of 8 or 9
ance above the top of the door required for overhead feet, two doubled 2 by lO's of high-grade Douglas-fir
doors is usually about 12 inches. However, low-head- or similar species are commonly used when only snow
room brackets are available when such clearance is loads must be considered. If floor loads are also im-
not possible. posed on the header, a steel I-beam or wide-flange
The header beam over garage doors should be de- beam is usually selected.

CHAPTER 26

CHIMNEYS AND FIREPLACES

Chimneys are generally constructed of masonry units Chimneys

supported on a suitable foundation. A chimney must
The chimney should be built on a concrete footing
be structurally safe, capable of producing sufficient
of sufficient area, depth, and strength for the imposed
draft for the fireplace, and capable of carrying away
load. The footing should be below the frostline. For
harmful gases from the fuel-burning equipment and
houses with a basement, the footings for the walls and
other utilities. Lightweight, prefabricated chimneys
fireplace are usually poured together and at the same
that do not require masonry protection or concrete
elevation.
foundations are now accepted for certain uses by fire
underwriters. Make certain, however, they are ap- The size of the chimney depends on the number of
proved and listed by Underwriters' Laboratories, Inc. flues, the presence of a fireplace, and the design of the
Fireplaces should not only be safe and durable but house. The house design may include a room-wide
should be so constructed that they provide sufficient brick or stone fireplace wall which extends through
draft and are suitable for their intended use. From the the roof. While only two or three flues may be required
standpoint of heat-production efficiency, which is for heating units and fireplaces, several "false" flues
estimated to be only 10 percent, they might be con- may be added at the top for appearance. The flue
sidered a luxury. However, they add a decorative note sizes are made to conform to the width and length of
to a room and a cheerful atmosphere. Improved heat- a brick so that full-length bricks can be used to en-
ing efficiency and the assurance of a correctly propor- close the flue lining. Thus an 8- by 8-inch flue lining
tioned fireplace can usually be obtained by the installa- (about 8V2 by 8% in. in outside dimensions) with
tion of a factory-made circulating fireplace. This metal the minimum 4-inch thickness of surrounding masonry
unit, enclosed by the masonry, allows air to be heated will use six standard bricks for each course (fig.
and circulated throughout the room in a system sepa- 16M). An 8- by 12-inch flue lining (81/2 by 13 in.
rate from the direct heat of the fire. in outside dimensions) will be enclosed by seven

181
bricks at each course (fig. 169,), and a 12- by 12-
inch flue (13 by 13 in. in outside dimension) by eight
bricks (fig. 169,0, and so on. Each fireplace should WITHE MINIMUM
have a separate flue fuid, for best performance, flues MASONRY

should be separated by a 4-inch-wide brick spacer

(withe) between them (fig. 170,^).
The greater the difference in temperature between
chimney gases and outside atmosphere, the better the
draft. Thus, an interior chimney will have better draft
because the masonry will retain heat longer. The height
of the chimney as well as the size of the flue are im-
portant factors in providing sufficient draft. TOP OF
FLUE LINING
The height of a chimney above the roofline usually 2' MINIMUM
depends upon its location in relation to the ridge. The
top of the extending flue liners should not be less than
2 feet above the ridge or a wall that is within 10 feet
(fig. 17,B). For flat or low-pitched roofs, the chimney
should extend at least 3 feet above the highest point of
the roof. To prevent moisture from entering between
the brick and flue lining, a concrete cap is usually
poured over the top course of brick (fig. 170,C). Pre-
cast or stone caps with a cement wash are also used. B
Flashing for chimneys is illustrated in figure 158.
Masonry chimneys should be separated from wood
framing, subfloor, and other combustible materials.
Framing members should have at least a 2-inch clear- /FLUE LINING
ance and should be firestopped at each floor with as-
bestos or other types of noncombustible material (fig. -tr-
171). Subfloor, roof sheathing, and wall sheathing -CONCRETE CAP
should have a %-inch clearance. A cleanout door is in-
cluded in the bottom of the chimney where there are
mmE
m^szji^
^T*

fireplaces or other solid fuel-burning equipment as

lES^
immi
3IE

M 134 783
Figure 170.Chimney details: A, Spacer between flues;
B, height of chimneys; C, chimney cap.

well as at the bottom of other flues. The cleanout door

for the furnace flue is usually located just below the
smokepipe thimble with enough room for a soot pocket.
Flue Linings
Rectangular fire-clay flue linings (previously de-
scribed) or round vitrified tile are normally used in
all chimneys. Vitrified (glazed) tile or a stainless-
steel lining is usually required for gas-burning equip-
ment. Local codes outline these specific requirements.
A fireplace chimney with at least an 8-inch-thick mas-
M 134 689
onry wall ordinarily does not require a flue lining.
Figure 169.Brick and flue combinations: A, 8- by 8-inch flue
lining; B, 8- by 12-inch flue lining; C, 12- by 12-inch flue
However, the cost of the extra brick or masonry and
lining. the labor involved are most likely greater than the

182
 and are enclosed with brick, are designed for proper
CHIMNEY functioning when flues are the correct size.
One rule which is often recommended is that the
depth of the fireplace should be about two-thirds the
height of the opening. Thus, a 30-inch-high fireplace
^''MINIMUM would be 20 inches deep from the face to the rear of
CLEARANCE the opening.
The flue area should be at least one-tenth of the
open area of the fireplace (width times height) when
the chimney is 15 feet or more in height. When less
than 15 feet, the flue area in square inches should be
HEADER
one-eighth of the opening of the fireplace. This height
is measured from the throat to the top of the chimney.
Thus, a fireplace with a 30-inch width and 24-inch
height (720 sq. in.) would require an 8- by 12-inch
FIRESTOP flue, which has an inside area of about 80 square
(ASBESTOS. ETC.) inches. A 12- by 12-inch flue liner has an area of
about 125 square inches, and this would be large
M 134 709 enough for a 36- by 30-inch opening when the chimney
Figure 171.Clearances for wood construction. height is 15 feet or over.
The back width of the fireplace is usually 6 to 8
inches narrower than the front. This helps to guide
cost of flue lining. Furthermore, a well-installed flue the smoke and fumes toward the rear. A vertical back-
lining will result in a safer chimney. wall of about a 14-inch height then tapers toward the
Flue liners should be installed enough ahead of the upper section or "throat" of the fireplace (fig. 172).
brick or masonry work, as it is carried up, so that The area of the throat should be about 1^/4 to 1%
careful bedding of the mortar will result in a tight times the area of the flue to promote better draft. An
and smooth joint. When diagonal offsets are necessary, adjustable damper is used at this area for easy con-
the flue liners should be beveled at the direction change trol of the opening.
in order to have a tight joint. It is also good practice The smoke shelf (top of the throat) is necessary to
to stagger the joints in adjacent tile. prevent back drafts. The height of the smoke shelf
Flue lining is supported by masonry and begins at should be 8 inches above the top of the fireplace
least 8 inches below^ the thimble for a connecting smoke opening (fig. 172). The smoke shelf is concave to
or vent pipe from the furnace. In fireplaces, the flue retain any slight amount of rain that may enter.
liner should start at the top of the throat and extend Steel angle iron is used to support the brick or
to the top of the chimney. masonry over the fireplace opening. The bottom of the
inner hearth, the sides, and the back are built of a
Rectangular flue lining is made in 2-foot lengths
heat-resistant material such as firebrick. The outer
and in sizes of 8 by 8, 8 by 12, 12 by 12, 12 by 16,
hearth should extend at least 16 inches out from the
and up to 20 by 20 inches. Wall thicknesses of the flue
face of the fireplace and be supported by a reinforced
lining vary with the size of the flue. The smaller sizes
concrete slab (fig. 172). This outer hearth is a pre-
have a %-inch-thick wall, and the larger sizes vary
caution against flying sparks and is made of noncom-
from % to 1% inches in thickness. Vitrified tiles, bustible materials such as glazed tile. Other fireplace
8 inches in diameter, are most commonly used for the details of clearance, framing of the wall, and cleanout
flues of the heating unit, although larger sizes are also opening and ash dump are also shown. Hangers and
available. This tile has a bell joint. brackets for fireplace screens are often built into the
face of the fireplace.
Fireplaces Fireplaces with two or more openings (fig. 173)
A fireplace adds to the attractiveness of the house require much larger flues than the conventional fire-
interior, but one that does not "draw" properly is a place. For example, a fireplace with two open adjacent
detriment, not an asset. By following several rules on faces (fig. 173,^) would require a 12- by 16-inch
the relation of the fireplace opening size to flue area, flue for a 34- by 20- by 30-inch (width, depth, and
depth of the opening, and other measurements, satis- height, respectively) opening. Local building regula-
factory performance can be assured. Metal circulating tions usually cover the proper sizes for these types of
fireplaces, which form the main outline of the opening fireplaces.

183
 WALL STUDS

WALL STUDS
HEADER
FURNACE
FLUE LINER 2" CLEARANCE-
ALL SIDES
FIREPLACE
FLUE LINER

16" MIN.

OUTER
HEARTH
ASH DUMP

REINFORCED
CONCRETE
SLAB

8" MIN

M 134 695
Figure 172.Masonry fireplace.

M 134 685
Figure 173.Dual-opening fireplace: A, Adjacent opening;
B, through fireplace.

184
 CHAPTER 27

DRIVEWAYS, WALKS, AND BASEMENT FLOORS

A new home is not complete until driveways and

walks have been installed so that landscaping can be
started. Landscaping includes final grading, planting
of shrubs and trees, and seeding or sodding of lawn DOUBLE GARAGE
areas. Because the automobile is an important element
in American life, the garage is usually a prominent
part of house design. This in turn establishes the loca-
tion of driveways and walks.
Concrete and bituminous pavement are most com-
monly used in the construction of walks and drives,
especially in areas where snow removal is important. PAVED OR GRAVEL

In some areas of the country, a gravel driveway and PAVING FOR

a flagstone walk may be satisfactory and would reduce DOUBLE GARAGE

the cost of improvements.

Basements are normally finished with a concrete
floor of some type, whether or not the area is to con-
-
tain habitable rooms. These floors are poured after
\ /
all improvements such as sewer and waterlines have
been connected. Concrete slabs should not be poured \ .1
9' ,
on recently filled areas. r

Driveways 12' __^

The grade, width, and radius of curves in a drive-
way are important factors in establishing a safe entry M 134 698
to the garage. Driveways for attached garages, which Figure 174.Driveway turnaround.
are located near the street on relatively level property,
need only be sufficiently wide to be adequate. Drive- also used as a walk, it should be at least 10 feet wide
ways that have a grade more than 7 percent (7-ft. rise to allow for a parked car as well as a walkway. The
in 100 ft.) should have some type of pavement to width should be increased by at least 1 foot at curves.
prevent wash. Driveways that are long and require The radius of the drive at the curb should be at least
an area for a turnaround should be designed carefully. 5 feet (fig. 175,^). Relatively short double driveways
Figure 174 shows a drive way and turnaround which should be at least 18 feet wide, and 2 feet wider when
allow the driver to back out of a single or double they are also to be used as a walk from the street.
garage into the turn and proceed to the street or high- The concrete strips in a ribbon driveway should be
way in a forward direction. This, in areas of heavy at least 2 feet in width and located so that they are 5
traffic, is much safer than having to back into the feet on center (fig. 175,). When the ribbon is also
street or roadway. A double garage should be serviced used as a walk, the width of strips should be increased
by a wider entry and turnaround. to at least 3 feet. This type of driveway is not prac-
Driveways that are of necessity quite steep should tical if there is a curve or turn involved or the drive-
have a near-level area in front of the garage for way is long.
safety, from 12 to 16 feet long. Pouring a concrete driveway over an area that
Two types of paved driveways may be used, (a) has been recently filled is poor practice unless the
the more common slab or full-width type and (b) the fill, preferably gravel, has settled and is well tamped.
ribbon type. When driveways are fairly long or steep, A gravel base is not ordinarily required on sandy
the full-width type is the most practical. The ribbon undisturbed soil but should be used under all other
driveway is cheaper and perhaps less conspicuous, be- conditions. Concrete should be about 5 inches thick.
cause of the grass strip between the concrete runners. A 2 by 6 is often used for a side form. These mem-
However, it is not always practical for all locations. bers establish the elevation and alinement of the
The width of the single-slab type drive should be driveway and are used for striking off the concrete.
9 feet for the modern car, although 8 feet is often con- Under most conditions, the use of steel reinforcing
sidered minimum (fig. 175^,). When the driveway is is good practice. Steel mesh, 6 by 6 inches in size,

185
 S' MINIMUM

DRAIN FROM 9' PREFERABLE

CENTER OUTWARD- CROSS SECTION

y
-^Y^

EXPANSION JOINT-

SIDEWALK

5' O.e.
3' WIDE WHEN USED
AS WALK

L 2' I 3^ J. ^

M 134 692
Figure 175.Driveway details: A, Single-slab driveway; B, ribbon-type driveway.

will normally prevent or minimize cracking of the Sidewalks

concrete. Expansion joints should be used (a) at the Main sidewalks should extend from the front entry
junction of the driveway with the public walk or to the street or front walk or to a driveway leading to
curb, (b) at the garage slab, and (c) about every the street. A 5 percent grade is considered maximum
40 feet on long driveways. A 5- or S^/o-bag com- for sidewalks ; any greater slope usually requires steps.
mercial mix is ordinarily used for driveways. How- Walks should be at least 3 feet wide.
ever, a 5V2- to 6-bag mix containing an air-entraining
Concrete sidewalks should be constructed in the
mixture should be used in areas having severe winter
same general manner as outlined for concrete drive-
climates.
ways. They should not be poured over filled areas un-
Contraction joints should be provided at 10- to
less they have settled and are very well tamped. This
12-foot intervals. These crosswise grooves, cut into
is especially true of the areas near the house after
the partially set concrete, will allow the concrete to
basement excavation backfill has been completed.
open along these lines during the cold weather
rather than in irregular cracks in other areas. The minimum thickness of the concrete over normal
Blacktop driveways, normally constructed by pav- undisturbed soil is usually 4 inches. As described for
ing contractors, should also have a well-tamped gravel concrete driveways, contraction joints should be used
or crushed rock base. Top should be slightly crowned and spaced on 4-foot centers.
for drainage. When slopes to the house are greater than a 5 per-

186
cent grade, stairs or steps should be used. This may be
accomplished with a ramp sidewalk, a flight of stairs
at a terrace, or a continuing sidewalk (fig. 176,^).
These stairs have 11-inch treads and 7-inch risers when
the stair is 30 inches or less in height. When the rise
is more than 30 inches, the tread is 12 inches and
the riser 6 inches. For a moderately uniform slope, a
stepped ramp may be satisfactory (fig. 176,5). Gener-
ally, the rise should be about 6 to 6% inches and the
length between risers sufficient for two or three normal
paces.
Walks can also be made of brick, flagstone, or other
types of stone. Brick and stone are often placed directly
over a well-tamped sand base. However, this system is
not completely satisfactory where freezing of the soil
is possible. For a more durable walk in cold climates,
the brick or stone topping is embedded in a freshly
laid reinforced concrete base (fig. 177).
As in all concrete sidewalks and curbed or uncurbed
driveways, a slight crown should be included in the
walk for drainage. Joints between brick or stone may M 134 691
be filled with a cement mortar mix or with sand. Figure 1 77.Masonry paved walks: A, Brick; B^ flagstone.

5% MAXIMUM
SLOPE

M 134 690
Figure 176.Sidewalks on slopes: A, Stairs; B^ stepped ramp.

187
 Basement Floors film or similar vapor barrier under the concrete slab
is usually justified. However, basement areas or multi-
Basement floor slabs should be no less than 3%
level floors used only for utility or storage do not
inches thick and sloped toward the floor drains. A
require a vapor barrier unless soil conditions are ad-
2 by 4 (31/^ in. wide) is often used on edge for form verse. When finished rooms have concrete floors, the
work. At least one floor drain should be used, and use of a vapor barrier is normally required. Details of
for large floor areas, two are more satisfactory. One basement floor or concrete-slab construction are out-
should be located near the laundry areas. lined in Chapter 4, "Concrete Floor Slabs on Ground,"
For a dry basement floor, the use of a polyethylene and in Chapter 18. "Basement Rooms."

CHAPTER 28

PAINTING AND FINISHING

Wood and wood products in a variety of species, more care and attention than the species in Group I.
grain patterns, texture, and colors are available for use Resinous species should be thoroughly kiln dried at
as exterior and interior surfaces. These wood surfaces temperatures that will effectively set the pitch.
can be finished quite effectively by several different The properties of wood that detract from its paint-
methods. Painting, which totally obscures the wood ability do not necessarily affect the finishing of such
grain, is used to achieve a particular color decor. boards naturally with penetrating preservatives and
Penetrating-type preservatives and pigmented stains stains. These finishes penetrate into wood without
permit some or all of the wood grain and texture to forming a continuous film on the surface. Therefore,
show and provide a special color effect as well as a they will not blister, crack, or peel even if excessive
natural or rustic appearance. The type of finish, moisture penetrates into wood. One way to further
painted or natural, often depends on the wood to be improve the performance of penetrating finishes is to
finished. leave the wood surface rough sawn. Allowing the high-
density, flat-grained wood surfaces of lumber and ply-
wood to weather several months also roughens the
Effect of Wood Properties
surface and improves it for staining. Rough-textured
Wood surfaces that shrink and swell the least are surfaces absorb more of the preservative and stain,
best for painting. For this reason, vertical- or edge- insuring a more durable finish.
grained surfaces are far better than flat-grained sur-
faces of any species. Also, because the swelling of
Natural Finishes for Exterior Wood
wood is directly proportional to density, low-density
species are preferred over high-density species. How- Weathered Wood
ever, even high-swelling and dense wood surfaces with The simplest of natural finishes for wood is natural
flat grain have been stabilized with a resin-treated paper weathering. Without paint or treatment of any kind,
overlay, such as overlaid exterior plywood and lum- wood surfaces change in color and texture in a few
ber, to make them excellent for painting. months or years, and then may stay almost unaltered
Medium-density fiberboard products fabricated with for a long time if the wood does not decay. Generally,
a uniform, low-density surface for exterior use are the dark-colored woods become lighter and the light-
often painted. The most widely used species for exterior colored woods become darker. As weathering con-
siding to be painted are vertical-grained western red- tinues, all woods become gray, accompanied by degra-
cedar and redwood. These species are classified in dation of the wood cells at the surface. Unfinished
Group I, those woods easiest to keep painted (table 10). wood will wear away at the rate of about ^ inch in
Other species in Group I are excellent for painting but 100 years.
are not generally available in all parts of the country. The appearance of weathered wood is affected by
Species that are not normally cut as vertical-grained dark-colored spores and mycelia of fungi or mildew
lumber, are high in density (swelling), or have defects on the surface, which give the wood a dark gray,
such as knots or pitch are classified in Groups II blotchy, and unsightly appearance. Highly-colored
through V, depending upon their general paint-holding wood extractives in such species as western redcedar
characteristics. Many species in Groups II through IV and redwood also influence the color of weathered
are commonly painted, particularly the pines, Douglas- wood. The dark brown color may persist for a long
fir, and spruce; but these species generally require time in areas not exposed to the sun and where the

188
 TABLE 10.Characteristics of woods for painting and finishing (omission in the table
indicate inadequate data for classification)

Weathering Appearance
Ease of
keeping Conspicu- Color of
Wood well-painted Resistance ousness of heartwood Degree of
Ieasiest to cupping checking (sapwood figure on
Vmost 1best 1least is always flat-grained
exacting ^ 4worst 2most light) surface

SOFTWOODS
Cedar:
Alaska Yellow Faint
California incense Brown Do.
Port-Orford Cream Do.
Western redcedar Brown Distinct
White Light brown. Do.
Cypress do Strong
Redwood Dark brown __ Distinct
Pine:
Eastern white II-- Cream Faint
Sugar II_. do Do.
Western white II.. do Do.
Ponderosa III. do Distinct
Fir, commercial white III. White Faint
Hemlock III. Pale brown Do.
Spruce III. White Do.
Douglas-fir (lumber and plywood) IV.. Pale red Strong
Larch IV_ Brown Do.
Pine:
Norway IV_ Light brown- Distinct
Southern (lumber and plywood)- IV. do Strong
Tamarack IV. Brown Do.
HARDWOODS
Alder III Pale brown Faint
Aspen III do Do.
Bass wood III Cream Do.
Cotton wood _ III White Do.
Magnolia III Pale brown Do.
Poplar III do Do.
Beech IV do Do.
Birch IV Light brown _ _ Do.
Gum IV Brown Do.
Maple IV. Light brown.. Do.
Sycamore IV Pale brown Do.
Cherry IV Brown Do.
Ash V or III. Light brown. Distinct
Butternut V or HI. -do Faint
Chestnut V or III- Light brown Distinct
Walnut V or HI. Dark brown __ Do.
Elm V or IV. Brown Do.
Hickory Vor IV_ Light brown-- Do.
Oak, white.. V or IV. Brown Do.
Oak, red V or IV. do Do.

^ Woods ranked in group V for ease of keeping well-painted are hardwoods with large pores that need filling wilh wood filler for
durable painting. When so filled before painting, the second classification recorded in the table applies.

extractives are not removed by rain. Water-Repellent Preservatives

With naturally weathered wood, it is important to
The natural weathering of wood may be modified
avoid the unsightly effect of rusting nails. Iron nails
rust rapidly and produce a severe brown or black by treatment with water-repellent finishes that contain
discoloration. Because of this, only aluminum or stain- a preservative (usually pentachlorophenol), a small
less steel nails should be used for natural finishes. amount of resin, and a very small amount of a water

189
repellent which frequently is wax or waxlike in nature. be applied the same day as the first and before the
The treatment, which penetrates the wood surface, first dries so both coats can penetrate.
retards the growth of mildew, prevents water staining An effective stain of this type is the Forest Products
of the ends of boards, reduces warping, and protects Laboratory natural finish (13). This finish has a
species that have a low natural resistance to decay. linseed oil vehicle; a fungicide, pentachlorophenol,
A clear, golden tan color can be achieved on such that protects the oil from mildew; and a water repel-
popular sidings as smooth or rough-sawn western red- lent, paraffin wax, that protects the wood from exces-
cedar and redwood. sive penetration of water. Durable red and brown iron
oxide pigments simulate the natural colors of redwood
The preservative solution can be easily applied by
and cedar. A variety of colors can be achieved with
dipping, brushing, or spraying. All lap and butt joints,
this finish, but the more durable ones are considered
edges, and ends of boards should be liberally treated.
to be the red and brown iron oxide stains.
Rough surfaces will absorb more solution than
smoothly planed surfaces and be more durable. Paints for Exterior Wood
The initial application to smooth surfaces is usually Of all the finishes, paints provide the most protec-
short-lived. When the surfaces start to show a blotchy tion for wood against weathering and offer the widest
discoloration due to extractives or mildew, clean them selection of colors. A nonporous paint film retards
with detergent solution and re-treat following thorough penetration of moisture and reduces discoloration by
drying. During the first 2 to 3 years, the finish may wood extractives, paint peeling, and checking and
have to be applied every year or so. After weathering warping of the wood. Paint, however, is not a preserva-
to uniform color, the treatments are more durable and tive; it will not prevent decay if conditions are favor-
need refinishing only when the surface becomes un- able for fungal growth. Original and maintenance
evenly colored. costs are usually higher for a paint finish than for a
Pigmented colors can also be added to the water- water-repellent preservative or penetrating stain finish.
repellent preservative solutions to provide special color The durability of paint coatings on exterior wood
eifects. Two to six fluid ounces of colors-in-oil or tint- is affected both by variables in the wood surface and
ing colors can be added to each gallon of treating solu- type of paint.
tion. Light-brown colors which match the natural color
Application
of the wood and extractives are preferred. The addition
of pigment to the finish helps to stabilize the color and Exterior wood surfaces can be very effectively
increases the durability of the finish. In applying pig- painted by following a simple 3-step procedure:
mented systems, a complete course of siding should Step 1. Water-repellent preservative treatment.
be finished at one time to prevent lapping. make sure wood siding and trim have been treated
with water-repellent preservative to protect them
Pginnted Penetrating Stains against the entrance of rain and heavy dew at joints.
The pigmented penetrating stains are semitrans- If treated exterior woodwork was not installed, treat
parent, permitting much of the grain pattern to show it by brushing or spraying in place. Care should be
through, and penetrate into the wood without forming taken to brush well into lap and butt joints, especially
a continuous film on the surface. Therefore, they will retreating cut ends. Allow 2 warm, sunny days for
not blister, crack, or peel even if excessive moisture adequate drying of the treatment before painting.
enters the wood. Step 2. Primer,New wood should be given three
coats of paint. The first, or prime, coat is the most
Penetrating stains are suitable for both smooth and
important and should be applied soon after the wood-
rough-textured surfaces ; however, their performance is
work is erected; topcoats should be applied within 2
markedly improved if applied to rough-sawn, weath-
days to 2 weeks. Use a nonporous oil-base primer that
ered, or rough-textured wood. They are especially
resists extractive staining. Apply enough primer to ob-
eifective on lumber and plywood that does not hold scure the wood grain. Many painters tend to spread
paint well, such as flat-grained surfaces of dense spe- primer too thinly. For best results, follow the spreading
cies. One coat of penetrating stains applied to smooth rates recommended by the manufacturer, or approxi-
surfaces may last only 2 to 4 years, but the second mately 400 to 450 square feet per gallon for a paint
application, after the surface has roughened by weath- that is about 85 percent solids by weight. A properly
ering, will last 8 to 10 years. A finish life of close to applied coat of a nonporous house paint primer will
10 years can be achieved initially by applying two greatly reduce moisture blistering, peeling, and staining
coats of stain to rough-sawn surfaces. Two-coat stain- of paint by wood extractives. Woods free of colored ex-
ing is usually best for the highly adsorptive rough- tractives, such as pine and fir, can be painted, without
sawn or weathered surfaces to reduce lapping or un- priming, with acrylic latex paint.
even stain application. The second coat should always The wood primer is not suitable for galvanized iron.

190
Allow such surfaces to weather for several months is the likely cause. Peeling high in the sidewalls near
and then prime with an appropriate primer, such as gutters suggests that the wall has been wet by water
a linseed oil or resin vehicle pigmented with metallic from ice dams. Paint failures at gable ends, for ex-
zinc dust (about 80 pet.) and zinc oxide (about ample, would mean that moisture from the inside of the
20 pet.). house is condensing in the attic. Paint failure around
Step 3. Finish Coats.Keep the following points in windows means that the interior of the house is too
mind when applying topcoats over the primer on new highly humidified.
wood and galvanized iron: House construction features that will minimize water
damage of outside paint are: (a) Wide roof overhang,
( 1 ) Use two coats of a good-quality latex, alkyd, or (b) wide flashing under shingles at roof edges, (c)
oil-base house paint over the nonporous primer. This effective vapor barriers in side walls and ceilings, (d)
is particularly important for areas that are fully ex- adequate eave troughs and properly hung downspouts,
posed to the weather, such as the south side of a house. and (e) adequate ventilation of the attic. If these fea-
(2) To avoid future separation between coats of tures are lacking in a new house, persistent blistering
paint, or intercoat peeling, apply the first topcoat and peeling may occur.
within 2 weeks after the primer and the second within
2 weeks of the first. Discoloration by Extractives
(3) To avoid temperature blistering, do not apply Water-soluble color extractives occur naturally in
oil-base paints on a cool surface that will be heated western redcedar and redwood. It is to these substances
by the sun within a few hours. Follow the sun around that the heartwood of these two species owes its
the house. Temperature blistering is most common attractive color, good stability, and natural decay re-
with thickly applied paints of dark colors. The blisters sistance. Discoloration occurs when the extractives are
usually show up in the last coat of paint and occur dissolved and leached from the wood by water. When
within a few hours to 1 or 2 days after painting. They the solution of extractives reaches the painted surface,
do not contain water. the water evaporates, leaving the extractives as a
(4) To avoid the wrinkling, fading, or loss of gloss reddish-brown stain. The water that gets behind the
of oil-base paint, and streaking of latex paints, do not paint and causes moisture blisters also causes migra-
paint in the evenings of cool spring and fall days tion of extractives. The discoloration produced by
when heavy dews are frequent before the surface of the water wetting the siding from the back side frequently
paint has dried. Apply latex paints above 50F and oil- forms a rundown or streaked pattern.
base paints above 40F. The emulsion paints and the so-called "breather" or
low-luster oil paints are more porous than conven-
Repainting tional oil paints. If these are used on new wood with-
(1) Repaint only when the old paint has worn thin out a good oil primer, or if any paint is applied too
and no longer protects the wood. Faded or dirty paint thinly on new wood (a skimpy two-coat paint job,
can often be freshened by washing. Where wood sur- for example), rain or even heavy dew can penetrate
faces are exposed, spot prime with a zinc-free oil-base the coating and reach the wood. When the water dries
primer before applying the finish coat. Too-frequent from the wood, the extractives are brought to the
repainting with an oil-base paint produces an exces- surface of the paint. Discoloration of paint by this
sively thick film that is more sensitive to the weather process forms a diffused pattern.
and also likely to crack abnormally across the grain On rough surfaces, such as shingles, machine-
of the paint. Latex paints do not fail this way. grooved shakes, and rough-sawn lumber sidings, it
(2) Heavily chalked surfaces should be cleaned well is difficult to obtain an adequately thick coating on
before repainting with latex paint. the high points. Therefore, extractive staining is more
(3) To avoid intercoat peeling of oil-base paints likely to occur on such surfaces by water penetrating
when repainting sheltered areas, use latex paint. through the coating. But the reddish-brown extractives
will be less conspicuous if dark-colored paints are used.
Blistering and Peeling
When too much water gets into paint or wood, the Effect of Impregnated Preservatives
paint may blister or peel. Modern paints based on vinyl on Painting
or acrylic latex and flat, low-luster oil paints usually Wood treated with the water-soluble preservatives
do not blister, but may peel because of their high in common use can be painted satisfactorily after it is
porosity. The pattern of paint failure on the house in- redried. The coating may not last quite as long as it
dicates the source of moisture, which is the cause of would have on untreated wood, but there is no vast
peeling. Peeling on all sides of a house in areas wet difference. Certainly, a slight loss in durability is not
only by rain or dew would indicate that rain and dew enough to offer any practical objection to using treated

191
wood where preservation against decay is necessary, special priming paints may be used. Knots in the
protection against weathering desired, and appearance white pines, ponderosa pine, or southern yellow pine
of painted wood important. When such treated wood should be shellacked or sealed with a special knot
is used indoors in textile or pulpmills, or other places sealer after the priming coat is dry. A coat of knot
where the relative humidity may be above 90 percent sealer is also sometimes necessary over wood of white
for long periods, paint may discolor or preservative pines and ponderosa pine to reduce pitch exudation
solution exude. Coal-tar creosote or other dark oily md discoloration of light-colored enamels by colored
preservatives tend to stain through paint unless the matter apparently present in the resin of the heartwood
treated wood has been exposed to the weather for many of the species.
months before it is painted. One or two coats of enamel undercoat are next
Wood treated with oilborne, chlorinated phenols applied; this should completely hide the wood and
can be painted only when the solvent oils have evapo- also present a surface that can easily be sandpapered
rated completely from the treated wood. If volatile smooth. For best results, the surface should be sand-
solvents that evaporate rapidly are used for the treat- papered before applying the finishing enamel; how-
ing solution, such as in water-repellent preservatives, ever, this operation is sometimes omitted. After the
painting can be done only after the treated wood has finishing enamel has been applied, it may be left with
dried. its natural gloss, or rubbed to a dull finish. When wood
trim and paneling are finished with a flat paint, the
Finishes for Interior Woodwork surface preparation is not nearly as exacting*
Interior finishing differs from exterior chiefly in
that interior woodwork usually requires much less pro- Transparent Finishes
tection against moisture, more exacting standards of Transparent finishes are used on most hardwood and
appearance, and a greater variety of effects. Good some softwood trim and paneling, according to per-
interior finishes used indoors should last much longer sonal preference. Most finishing consists of some
than paint coatings on exterior surfaces. Veneered combination of the fundamental operations of stain-
panels and plywood, however, present special finishing ing, filling, sealing, surface coating, or waxing. Before
problems because of the tendency of these wood con- finishing, planer marks and other blemishes of the
structions to surface check.
wood surface that would be accentuated by the finish
Opaque Finishes must be removed.
Interior surfaces may be painted with the materials Both softwoods and hardwoods are often finished
and by the procedures recommended for exterior sur- without staining, especially if the wood is one with a
faces. As a rule, however, smoother surfaces, better pleasing and characteristic color. When used, however,
color, and a more lasting sheen are demanded for stain often provides much more than color alone be-
interior woodwork, especially the wood trim; there- cause it is absorbed unequally by different parts of
fore, enamels or semigloss enamels rather than paints the wood; therefore, it accentuates the natural varia-
are used. tions in grain. With hardwoods, such emphasis of the
Before enameling, the wood surface should be grain is usually desirable; the best stains for the pur-
extremely smooth. Imperfections, such as planer marks, pose are dyes dissolved either in water or in oil. The
hammer marks, and raised grain, are accentuated by water stains give the most pleasing results, but raise
enamel finish. Raised grain is especially troublesome the grain of the wood and require an extra sanding
on flat-grained surfaces of the heavier softwoods be- operation after the stain is dry.
cause the hard bands of summerwood are sometimes The most commonly used stains are the "non-grain-
crushed into the soft springwood in planing, and later raising" ones which dry quickly, and often approach
are pushed up again when the wood changes in mois- the water stains in clearness and uniformity of color.
ture content. It is helpful to sponge softwoods with Stains on softwoods color the springwood more
water, allow them to dry thoroughly, and then sand- strongly than the summerwood, reversing the natural
paper them lightly with sharp sandpaper before gradation in color in a manner that is often garish.
enameling. In new buildings, woodwork should be Pigment-oil stains, which are essentially thin paints,
allowed adequate time to come to its equilibrium mois- are less subject to this objection, and are therefore
ture content before finishing. more suitable for softwoods. Alternatively, the soft-
For hardwoods with large pores, such as oak and wood may be coated with clear sealer before applying
ash, the pores must be filled with wood filler before the pigment-oil stain to give more nearly uniform
the priming coat is applied. The priming coat for all coloring.
woods may be the same as for exterior woodwork, or In hardwoods with large j>ores, the pores must be

192
filled before varnish or lacquer is applied if a smooth Birch has pores large enough to take wood filler
coating is desired. The filler may be transparent and effectively when desired, but small enough as a rule
without effect on the color of the finish, or it may to be finished satisfactorily without filling.
be colored to contrast with the surrounding wood. Hardwoods with small pores may be finished with
Sealer (thinned out varnish or lacquer) is used to paints, enamels, and varnishes in exactly the same
prevent absorption of subsequent, surface coatings and manner as softwoods. Hardwoods with large pores re-
prevent the bleeding of some stains and fillers into quire wood filler before they can be covered smoothly
surface coatings, especially lacquer coatings. Lacquer with a film-forming finish. Without filler, the pores
sealers have the advantage of being very fast drying. not only appear as depressions in the coating, but also
Transparent surface coatings over the sealer may become centers of surface imperfections and early
be of gloss varnish, semigloss varnish, nitrocellulose failure.
lacquer, or wax. Wax provides a characteristic sheen
without forming a thick coating and without greatly Finishes for Floors
enhancing the natural luster of the wood. Coatings of Interior Floors
a more resinous nature, especially lacquer and varnish, Wood possesses a variety of properties that make it
accentuate the natural luster of some hardwoods and a highly desirable flooring material for home, indus-
seem to permit the observer to look down in the wood. trial, and public structures. A variety of wood flooring
Shellac applied by the laborious process of French products permit a wide selection of attractive and
polishing probably achieves this impression of depth serviceable wood floors. Selection is available not only
most fully, but the coating is expensive and easily from a variety of different wood species and grain
marred by water. Rubbing varnishes made with resins characteristics, but also from a considerable number
of high refractive index for light are nearly as effec- of distinctive flooring types and patterns.
tive as shellac. Lacquers have the advantages of drying
The natural color and grain of wood floors make
rapidly and forming a hard surface, but require more
them inherently attractive and beautiful. It is the func-
applications than varnish to build up a lustrous coating.
tion of floor finishes to enhance the natural beauty of
Varnish and lacquer usually dry with a highly glossy wood, protect it from excessive wear and abrasion, and
surface. To reduce the gloss, the surfaces may be make the floors easier to clean. A complete finishing
rubbed with pumice stone and water or polishing oil. process may consist of four steps : Sanding the surface,
Waterproof sandpaper and water may be used instead applying a filler for certain woods, applying a stain
of pumice stone. The final sheen varies with the fine- to achieve a desired color effect, and applying a finish.
ness of the powdered pumice stone, coarse powders Detailed procedures and specified materials depend
making a dull surface and fine powders a bright sheen. largely on the species of wood used and individual
For very smooth surfaces with high polish, the final preference in type of finish.
rubbing is done with rotten-stone and oil. Varnish and Careful sanding to provide a smooth surface is essen-
lacquer made to dry to semigloss are also available. tial for a good finish because any irregularities or
Flat oil finishes are currently very popular. This roughness in the base surface will be magnified by the
type of finish penetrates the wood and forms no notice- finish. The production of a satisfactory surface re-
able film on the surface. Two coats of oil are usually quires sanding in several steps with progressively finer
applied, which may be followed with a paste wax. sandpaper, usually with a machine, unless the area is
Such finishes are easily applied and maintained but small. The final sanding is usually done with a 2/0
are more subject to soiling than a film-forming type grade paper. When sanding is complete, all dust must
of finish. be removed by vacuum cleaner or tack rag. Steel
wool should not be used on floors unprotected by
Filling Porous Hardwoods Before Painting
finish because minute steel particles left in the wood
For finishing purposes, the hardwoods may be clas- may later cause staining or discoloration.
sified as follows: A filler is required for wood with large pores, such
Harduxx>ds with large pores Hardwoods with small pores as oak and walnut, if a smooth, glossy, varnish finish
Ash Alder, red is desired. A filler may be paste or liquid, natural or
Butternut Aspen colored. It is applied by brushing first across the grain
Chestnut Basswood
Elm Beech
and then by brushing with the grain. Surplus filler
Hackberry Chtrry must be removed immediately after the glossy wet
Hickory Cottonwood appearance disappears. Wipe first across the grain
Khaya (African mahogany) Gum to pack the filler into the pores; then complete the
Mahogany Magnolia
Maple
wiping with a few light strokes with the grain. Filler
Oak
Sugarberry Poplar should be allowed to dry thoroughly before the finish
Walnut Sycamore coats are applied.

193
 Stains are sometimes used to obtain a more nearly Porches and Decks
uniform color when individual boards vary too much Exposed flooring on porches and decks is com-
in their natural color. Stains may also be used to monly painted. The recommended procedure of treat-
accent the grain pattern. If the natural color of the ing with water-repellent preservative and primer is
wood is acceptable, staining is omitted. The stain the same as for wood siding. After the primer, an
should be an oil-base or a non-grain-raising stain. undercoat and matching coat of porch and deck enamel
Stains penetrate wood only slightly; therefore, the should be applied.
finish should be carefully maintained to prevent wear- Many fully exposed rustic-type decks are effectively
ing through the stained layer. It is difficult to renew finished with only water-repellent preservative or a
the stain at worn spots in a way that will match the penetrating-type pigmented stain. Because these
color of the surrounding area. finishes penetrate and form no film on the surface,
Finishes commonly used for wood floors are classi- they do not crack and peel. They may need more fre-
fied either as sealers or varnishes. Sealers, which are quent refinishing than painted surfaces, but this is
usually thinned out varnishes, are widely used in resi- easily done because there is no need for laborious
dential flooring. They penetrate the wood just enough surface preparation as when painted surfaces start to
to avoid formation of a surface coating of appreciable peel.
thickness. Wax is usually applied over the sealer; how-
ever, if greater gloss is desired, the sealed floor makes Moisture-excluding Effectiveness of Coatings
an excellent base for varnish. The thin surface coat The protection afforded by coatings in excluding
of sealer and wax needs more frequent attention than moisture vapor from wood depends on a number of
varnished surfaces. However, rewaxing or resealing variables. Among them are film thickness, absence of
and waxing of high traffic areas is a relatively simple defects and voids in the film, type of pigment, type
maintenance procedure. of vehicle, volume ratio of pigment to vehicle, vapor
Varnish may be based on phenolic, alkyd, epoxy, or pressure gradient across the film, and length of expo-
Polyurethane resins. They form a distinct coating over sure period.
the wood and give a lustrous finish. The kind of serv- The relative effectiveness of several typical treating
ice expected usually determines the type of varnish. and finishing systems for wood in retarding adsorp-
Varnishes especially designed for homes, schools, gym- tion of water vapor at 97 percent relative humidity is
nasiums, and other public buildings are available. In- compared in table 11. Perfect protection, or no adsorp-
formation on types of floor finishes can be obtained tion of water, would be represented by 100 percent
from the flooring associations or the individual floor- effectiveness; complete lack of protection (as with
ing manufacturers. unfinished wood) by 0 percent.
Paints which are porous, such as the latex paints and
Durability of floor finishes can be improved by low-luster or breather-type oil-base paints formulated
keeping them waxed. Paste waxes generally give the at a pigment volume concentration above 40 percent,
best appearance and durability. Two coats are recom- afford little protection against moisture vapor. These
mended and, if a liquid wax is used, additional coats porous paints also permit rapid entry of water and so
may be necessary to get an adequate film for good provide little protection against dew and rain unless
performance. applied over a nonporous primer.

CHAPTER 29

PROTECTION AGAINST DECAY AND TERMITES

Wood used under conditions where it will always products in construction use are susceptible to decay
be dry, or even where it is wetted briefly and rapidly if kept wet for long periods under temperature condi-
redried, will not decay. However, all wood and wood tions favorable to the growth of decay organisms. Most

194
TABLE 11.Some typical values of moisture-excluding effectiveness of coatings after 2 weeks' exposure of wood
initially conditioned from 80 F. and 65 percent relative humidity to 80 F, and 97 percent relative humidity

Coatings Coatings
Effec- Effec
Number tive- Number tive-
Type of ness Type of ness
coats coats

Pet. Pet.
INTERIOR COATINGS EXTERIOR COATINGS
Uncoated wood 0 Water-repellent preservative 1 0
Latex paint 0 FPL natural finish (stain) 1 0
Floor seal 0 Exterior latex paint 2 3
Floor seal plus wax_ 10 House paint primer: 1 20
Linseed oil 1 Plus latex paint 2 22
Do 5 Plus titanium-zinc oil paint (low-luster
Do 21 oil base) (30 pet. PVC) ^ 1 65
Furniture wax 8 Titanium-alkyd oil:
Phenolic varnish 5 30 pet. PVC 1 1 45
Do 49 40 pet. PVC 1 1 3
Do 73 50 pet. PVC 1 1 0
Seinigloss enamel 52 Aluminum powder in long oil phenolic
Cellulose lacquer 73 varnish 1 39
Lacquer enamel 76 Do 2 88
Shellac 87 Do 3 95

^ PVC (pigment volume concentration) is the volume of pigment, in percent, in the nonvolatile portion of the paint.

of the wood as used in a house is not subjected to such use of new building materials, it becomes pertinent to
conditions. There are places where water can work restate the basic safeguards to protect buildings against
into the structure, but such places can be protected. both decay and termites.
Protection is accomplished by methods of design and
construction, by use of suitable materials, and in some Decay
cases by using treated material. Wood decay is caused by certain fungi that can
Wood is also subject to attack by termites and some utilize wood for food. These fungi, like the higher
other insects. Termites can be grouped into two main plants, require air, warmth, food, and moisture for
classessubterranean and dry-wood. Subterranean growth. Early stages of decay caused by these fungi
termites are important in the northernmost States may be accompanied by a discoloration of the wood.
where serious damage is confined to scattered, local- Paint also may become discolored where the underly-
ized areas of infestation (fig. 178). Buildings may be ing wood is rotting. Advanced decay is easily recog-
fully protected against subterranean termites by in- nized because the wood has then undergone definite
corporating comparatively inexpensive protection changes in properties and appearance. In advanced
measures during construction. The Formosan subter- stages of building decay, the affected wood generally
ranean termite has recently (1966) been discovered in is brown and crumbly, and sometimes may be com-
several locations in the South. It is a serious pest be- paratively white and spongy. These changes may not
cause its colonies contain large numbers of the worker be apparent on the surface, but the loss of sound wood
caste and cause damage rapidly. Though presently in inside often is reflected by sunken areas on the sur-
localized areas, it could spread to other areas. Con- face or by a "hollow" sound when the wood is tapped
trols are similar to those for other subterranean spe- with a hammer. Where the surrounding atmosphere is
cies. Dry-wood termites are found principally in Flor- very damp, the decay fungus may grow out on the
ida, southern California, and the Gulf Coast States. surfaceappearing as white or brownish growths in
They are more difficult to control, but the damage is patches or strands or in special cases as vine-Hke
less serious than that caused by subterranean termites. structures.
Wood has proved itself through the years to be desir- Fungi grow most rapidly at temperatures of about
able and satisfactory as a building material. Damage 70 to 85 F. Elevated temperatures such as those used
from decay and termites has been small in proportion in kiln-drying of lumber kill fungi, but low tempera-
to the total value of wood in residential structures, but tures, even far below zero, merely cause them to re-
it has been a troublesome problem to many home- main dormant.
owners. With changes in building-design features and Moisture requirements of fungi are within definite

195
 M 134 686
Figure 178The northern h'mit of damage in the United States by subterranean termites, Line A;
by dry-wood or nonsubterranean termites, line B.

limitations. Wood-destroying fungi will not become wood, and the cedars is classified as being highest in
established in dry wood. A moisture content of 20 per- decay resistance. All-heartwood, quality lumber is
cent (which can be determined with an electrical becoming more and more difficult to obtain, however,
moisture meter) is safe. Moisture contents greater than as increasing amounts of timber are cut from the
this are practically never reached in wood sheltered smaller trees of second-growth stands. In general, when
against rain and protected, if necessary, against wetting substantial decay resistance is needed in load-bearing
by condensation or fog. Decay can be permanently members that are difficult and expensive to replace, ap-
arrested by simply taking measures to dry out the in- propriate preservative-treated wood is recommended.
fected wood and to keep it dry. Brown crumbly decay,
in the dry condition, is sometimes called "dry rot," Subterranean Termites
but this is a misnomer. Such wood must necessarily Subterranean termites are the most destructive of
be damp if rotting is to occur. the insects that infest wood in houses. The chance of
The presence of mold or stain fungi should serve as infestation is great enough to justify preventive meas-
a warning that conditions are or have been suitable ures in the design and construction of buildings in
for decay fungi. Heavily molded or stained lumber, areas where termites are common.
therefore, should be examined for evidence of decay. Subterranean termites are common throughout the
Furthermore, such discolored wood is not entirely southern two-thirds of the United States except in
satisfactory for exterior millwork because it has greater mountainous and extremely dry areas.
water absorptiveness than bright wood. One of the requirements for subterranean-termite
The natural decay resistance of all common native life is the moisture available in the soil. These termites
species of wood lies in the heartwood. When untreated, become most numerous in moist, warm soil contain-
the sapwood of all species has low resistance to decay ing an abundant supply of food in the form of wood
and usually has a short life under decay-producing or other cellulosic material. In their search for addi-
conditions. Of the species of wood commonly used in tional food (wood), they build earthlike shelter tubes
house construction, the heartwood of baldcypress, red- over foundation walls or in cracks in the walls, or on

196
pipes or supports leading from the soil to the house. of 18 inches or more from the bottom of the joists to
These tubes are from Y^ to % i^^ch or more in width the ground in basementless spaces. The foundation
and flattened, and serve to protect the termites in their should be accessible at all points for inspection.
travels between food and shelter. Porches that prevent access should be isolated from
Since subterranean termites eat the interior of the the soil by concrete or from the building proper by
wood, they may cause much damage before they are metal barriers or aprons (fig. 179).
discovered. They honeycomb the wood with definite Steps and stair carriages, posts, wallplates, and sills
tunnels that are separated by thin layers of sound should be insulated from the ground with concrete or
wood. Decay fungi, on the other hand, soften the wood masonry. Sill plates and other wood in contact with
and eventually cause it to shrink, crack, and crumble concrete near the ground should be protected by a
without producing anything like these continuous tun- moistureproof membrane, such as heavy roll roofing
nels. When both decay fungi and subterranean termites or 6-mil polyethylene. Girder and joists openings in
are present in the same wood, even the layers between masonry walls should be big enough to assure an air
the termite tunnels will be softened. space around the ends of these members.

Dry-wood Termites Design Details

Dry-wood termites fly directly to and bore into the Surfaces like steps, porches, door and window
wood instead of building tunnels from the ground as frames, roofs, and other protections should be sloped
do the subterranean termites. Dry-wood termites are to promote runoff of water (Ch. 25, "Porches and
common in the tropics, and damage has been recorded Garages"). Noncorroding flashing should be used
in the United States in a narrow strip along the Atlan- around chimneys, windows, doors, or other places
tic Coast from Cape Henry, Va., to the Florida Keys, where water might seep in (Ch. 24, "Flashing and
and westward along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico to Sheet Metal"). Roofs with considerable overhang give
the Pacific Coast as far as northern California (fig. added protection to the siding and other parts of the
178). Serious damage has been noted in southern Cali- house. Gutters and downspouts should be placed and
fornia and in localities around Tampa, Miami, and maintained to divert water away from the buildings.
Key West, Fla. Infestations may be found in structural Porch columns and screen rails should be shimmed
timber and other woodwork in buildings, and also in above the floor to allow quick drying, or posts should
furniture, particularly where the surface is not ade- slightly overhang raised concrete bases (Ch. 25,
quately protected by paint or other finishes. "Porches and Garages").
Dry-wood termites cut across the grain of the wood Exterior steps, rails, and porch floors exposed to
and excavate broad pockets, or chambers, connected by rain need protection from decay, particularly in warm,
tunnels about the diameter of the termite's body. They damp parts of the country. Pressure treatment of the
destroy both springwood and the usually harder sum- wood in accordance with the recommendation of Fed-
merwood, whereas subterranean termites principally eral Specification TT-W-571 provides a high degree
attack springwood. Dry-wood termites remain hidden of protection against decay and termite attack.
in the wood and are seldom seen, except when they Where the likelihood of decay is relatively small or
make dispersal flights. where pressure-treated wood is not readily obtainable,
on-the-job application of water-repellent preservatives
Safeguards Against Decay by dipping or soaking has been found to be worth-
Except for special cases of wetting by condensation while. The wood should by dry, cut to final dimensions,
or fog, a dry piece of wood, when placed off the and then dipped or soaked in the preservative solu-
ground under a tight roof with wide overhang, will tion. Soaking is the best of these nonpressure
stay dry and never decay. This principle of "umbrella methods, and the ends of the boards should be soaked
protection," when applied to houses of proper design for a minimum of 3 minutes. It is important to protect
and construction, is a good precaution. The use of dry the end grain of wood at joints, for this area absorbs
lumber in designs that will keep the wood dry is the water easily and is the most common infection point.
simplest way to avoid decay in buildings. The edges of porch flooring should be coated with
Most of the details regarding wood decay have been thick white lead or other durable coating as it is laid.
included in earlier chapters, but they are given here Leaking pipes should be remedied immediately to
as a reminder of their relationship to protection from prevent damage to the house, as well as to guard
decay and termites. against possible decay.
Untreated wood should not come in contact with the
soil. It is desirable that the foundation walls have a Green or Partially Seasoned Lumber
clearance of at least 8 inches above the exterior finish Construction lumber that is green or partially sea-
grade, and that the floor construction have a clearance soned may be infected with one or more of the stain-

197
 STUDS

SIDING

JOIST

ALLOW CLEARANCE
JOIST TO GROUND UNDER SIDING
18" MIN.

ANCHOR - 3' O.C CONCRETE SLAB

TERMITE SHIELD

VAPOR BARRIER

M 134 697
Figure 179.Metal shield used to protect wood at porch slab.

ing, molding, or decay fungi and should be avoided. ethylene over the soil to keep the vapor from getting
Such wood may contribute to serious decay in both into the crawl space would prevent such decay. This
the substructure and exterior parts of buildings. If might be recommended for all sites where, during the
Avet lumber must be used, or if wetting occurs during cold months, the soil is wet enough to be compressed
construction, the wood should not be fully enclosed in the hand.
or painted until thoroughly dried. If the floor is uninsulated, there is an advantage in
closing the foundation vents during the coldest months
Water Vapor from the Soil from the standpoint of fuel savings. However, unless
Crawl spaces of houses built on poorly-drained the crawl space is used as a heat plenum chamber, in-
sites may be subjected to high humidity. During the sulation is usually located between floor joists. The
winter when the sills and outer joists are cold, moisture vents could then remain open. Crawl-space vents can
condenses on them and, in time, the wood absorbs so be very small when soil covers are used; only 10 per-
much moisture that it is susceptible to attack by fungi. cent of the area required without covers (Ch. 16, "Ven-
Unless this moisture dries out before temperatures tilation").
favorable for fungus growth are reached, considerable
decay may result. However, this decay may progress Water Vapor from Household Activities
so slowly that no weakening of the wood becomes Water vapor is also given off during cooking, wash-
apparent for a few years. Placing a layer of 45 pound ing, and other household activities. This vapor can
or heavier roll roofing or a 6-mil sheet of poly- pass through walls and ceilings during very cold

198
weather and condense on sheathing, studs, and rafters, In regions where dry-wood termites occur, the
causing condensation problems. A vapor barrier of following measures should be taken to prevent
an approved type is needed on the warm side of walls. damage:
(See section on "Vapor Barriers," Ch. 15.) It is also
1. All lumber, particularly secondhand material,
important that the attic space be ventilated (17), as
should be carefully inspected before use. If infected,
previously discussed in Chapter 16, "Ventilation."
discard the piece.
Water Supplied by the Fungus Itself 2. All doors, windows (especially attic windows),
and other ventilation openings should be screened with
In the warmer coastal areas principally, some sub-
metal wire with not less than 20 meshes to the inch.
structure decay is caused by a fungus that provides its
3. Preservative treatment in accordance with Federal
own needed moisture by conducting it through a vine-
Specification TT-W-571 ("Wood Preservatives:
like structure from moist ground to the wood. The
Treating Practices," available through GSA Regional
total damage caused by this water-conducting fungus
Offices) can be used to prevent attack in construction
is not large, but in individual instances it tends to be
timber and lumber.
unusually severe. Preventive and remedial measures
4. Several coats of house paint will provide con-
depend on getting the soil dry and avoiding untreated
siderable protection to exterior woodwork in build-
wood "bridges" such as posts between ground and
ings. All cracks, crevices, and joints between exterior
sills or beams.
wood members should be filled with a mastic calking
Safeguards Against Termites or plastic wood before painting.
5. The heartwood of foundation-grade redwood,
The best time to provide protection against termites
particularly when painted, is more resistant to attack
is during the planning and construction of the build-
than most other native commercial species.
ing. The first requirement is to remove all woody
Pesticides used improperly can be injurious to man,
debris like stumps and discarded form boards from
animals, and plants. Follow the directions and heed all
the soil at the building site before and after construc-
precautions on the labels.
tion. Steps should also be taken to keep the soil under
Store pesticides in original containersout of reach
the house as dry as possible.
of children and petsand away from foodstuff.
Next, the foundation should be made impervious to Apply pesticides selectively and carefully. Do not
subterranean termites to prevent them from crawling apply a pesticide when there is danger of drift to other
up through hidden cracks to the wood in the building areas. Avoid prolonged inhalation of a pesticide spray
above. Properly reinforced concrete makes the best or dust. When applying a pesticide it is advisable that
foundation, but unit-construction walls or piers capped you be fully clothed.
with at least 4 inches of reinforced concrete are also After handling a pesticide, do not eat, drink or
satisfactory. No wood member of the structural part smoke until you have washed. In case a pesticide is
of the house should be in contact with the soil. swallowed or gets in the eyes, follow the first aid
The best protection against subterranean termites is treatment given on the label, and get prompt medical
by treating the soil near the foundation or under an attention. If the pesticide is spilled on your skin or
entire slab foundation. The effective soil treatments clothing, remove clothing immediately and wash skin
are water emulsions of aldrin (0.5 pet.), chlordane thoroughly.
(1.0 pet.), dieldrin (0.5 pet.), and heptachlor (0.5 Dispose of empty pesticide containers by wrapping
pet.). The rate of application is 4 gallons per 10 linear them in several layers of newspaper and placing them
feet at the edge and along expansion joints of slabs or in your trash can.
along a foundation. For brick or hollow-block founda- It is difficult to remove all traces of a herbicide
tions, the rate is 4 gallons per 10 linear feet for each (weed killer) from equipment. Therefore, to prevent
foot of depth to the footing. One to 1^2 gallons of injury to desirable plants do not use the same equip-
emulsion per 10 square feet of surface area is recom- ment for insecticides and fungicides that you use for
mended for overall treatment before pouring concrete a herbicide.
slab foundations. Any wood used in secondary ap- NOTE: Registrations of pesticides are under con-
pendages, such as wall extensions, decorative fences, stant review by the U. S. Department of Agriculture.
and gates, should be pressure-treated with a good Use only pesticides that bear the USDA registration
preservative. number and carry directions for home and garden use.

199
 CHAPTER 30

PROTECTION AGAINST FIRE

Fire hazards exist to some extent in nearly all should be used on shafts, such as clothes chutes.
houses. Even though the dwelling is of the best fire- When cold-air return ducts are installed between
resistant construction, hazards can result from occu- studs or floor joists, the portions used for this pur-
pancy and the presence of combustible furnishings pose should be cut off from all unused portions by
and other contents. tight-fitting stops of sheet metal or wood not less than
The following tabulation showing the main causes 2 inches in nominal thickness. These ducts should be
of fires in one- and two-family dwellings is based on constructed of sheet metal or other materials no more
an analysis made of 500 fires by the National Fire flammable than 1-inch (nominal) boards.
Protection Association. Fire stops should also be placed vertically and hor-
Cause of fire Percent of Total izontally behind any wainscoting or paneling applied
Heating equipment 23.8 over furring, to limit the formed areas to less than
Smoking materials 17.7 10 feet in either dimension.
Electrical 13.8
9.7
With suspended ceilings, vertical panels of noncom-
Children and matches
Mishandling of flammable liquids 9.2 bustible materials from lumber of 2-inch nominal
Cooking equipment 4.9 thickness or the equivalent, should be used to sub-
Natural gas leaks 4.4 divide the enclosed space into areas of less than
Clothing ignition 4.2
1,000 square feet. Attic spaces should be similarly
Combustibles near heater 3.6
Other miscellaneous 8.7 divided into areas of less than 3,000 square feet.

100.0 Chimney and Fireplace Construction

Fire-protection engineers generally recognize that The fire hazards within home construction can be
a majority of fires begin in the contents, rather than reduced by insuring that chimney and fireplace con-
in the building structure itself. Proper housekeeping structions are placed in proper foundations and prop-
and care with smoking, matches, and heating devices erly framed and enclosed. (See Ch. 26, "Chimneys
can reduce the possibility of fires. Other precautions and Fireplaces.") In addition, care should be taken
to reduce the hazards of fires in dwellingssuch as that combustibles are not placed too close to the areas
fire stops, spacing around heating units and fireplaces, of high temperature. Combustible framing should be
and protection over furnacesare recommended else- no closer than 2 inches to chimney construction; how-
where in this handbook. ever, when required, this distance can be reduced to
1/^ inch, provided the wood is faced with a ^-inch-
Fire Stops thick asbestos sheeting.
Fire stops are intended to prevent drafts that foster For fireplace construction, wood should not be
movement of hot combustible gases from one area of placed closer than 4 inches from the backwall nor
the building to another during a fire. Exterior walls within 8 inches of either side or top of the fireplace
of wood-frame construction should be fire-stopped at opening. When used, wood mantels should be located
each floor level (figs. 26, 35, and 38), at the top-story at least 12 inches from the fireplace opening.
ceiling level, and at the foot of the rafters.
Fire stops should be of noncombustible materials Heating Systems
or wood not less than 2 inches in nominal thickness. Almost 25 percent of fires are attributed to faulty
The fire stops should be placed horizontally and be construction or to improper use of heating equipment,
well fitted to completely fill the width and depth of and the greater proportion of these fires originate in
the spacing. This applies primarily to balloon-type the basement. Combustible products should not gen-
frame construction. Platform walls are constructed erally be located nearer than 24 inches from a hot
with top and bottom plates for each story (fig. 31). air, hot water, or steam heating furnace; however, this
Similar fire stops should be used at the floor and distance can be reduced in the case of properly in-
ceiling of interior stud partitions, and headers should sulated furnaces or when the combustible materials
be used at the top and bottom of stair carriages (fig. are protected by gypsum board, plaster, or other
151). materials with low flame spread. Most fire-protection
Noncombustible fillings should also be placed in any agencies limit to 170^ F. the temperature to which
spacings around vertical ducts and pipes passing combustible wood products should be exposed for
through floors and ceilings, and self-closing doors long periods of time, although experimentally, ignition

200
does not occur until much higher temperatures have cantly influenced by either combustible or noncom-
been reached. bustible wall linings. In the time necessary to reach
In confining a fire to the basement of a home, added these critical temperatures (usually less than 10 min-
protection can be obtained with gypsum board, as- utes) the room would already be unsafe for human
bestos board, or plaster construction on the basement occupancy.
ceiling, either as the exterior surface or as backings Similar recent tests in a long corridor, partially
for decorative materials. These ceiling surfaces are ventilated, showed that the "flashover" condition would
frequently omitted to reduce costs, but particular at- develop for 60 to 70 feet along a corridor ceiling
tention should be given to protection of the wood within 5 to 7 minutes from the burning of a small
members directly above and near the furnace. amount of combustible contents. This "flashover" con-
dition developed in approximately the same time,
Flame Spread and Interior Finish whether combustible or noncombustible wall linings
In some areas of a building, flame-spread ratings were used, and before any appreciable flame spread
are assigned to limit spread of fire on wall and ceiling along wall surfaces.
surfaces. Usually, these requirements do not apply to Wood paneling, treated with fire-retardant chemicals
private dwellings because of their highly combustible or fire-resistant coatings as listed by the Underwriters'
content, particularly in furnishings and drapes usually Laboratory, Inc. or other recognized testing labora-
found in this type of structure. tories, can also be used in areas where flame-spread
To determine the effect of the flammability of wall resistance is especially critical. Such treatments, how-
linings on the fire hazards within small rooms, burn- ever, are not considered necessary in dwellings, nor
out tests have been made at the Forest Products Lab- can the extra cost of treatment be justified.
oratory in Madison, Wis. For this purpose, an 8- by
12- by 8-foot high room was furnished with an average Fire-resistant Walls
amount of furniture and combustible contents. This Whenever it is desirable to construct fire-resistant
room was lined with various wall panel products, walls and partitions in attached garages and heating
plywood, fiber insulation board, plaster on fiberboard rooms, information on fire resistance ratings using
lath, and gypsum wallboard. When a fire was started wood and other materials is readily available through
in the center of this room, the time to reach the local code authorities. Wood construction assemblies
critical temperature (when temperature rise became can provide ^2 hour to 2 hour fire resistance under
very rapid) or the flashover temperature (when every- recognized testing methods, depending on the covering
thing combustible burst into flames) was not signifi- material.

CHAPTER 31

METHODS OF REDUCING BUILDING COSTS

The average homebuilder is interested in reducing If a home builder pays attention to various construc-
the overall cost of his house but not at the expense of tion details and to the choice of materials, however,
its livability or resale value. This is often somewhat this information will usually aid in reducing costs. The
difficult to do for a single custom-built house. following suggestions are intended as possible ways
Operators of large housing developments often build for the owner to lower the cost of his house.
hundreds of houses each year. Because of their need
for huge volumes of materials, they buy direct from Design
the manufacturer. They also develop the building sites The first area where costs of the house may be
from large sections of land. Much of the work, such reduced somewhat is during the design stages. How-
as installation of the roofing, application of gypsum ever, such details should not affect the architectural
board interiors, and painting, is done by subcontrac- lines or appearance of the^iouse, but rather the room
tors. Their own crews are specialists, each crew be- arrangement and other factors. The following design
coming proficient in its own phase of the work. Central elements might be considered before final plans are
shops are established where all material is cut to length chosen :
and often preassembled before being trucked to the 1. The size of the house, width and length, should
site. These methods reduce the cost of the individual be such that standard-length joists and rafters and
house in a large building project, but few of them can standard spacings can be used without wasting mate-
be applied to an individual house built by the owner. rial. The architect or contractor will have this informa-

201
tion available. Also reflected in the house size is the adapted to two-story houses, roof shingles serve also
use of standard-width sheets of sheathing materials as siding over the steep-pitched portions. Furthermore,
on the exterior as well as in the interior. Any waste a roof of this type provides a greater amount of head-
or ripping required adds to both the labor and mate- room (perhaps the original purpose of this design)
rial costs. than the common gable type.
The rooms should be arranged so that the plumbing,
water, and heating lines are short and risers can serve Choice of Materials
more than one room. An "expandable" house may The type and grade of materials used in a house
mean the use of a steeper pitched roof to provide space can vary greatly and savings can be effected in their
for future rooms in the attic area. It might also be choice. It is poor practice to use a low grade or an
desirable to include second-floor dormers in the origi- inferior material which could later result in excessive
nal design. Additional rooms can thus be provided maintenance costs. On the other hand, it is not eco-
at a much lower cost than by adding to the side or nomical to use a material of too high a grade when
rear of the house at a future date. Roughing in plumb- not needed for strength or appearance.
ing and heating Hues to the second floor will also Several points might be considered as a means of
reduce future costs when the second floor is com- reducing costs. (Your contractor or lumber dealer
pleted, yet not add appreciably to the original con- who is familiar with these costs will aid you in your
struction costs. final selection.)
While a rectangular plan is the most economical 1. Consider the use of concrete blocks for founda-
from many standpoints, it should not always govern tion walls as opposed to the use of poured concrete.
final design. A rectangular plan of the house proper, It is less costly to provide a good water-resistant sur-
with a full basement, can be made more desirable by a face on a poured wall than on a block wall. On the
garage or porch wing of a different size or alinement. other hand, a common hollow concrete block has better
Such attachments require only shallow footings, with- insulating properties than a poured concrete wall of
out the excavation necessary for basement areas. equal thickness. Costs often vary by areas.
2. The type of foundation to be used, such as slab, 2. If precast blocks are available, consider them
crawl space, or basement, is an important considera- for chimneys. These blocks are made to take flue lin-
tion. Base this selection on climatic conditions and ings of varied sizes and are laid up more rapidly than
needs of the family for storage, hobby, or recreation brick. Concrete block units are also used in laying up
space. While space in the basement is not so desirable the base for a first-floor fireplace, rather than bricks.
as in areas above grade, its cubic-foot cost is a great Prefabricated, lightweight chimneys that require no
deal lower. The design of a slab-type house usually masonry may also save money.
includes some additional space for heating, laundry, 3. Dimension material varies somewhat in cost by
and storage. This extra area may often cost as much species and grades. Use the better grades for joists
as a full basement. Many multilevel houses include and rafters and the lower cost grades for studs. Do
habitable rooms over concrete slabs as well as a full- not use better grades of lumber than are actually
basement. Consult local architects or contractors for needed. Conversely, grades that involve excessive cut-
their opinions on the most desirable type of home in ting and selection would dissipate the saving by in-
your area from the cost standpoint. creased labor costs. Proper moisture content is an
3. Many contemporary house designs include a flat important factor.
or low-pitched roof which allows one type of member 4. Conventional items such as cabinets, moldings,
to serve as both ceiling joists and rafters. This gen- windows, and other millwork, which are carried as
erally reduces the cost compared to that of a pitched stock or can be easily ordered, also reduce costs. Any
roof, both in materials and labor. However, all styles special, nonstandard materials which require extra
of houses are not adaptable to such a roof. Many con- machine setups will be much more expensive. This
tractors incur savings by using preassembled roof need not restrict the homebuilder in his design, how-
trusses for pitched roofs. Dealers who handle large ever, as there are numerous choices of millwork com-
quantities of lumber are usually equipped to furnish ponents from many manufacturers.
trusses of this type. 5. The use of a single material for wall and floor
Pitched roofs are of gable or hip design, with the covering will provide a substantial saving. A combina-
gambrel roof a variation of each. While the hip roof tion subfloor underlayment of %- or %-inch tongued
is somewhat more difficult to frame than the gable and grooved plywood will serve both as subfloor and
roof, it usually requires less trim and siding. Further- as a base for resilient tile or similar material, as well
more, painting is much simpler in the hip roof because as for carpeting. Panel siding consisting of 4-foot-wide
of less wall area by elimination of the gable and be- full-height sheets of plywood or similar material serves
cause of accessibility. In the gambrel roof, which is both as sheathing and a finish siding. For example,

202
exterior particleboard with a painted finish and corner finish or are lightly stained. The softwoods, though
bracing on the stud wall may also qualify as a panel lower in cost, are less resistant to blows and impacts.
siding. Plywood may be obtained with a paper overlay, Another consideration is the selection of panel and
as well as rough sawn, striated, reverse board and flush doors. Flush doors can be obtained in a number
batten, brushed, and other finishes. of species and grades. Unselected gum, for example,
6. In planning a truly low-cost house where each might have a paint finish while the more costly woods
dollar is important, a crawl space design with the use are best finished with a varnish or sealer. Hollow-core
of a treated wood post foundation is worth investigat- flush doors are lower in cost and are satisfactory for
ing. This construction utilizes treated wood founda- interior use, but exterior flush doors should be solid
tion posts bearing on concrete footings. The post sup- core to better resist warping. The standard exterior
port floor beams upon which the floor joists rest. A panel door can be selected for many styles of archi-
variation of this design includes spacing of the beams tecture.
on 48-inch centers and the use of 1^8-inch-thick tongue
and groove plywood eliminating the need for joists as Construction
such. Methods of reducing construction costs are primarily
7. Costs of exterior siding or other finish materials based on reducing on-site labor time. The progressive
often vary a great deal. Many factory-primed sidings contractor often accomplishes this in several ways, but
are available which require only finish coats after the size of the operation generally governs the method
they are applied. A rough-sawn, low-grade cedar or of construction. A contractor might use two carpenter
similar species in board and batten pattern with a crewsone for framing and one for interior finishing.
stained finish will often reduce the overall cost of ex- Close cooperation with the subcontractorssuch as
terior coverings. Many species and textures of plywood plumbers, plasterers, and electriciansavoids wasting
are available for the exterior. When these sheet mate- time. Delivery of items when needed so that storage
rials are of the proper thickness and application, they is not a problem also reduces on-site costs. Larger
might also serve as sheathing. Paintability of species operators may preassemble components at a central
is also important. Edge-grained boards or paper-over- shop to permit rapid on-site erection. While the small
laid plywood provide good bases for paint. contractor building individual houses cannot always
In applying all exterior siding and trim, galvanized use the same cost-saving methods, he follows certain
or other rust-resistant nails reduce the need for fre- practices:
quent treatment or refinishing. Stainless steel or alumi- 1. Power equipment, such as a radial-arm saw,
num nails on siding having a natural finish are a skill saw, or an automatic nailer, aids in reducing
must. Corrosion-resistant nails will add slightly to the the time required for framing and is used by most
cost but will save many dollars in reduced mainte- progressive contractors. Such equipment not only
ance costs. reduces assembly time for floor, wall, and roof fram-
8. Interior coverage also deserves consideration. ing and sheathing, but is helpful in applying siding
While gypsum board dry-wall construction may be and exterior and interior trim. For example, with a
lower in cost per square foot, it requires decorating radial-arm saw on the job, studs can be cut to length,
before it can be considered complete; plaster walls do headers and framing members prepared, and entire
not require immediate decorating. These costs vary by wall sections assembled on the floor and raised in
areas, depending largely on the availability of the place. Square cuts, equal lengths, and accurate layouts
various trades. However, prefinished or plastic-faced result in better nailing and more rigid joints.
gypsum board (available in a number of patterns) 2. Where a gypsum-board dry-wall finish is used,
with a simple "V" joint or with a joint flap of the many contractors employ the horizontal method of
same covering, and the use of adhesive for application, application. This brings the taped joint below eye
will result in an economical wall and ceiling finish. level, and large room-size sheets may be used. Vertical
9. There are many cost-related considerations in joints may be made at window or door openings. This
the choice of flooring, trim, and other interior finish. reduces the number of joints to be treated and results
Areas which will be fully carpeted do not require a in a better-looking wall.
finish floor. However, there is a trend to provide a 3. Staining and painting of the exterior and interior
finish floor under the carpeting. The replacement cost surfaces and trim are important. For example, one
of the carpeting may be substantially greater than the cost study of interior painting indicated that prestain-
cost of the original finish floor. ing of jambs, stops, casing, and other trim before
Species of trim, jambs, and other interior moldings application would result in a substantial saving. These
vary from a relatively low-cost softwood to the higher are normally stained or sealed after they have been
cost hardwoods such as oak or birch. Softwoods are fitted and nailed.
ordinarily painted, while the hardwoods have a natural 4. During construction, the advantages of a simple

203
plan and the selection of an uncomplicated roof will and rafters, and erection will be more rapid than on
be obvious. There will be less waste by cutting joists a house where intricate construction is involved.

CHAPTER 32

PROTECTION AND CARE OF MATERIALS AT THE BUILDING SITE

Many building contractors arrange for the materials Lumber should not be stored in tight piles without
needed for a house to be delivered just before con- some type of protection. Rather, if lumber is not to be
struction begins. Perhaps the first load, after the used for several days or a week, it should be unloaded
foundation has been completed, would include all on skids with a 6-inch clearance above the soil. The
materials required for the wood-floor system. A second pile should then be covered with waterproof paper,
load, several days later, would provide the materials canvas, or polyethylene so that it sheds water. How-
for framing and sheathing the walls, and a third load ever, the cover should allow air to circulate and not
for roof and ceiling framing and roof sheathing. In enclose the pile to the groundline. In a tight enclosure,
this manner, storage of framing and sheathing materi- moisture from the ground may affect the moisture
als on the site would not be as critical as when all ma- content of lumber. The use of a polyethylene cover
terials were delivered at once. On the other hand, mate- over the ground before lumber is piled will reduce
rials for factory-built or preassembled houses may be moisture rise. The same type of protection should be
delivered in one large truckload, because a crew erects given to sheathing grade plywood.
the house in a matter of hours. This practically elimi- After the framing and the wall and roof sheathing
nates the need for protection of materials on the site. have been completed, the exterior roof trim, such as
the cornice and rake finish, is installed. During this
Protection Requirements period, the shingles may have been delivered. Asphalt
Unfortunately, the builder of a single house may shingles should be stored so that bundles lie flat with-
not be able to have delivery coincide with construc- out bending; curved or buckled shingles often result
tion needs. Thus, some type of protection may be re- in a poor looking roof. Wood shingles can be stored
quired at the building site. This is especially true for with only moderate protection from rain.
such millwork items as window and door frames,
doors, and moldings. Finished cabinets, floor under- Window and Door Frames
layment, flooring, and other more critical items should Window and exterior door frames should not be
be delivered only after the house is enclosed and can delivered until they can be installed. In normal con-
provide complete protection from the weather. struction procedures, these frames are installed after
During fall, winter, and spring months, the interior the roof is completed and roofing installed. Generally,
of the house should be heated so that finished wood window units are ready for installation with sash and
materials will not be affected. Exposure to damp and weatherstrip in place, and all wood protected by a dip
cold conditions will change the dimensions of such treatment with a water-repellent preservative. Such
materials as flooring and cause problems if they are units are premium items and, even though so treated,
installed at too high a moisture content. Thus, care should be protected against moisture or mechanical
of the materials after they arrive at the site and the damage. If it not possible to install frames when
conditions to which they are exposed are important to they arrive, place them on a dry base in an upright
most materials used in house construction. position and cover them.

Protection of Framing Materials Siding and Lath

In normal construction procedures, after excava- Siding materials can be protected by storing tem-
tion is complete, some dimension lumber and sheath- porarily in the house or garage. Place them so they
ing materials are delivered on the job. After delivery, will not be stepped on and split. Wood bevel siding is
it is the builder's responsibility to protect these mate- usually bundled with the pieces face to face to protect
rials against wetting and other damage. Structural and the surfaces fom mechanical damage and soiling.
framing materials in place on a house before it is Some manufacturers treat their siding with a water-
enclosed may become wet during a storm, but exposed repellent material and pack in bundles with an outer
surfaces can dry out quickly in subsequent dry weather protective wrap. All siding materials that cannot be
without causing damage. installed immediately should be protected against expo-

204
sure to conditions that could appreciably change their in most cases the material had picked up moisture
moisture content. after manufacture and before it was installed. As such
Insulation and rock lath should be stored inside the material redries during the heating season, it shrinks
house. These materials are generally not installed until and the boards separate. Some of the moisture pickup
the electrical, heating, and plumbing trades have com- may occur before the flooring is delivered to the build-
pleted the roughing-in phases of their work. ing, but often such pickup occurs after delivery and
before laying.
Plastering in Cold Weather In an unheated building under construction, the
During winter months, and in colder spring and relative humidity will average much higher than that
fall weather in northern areas of the country, the heat- in an occupied house. Thus, the flooring and finish
ing unit of a house should be in operation before tend to absorb moisture. To prevent moisture pickup
plastering is started. In fact, if the wood-framing mem- at the building and to dry out any excess moisture
bers are much above 15 percent moisture content, it picked up between time of manufacture and delivery,
is good practice to let them dry out somewhat before the humidity must be reduced below that considered
rock lath is applied. This normally presents no prob- normal in an unheated house. This may be accom-
lem, as the plumber and electrician do the rough-in plished by maintaining a temperature above the out-
work shortly after the house is closed in. Heat will door temperature even during the warmer seasons.
allow the plaster to dry more readily, but because Before any floor underlayment, flooring or interior
much moisture is driven off during this period, win- finish is delivered, the outside doors and windows
dows should be opened slightly. should be hung and the heating plant installed to
supply heat. For warm-weather control, when the
Interior Finish workmen leave at night, the thermostat should be set
Millwork, floor underlayment, flooring, and interior to maintain a temperature of 15F. above the average
trim manufactured by reputable companies are nor- outdoor temperature. In the morning when the work-
mally shipped at a moisture content satisfactory for men return, the thermostat can be set back so that the
immediate use. However, if storage conditions at the burner will not operate. During the winter, fall, and
lumber company or in an unheated house during the spring, the temperature should be kept at about 60 F.
inclement seasons are not satisfactory, wood parts Several days before flooring is to be laid, bundles
will pick up moisture. Results may not be apparent should be opened and the boards spread about so
immediately. If material is installed at too high a that their surfaces can dry out evenly. This will permit
moisture content, the following heating season open- the drying of moisture picked up before delivery.
ings will show up between flooring strips and poorly Wood wall paneling and floor underlayment should
matched joints in the trim because members have dried also be exposed to the heated conditions of the house
so the material will approach the moisture content it
out and shrunk.
reaches in service. Actually, exposure of all interior
In flooring, for instance, the recommended moisture
finish to this period of moisture adjustment is good
content at installation varies from 10 percent in the practice. Supplying some heat to the house in damp
damp southern States to 6 and 7 percent for other weather, even during the summer months, will be
localities. In examining wood floors with objectionable justified by improved appearance and owner satisfac-
cracks between the boards, it has been found that tion.

CHAPTER 33

MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR

A well constructed house will require comparatively ently unimportant details. For example, an extra $10
little maintenance if adequate attention was paid to spent on corrosion-resistant nails for siding and trim
details and to choice of materials, as presented in may save $100 or more annually because of the need
previous chapters. A house may have an outstanding for less frequent painting. The use of edge-grained
appearance, but if construction details have not been rather than flat-grained siding will provide a longer
correct, the additional maintenance that might be paint life, and the additional cost of the edge-grained
required would certainly be discouraging to the owner. boards then seems justified.
This may mean only a little attention to some appar- The following sections will outline some factors

205
relating to maintenance of the house and how to reduce the basement will cool the incoming air and frequently
or eliminate conditions that may be harmful as well as cause condensation to collect and drip from cold-water
costly. These suggestions can apply to both new and pipes and also collect on colder parts of the masonry
old houses. walls and floors. To air out the basement, open the
windows during the night.
Basement
Perhaps the most convenient method of reducing
The basement of a poured block wall may be humidity in basement areas is with dehumidifiers. A
damp for some time after a new house has been com- mechanical dehumidifier is moderate in price and does
pleted. However, after the heating season begins, most a satisfactory job of removing moisture from the air
of this dampness from walls and floors will gradually during periods of high humidity. Basements contain-
disappear if construction has been correct. If damp- ing living quarters and without air conditioners may
ness or wet walls and floors persist, the owner should require more than one dehumidifier unit. When they
check various areas to eliminate any possibilities for are in operation, all basement windows should be
water entry. closed.
Possible sources of trouble:
1. Drainage at the downspouts. The final grade Crawl-space Area
around the house should be away from the building Crawl-space areas should be checked as follows:
and a splash block or other means provided to drain 1. Inspect the crawl-space area annually, for termite
water away from the foundation wall. activity. Termite tubes on the walls or piers are an
2. Soil settling at the foundation wall and forming indication of this. In termite areas, soil in the crawl
pockets in which water may collect. These areas should space or under the concrete slab is normally treated
be filled and tamped so that surface water can drain with some type of chemical to prevent termite damage.
away. A house should contain a termite shield under the
3. Leaking in a poured concrete wall at the form tie wood sill with a 2-inch extension on the interior.
rods. These leaks usually seal themselves, but larger It must be well installed to be effective. Examine the
holes should be filled with a cement mortar or other shield for proper projection, and also any cracks in
sealer. Clean and slightly dampen the area first for the foundation walls, as such cracks form good chan-
good adhesion. nels for termites to enter fCh. 29, "Protection Against
4. Concrete-block or other masonry walls exposed Decay and Termites").
above grade often show dampness on the interior after 2. While in the crawl space, check exposed wood
a prolonged rainy spell. A number of waterproofing joists and beams for indications of excessive moisture.
materials on the market will provide good resistance In older houses where soil covers had not been used in
to moisture penetration when applied to the inner face the past, signs of staining or decay may be present.
of the basement wall. If the outside of below-grade Use a penknife to test questionable areas.
basement walls is treated correctly during construc- 3. Soil covers should be used to protect wood mem-
tion, waterproofing the interior walls is normally not bers from ground moisture (Ch. 16, "Ventilation").
required. (See Ch. 3, "Foundation Walls and Piers.") These may consist of plastic films, roll roofing, or
5. There should be at least a 6-inch clearance be- other suitable materials. A small amount of ventila-
tween the bottom of the siding and the grass. This tion is desirable to provide some air movement. If the
means that at least 8 inches should be allowed above crawl space is not presently covered, install a barrier
the finish grade before sod is laid or foundation plant- for greater protection.
ings made. This will minimize the chance of moisture
absorption by siding, sill plates, or other adjacent wood Roof and Attic
parts. Shrubs and foundation plantings should also be The roof and the attic area of both new and older
kept away from the wall to improve air circulation and houses might be inspected with attention to the
drying. In lawn sprinkling, it is poor practice to allow following:
water to spray against the walls of the house. 1. Humps which occur on an asphalt-shingle roof
6. Check areas between the foundation wall and the are often caused by movement of roofing nails which
sill plate. Any openings should be filled with a cement have been driven into knots, splits, or unsound wood.
mixture or a calking compound. This filling will de- Remove such nails, seal the holes, and replace the
crease heat loss and also prevent entry of insects into nails with others driven into sound wood. Blind-nail
the basement, as well as reduce air infiltration. such replacements so that the upper shingle tab covers
7. Dampness in the basement in the early summer the nailhead.
months is often augmented by opening the windows A line of buckled shingles across the roof of a rela-
for ventilation during the day to allow warm, moisture- tively new house is often caused by shrinkage of wide
laden outside air to enter. The lower temperature of roof boards. It is important to use sheathing boards

206
not over 8 inches wide and at a moisture content not reasons. Another factor involves the species of wood
exceeding 12 to 15 percent. When moisture content is and the direction of grain. Some species retain paint
greater, boards should be allowed to dry out for several better than others, and edge grain provides a better
days before shingles are applied. Time and hot weather surface for paint than flat grain. Chapter 28, "Paint-
tend to reduce buckling. Plywood sheathing would ing and Finishing," covers correct methods of applica-
eliminate this problem altogether. tion, types of paint, and other recommendations for a
2. A dirt streak down the gable end of a house with good finish. Other phases of the exterior maintenance
a close rake section can often be attributed to rain that the owner may encounter with his house are as
entering and running under the edge of the shingles. follows :
This results from insufficient shingle overhang or 1. In applying the siding, if bright steel nails have
the lack of a metal roof edge, such as shown in figure been used rather than galvanized, aluminum, stainless
70,B. The addition of a flashing strip to form a drip steel, or other noncorrosive nails, rust spots may occur
edge will usually minimize this problem. at the nailhead. These spots are quite common where
3. In winters with heavy snows, ice dams may form nails are driven flush with the heads exposed. The
at the eaves, often resulting in water entering the spotting may be remedied somewhat, in the case of
cornice and walls of the house. The immediate remedy flush nailing, by setting the nailhead below the surface
is to remove the snow on the roof for a short distance and puttying. The puttying should be preceded by a
above the gutters and, if necessary, in the valleys. priming coat.
Additional insulation between heated rooms and roof 2. Brick and other types of masonry are not always
space, and increased ventilation in the overhanging waterproof, and continued rains may result in moisture
eaves to lower the general attic temperature, will help penetration. Masonry veneer walls over a sheathed
to decrease the melting of snow on the roof and thus wood frame are normally backed with a waterproof
minimize ice formation. Deep snow in valleys also sheathing paper to prevent moisture entry. When walls
sometimes forms ice dams that cause water to back up do not have such protection and the moisture problem
under shingles and valley flashing (fig. 6S,A and B). persists, use a waterproof coating over the exposed
4. Roof leaks are often caused by improper flashing masonry surfaces. Transparent waterproof materials
at the valley, ridge, or around the chimney. Observe can be obtained for this purpose.
these areas during a rainy spell to discover the source. 3. Calking is usually required where a change in
Water may travel many feet from the point of entry materials occurs on a vertical line, such as that of
before it drips off the roof members. wood siding abutting against brick chimneys or walls.
5. The attic ventilators are valuable year round; in The wood should normally have a prime coating of
summer, to lower the attic temperature and improve paint for proper adhesion of the calking compound.
comfort conditions in the rooms below; in winter, to Calking guns with cartridges are the best means of
remove water vapor that may work through the ceil- waterproofing these joints. Many permanent-type calk-
ing and condense in the attic space and to minimize ing materials with a neoprene, elastomer or other type
ice dam problems. The ventilators should be open both base are available.
in winter and summer. 4. Rainwater may work behind wood siding
To check for sufficient ventilation during cold through butt and end joints and sometimes up under
weather, examine the attic after a prolonged cold the butt edge by capillarity when joints are not tight.
period. If nails protruding from the roof into the Setting the butt and end joints in white lead is an old-
attic space are heavily coated with frost, ventilation time custom that is very effective in preventing water
is usually insufficient. Frost may also collect on the from entering. Painting under the butt edges at the
roof sheathing, first appearing near the eaves on the lap adds mechanical resistance to water ingress. How-
north side of the roof. Increase the size of the ventila- ever, moisture changes in the siding cause some swell-
tors or place additional ones in the soffit area of the ing and shrinking that may break the paint film.
cornice. This will improve air movement and circula- Treating the siding with a water repellent before it is
tion. (See Ch. 16, "Ventilation," and figs. 99, 100, applied is effective in reducing capillary action. For
and 101 for proper size and location.) houses already built, the water repellent could be
applied under the butt edges of bevel siding or along
Exterior Walls the joints of drop siding and at all vertical joints. Such
One of the maintenance problems which sometimes water repellents are often combined with a preserva-
occurs with a wood-sided house involves the exterior tive and can be purchased at your local paint dealers
paint finish. Several reasons are known for peeling as a water-repellent preservative. In-place application
and poor adherence of paint. One of the major ones is often done with a plunger-type oil can. Excess re-
perhaps can be traced to moisture in its various forms. pellent on the face of painted surfaces should be wiped
Paint quality and methods of application are other off.

207
 Inferior relative humidity in the living quarters, or (c) a com-
bination of both. Generally, the condensation on storm
Plaster sash does not create a maintenance problem, but it may
The maintenance of plastered interior surfaces nor- be a nuisance. Weather-stripping the inner sash offers
mally is no problem in a properly constructed house. resistance to moisture flow and may prevent this con-
However, the following points are worthy of attention: densation. Lower relative humidities in the house are
1. Because of the curing (aging) period ordinarily also helpful.
required for plastered walls, it is not advisable to
apply oil-base paints until at least 60 days after plaster- Problems with Exterior Doors
ing is completed. Water-mix or resin-base paints may Condensation may occur on the glass or even on the
be applied without the necessity of an aging period. interior surface of exterior doors during periods of
2. In a newly constructed house, small plaster cracks severe cold. Furthermore, warping may result. The
may develop during or after the first heating season. addition of a tight-fitting storm or combination door
Such cracks are ordinarily caused by the drying of will usually remedy both problems. A solid-core flush
framing members that had too high a moisture content door or a panel door with solid stiles and rails is
when the plaster was applied. The cracks usually occur preferred over a hollow-core door to prevent or mini-
at interior corners and also above windows and doors mize this warping problem.
because of shrinkage of the headers. For this reason,
Openings in Flooring
it is usually advisable to wait for a part of the heating
season before painting plaster so that such cracks can Laying finish-strip flooring at too high a moisture
be filled first. content or laying individual boards with varying
3. Large plaster cracks in houses, new or old, often moisture contents may be a source of trouble to the
indicate a structural weakness in the framing or homeowner. As the flooring dries out and reaches
column footings. This may be due to excessive deflec- moisture equilibrium, spaces will form between the
tion or to settling of beam supports. Common areas boards. These openings are often very difficult to cor-
for such defects might be along the center beam or rect. If the floor has a few large cracks, one expedient
around the basement stairway. In such cases, the use of is to fit matching strips of wood between the flooring
an additional post and pedestal may be required. (See strips and glue them in place. In severe cases, it may
Ch. 5, "Floor Framing," for recommended methods be necessary to replace sections of the floor or to re-
of framing.) floor the entire house.
Another method would be to cover the existing floor-
Moisture on Windows ing with a thin flooring %g or % inch thick. This
would require removal of the base shoe, fitting the
Moisture on inside surfaces of windows may often
thin flooring around door jambs, and perhaps sawing
occur during the colder periods of the heating season.
off the door bottoms. (For proper methods of laying
The following precautions and corrections should be
floors to prevent open joints in new houses, see Ch.
observed during this time:
20, "Floor Coverings.")
1. During cold weather, condensation and, in cold
climates, frost will collect on the inner face of single- Unheated Rooms
glazed windows. Water from the condensation or melt-
To lower fuel consumption and for personal reasons,
ing frost runs down the glass and soaks into the wood
some homeowners close off unused rooms and leave
sash to cause stain, decay, and paint failure. The water
them unheated during the winter months. These factors
may rust steel sash. To prevent such condensation, the
of low temperatures and lack of heat, unfortunately,
window should be provided with a storm sash. Double
are conducive to trouble from condensation. Certain
glazing will also minimize this condensation. If it
corrective or protective measures can be taken to pre-
still presists on double-glazed windows, it usually indi-
vent damage and subsequent maintenance expense, as
cates that the humidity is too high. If a humidifier
follows :
is used, it should be turned off for a while or the set-
ting lowered. Other moisture sources should also be 1. Do not operate humidifiers or otherwise inten-
reduced enough to remedy the problem. Increasing tionally increase humidity in heated parts of the house.
the inside temperature will also reduce surface con- 2. Open the windows of unheated rooms during
densation. bright sunny days for several hours for ventilation.
2. Occasionally, in very cold weather, frost may Ventilation will help draw moisture out of the rooms.
form on the inner surfaces of the storm windows. This 3. Install storm sash on all windows, including those
may be caused by (a) loose-fitting window sash that in unheated rooms. This will materially reduce heat
allows moisture vapor from the house to enter the loss from both heated and unheated rooms and will
space between the window and storm sash, (b) high minimize the condensation on the inner fflass surfaces.

208
 REFERENCES

Acoustical and Insulating Materials Association Federal Housing Administration

1974 Performance data, acoustical materials. AIMA Bul- 1961. Mat-formed particleboard for exterior use. FHA Use of
letin 9. Park Ridge, 111. Materials Bull. No. UM-32. June 19.
American Hardboard Association Forest Products Laboratory, Forest Service, U.S. Department
n.d. Today's hardboard. 8 p., illus., Chicago, 111. of Agriculture
1974. Wood handbook: Wood as an engineering materiah
American Institute of Timber Construction
U.S. Dep. Agrie, Agrie. Handb. 72, 432 p., iUus.
1972. Standard for heavy timber roof decking. AITC 112.
Englewood, Colo. Forest Products Laboratory, Forest Service, U.S. Department
of Agriculture
American Plywood Association
1972. FPL natural finish. U.S. Forest Serv. Res. Note FPL-
1974. Plywood residential construction guide. APA6, 32 p.,
046, rev., Madison, Wis., 7 p.
illus.
Gypsum Association
American Plywood Association
1971. Using gypsum board for walls and ceilings. GA-201-71.
1964. Plywood truss designs, APA 64-650. 11 p., illus.
48 p., illus., Chicago, 111.
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Condition-
Lewis, Wayne C.
ing Engineers
1%8. Thermal insulation from wood for buildings. Effects
1972. ASHRAE handbook of fundamentals. 688 p., illus.
of moisture and its control. U.S.D.A. Forest Serv. Res.
Anderson, L. 0. Pap. FPL 86. Forest Prod. Lab., Madison, Wis.
1972. Selection and use of wood products for home and
National Fire Protection Association
farm building. U.S. Dep. Agrie, Agrie. Inf. Bull. 311,
1962. Occupancy fire record: One- and two-family dwellings.
41 p., illus.
Fire Rec. Bull. FR56-2A, Boston, Mass., 20 p., illus.
Anderson, L. 0.
National Forest Products Association
1969. Low-cost wood homes for rural Americaconstruction
1971. Span tables for joists and rafters. 36 p., Washington,
manual. Agrie. Handb. 364, 112 p.
D.C.
Anderson, L. 0., and Sherwood, G. E.
National Particleboard Association
1974. Condensation problems in your house: prevention and
1967. Particleboard: design and use manual. A.I.A. File 23-L.
solution. U.S. Dep. Agrie, Agrie. Inf. Bull. 373. 39 p.,
illus. U.S. Department of Commerce
1974. Construction and industrial plywood. Vol. Prod. Stand.
Anderson, L. 0., and Smith, W.
PS 1-74, 28 p., iUus.
1965. Houses can resist hurricanes. U.S. Forest Serv. Res.
Pap. FPL 33. Forest Prod. Lab., Madison, Wis. 44 p., U.S. Housing and Urban Development
illus. 1973. Minimum property standards for one and two family
dwellings. Vol. 1. HUD 4900.1.
Berendt, R. D., and Winzer, G. E.
1954. Sound insulation of wall, floor, and door constructions. U.S. Housing and Urban Development
Nat. Bur. Stand. Monogr. No. 77, 49 p., NTIS- 1973. Manual of accepted practices to the HUD minimum
PB180646. property standard. Vol. 4. HUD 4930.1.
Federal Housing Administration Vcrrall, A. F.
1963. A guide to impact noise control in multifamily dwell- 1961. Brush, dip, and soak treatment with water-repellent pre-
ings. FHA No. 750, 86 p. servatives. Forest Prod. J. ll(l):23-26.

209
 GLOSSARY OF HOUSING TERMS

Air-dried lumber. Lumber that has been piled in yards or Beam. A structural member transversely supporting a load.
sheds for any length of time. For the United States as Bearing partition. A partition that supports any vertical load
a whole, the minimum moisture content of thoroughly in addition to its own weight.
air-dried lumber is 12 to 15 percent and the average is
Bearing wall. A wall that supports any vertical load in addi-
somewhat higher. In the South, air-dried lumber may be
tion to its own weight.
no lower than 19 percent.
Bed molding. A molding in an angle, as between the over-
Airway. A space between roof insulation and roof boards for
hanging cornice, or eaves, of a building and the side-
movement of air.
walls.
Alligatoring. Coarse checking pattern characterized by a slip-
ping of the new paint coating over the old coating to Blind-nailing. Nailing in such a way that the nailheads are
the extent that the old coating can be seen through the not visible on the face of the workusually at the
fissures. tongue of matched boards.
Anchor bolts. Bolts to secure a wooden sill plate to concrete Blind stop. A rectangular molding, usually % by 1-% inches
or masonry floor or wall. or more in width, used in the assembly of a window
frame. Serves as a stop for storm and screen or com-
Apron. The flat member of the inside trim of a window placed
bination windows and to resist air infiltration.
against the wall immediately beneath the stool.
Area way. An open subsurface space adjacent to a building Blue stain. A bluish or grayish discoloration of the sapwood
used to admit light or air or as a means of access to a caused by the growth of certain moldlike fungi on the
basement. surface and in the interior of a piece, made possible by
the same conditions that favor the growth of other fungi.
Asphalt. Most native asphalt is a residue from evaporated
petroleum. It is insoluble in water but soluble in gaso- Bodied linseed oil. Linseed oil that has been thickened in
line and melts when heated. Used widely in building for viscosity by suitable processing with heat or chemicals.
waterproofing roof coverings of many types, exterior wall Bodied oils are obtainable in a great range in viscosity
coverings, flooring tile, and the like. from a little greater than that of raw oil to just short of
a jellied condition.
Astragal. A molding, attached to one of a pair of swinging
doors, against which the other door strikes. Boiled linseed oil. Linseed oil in which enough lead, man-
Attic ventilators. In houses, screened openings provided to ganese, or cobalt salts have been incorporated to make
ventilate an attic space. They are located in the soffit the oil harden more rapidly when spread in thin
area as inlet ventilators and in the gable end or along coatings.
the ridge as outlet ventilators. They can also consist of Bolster. A short horizontal timber or steel beam on top of a
power-driven fans used as an exhaust system. (See also column to support and decrease the span of beams or
Louver.) girders.
Boston ridge. A method of applying asphalt or wood shingles
Backband. A simple molding sometimes used around the outer at the ridge or at the hips of a roof as a finish.
edge of plain rectangular casing as a decorative feature.
Brace. An inclined piece of framing lumber applied to wall or
Backfill. The replacement of excavated earth into a trench floor to stiffen the structure. Often used on walls as
around and against a basement foundation. temporary bracing until framing has been completed.
Balusters. Usually small vertical members in a railing used
Brick veneer. A facing of brick laid against and fastened to
between a top rail and the stair treads or a bottom rail.
sheathing of a frame wall or tile wall construction.
Balustrade. A railing made up of balusters, top rail, and
sometimes bottom rail, used on the edge of stairs, bal- Bridging. Small wood or metal members that are inserted in
conies, and porches. a diagonal position between the floor joists at midspan
to act both as tension and compression members for the
Barge board. A decorative board covering the projecting purpose of bracing the joists and spreading the action of
rafter (fly rafter) of the gable end. At the cornice, this
loads.
member is a facia board.
Buck. Often used in reference to rough frame opening mem-
Base or baseboard. A board placed against the wall around bers. Door bucks used in reference to metal door frame.
a room next to the floor to finish properly between floor
and plaster. Built-up roof. A roofing composed of three to five layers of
asphalt felt laminated with coal tar, pitch, or asphalt.
Base molding. Molding used to trim the upper edge of in- The top is finished with crushed slag or gravel. Generally
terior baseboard. used on flat or low-pitched roofs.
Base shoe. Molding used next to the floor on interior base- Butt joint. The junction where the ends of two timbers or
board. Sometimes called a carpet strip. other members meet in a square-cut joint.
Batten. Narrow strips of wood used to cover joints or as
decorative vertical members over plywood or wide Cant strip. A triangular-shaped piece of lumber used at the
boards. junction of a flat deck and a wall to prevent cracking of
Batter board. One of a pair of horizontal boards nailed to the roofing which is applied over it.
posts set at the corners of an excavation, used to indicate Cap. The upper member of a column, pilaster, door cornice,
the desired level, also as a fastening for stretched strings molding, and the like.
to indicate outlines of foundation walls. Casement frames and sash. Frames of wood or metal enclos-
Bay window. Any window space projecting outward from the ing part or all of the sash, which may be opened by
walls of a building, either square or polygonal in plan. means of hinges affixed to the vertical edges.

210
Casing. Molding of various widths and thicknesses used to Let-in brace. Nominal 1-inch-thick boards applied into
trim door and window openings at the jambs. notched studs diagonally.
Cement, Keene's. A white finish plaster that produces an Cut-in brace. Nominal 2-inch-thick members, usually 2 by
extremely durable wall. Because of its density, it excels 4's, cut in between each stud diagonally.
for use in bathrooms and kitchens and is also used Comerite. Metal-mesh lath cut into strips and bent to a right
extensively for the finish coat in auditoriums, public angle. Used in interior corners of walls and ceilings on
buildings, and other places where walls may be sub- lath to prevent cracks in plastering.
jected to unusually hard wear or abuse. Cornice. Overhang of a pitched roof at the eave line, usually
Checking. Fissures that appear with age in many exterior consisting of a facia board, a soffit for a closed cornice,
paint coatings, at first superficial, but which in time may and appropriate moldings.
penetrate entirely through the coating. Cornice return. That portion of the cornice that returns on
Checkrails. Meeting rails sufficiently thicker than a window the gable end of a house.
to fill the opening between the top and bottom sash Counterflashing. A flashing usually used on chimneys at the
made by the parting stop in the frame of double-hung roofline to cover shingle flashing and to prevent moisture
windows. They are usually beveled. entry.
Collar beam. Nominal 1- or 2-inch-thick members connecting Cove molding. A molding with a concave face used as trim or
opposite roof rafters. They serve to stiffen the roof to finish interior corners.
structure. Crawl space. A shallow space below the living quarters of a
Column. In architecture: A perpendicular supporting member, basementless house, normally enclosed by the foundation
circular or rectangular in section, usually consisting of a wall.
base, shaft, and capital. In engineering: A vertical struc- Cricket. A small drainage-diverting roof structure of single
tural compression member which supports loads acting or double slope placed at the junction of larger surfaces
in the direction of its longitudinal axis. that meet at an angle, such as above a chimney.
Combination doors or windows. Combination doors or win- Cross-bridging. Diagonal bracing between adjacent floor
dows used over regular openings. They provide winter joists, placed near the center of the joist span to prevent
insulation and summer protection and often have self- joists from twisting.
storing or removable glass and screen inserts. This elimi-
Crown molding. A molding used on cornice or wherever an
nates the need for handling a different unit each season.
interior angle is to be covered.
Concrete plain. Concrete either without reinforcement, or
reinforced only for shrinkage or temperature changes. d. See Penny.
Condensation. In a building: Beads or drops of water (and Dado. A rectangular groove across the width of a board or
frequently frost in extremely cold weather) that accumu- plank. In interior decoration, a special type of wall treat-
late on the inside of the exterior covering of a building ment.
when warm, moisture-laden air from the interior reaches Decay. Disintegration of wood or other substance through the
a point where the temperature no longer permits the air action of fungi.
to sustain the moisture it holds. Use of louvers or attic
Deck paint. An enamel wth a high degree of resistance to
ventilators will reduce moisture condensation in attics.
mechanical wear, designed for use on such surfaces as
A vapor barrier under the gypsum lath or dry wall on
porch floors.
exposed walls will reduce condensation in them.
Density. The mass of substance in a unit volume. When ex-
Conduit, electrical. A pipe, usually metal, in which wire is
pressed in the metric system, it is numerically equal to
installed. the specific gravity of the same substance.
Construction dry-wall. A type of construction in which the
Dewpoint. Temperature at which a vapor begins to deposit as
interior wall finish is applied in a dry condition, gen-
a liquid. Applies especially to water in the atmosphere.
erally in the form of sheet materials or wood paneling,
as contrasted to plaster. Dimension. See Lumber dimension.
Construction, frame. A type of construction in which the Direct nailing. To nail perpendicular to the initial surface
structural parts are wood or depend upon a wood frame or to the junction of the pieces joined. Also termed
for support. In codes, if masonry veneer is applied to the face nailing.
exterior walls, the classification of this type of construc- Doorjamb, interior. The surrounding case into which and
tion is usually unchanged. out of which a door closes and opens. It consists of two
Coped joint. See Scribing. upright pieces, called side jambs, and a horizontal head
jamb.
Corbel out. To build out one or more courses of brick or
stone from the face of a wall, to form a support for Dormer. An opening in a sloping roof, the framing of which
timbers. projects out to form a vertical wall suitable for windows
or other openings.
Corner bead. A strip of formed sheet metal, sometimes com-
bined with a strip of metal lath, placed on corners before Downspout. A pipe, usually of metal, for carrying rainwater
plastering to reinforce them. Also, a strip of wood from roof gutters.
finish three-quarters-round or angular placed over a Dressed and matched (tongued and grooved). Boards or
plastered corner for protection. planks machined in such a maner that there is a groove
Corner boards. Used as trim for the external corners of a on one edge and a corresponding tongue on the other.
house or other frame structure against which the ends Drier paint. Usually oil-soluble soaps of such metals as lead,
of the siding are finished. manganese, or cobalt, which, in small proportions, hasten
Corner braces. Diagonal braces at the corners of frame struc- the oxidation and hardening (drying) of the drying
ture to stiffen and strengthen the wall. oils in paints.

211
Drip, (a) A member of a cornice or other horizontal exterior- Footing. A masonry section, usually concrete, in a rectangular
finish course that has a projection beyond the other form wider than the bottom of the foundation wall or
parts for throwing off water, (b) A groove in the under- pier it supports.
side of a sill or drip cap to cause water to drop off on Foundation. The supporting portion of a structure below the
the outer edge instead of drawing back and running first-floor construction, or below grade, including the
down the face of the building. footings.
Drip cap. A molding placed on the exterior top side of a Framing, balloon. A system of framing a building in which
door or window frame to cause water to drip beyond the all vertical structural elements of the bearing walls and
outside of the frame. partitions consist of single pieces extending from the top
Dry-wall. Interior covering material, such as gypsum board of the foundation sill plate to the roofplate and to which
or plywood, which is applied in large sheets or panels. all floor joists are fastened.
Ducts. In a house, usually round or rectangular metal pipes for Framing, platform. A system of framing a building in which
distributing warm air from the heating plant to rooms, floor joists of each story rest on the top plates of the
or air from a conditioning device or as cold air returns. story below or on the foundation sill for the first story,
Ducts are also made of asbestos and composition mate- and the bearing walls and partitions rest on the subfloor
rials. of each story.
Frieze. In house construction, a horizontal member connecting
Eaves. The margin or lower part of a roof projecting over the the top of the siding with the soffit of the cornice.
wall. Frostline. The depth of frost penetration in soil. This depth
Expansion joint. A bituminous fiber strip used to separate varies in different parts of the country. Footings should
blocks or units of concrete to prevent cracking due to be placed below this depth to prevent movement.
expansion as a result of temperature changes. Also used Fungi, wood. Microscopic plants that live in damp wood and
on concrete slabs. cause mold, stain, and decay.
Fungicide. A chemical that is poisonous to fungi.
Facia or fascia. A flat board, band, or face, used sometimes by Furring. Strips of wood or metal applied to a wall or other
itself but usually in combination with moldings, often surface to even it and normally to serve as a fastening
located at the outer face of the cornice. base for finish material.
Filler (wood). A heavily pigmented preparation used for
filling and leveling off the pores in open-pored woods. Gable. In house construction, the portion of the roof above the
eave line of a double-sloped roof.
Fire-resistive. In the absence of a specific ruling by the
authority having jurisdiction, applies to materials for Gable end. An end wall having a gable.
construction not combustible in the temperatures of Gloss enamel. A finishing material made of varnish and suffi-
ordinary fires and that will withstand such fires without cient pigments to provide opacity and color, but little or
serious impairment of their usefulness for at least 1 hour. no pigment of low opacity. Such an enamel forms a
hard coating with maximum smoothness of surface and
Fire-retardant chemical. A chemical or preparation of chemi-
a high degree of gloss.
cals used to reduce flammability or to retard spread of
flame. Gloss (paint or enamel). A paint or enamel that contains a
relatively low proportion of pigment and dries to a
Fire stop. A solid, tight closure of a concealed space, placed sheen or luster.
to prevent the spread of fire and smoke through such a
Girder. A large or principal beam of wood or steel used to
space. In a frame wall, this will usually consist of 2 by 4
cross blocking between studs. support concentrated loads at isolated points along its
length.
Fishplate. A wood or plywood piece used to fasten the ends of Grain. The direction, size, arrangement, appearance, or qual-
two members together at a butt joint with nails or bolts. ity of the fibers in wood.
Sometimes used at the junction of opposite rafters near
the ridge line. Grain, edge (vertical). Edge-grain lumber has been sawed
parallel to the pith of the log and approximately at
Flagstone (flagging or flags). Flat stones, from 1 to 4 right angles to the growth rings; i.e., the rings form an
inches thick, used for rustic walks, steps, floors, and the angle of 45 or more with the surface of the piece.
like.
Grain, flat. Flat-grain lumber has been sawed parallel to the
Flashing. Sheet metal or other material used in roof and wall pith of the log and approximately tangent to the growth
construction to protect a building from water seepage. rings, i.e., the rings form an angle of less than 45 with
Flat paint. An interior paint that contains a high proportion the surface of the piece.
of pigment and dries to a flat or lusterless finish. Grain, quartersawn. Another term for edge grain.
Flue. The space or passage in a chimney through which smoke, Grounds. Guides used around openings and at the floorline to
gas, or fumes ascend. Each passage is called a flue, strike off plaster. They can consist of narrow strips of
which together with any others and the surrounding wood or of wide subjambs at interior doorways. They
masonry make up the chimney. provide a level plaster line for installation of casing and
Flue lining. Fire clay or terra-cotta pipe, round or square, other trim.
usually made in all ordinary flue sizes and in 2-foot Grout. Mortar made of such consistency (by adding water)
lengths, used for the inner lining of chimneys with the that it will just flow into the joints and cavities of the
brick or masonry work around the outside. Flue lining masonry work and fill them solid.
in chimneys runs from about a foot below the flue con- Gusset. A flat wood, plywood, or similar type member used to
nection to the top of the chimney. provide a connection at intersection of wood members.
Fly rafters. End rafters of the gable overhang supported by Most commonly used at joints of wood trusses. They are
roof sheathing and lookouts. fastened by nails, screws, bolts, or adhesives.

212
Gutter or eave trough. A shallow channel or conduit of Landing. A platform between flights of stairs or at the termi-
metal or wood set below and along the eaves of a house nation of a flight of stairs.
to catch and carry off rainwater from the roof. Lath. A building material of wood, metal, gypsum, or insulat-
Gypsum plaster. Gypsum formulated to be used with the ad- ing board that is fastened to the frame of a building to
dition of sand and water for base-coat plaster. act as a plaster base.
Lattice. A framework of crossed wood or metal strips.
Header, (a) A beam placed perpendicular to joists and to
Leader. See Downspout.
which joists are nailed in framing for chimney, stair-
way, or other opening, (b) A wood lintel. Ledger strip. A strip of lumber nailed along the bottom of
the side of a girder on which joists rest.
Hearth. The inner or outer floor of a fireplace, usually made
of brick, tile, or stone. Light. Space in a window sash for a single pane of glass. Also,
Heartwood, The wood extending from the pith to the sap- a pane of glass.
wood, the cells of which no longer participate in the life Lintel. A horizontal structural member that supports the load
pr cesses of the tree. over an opening such as a door or window.
Hip. The external angle formed by the meeting of two sloping Lookout. A short wood bracket or cantilever to support an
sides of a roof. overhang portion of a roof or the like, usually concealed
Hip roof. A roof that rises by inclined pip""3 from all four from view.
sides of a building. Louver. An opening with a series of horizontal slats so ar-
Humidifier. A device designed to increase the humidity ranged as to permit ventilation but to exclude rain, sun-
within a room or a house by means of the discharge of light, or vision. See also Attic ventilators.
water vapor. They may consist of individual room-size Lumber. Lumber is the product of the sawmiU and planing
units or larger units attached to the heating plant to mill not further manufactured other than by sawing,
condition the entire house. resawing, and passmg lengthwise through a standard
planing machine, crosscutting to length, and matching.
I-beam. A steel beam with a cross section resembling the let-
ter /, It is used for long spans as basement beams or Lumber, boards. Yard lumber less than 2 inches thick and
over wide wall openings, such as a double garage door, 2 or more inches wide.
when wall and roof loads are imposed on the opening. Lumber, dimension. Yard lumber from 2 inches to, but not
nC. A new system utilized in the Federal Housing Adminis- including, 5 inches thick and 2 or more inches wide.
tration recommended criteria for impact sound insula- Includes joists, rafters, studs, plank, and small timbers.
tion. Lumber, dressed size. The dimension of lumber after shrink-
INR (Impact Noise Rating). A single figure rating which pro- ing from green dimension and after machining to size or
vides an estimate of the impact sound-insulating per- pattern.
formance of a floor-ceiling assembly. Lumber, matched. Lumber that is dressed and shaped on
Insulation board, rigid. A structural building board made of one edge in a grooved pattern and on the other in a
coarse wood or cane fiber in %- and 2%2-inch thick- tongued pattern.
nesses. It can be obtained in various size sheets, in vari- Lumber, shiplap. Lumber that is edge-dressed to make a
ous densities, and with several treatments. close rabbeted or lapped joint.
Insulation, thermal. Any material high in resistance to heat Lumber, timbers. Yard lumber 5 or more inches in least di-
transmission that, when placed in the walls, ceiling, or mension. Includes beams, stringers, posts, caps, sills,
floors of a structure, will reduce the rate of heat flow. girders, and purlins.
Interior finish. Material used to cover the interior framed Lumber, yard. Lumber of those grades, sizes, and patterns
areas, or materials of walls and ceilings. which are generally intended for ordinary construction,
such as framework and rough coverage of houses.
Jack rafter. A rafter that spans the distance from the wall-
plate to a hip, or from a valley to a ridge. Mantel. The shelf above a fireplace. Also used in referring to
Jamb. The side and head lining of a doorway, window, or the decorative trim around a fireplace opening.
other opening. Masonry. Stone, brick, concrete, hollow-tile, concrete-block,
Joint. The space between the adjacent surfaces of two mem- gypsum-block, or other similar building units or mate-
bers or components joined and held together by nails, rials or a combination of the same, bonded together
glue, cement, mortar, or other means. with mortar to form a wall, pier, buttress, or similar
mass.
Joint cement, A powder that is usually mixed with water and
used for joint treatment in gypsum-wallboard finish. Mastic. A pasty material used as a cement (as for setting
Often called "spackle." tile) or a protective coating (as for thermal insulation
or waterproofing).
Joist. One of a series of parallel beams, usually 2 inches in
thickness, used to support floor and ceiling loads, and Metal lath. Sheets of metal that are slit and drawn out to
supported in turn by larger beams, girders, or bearing form openings. Used as a plaster base for walls and ceil-
wall". ings and as reinforcing over other forms of plaster base.
Millwork. Generally all building materials made of finished
Kiln dried lumber. Lumber that has been kiln dried often to wood and manufactured in millwork plants and planing
a moisture content of 6 to 12 percent. Common varieties mills are included under the term "millwork." It in-
of softwood lumber, such as framing lumber are dried to cludes such items as inside and outside doors, window
a somewhat higher moisture content. and doorframes, blinds, porchwork, mantels, panelwork,
Knot. In lumber, the portion of a branch or limb of a tree stairways, moldings, and interior trim. It normally does
that appears on the edge or face of the piece. not include flooring, ceiling, or siding.

213
Miter joint. The joint of two pieces at an angle that bisects Pier. A column of masonry, usually rectangular in horizontal
the joining angle. For example, the miter joint at the cross section, used to support other structural members.
side and head casing at a door opening is made at a 45 Pigment. A powdered solid in suitable degree of subdivision
angle. for use in paint or enamel.
Moisture content of wood. Weight of the water contained in
Pitch. The incline slope of a roof or the ratio of the total rise
the wood, usually expressed as a percentage of the to the total width of a house, i.e., an 8-foot rise and
weight of the ovendry wood. 24-foot width is a one-third pitch roof. Roof slope is
Molding. A wood strip having a curved or projecting surface expressed in the inches of rise per foot of run.
used for decorative purposes.
Pitch pocket. An opening extending parallel to the annual
Mortise. A slot cut into a board, plank, or timber, usually rings of growth, that usually contains, or has contained,
edgewise, to receive tenon of another board, plank, or either solid or liquid pitch.
timber to form a joint.
Pith. The small, soft core at the original center of a tree
Mullion. A vertical bar or divider in the frame between win-
around which wood formation takes place.
dows, doors, or other openings.
Muntin. A small member which divides the glass or openings Plaster grounds. Strips of wood used as guides or strike-off
of sash or doors. edges around window and door openings and at base of
walls.
Natural finish. A transparent finish which does not seriously Plate. Sill plate: a horizontal member anchored to a masonry
alter the original color or grain of the natural wood. wall. Sole plate: bottom horizontal member of a frame
Natural finishes are usually provided by sealers, oils, wall. Top plate: top horizontal member of a frame wall
varnishes, water-repellent preservatives, and other simi- supporting ceiling joists, rafters, or other members.
lar materials. Plough. To cut a lengthwise groove in a board or plank.
Newel. A post to which the end of a stair railing or balustrade Plumb. Exactly perpendicular; vertical.
is fastened. Also, any post to which a railing or balus-
trade is fastened. Ply. A term to denote the number of thicknesses or layers of
roofing felt, veneer in plywood, or layers in built-up
Nonbearing wall. A wall supporting no load other than its materials, in any finished piece of such material.
own weight.
Plywood. A piece of wood made of three or more layers of
Nosing. The projecting edge of a molding or drip. Usually ap- veneer joined with glue, and usually laid with the grain
plied to the projecting molding on the edge of a stair of adjoining plies at right angles. Almost always an odd
tread. number of plies are used to provide balanced construc-
Notch. A crosswise rabbet at the end of a board. tion.
Pores. Wood cells of comparatively large diameter that have
O. C, on center. The measurement of spacing for studs, raf- open ends and are set one above the other to form con-
ters, joists, and the like in a building from the center of tinuous tubes. The openings of the vessels on the sur-
one member to the center of the next. face of a piece of wood are referred to as pores.
O. G., or ogee. A molding with a profile in the form of a Preservative. Any substance that, for a reasonable length of
letter 5; having the outline of a reversed curve. time, will prevent the action of wood-destroying fungi,
Outrigger. An extension of a rafter beyond the wall line. borers of various kinds, and similar destructive agents
Usually a smaller member nailed to a larger rafter to when the wood has been properly coated or impregnated
form a cornice or roof overhang. with it.
Primer. The first coat of paint in a paint job that consists of
Paint. A combination of pigments with suitable thinners or two or more coats; also the paint used for such a first
oils to provide decorative and protective coatings. coat.
PaneL In house construction, a thin flat piece of wood, ply- Putty. A type of cement usually made of whiting and boiled
wood, or similar material, framed by stiles and rails as linseed oil, beaten or kneaded to the consistency of
in a door or fitted into grooves of thicker material with dough, and used in sealing glass in sash, filling small
molded edges for decorative wall treatment. holes and crevices in wood, and for similar purposes.
Paper, building. A general term for papers, felts, and similar
sheet materials used in buildings without reference to Quarter round. A small molding that has the cross section of
their properties or uses. a quarter circle.
Paper, sheathing. A building material, generally paper or
Rabbet. A rectangular longitudinal groove cut in the corner
felt, used in wall and roof construction as a protection
edge of a board or plank.
against the passage of air and sometimes moisture.
Radiant heating. A method of heating, usually consisting of
Parting stop or strip. A small wood piece used in the side
a forced hot water system with pipes placed in the floor,
and head jambs of double-hung windows to separate
wall, or ceiling; or with electrically heated panels.
upper and lower sash.
Partition. A wall that subdivides spaces within any story of a Rafter. One of a series of structural members of a roof de-
signed to support roof loads. The rafters of a flat roof
building.
are sometimes called roof joists.
Penny. As applied to nails, it originally indicated the price
per hundred. The term now serves as a measure of nail Rafter, hip. A rafter that forms the intersection of an exter-
length and is abbreviated by the letter d. nal roof angle.
Perm. A measure of water vapor movement through a mate- Rafter, valley. A rafter that forms the intersection of an in-
rial (grains per square foot per hour per inch of mer- ternal roof angle. The valley rafter is normally made of
cury difference in vapor pressure). double 2-inch-thick members.

214
Rail. Cross members of panel doors or of a sash. Also the up- Saturated felt. A felt which is impregnated with tar or
per and lower members of a balustrade or staircase ex- asphalt.
tending from one vertical support, such as a post, to
Scratch coat. The first coat of plaster, which is scratched
another.
to form a bond for the second coat.
Rake. Trim members that run parallel to the roof slope and
form the finish between the wall and a gable roof ex- Screed. A small strip of wood, usually the thickness of the
tension. plaster coat, used as a guide for plastering.
Raw linseed oil. The crude product processed from flaxseed Scribing. Fitting woodwork to an irregular surface. In
and usually without much subsequent treatment. moldings, cutting the end of one piece to fit the molded
face of the other at an interior angle to replace a
Reflective insulation. Sheet material with one or both sur-
miter joint.
faces of comparatively low heat emissivity, such as
aluminum foil. When used in building construction the Sealer. A finishing material, either clear or pigmented, that
surfaces face air spaces, reducing the radiation across is usually applied directly over uncoated wood for the
the air space. purpose of sealing the surface.
Reinforcing. Steel rods or metal fabric placed in concrete Seasoning. Removing moisture from green wood in order to
slabs, beams, or columns to increase their strength. improve its serviceability.
Relative humidity. The amount of water vapor in the atmos- Semigloss paint or enamel. A paint or enamel made with
phere, expressed as a percentage of the maximum quan- a slight insufficiency of nonvolatile vehicle so that its
tity that could be present at a given temperature. (The coating, when dry, has some luster but is not very
actual amount of water vapor that can be held in space glossy.
increases with the temperature.) Shake. A thick handsplit shingle, resawed to form two
Resorcinol glue. A glue that is high in both wet and dry shakes; usually edge-grained.
strength and resistant to high temperatures. It is used
Sheathing. The structural covering, usually wood boards or
for gluing lumber or assembly joints that must with-
plywood, used over studs or rafters of a structure.
stand severe service conditions.
Structural building board is normally used only as
Ribbon (Girt). Normally a 1- by 4-inch board let into the wall sheathing.
studs horizontally to support ceiling or second-floor
Sheathing paper. See Paper, sheathing.
joists.
Sheet metal work. All components of a house employing
Ridge. The horizontal line at the junction of the top edges of
sheet metal, such as flashing, gutters, and downspouts.
two sloping roof surfaces.
Ridge board. The board placed on edge at the ridge of the Shellac. A transparent coating made by dissolving lac, a
roof into which the upper ends of the rafters are resinous secretion of the lac bug (a scale insect that
fastened. thrives in tropical countries, especially India), in
alcohol.
Rise. In stairs, the vertical height of a step or flight of stairs.
Shingles. Roof covering of asphalt, asbestos, wood, tile, slate,
Riser. Each of the vertical boards closing the spaces between or other material cut to stock lengths, widths, and
the treads of stairways. thicknesses.
RoU roofing. Roofing material, composed of fiber and satu- Shingles, siding. Various kinds of shingles, such as wood
rated with asphalt, that is supplied in 36-inch wide rolls shingles or shakes and nonwood shingles, that are used
with 108 square feet of material. Weights are generally over sheathing for exterior sidewall covering of a struc-
45 to 90 pounds per roll. ture.
Roof sheathing. The boards or sheet material fastened to the Shiplap. See Lumber, shiplap
roof rafters on which the shingle or other roof covering
is laid. Shutter. Usually lightweight louvered or flush wood or non-
wood frames in the form of doors located at each side
Rubber-emulsion paint. Paint, the vehicle of which consists
of a window. Some are made to close over the window
of rubber or synthetic rubber dispersed in fine droplets
for protection; others are fastened to the wall as a
in water.
decorative device.
Run. In stairs, the net width of a step or the horizontal dis-
tance covered by a flight of stairs. Siding. The finish covering of the outside wall of a frame
building, whether made of horizontal weatherboards,
Saddle. Two sloping surfaces meeting in a horizontal ridge, vertical boards with battens, shingles, or other material.
used between the back side of a chimney, or other verti- Siding, bevel (lap siding). Wedge-shaped boards used as
cal surface, and a sloping roof. horizontal siding in a lapped pattern. This siding varies
Sand float finish. Lime mixed with sand, resulting in a tex- in butt thickness from Vo to % inch and in widths
tured finish. up to 12 inches. Normally used over some type of
sheathing.
Sapwood. The outer zone of wood, next to the bark. In the
living tree it contains some living cells (the heartwood Siding, Dolly Varden. Beveled wood siding which is rab-
contains none), as well as dead and dying cells. In most beted on the bottom edge.
species, it is lighter colored than the heartwood. In all Siding, drop. Usually % inch thick and 6 and 8 inches
species, it is lacking in decay resistance. wide with tongued-and-grooved or shiplap edges. Often
jSash. A single light frame containing one or more lights of used as siding without sheathing in secondary buildings.
glass.
Sill. The lowest member of the frame of a structure, resting
Sash balance. A device, usually operated by a spring or on the foundation and supporting the floor joists or the
tensioned weatherstripping designed to counterbalance uprights of the wall. The member forming the lower side
double-hung window sash. of an opening, as a door sill, window sill, etc.

215
Sleeper, Usually, a wood member embedded in concrete, as Termites. Insects that superficially resemble ants in size,
in a floor, that serves to support and to fasten subfloor general appearance, and habit of living in colonies;
or flooring. hence, they are frequently called "white ants." Sub-
Soffit. Usually the underside of an overhanging cornice. terranean termites establish themselves in buildings not
by being carried in with lumber, but by entering from
Soil cover (ground cover). A light covering of plastic ground nests after the building has been constructed.
film, roll roofing, or similar material used over the soil If unmolested, they eat out the woodwork, leaving a
in crawl spaces of buildings to minimize moisture per- shell of sound wood to conceal their activities, and
meation of the area. damage may proceed so far as to cause collapse of parts
Soil stack. A general term for the vertical main of a system of a structure before discovery. There are about 56
of soil, waste, or vent piping. species of termites known in the United States; but
Sole or sole plate. See Plate. the two major ones, classified by the manner in which
they attack wood, are ground-inhabiting or subterranean
Solid bridging. A solid member placed between adjacent termites (the most common) and dry-wood termites,
floor joists near the center of the span to prevent joists which are found almost exclusively along the extreme
from twisting. southern border and the Gulf of Mexico in the United
Span. The distance between structural supports such as States.
walls, columns, piers, beams, girders, and trusses. Termite shield. A shield, usually of noncorrodible metal,
Splash block. A small masonry block laid with the top close placed in or on a foundation wall or other mass of
to the ground surface to receive roof drainage from masonry or around pipes to prevent passage of ter-
downspouts and to carry it away from the building. mites.
Square. A unit of measure100 square feetusually applied Terneplate. Sheet iron or steel coated with an alloy of lead
to roofing material. Sidewall coverings are sometimes and tin.
packed to cover 100 square feet and are sold on that Threshold. A strip of wood or metal with beveled edges
basis. used over the finish floor and the sill of exterior doors.
Stain, shingle. A form of oil paint, very thin in consistency, Toenailing. To drive a nail at a slant with the initial sur-
intended for coloring wood with rough surfaces, such face in order to permit it to penetrate into a second
as shingles, without forming a coating of significant member.
thickness or gloss.
Tongued and grooved. See Dressed and matched.
Stair carriage. Supporting member for stair treads. Usually
a 2-inch plank notched to receive the treads; sometimes Tread. The horizontal board in a stairway on which the foot
called a "rough horse." is placed.

Stair landing. See Landing. Trim. The finish materials in a building, such as moldings,
applied around openings (window trim, door trim) or
Stair rise. See Rise. at the floor and ceiling of rooms (baseboard, cornice,
STC. (Sound Transmission Class). A measure of sound and other moldings).
stopping of ordinary noise. Trimmer. A beam or joist to which a header is nailed in
Stile. An upright framing member in a panel door. framing for a chimney, stairway, or other opening.
Stool. A flat molding fitted over the window sill between Truss. A frame or jointed structure designed to act as a
jambs and contacting the bottom rail of the lower beam of long span, while each member is usually sub-
sash. jected to longitudinal stress only, either tension or
compression.
Storm sash or storm window. An extra window usually
placed on the outside of an existing one as additional Turpentine. A volatile oil used as a thinner in paints and
protection against cold weather. as a solvent in varnishes. Chemically, it is a mixture
of terpenes.
tory. That part of a building between any floor and the
floor or roof next above. Undercoat. A coating applied prior to the finishing or top
Strip flooring. Wood flooring consisting of narrow, matched coats of a paint job. It may be the first of two or the
strips. second of three coats. In some usage of the word it may
become synonymous with priming coat.
String, stringer. A timber or other support for cross mem-
bers in floors or ceilings. In stairs, the support on which Under layment. A material placed under finish coverings,
the stair treads rest; also stringboard. such as flooring, or shingles, to provide a smooth, even
surface for applying the finish.
Stucco. Most commonly refers to an outside plaster made with
Portland cement as its base. Valley, The internal angle formed by the junction of two
Stud. One of a series of slender wood or metal vertical struc- sloping sides of a roof.
tural members placed as supporting elements in walls Vapor barrier. Material used to retard the movement of
and partitions. (Plural: studs or studding.) water vapor into walls and prevent condensation in
Subfloor. Boards or plywood laid on joists over which a them. Usually considered as having a perm value of less
finish floor is to be laid. than 1.0. Applied separately over the warm side of ex-
posed walls or as a part of batt or blanket insulation.
Suspended ceiling. A ceiling system supported by hanging
it from the overhead structural framing. Varnish. A thickened preparation of drying oil or drying
oil and resin suitable for spreading on surfaces to form
Tail beam. A relatively short beam or joist supported in a continuous, transparent coatings, or for mixing with
wall on one end and by a header at the other. pigments to make enamels.

216
Vehicle. The liquid portion of a finishing material; it con- Wane. Bark, or lack of wood from any cause, on edge or
sists of the binder (nonvolatile) and volatile thinners. corner of a piece of wood.
Veneer, Thin sheets of wood made by rotary cutting or Water-repellent preservative. A liquid designed to pene-
slicing of a log. trate into wood and impart water repellency and a
moderate preservative protection. It is used for mill-
Vent. A pipe or duct which allows flow of air as an inlet
or outlet. work, such as sash and frames, and is usually applied
by dipping.
Vermiculite. A mineral closely related to mica, with the Weatherstrip. Narrow or jamb-width sections of thin metal
faculty of expanding on heating to form lightweight or other material to prevent infiltration of air and
material with insulation quality. Used as bulk insulation moisture around windows and doors. Compression
and also as aggregate in insulating and acoustical plas- weather stripping prevents air infiltration, provides
ter and in insulating concrete floors. tension, and acts as a counter balance.
Volatile thinner. A liquid that evaporates readily and is Wood rays. Strips of cells extending radially within a tree
used to thin or reduce the consistency of finishes and varying in height from a few cells in some species
without altering the relative volumes of pigments and to 4 inches or more in oak. The rays serve primarily
nonvolatile vehicles. to store food and to transport it horizontally in the tree.

217
 INDEX
Page Page Page
A-frame roof 45 Blanket insulation: Condensation 104, 206
Air ducts, framing 99 description 101 Construction costs, methods of
Air inlets, minimum areas 109 placement 101 reducing 201
Air spaces, effectiveness 101 vapor barrier 101 Copper, weight recommended for
Aluminum foil, vapor barrier 103 Bolster 23 flashing 166
Aluminum paint: Bolts, anchor 9 Corner bead, plaster reinforcement 126
vapor barrier 108 Boston ridge 74,168 Corner boards, use with siding 92
Anchor bolts, depth, spacing 9 Box cornice, construction 63 Corner intersections, details 34
Annularly grooved nails, flooring 136 Box sill, for platform construction 23 Cornerites, plaster reinforcement 126
Apron, window 150 Brick veneer, installation 12,96 Cornice, types 63
Asbestos-cement shingles, siding 95 Bridging, between joists 29 box 64
Asphalt coatings on plywood 107 Building costs, method of reducing 201 close 65
Asphalt shingles: Built-up girders 22 open 64
application 74 Built-up roof: Cornice returns, types 67
humping 74 installation 74 Corridor-type kitchen layout 152
nailing 74 maximum slope 45 Counterflashing, at chimneys 168
storage 74 service life 74 Cove, for concrete-block walls 10
weight recommended 73 Crawl space:
with wood sheathing 58 Cabinets 152 inspection 206
Asphalt-tile floor: Cant strips 74 maintenance 206
laying 141 Capillarity, remedy for 207 ventilation 113
Carpeting 141 Cross-bridging 29
damaged by grease 141
Casement-sash windows 78
Attic folding stairs 165
Casing 143 Decay 195
Attic inspection:
Calking, where required 207 Decay safeguards:
condensation 206 Ceiling framing, construction 40 attic ventilation 207
maintenance 207 Ceiling moldings, installation types- 151 crawl-space ventilation 113
Attic ventilation 104,108, 207 Cement-coated nails 128 designing for 197
Ceramic-tile floor, installation 142 inspection 206
Ballon-frame construction : Chimney openings in roof 61 insulation of pipes 199
brick, stone, or stucco houses 23 Chimney : metal shields 206
sills 23 construction 200 soil cover 113,206
wall framing 33 flashing 182 treatment of wood 199
Balustrades, types 177 flue installation 182 Decay resistance, heartwood, sapwood 196
Basement ceilings 121 framing 28,182 Decks, roof sheathing 59
Basement floors: height 182 Dehumidifiers, use 206
distance below grade 4 masonry 182 Desiccant, use for basement damp-
drainage 188 precast blocks 202 ness 206
thickness 188 prefabricated 181 Diagonal sheathing, use 54
China cabinets 153 Diagonals, as check for square
Basement, maintenance 206
Clearances for interior doors 146 corners 3
Basement posts, size and spacing 20
Close cornice, construction 65 Dimension lumber, cost 202
Basement rooms, floor level, ceiling Closets, types 152 Disappearing stairs 165
height, walls 119 Coeflicient of transmission 101 Door areas, insulation 107
Basement stairs, construction 162 Cold-weather condensation, protec- Door clearances 146
Base molding 151 tion from 107 Door frames, exterior 82-84
Bathtub, doubled joists for, framing 98 Collar beams 48 Door frames, interior, installation,
Batt insulation: Columns ^^^ parts 143
placement 104 Concrete-block walls. See Founda- special 143
sizes 101 tion walls. storage 204
Batter boards: Concrete forms, types 5 Door hardware, installation 146
arrangement 3 Concrete, made with lightweight Door headers, size, spacing 34
method of setting 3 aggregate 18 Door knob, standard height 146
Bay window, framing 31 Concrete-slab floors: Doors, exterior:
Beams: construction 15 framing, sizes, types 84
built-up 22 duct work for radiant heating 18 Doors, interior 142
faults 15 Doorstops, installation 149
collar 48 finish floors 19 Dormers 45
exposed 42 insulation 18 Double-formed walls 8
flange 22 on sloping ground 15 Double-hung windows 78
notched 12 protection against termites 19 Downspout, installation 173
solid 22 requirements for 15 Drainage:
vapor barriers 17 finish grade 4
steel 20 Concrete work 5,8 outer wall 7
Bevel siding 89 mixing and pouring 5 Draintile, installation, location 7

218
 Page Page Page
Driveways, construction, planning 185 Fires, causes 200 Framing for:
Drop siding 90 critical temperature in 200 air ducts 99
Dry-wall construction: Flange beam 22 bay windows 31
advantages, disadvantages 124 Flash-over temperature in fires 201 ceiling 40
painting 108 Flashing 166 chimneys 28
Dry-wall finish: Flat paint 193 dormers 48
application 128 Flat roofs: end-wall 36
decorative treatment 131 construction and design 45 fireplaces 28
fiberboard: ventilation required 110 floor furnace 99
application 131 Flexible insulation, types 101 floor joists 23
minimum thickness 131 Floor coverings: floor openings 28
gypsum board 128 carpeting 141 floors 23, 175
moisture content 132 ceramic tile 141 heating systems 97
plywood : wood and particleboard tile floor- overhangs 48
application 131 ing 138 post and beam 42
minmum thickness 131 wood strip flooring 134 plimibing 97
types 128 Floor framing: roofs 43
Dry-wood termites: design factors 19 sills 36
damage caused by 195 girders 20,23 stairwells 161
where common 195 nailing 19 valleys 48
Ducts : notched for pipes 98 ventpipe 98
cause of paint failure 99 posts 20 wall furnace 99
heating systems 99 quality, seasoning requirements 19 walls 31
unlined 99 types 19 Framing lumber, seasoning require-
Flooring : ments 19
care of after delivery 136, 205 Framing materials, protection of 204
Electrical outlets: Framing members, dry wall 128
cause of open joints 205
installation 100 French polishing finish 193
cost considerations 134
insulation 107 Frieze board 63,65
defects, remedy for 136
Electric wiring 100 Fungi, decay, description 195
method of nailing first strips 136
End-wall framing: Furnace framing 99
moisture content recommended-136, 205
at sill and ceiling 36
nails, types 136
for balloon and platform construc- Gable roofs 109
wood and particleboard tile floor-
tion 37 Galvanized metal flashing 166
mg 138
Enamel, types, use 192 wood block flooring 134 Gambrel roof 202
Excavation 4 Garages 178
wood strip 134
Expanded-metal lath: Floor joists. See Joists. Girders:
as plaster base 125 Floors, painting of 193 bolster for 23
use around tub recess 125 Floor slabs. See Concrete-slab floors. built-up 22
Exposed beams 42 Floor squeaks, cause, remedy 134 floor framing for 20
Exterior stairs, construction 165 Flue lining 182 joist installation 23
Exterior trim 63 Flush doors: solid 22
Extractives, effect on paint 188 construction 84,143 spaced 23
facings, species 143 steel, wood 20
Facia board, in open cornice 65 Fly rafter 47 Glass fibers with plastic binder 102
Fiberboard dry-wall finish: Footings 5 Grades, sloped for drainage 3
application 131 Form work for concrete walls 8 Green lumber, leads to decay 197
thickness 128 Foundation : Gutters, installation, types 166,170
Fiberboard sheathing 53 concrete 5 Gypstmi board:
Fill insulation: drainage 4 applied with undercourse 128
placement of 102 excavation 4 dry-wall finish 128
use 102 laying 5 finishing operation for 128
Finish, ridge 74 selection 202 installation 128
Finish flooring 133 Foundation frames, painting 11 joints, cementing and taping of 128
Finish grade 3 Foundation walls: Gypsum-board lath:
Finishes, properties 189 concrete-block 9 application 125
concrete work 8 nailing 125
Fireplace :
drainage 7 perforated 125
construction, design 183
footings 5 plaster base 125
efficiency 181 sizes 124
millwork 153 formwork 5
height 3 with foil back 125
Fire protection: Gypsum lath-aluminum foil vapor
masonry piers 20
causes of fires 200 masonry veneer 12,14 barrier 107
construction safeguards 200 poured concrete 8 Gypsum sheathing, application, nail-
control of hazards 201 protection against termites 12 ing, sizes 54-57
use of fire-retarding treatments 201 reinforcing 11
Fire-retardant coatings 201 sill anchors H Hanging gutters, installation 173
Fire-retardemt insulation board 201 thickness 11 Hardwood flooring, patterns 134

219
 Page Page Page
Heat flashing, extent of 166 Joists: Metal shields, use as decay safe-
Headers : blocking for heat ducts 26 guard 206
door 34 doubled as bathtub supports 98 Millwork 63,151
joists 23 doubled under bearing walls 26 Moisture condensation:
nailing 26 drilled for pipes 98 moisture on doors and windows,
stair framing 161 installation 23 prevention of 208
trussed 33 notched for pipes 98 moisture pickup, defects caused by 208
window 34 quality requirements 19 moisture vapor, concentrations of _ 108
Hearth 183 sizes, spans 23 Moisture-excluding effectiveness of
Heartwood, decay resistance 196 spaced for air ducts 98 coatings 194
Heating systems, framing for 200 spaced for heat ducts 23 Mold fungi, as decay warning 195
Hinges, door, installation, sizes 146 thickness of 20 Moldings:
Hip roof: base, installation, types 151
air inlets, minimum areas 110 Keyways, use with reinforcing 11 ceiling, installation, types 151
construction 47 Kitchen cabinets, arrangements, sizes 152 crown, at rake and frieze boards _ 63
Hollow-backed flooring, description. 134 Keene's cement, for use in bathrooms 126 Muntins 78
Horizontal lath nailers, installation. 39 Knotty pine, as decorative wall finish 131
Horizontal sheathing, installation 54 Nailing methods for:
Horizontal sliding window units 81,82 Leader straps, fasteners for down- asphalt shingles 74
Hot-water heating, framing for 99 spouts 173 bevel siding 89
Humidifier, precautions for use 208 Ledger strips, use with girders 23 ceiling framing 42
Lintels :
ceiling joists 41
I-beam 22 doors, windows 34
reinforced-concrete 11 drop siding 90
Ice dams:
at gutters 108 size and spacing 34 end studs 47
in roof valleys 108 Linoleum : fiberboard sheathing 54
protection from 71 laying 141 fireplace framing 28
reduced by ventilation 108 on plywood 141 floor framing 28
remedy for 207 on wood 141 gypsum sheathing 56
Impact noise ratings 117 thickness headers 28
Incense-cedar, paintability 189 Locks, doors, installation of 148 jack rafters 48
Insulating board sheathing, types 53 Lookouts : plywood roof sheathing 59
Insulating boards cornice 63 plywood subfloor 29
intermediate density 53 nailing of 63 rafters 48
nail-base 53 overhanging roof 45 roof boards, closed 59
regular density 53 Loose fill insulation 102 roof framing 47
Insulating fiberboard lath, as plaster Louvers 108,109 stair-well framing 28
base 125 L-type kitchen layout 152 trimmers 28
Insulating lath, application, nailing _ 125 Lumber, piling storage 204 wood shingles 71
Insulating plaster, as wall finish 127
Nailing strips, for sheathing and
Insulation : Maintenance : shingles 59
as cooling device 104
attic 206 Nailing surface, provision for at ceil-
classes 100
basement 206 ing line 39
coefficient of transmission 101
flexible 101 calking at joints 207 Nails:
for concrete slabs 18 crawl space 206 annularly threaded shank 89
for door and window areas 104 doors 208 concrete forms 8
installment 104 masonry 208 corrosion-resistant 53
loose fill 102 plaster 208 finish flooring 136
precautions for use 107 roof 206 helically threaded 89
reflective 103 unheated rooms 208 ring-shank (threaded) 56,73,136
rigid 103 walls, exterior 207 rust-resistant 203
sound absorption 114 Mansard 45 siding 89
thermal properties 101 Mantel 152 steel, as cause of rust spots 89, 207
types 100 Materials : Natural finishes:
U-value 101 protection of on site 204 for siding and trim 188,190
where needed 104 selection 202 number of coats recommended 189
Interior doors, installation, types 143 Masonry piers, height above grade, types 190
Interior finish: spacing, sizes 20
cost considerations 203 wood species preferred for 143
Masonry veneer, installation 12 Newel post 165
dry-wall construction 124,128
moisture content recommended 143 Metal covers, for dormer roofs, entry
principal types 124 hoods, porch roofs 166 Oak, paintability 192
protection of during construction _. 205 Metal-foil vapor barrier 107 Oil finishes, use 191
Interior trim 142-151 Metal lath 125 Oil stains, for hardwoods and soft-
Metal ridge roll, as substitute for woods 191
Jack rafters 48 Boston ridge 168 Open cornice, construction 64
Jambs 78 Metal roofs 71 Overhangs, construction and framing 48

220
 Page Page Page
Paint: Plastic, foamed 18,103 Roofs (Continued)
as vapor barrier 108 Plumb 3 hip 47
blistering of during construction _ 108 Plumbing, framing for 97 insulation 103
failure, major cause 207 Plywood : leaking, causes 207
improved service 188 dry-wall finish, application 131 lumber seasoning requirements 45
thinning 190 roof sheathing, installation 59 maintenance inspection 207
tinting 192 sheathing, application 53-56 metal 71,168
use on dry-wall construction 108 siding, application 87 metal ridge for 71,168
Paintability of various woods 189 subfloor, installation 29 overhanging 48
Painting: Polystyrene plastic foam insulation 103 pitched 45
characteristics of woods for 189 Port-Orford-cedar, paintability of 189 sheathing for:
floors 193 Porches : closed, spaced installation 59
interior waUs 193 columns for 176 grades 58
number of coats 191 construction principles 174 nailed to rafters diagonally 58
plywood 192 framing for 175 plywood, application 58
primer coats, application 190 Posts: species of wood used 58
rate of coverage 190 basement, size, spacing 19 wood board, laying 58
wallboards 192 floor framing for 19 trusses for 49
Paints : girder supports 20 types of 45-48
aluminum paint, as priming coat 108 H-section 20 valleys 48
enamels, types of 192 round 20 ventilation of 109,110
gloss enamel, types 192 Poured-concrete walls 8 Roof trusses, lightweight 49
moisture-excluding effectiveness of Preservative treatment : Room sizes, planning 201
coatings 194 before painting 190 Rust-resistant nails, economy 203,205
natural finishes, types 188 decay, methods, specification 197 Rust on siding, cause and remedy 207
oil finishes, use 193 siding 90 Rubber-tile floor:
properties 188 termites, methods, specification 199 base for, laying of 139
semigloss enamel, use 192 with natural finishes 189
shingle stains, durability 190 Projected windows, installation 78 Saddle flashing, use on roof slope _ 168
varnish, durability 194 Pullman kitchen layout 152 Sand float finish 127
wood-sealers, use 192 Purlins 49 Sapwood :
Panel doors: decay resistance 196
partsstiles, rails, filler panels 84 Radiant heating: Saturated felt, use in built-up roofs 74
types 84 concrete floor slabs 15 Scabs, reinforcement for stock-vent
Paper sheathing, use 57 Rafters : wall 98
Pecky cypress, as decorative wall flat roof 45 Scratch coat, on plaster wall 127
finish 131 jack, nailing 48 Sealer 193
Piers, masonry, capping, height, overhanging roof 45 Seasoning:
spacing and sizes 5 Rainwater back of siding, remedy of roof lumber 45
Piers, poured concrete, height, sizes for 207 of sheathing used with asphalt
spacing 6 Rake board, at siding ends 65 shingles 58
Pilasters, placement 9 Random-width plank flooring 134 wall-framing lumber 31
Pipe notches, depth in joists 98 Redwood, paintability 188 Setback, minimum required 3
Pitched roofs: Reflective insulation 103 Shakes, wood 88
gable 45 Reinforcing rods for concrete walls Sheathing paper:
hip 47 Reinforcing ties for garage or porch application 57
materials for covering 71 walls 11 where required 57
Planning, economy 202 Resin, effect on paint 188 Sheathing, roof:
Platform construction, end-wall fram- Resorcinol-type glue 52 chimneys 61
ing 36 Ridge board 45 closed installation 58
Plaster: Ridge flashing, use on wood-shingled grades 58
application 127 houses 168 plywood, application, thickness,
brown coat 127 Rigid insulation, application 103 nailing 59
final coat 127 Riser, ratio to tread 155 spaced installation 59
insulating, as wall finish 127 Rod ties, placement 11 valleys 61
maintenance 208 Rods, reinforcing in concrete walls 11 wood, grades, installation 58
materials 126 Roofs : Sheathing, wall:
protection of in cold weather 205 Boston ridge for 74 fiberboard, sizes, thickness, instal-
putty finish 127 built-up 74 lation 53
reinforcement 125 cost 202 gypsum board, sizes, thickness,
sand-float finish 127 covering materials 71 installation 53
scratch coat 127 dormers for 47 plywood, sizes, thickness, instal-
thickness 127 flashing for 168 lation 53
Plaster base 124 flat 45 types of 53
Plaster grounds, definition, types, framing for 45 wood, installation, patterns 54
use 126 gable 45,59 Shed roofs, description 45
221
 Page Page Page
Sheet-metal work, types, weights of Stairs (Continued) Trusses
materials 166 disappearing 165 anchoring 52
Shellac 193 exterior, construction 165 gluing 52
Shingles : parts 155 handling and storage 52
asbestos-cement, application 95 ratio of riser to tread 155 king-post 51
asphalt: types 155 lightweight roof 49
laying, nailing, weight 74 Stairways: scissors 51
with wood sheathing 58 design, installation 155 simple 49
exposure distance 74 Stationary windows 78 W-type 51
flashing for 168 Stiles 143
wood: Stone veneer application 12, % Underlay ment for shingles 71
double-coursed 93 Stops, interior door frames 146, 149 Unheated rooms, maintenance, venti-
exposure recommended 71 Storage closets, types 152 lation 208
grades 71 Storm sash 78,104,208 U-values 104
laying, nailing 93 Strike plate, door, installation 148 Urethane plastic foam insulation 103
single-coursed 93 Stringer, installation in stairways 165 U-type kitchen layout 152
species 71 Strip flooring installation 134
square feet per bundle 71 Strongback, for dry-wall finish 128 VaUey:
staggered patterns 73 Stucco plaster 95 flashing 166
types, widths 71 Stucco side-wall finish 95 framing 48
Shingle stain 192 Studs: sheathing 61
Shiplap sheathing 53 end-wall 36 Vo-por barriers: 106
Sidewalk construction 186 grades of 31 at joist ends in two-story houses 107
Sidewall kitchen layout 152 multiple 34 effective materials for 107
Sideyard requirements 3 species 31 in basement rooms 107,119
Siding: Subfloor: in blanket insulation 107
installation 89 boards, patterns, sizes 29 in concrete-slab floor 17
nails 89 laying 29 near windows 108
plywood: 92 parts 29 paint coatings 108
application 92 plywood, joist spacing, nailing, why needed 107
stud spacing for 92 thickness 29 Varnish 193
thickness 87 quality requirements 29 Ventilation: 108
spacing, maximum 8^ Subterranean termites 196,199 attic 108,112
storage 204 Subsoil, condition 1 cold-weather, need for 207
treated 85,90 Suspended ceiling 122 crawl spaces, area and vents re-
types 85 quired 113
wood: 85 Temperature, requirements during ice dams reduced by 108
finishing at corners 92 construction 205 moisture removed by 108
grades, species, types 85 Temperature zones, map of 101 roofs 108
moisture content 85 Termites : unheated rooms 208
properties required 85 classes 195 Ventilators, location, types 109
Sill anchors, depth, spacing, sizes 11 dry-wood, where common 195 Ventpipe, framing for 98
Sill flashing, extent of 166 inspection of crawl space for 206 Vertical-grain flooring, durability 134
Sill plate: protection from 12 Vertical siding, types, use 87, 91
balloon-frame construction, use in_ 23 subterranean 196
leveling of 11 Termite shields: Wall coverings:
Sills 23 installation 14 interior 123
Site, condition of 1 Thermal properties, building mate- shingles, types of 71
Smoke shelf, fireplace 183 rials 101 Wall footings, installation, use sizes 5
Snow dams, protection from 71 Thickened-edge slab 16 Wall framing, grades, requirements- 31
Sod, removal and storage 4 Ties, reinforcing 11 Wall sections, horizontal, assembly
Soffit 63 Tile floor, ceramic, installation 141 for economy 202
Tin, weight recommended for flashing 166 Wall sheathing 53
Soil cover 112
Topsoil, removal and storage 4 Wall ties, reinforcing 11
Soil stack 98
Walls, concrete block 9
Solid-bridging 29 Trim :
Walls, poured concrete 8
Sound absorption 119 exterior: 63
Waterproof coatings 127,197,207
Sound materials 119 decay resistance 63 Water-repellent preservative, for
Sound transmission class ratings 114 fastenings 63 siding 190
Spaced sheathing, installation 59 moisture content 63 Water vapor:
Splash block 174 interior: damage caused by 198
Stack vent, framing for 98 installation 149 generation 107
Stain fungi, decay warning 195 parts for doors 84 Weatherstripping, compression 78
Stairs: 155 properties desired 143 Weep holes, for brick vener 12
attic folding 165 window, installation 149 Western redcedar, paintability 188
basement, construction 162 Trimmers 28 White-pocket fir, as decorative wall
carriages 162 Trussed headers 34 finish 131

222
 Page Page Page
Window: Windows: Windows (Continued)
ateas, insulation 104 awning 81 projected ^ 78
frames, storage 204 casement 36, 78 stationary 78
headers, sizes, spacing 34 double-hung 35,78 types of 77
sills, drainage 78 horizontal-sliding window units 81 weatherstripping for 77
stool 149 maintenance 78 Wiring, electrical, installation 100
trim, installation 149 insulated glass 208 Woods, decay resistance of 196
metal-sash 78 Woods, painting characteristics 189
minimum area 77 Wormy chestnut, decorative wall
finish 131

Tir U-S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OmCE : 1975 0-572-135

223