English As The Medium of Instruction For Science and Its Effects On The Languages of The Philippines

English as the Medium of Instruction for Science
and its Effects on the Languages of the Philippines
Jerzy Smolicz, Iluminado Nical and Margaret

Secombe
1. Introduction
2. The multilayered linguistic heritage of the Philippines
3. The introduction of bilingual education
4. An investigation of language use and attitudes
4.1. Methodology
4.2. Discussion of results: usage and domains of activation
4.3. Language attitudes and meanings
4.4. Conclusions
5. References
1. Introduction
The Philippines enjoys particular linguistic advantages in the South-East

Asian region, as a country where English is not only an official language
but also widely spoken among the population. Historically, English was
introduced into the Philippines in 1898 at the time of the imposition of
American rule on the islands. Over the twentieth century, which estab-
lished the domination of English as a world language, it has preserved
its status as one of the two official languages of the Philippines and has
continued as a language of schooling, although in the last quarter of the
century, it has been used as a medium of instruction alongside the na-
Copyright 2001. De Gruyter. All rights reserved.
tional language, now known as Filipino.

Despite this access to the learning of English and its powers of attrac-
tion as the language of American affluence, global influence, scientific
development and technical advance, the Philippines has remained a mul-
tilingual country. In the course of their daily living, every Filipino speaks
at least two, often three, and sometimes even four languages. According
to Gonzales (1998: 489), at least 84% of the present population can speak
Filipino, the national language developed from Tagalog, and 56% speak
some form of English, while 74% report being able to understand spoken
English.
Ammon, U. (2001). The Dominance of English as a Language of Science. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter. Retrieved from http://www.ebrary.com
Created from flinders on 2017-02-21 14:16:46.
206 Jerzy Smolicz, Iluminado Nical and Margaret Secombe
The indepth small scale study reported in this paper sought to investi-
gate the emerging generation's use and evaluation of the English language
vis a vis Filipino/Tagalog and Philippine languages other than Tagalog
(referred to in this paper as PLOT). The participants were groups of
Filipino young people, in their last year of secondary school, who came
from three non-Tagalog speaking communities in the Philippines.
2. The multilayered linguistic heritage of the Philippines
Throughout its history, the Philippines has been a country of cultural

and linguistic complexity with a heritage which includes the infusion of
a variety of cultures upon the Indo-Malay base (Bowering 1863; Zialcita
1995). Although the many islands which make it up are small in terms of
geographical area (116, 220 sq. miles in all), the Philippines is a pluralistic
and multilingual society. The multi-ethnic population speaks ten major
and many other numerically smaller languages, mainly belonging to the
Austronesian family. Although they constitute separate languages, in that
they are not mutually intelligible and have many subordinate dialects,
they are clearly related to one another and regarded as belonging to the
"Philippine type" (Gonzales 1998: 493).
The indigenous pre-colonial past of the Filipino cultural stream had
been infiltrated by other peoples, long before the country was conquered
by Spain in the sixteenth century. Cultural tributaries came originally
from India, and later there arrived Chinese traders, many of whom set-
tled in the Philippines, mainly after the coming of the Spaniards. In the
South, Islamic influences had begun to spread, bringing with them Arabic
and Persian infusions. Over the three centuries of hispanic rule, Spanish
became established as the language of government and the small ruling
elite. When the Spaniards were finally forced to leave the Philippines,
the Americans who replaced them overpowered the emerging indigenous

independence movement and introduced English as the language of gov-
ernment and education (Bautista 1981).
In the Philippines today Chinese racial and cultural influences abound
(Sin 1995), but Spain and United States can be seen to have left the most
striking heritage in terms of religion and language. As an independent
republic since 1946, the Philippines has successfully transmuted all the
cultural inputs of its neighbours and former imperial powers to constitute
a cultural blend that is uniquely Filipino, while still showing the imprint
of the various imported cultural values (Smolicz 1986; 1990). It can be
English as the Medium of Instruction for Science 207
argued, however, that the double exposure to colonial linguistic domi-

nation, first in Spanish and then in English, has delayed the literary devel-
opment of all the major indigenous languages of the country.
The Spanish members of the religious orders in the Philippines learned
the indigenous languages in order to spread the Catholic faith to the
masses. Their approach was successful to the extent that they succeeded
in making the Philippines one of the most Christian countries of Asia.
At the same time, their efforts helped the indigenous languages of the
Philippines to acquire their first written records (De la Costa 1961). Their
literary development was, however, slow due to the restriction of literacy
to a small elite, with literature mainly confined to religious subjects and
many aspects of indigenous culture excluded as pagan. In practice, the
Spanish colonizers showed much more preoccupation with the inculca-
tion of Christianity than with the imposition of Spanish and, in fact,
limited education at higher levels to Spaniards alone until 1863. Decrees
of the Spanish court advocating the more widespread use of Spanish were
largely ignored by the members of the four religious orders which virtu-
ally ran the country and whose members preferred to use the indigenous
languages in their missionary work. Only the elite was linguistically his-
panised over the latter half of the nineteenth century. Hence, the great
Filipino patriot and hero, Jose Rizal, executed by the Spaniards in 1896,
wrote his call to Filipino independence in Spanish.
With the imposition of American rule, however, came the promulga-
tion of compulsory education in English for all Filipinos. Three factors
can be seen to have favourably predisposed the Filipino people toward
the learning of this new colonial language: the positive attitudes of Filipi-
nos towards the Americans who were widely seen as liberating them from
rigid Spanish rule; the system of public instruction in English which they
established; and the incentives given to those Filipinos who successfully
learned English, in terms of career opportunities, government service and
participation in politics.
While the American English language initiatives were initially directed

mainly against Spanish, they were almost equally hostile to the indige-
nous languages of the country, with penalties imposed upon pupils using
their home languages on the school premises (Manhit 1980; 1981).
Throughout the period of American rule, indigenous languages were ex-
cluded from schools and universities and most forms of public life. Yet
they continued to thrive in the homes and hearts of the people until just
before the Second World War, when the emerging demand for political
independence was paralleled by a movement demanding the recognition
of the right of Filipinos to their own national language(s).
Independence was conceptualised in terms of the European model of

the monolingual nation-state (Smolicz and Nical 1997). When the search
for one national language through the fusion of the ten major indigenous
languages failed (Gonzales 1974), the adoption of Tagalog, the dominant
language of the Manila area, as the basis for developing a national
tongue, was perceived as the only way to prevent total domination by
the colonial language, English. In general, this move was interpreted by
native Tagalog speakers, as an advantageous and inevitable outcome,
while most of the elite members of other language groups were eventually
reconciled to accepting such a compromise, provided that English re-
mained dominant in government, universities and business life. Those
who supported the adoption of an "intellectualised" version of Tagalog
as the national language entitled "Pilipino", and eventually renamed Fili-
pino, often pointed to the negative impact of English on Philippines soci-
ety (Sibayan 1994). The imposition of English by the colonial regimes in
Asia and Africa, it has been claimed, led to the colonised people in-
ternalising the norms and ideology of the colonisers and becoming alie-
nated from their own linguistic and cultural heritage (Phillipson 1992:
27). In the context of the Philippines, education became negatively af-
fected in that the time spent learning English most often meant not only
that the standard reached in other subjects was inadequate but that the
learning of indigenous languages was neglected (Constantino 1982).
3. The introduction of bilingual education
The struggle between the advocates of English and Filipino was resolved
in 1974 through the adoption of the Bilingual Education Program, which
aimed to develop a nation competent in both English and Filipino (Man-
uel 1974). Despite difficulties in its implementation over the next decade,
the Bilingual Education Program was re-affirmed in the democratic

transformation that succeeded the Marcos regime. The 1987 guidelines
of the Department of Education, Culture and Sport (DECS) stated that
English and Filipino were to be taught in all grades of elementary and
secondary schools. Filipino was to be the medium of instruction in Social
Studies/Social Science, Character Education, Work Education, Health
Education, and Physical Education; English was to be the medium of
instruction in all other areas, in particular, Science and Mathematics. The
1987 guidelines contained an additional provision in relation to Muslim
regions of the country, in that "Arabic was to be used in areas where it
was necessary". Some allowance continued to be made for schools to use

the local non-Tagalog "vernacular" or regional language of the area "as
auxiliary to the media of instruction, but only when necessary to facilitate
the understanding of concepts being taught in English, F(P)ilipino or
Arabic" (Quisumbing 1989: 300).
Bilingual education remains a controversial issue in the Philippines.
Reports of the failure of bilingual policy appear constantly in the press
(in such Manila dailies as The Philippine Star and The Inquirer) with
reference to the perceived decline in the standard of English in the
schools. This is usually attributed to the time which needs to be allocated
to Filipino and the influence of Filipino linguistic structures upon English
usage. The learning of Mathematics and Science is said to have become
consequently more difficult, as these subjects are taught in a language
that is not fully comprehensible to the students. The Congressional Com-
mission on Education (1991: xii) expressed concern about the decline of
educational standards in the country as a whole, when it bluntly stated:
"Our elementary and high schools are failing to teach the competence
the average citizen needs to become responsible, productive and self-ful-
filling."
Public criticism, however, rarely speaks about the handicaps experi-
enced under the present Bilingual Education Program by native speakers
of non-Tagalog languages, especially those who come from areas of rural
poverty or low socio-economic status. In upper and middle class homes
throughout the country, some English is usually spoken, so that children
have at least a background knowledge of the language when they start
school at the age of six. But the rural poor with very limited or no Eng-
lish, as well as only peripheral knowledge of Tagalog/Filipino learned
from television, films or comics, face a double linguistic barrier in learn-
ing in the school context, so that it is not surprising that only the most
able and dedicated achieve success (Gonzales 1998: 520; Smolicz 1986).
4. An investigation of language use and attitudes
4.1. Methodology
After over 25 years of English as the medium of instruction in Science
and Mathematics under the Bilingual Education policy, preceded by more
than 75 years of compulsory education in English, it might be expected
that English would have become the dominant language used by people
in the Philippines. This study sought to investigate the activation of, and
attitudes toward English, as compared to Filipino and other indigenous
languages, among young people drawn from three different linguistic
communities of the Philippines (Nical, 2000). One final year class of sec-
ondary school students was selected from the laboratory school attached
to the state college/university in the three regions under investigation. A
total of 152 students were asked to participate and all agreed to be in-
volved. The regional breakdown was 62 respondents from the Cebuano
speech community in Cebu City; 55 from the Ilocano speech community
in Nueva Viscaya; and 35 from the Waray speech community in Taclo-
ban, Leyte. According to the 1995 census figures, Cebuano speakers con-
stituted 21% of the total Philippines population, Ilocano speakers 9%
and Waray speakers 4% (Gonzales 1998: 490-492).
Data on language usage were collected through a questionnaire in
which the respondents were asked to indicate : (1) how frequently they
used English and any other languages in the three communication activi-
ties of speaking, reading and writing; and (2) how often they activated
English and any other languages in different domains, as indicated by
specific interlocutors. The analysis of responses to these questions was
carried out through the calculation of mean values which were interpre-
ted as follows:
4.50 - and above Always (in the non-exclusive sense of "all the
time")
3.50-4.49 Often
2.50-3.49 Sometimes
1.50-2.49 Seldom
0.50-1.49 Never
In order to compare the language usage of students from the three speech
communities, F-ratio and Scheffe results were calculated.
The data on the activation of languages with different interlocutors in

a trilingual situation were analysed through a procedure developed by
Ammon (1989: 7376). His concepts of sole activation and co-activation
of languages were expanded to include the particular patterns shown by
the respondents in co-activating Philippine languages. The patterns iden-
tified for use in this classification were: dominance of any language over
two equally less used; dominance of one in an hierarchical order; equal
dominance of two over one less used; and balanced use of three lan-
guages.
Attitudes to the languages concerned and the meaning which the re-
spondents attached to each language were derived from two essays which
the students were asked to write. The first topic which the students were
given was, My feelings about the languages used at home. The second
essay was on the topic, My feelings about the languages used at school.
This method of using personal statements and writings as a source for
identifying individual attitudes is based on humanistic sociology (Zna-
niecki 1969; Smolicz 1979, 1999). The basic principle is that all social
and cultural activities need to be interpreted from the perspective of the
participants rather than the researcher. The focus is on individuals as
cultural beings and as conscious agents in a given social system, with the
aim of understanding how they themselves view their current cultural
reality.
On the basis of what they had written in the essays, the students were
judged to have a positive or negative attitude to the languages being
discussed. When the attitude was positive, it was further classified as high,
moderate or low. To be assigned a high positive attitude, respondents
needed to demonstrate their appreciation of the intrinsic qualities of the
language, as well as recognition of the advantages that were assumed to
be derived from its mastery. Closer reading of the essays also led to the
identification of a number of distinct meanings which the writers associ-
ated with each of the languages. These meanings were then grouped un-
der three categories - autotelic, instrumental and negative and a fre-
quency table for the citations of these meanings in each language was
drawn up, so that the pattern of meanings for respondents across the
three language communities could be compared.
4.2. Discussion of results: usage and domains of activation

The data on the frequency with which the students said they utilized
English and other Philippine languages in the three communication activ-

ities of speaking, reading and writing are summarized in Table 1.
The pattern of usage for English across the three groups of respondents
proved to be quite complex, with the differences among them being statis-
tically significant. The Ilocano group revealed the lowest level of English
usage for all three activities and the Cebuano students the highest.
Among the Cebuano and Warray respondents, English was the language
predominantly used for reading and writing (at the "often" to "always"
level), but the Ilocano respondents revealed that Filipino was the lan-
guage they used most frequently for reading and writing.
Table 1: Comparison of language usage of Filipino students
Communication Mean frequency of language F-ratio Scheffe

activities in usage results at
different .05 level
languages
Waray Ilocano Cebuano
N=35 N=55 N=62
PLOT
Speaking 4.57 4.33 4.63 2.32
Reading 1.86 2.80 2.05 20.99** M2>M1,3
Writing 1.80 2.53 1.89 11.74** M2>M1,3
FILIPINO
Speaking 3.32 3.91 3.22 14.01** M2>M3,1
Reading 3.62 4.38 3.37 19.34** M2>M3,1
Writing 3.50 4.27 3.35 18.37** M2>M3,1
ENGLISH
Speaking 3.48 2.98 3.87 25.02** Ml >M2;
M3>M2,1
Reading 4.48 3.94 4.79 23.09** M1,3>M2
Writing 4.46 3.73 4.66 28.86** M1,3>M2
Legend The calculation of the mean was related to the following scale of usage:
1.00 - Never
2.00 - Seldom
3.00 - Sometimes
4.00 - Often
5.00 Always (in the non-exclusive sense of "all the time").
**Significant at .01 level.
In relation to speaking ' respondents in all three communities reported

that the language they used "often" to "always" was their regional
PLOT. The level of PLOT use for reading and writing was very much
lower, ranging from "never" to "sometimes". In the case of Filipino, the
main feature of the results, revealed by all three groups of respondents,
was its consistent usage for all three communication activities at the
"sometimes" to "often" level.
The information indicating which languages the respondents used in
speaking with a range of different interlocutors is summarised in Table
2. In the home and peer group domain, which included parents, brothers,
sisters, relatives and fellow students as interlocutors, the use of PLOT
Table 2: Comparison of Filipino students' mean usage of languages in different do-

mains
Languages and Communities F-ratio SchefFe Test

Interlocutors Results
Waray Ilocano Cebuano
PLOT
a. Parents 4.46 4.31 4.58 1.36
b. Relatives/friends 4.26 4.22 4.40 .96
c. Brothers/sisters 4.53 4.37 4.66 4.66
d. Fellow students 4.17 4.18 4.35 1.03
e. Market vendors 4.66 3.75 4.48 13.52** 1&3 > 2
f. Sales people 3.88 3.64 3.58 1.09
g. Office people 2.97 2.83 2.83 .32
h. School teachers 2.57 3.85 3.13 9.55** 2&3 > 1
FILIPINO
a. Parents 1.88 3.42 2.54 29.87** 2 > 3&1;
3 > 1
b. Relatives/friends 3.00 3.38 2.80 6.57* 2 > 3
c. Brothers/sisters 2.59 3.52 2.29 24.87** 2 > 1&3
d. Fellow students 2.83 3.48 2.83 11.69** 2 > 1&3
e. Market vendors 1.74 3.05 1.78 29.59** 2 > 1&3
f. Sales people 2.74 3.27 2.38 14.14** 2 > 3&1
g. Office people 2.89 3.81 2.42 32.81** 2 > 3&1
h. School teachers 3.28 4.04 3.09 19.66** 2 > 3&1
ENGLISH
a. Parents 2.86 2.36 3.23 17.05** 1&3 > 2
b. Relatives/friends 2.74 2.56 3.37 17.94** 3 > 2&1
c. Brothers/sisters 2.82 2.56 3.02 3.79* 3 > 2
d. Fellow students 3.11 2.84 3.62 15.57** 3 > 2&1

e. Market vendors 1.60 1.71 2.02 3.18* 1&3 > 2
f. Sales people 3.00 2.14 3.61 31.78** 3&1 > 2
g. Office people 3.54 3.02 4.02 18.60**
h. School teachers 4.26 3.51 4.02 12.84** 3&1 > 2
Legend: The calculation of the mean is related to
Significant at .05 ** Significant at .01 following scale of usage:
1.00 - Never 2.00 - Seldom
3.00 - Sometimes 4.00 - Often
5.00 Always (in the non-exclusive sense)
predominated (in the "often" to "always" range) for all the language
groups. The use of Filipino with these interlocutors was reported by the
Ilocano students at the "sometimes" to "often" level, whereas the Cebu-
ano respondents used English to much the same extent in communication
with relatives, friends and fellow students.
The domain of the market place also revealed a dominant usage of
PLOT. Among the Waray and Cebuano students, PLOT was spoken to
market vendors "often" to "always", with both Filipino and English be-
ing used "seldom" to "never". The Ilocano respondents, however, re-
vealed a more balanced usage of PLOT and Filipino at the "sometimes"
to "often" level, with English being "seldom" or "never" spoken in this
context. These results are consistent with a number of earlier statistics
reported by Gonzales and Bautista (1986: 726)
In the business domain of sales and office people, respondents from
all groups indicated a usage of English, alongside the other two lan-
guages, which were activated in the "seldom" to "sometimes" range.
Here, too, the Ilocano students showed a preference for the more fre-
quent usage of Filipino, while the Waray and Cebuano respondents indi-
cated that they were more likely to use English.
Communicating with teachers in the school domain also highlighted a
pattern of trilingual usage for all respondents. The Ilocano students most
frequently used Filipino and PLOT rather than English, while the Cebu-
ano respondents and even more, the Warays revealed a usage of English
at the "often" to "always" level. All the student respondents, however,
reported some usage of PLOT with teachers, despite the fact that it had
no official place as a medium of instruction or as a subject in the curricu-
lum.
Overall, the most striking feature of these results was the fact that in
no domain was the exclusive use of English or any other language evi-
dent. The procedure developed by Ammon (1989: 73-76) for analysing
activation in multilingual settings was therefore applied in order to

understand the patterns of co-activation revealed by the respondents and
to determine whether any language proved to be dominant. The results,
which are presented in Table 3, highlighted the great range of patterns of
activation apparent among the individual respondents.
Table 3: Patterns of language activation to different interlocutors among Filipino stu-

dents (All figures in percentages of the number of respondents in the group
concerned.)
Speech Patterns of language use

Community/
Interlocutor Sole Co-activation
activation
One Dominance of one in Equal Bal-
dominant an hierarchical order dominance anced
over two of two over
equally less one
used
F F F F PF PE FE Equal
FE EF EP FP PF use
Waray N=35 40 3 11 28 3 3 3 9
a. Parents
b. Brothers/ 3 3 24 3 3 3 6
sisters
c. Relatives/ 18 15 3 9 3
friends
d. Fellow 8 3 20 3 8 3 14
students
e. School 3 28 3 37 14 14
teachers
f. Market 35 24 29 12
vendors
g. Sales people 6 34 11 11 9 3 3 6 9 9
h. Office people 3 11 11 3 20 3 6 14 11 17
Ilocano
N=55
a. Parents 2 2 24 2 40 2 5 5 13 5
b. Brothers/ 30 6 35 4 7 2 9 4 4
sisters
c. Relatives/ 15 7 33 7 27 11
friends
d. Fellow 24 2 25 2 9 33 2 4
students
e. School 7 31 11 2 5 5 5 13 20
teachers
f. Market 4 5 2 33 4 22 25 2 4
vendors
g. Sales people 9 4 2 25 2 11 34 2 4 7
h. Office people 2 5 25 4 9 11 7 7 5 11 13
Cebuano
N=62
a. Parents 8 29 2 18 27 5 5 6
b. Brothers/ 6 26 6 46 3 5 5 2
sisters
Table 3 (Continued)
Speech Patterns of language use

Community/
Interlocutor Sole Co-activation
activation
One Dominance of one in Equal Bal-
dominant an hierarchical order dominance anced
over two of two over
equally less one
used
F F F F PF PE FE Equal
FE EF EP FP PF use
c. Relatives/ 2 29 2 2 13 26 2 6 8 11
friends
d. Fellow 24 3 24 2 8 2 24 10
students
e. School 2 2 27 2 18 6 2 24 13 5
teachers
f. Market. 40 23 10 15 3 2 3 2 2
vendors
g. Sales people 5 2 18 5 18 8 19 14 11
h. Office people 6 20 8 18 21 2 18 6
Legend:
P - P L O T FFilipino E-English
The sole activation of one language occurred only rarely - and mainly
in the context of the market place. The tendency for the PLOT to predo-
minate in the home domain, but with varying patterns of lesser activation
of the other two languages, was evident in all three communities. How-
ever, a pattern of balanced usage of PLOT and Filipino, which specifi-
cally excluded English, was indicated by a proportion of the Ilocano re-
spondents. In the business domain, too, the co-activation of languages
was most often dominated by PLOT and Filipino among the Ilocano
students, while English along with PLOT was more frequently used by
the Cebuano and Waray groups.
The school was clearly the domain where English was most often acti-
vated but even there, it was always together with Filipino and PLOT.
Among the Waray and Cebuano students, English most often pre-domi-
nated over the other two, but over half the Ilocano respondents indicated
either the dominance of Filipino or the balanced use of all three lan-
guages in communicating with teachers.
The more frequent activation of English with teachers, as compared to
other interlocutors, which was found overall, is not surprising, given the
status of English as the medium of instruction in Mathematics and Sci-

ence. From the observation of one of the researchers, it could also be
regarded as either the result of school enforcement, or the students' own
sense of responsibility for their learning. There are rules and regulations
which require students to use English with teachers. There are schools in
the Philippines which impose some form of punishment if students are
caught using the local PLOT in the context of the school. At the same
time, the students themselves feel a responsibility to use English with
teachers in order to develop their competence in the language and to
show proper respect, since the usage of English with teachers and other
school authorities is generally associated with courtesy and politeness.
Despite this press for English, there was evidence in the data that PLOT
was not being completely excluded from the school domain.
4.3. Language attitudes and meanings

According to the overall summary of of data on student attitudes to
languages (see Table 4), English was the language toward which the re-
spondents most often expressed moderately positive or low positive atti-
tudes, with only a quarter evincing high positive attitudes. In contrast,
almost half the respondents expressed high positive attitudes to Filipino
and about the same percentage were moderately positive, while the ma-
jority indicated moderately positive attitudes to their respective PLOT.
Yet the above summation of the attitudinal responses concealed some
very important differences across the linguistic communities. The Waray
students were clearly most positive to English, revealed moderately posi-
tive attitudes to their PLOT and a range of attitudes, including a compar-
atively large number of negative attitudes, to Filipino. Among the Cebu-
ano respondents, high positive attitudes were evident equally for English
and PLOT, while their attitudes to Filipino were more often at the mod-
erate and low level. In contrast, the Ilocano respondents most often ex-
pressed high positive attitudes to Filipino, moderately positive attitudes
to PLOT and mainly low and negative attitudes to English.
The analysis of the meanings which the students attributed to the vari-
ous languages in their essays pointed to a different cluster of meanings
for each language. English was associated with the global, international
community, with business and progress, and with access to knowledge.
In contrast, PLOT was seen as a language of regional significance, related
to the home and local community, and the language which the students
felt most comfortable with as a vehicle for communicating ideas and feel-
ings. Filipino was regarded as the language of national significance and

a source of pride and identity. Some illustrative examples of the meanings
given in the essays are listed below.
Table 4: Filipino students' attitudes towards languages

(All figures represent percentages of the number of respondents from the
linguistic group concerned)
ATTITUDES to PLOT FILIPINO ENGLISH

Waray (N = 35)
Positive
High 10 37 50
Moderate 79 30 50
Low 10 13 -
Negative 20
Ilocano (N = 55)
Positive
High 26 62 7
Moderate 58 32 27
Low 16 6 47
Negative 18
Cebuano (N = 62)
Positive
High 43 16 40
Moderate 36 58 45
Low 21 22 14
Negative 5
Overall (N = 152)
Positive
High 29 40 29
Moderate 54 41 39
Low 17 13 24
Negative 6 7
"My feelings about the Ilokano language being used at home is great.
It represents people who are sturdy in spirit and having their own iden-
tity." (Source of pride /identity)
"I feel comfortable if I use Waray as a language at home and in the
neighbourhood. We understand each other well and we feel pleased ev-
erytime we speak to each other in Waray." (Feeling comfortable + Home

and local community)
"Ilokano is our lingua franca at home and in the neighbourhood.
There exists no gap and barrier among ourselves." (Home and local com-
munity)
"Being in Cebu City, my family and I always speak Cebuano at home.
I was born here, thus I learned to speak Cebuano. I feel great, relaxed
and happy every time I am with my family talking to each other during
meals, free time and other family gatherings in Cebuano." (Home and
local community)
"Waray language is rich enough to be able to accomodate any and all
nuances pertaining to language use and applicability. In fact, there had
been (and they still continue to flourish) great compositions (both musi-
cal and poetic) done in Waray. It gives us great pride to know about
these." (Aesthetic)
"Educated people find it more interesting [to talk] in English." (Mark
of good education)
As the Table 5 indicates, differences in the distribution of these mean-
ings were apparent among the three linguistic communities. The Ilocano
respondents attributed positive meanings to Filipino much more fre-
quently than the other students, while the Cebuanos expressed positive
meanings toward the PLOT more often than the other groups. For their
part, the Waray students proved most likely to indicate positive meanings
for English.
Table 5: Meanings given to languages by Filipino students (All figures represent per-
centages of the number of respondents from the linguistic group concerned)
Meanings given to languages Languages and communities
PLOT FILIPINO ENGLISH

W* I* C* T* W* I* C* T* W* I* C* T*
Autotelic
1. Aesthetic 11 7 15 11 3 15 5 8 11 2 8 7
2. Socio-cultural: 17 15 16 16
regional significance
national significance 11 38 23 26 9 2 13 8
international significance 43 13 27 26
link with origins 11 15 10 8 9 8 9
mark of good education 3 8 4
sign of respect 6 2 2 9 2
Table 5 (Continued)
Meanings given to languages Languages and communities
PLOT FILIPINO ENGLISH
W* I* C* p* /* j* C* T* W* I* C* T*
3. Personal identificational:
source of pride/identity 6 7 24 14 20 55 18 32 3 5 11 7
sign of loyalty/nationalism 5 2 17 4 3 7
indicates smartness/confidence 3 2 2 2 6 4 6 5
4. Affective
feeling comfortable/relaxed 63 25 35 38 6 22 16 16 11 11 29 18
full expression of feelings 31 15 24 22 2 1 3 3 2
easy to understand 26 18 37 28 3 7 3 5 11 4 31 16
Instrumental
5. Economic:
used in business/employment 4 1 6 5 18 10
key to progress/bright future 11 5 5 26 4 16 14
6. Political:provides harmony
in home & local commmunity 20 13 27 20
- in national community 31 10 11
- in global community 26 6
7. Social:
making friends/entertaining 6 3 5 2 23 2 18 13
8. Educational
appropriate for all subjects 2 1 26 10 10
appropriate for some subjects 11 2 6 6 3 2 3 3
access to knowledge 2 1 3 2 23 33 18 24
Negative
9. of limited use 11 2 18 11 14 2 5 6
10. excludes other languages 8 8 5
11. has social stigma 6 1 3 3 2 5 2
12. causes difficulties:
in speaking 2 1 6 2 2 4 1
in reading 3 4 2 3 2 1
in writing 6 4 5 5
confusion at school 23 5 7 3 62 5 25
13. is not developed 3 2 1
14. useless/hated 2 1 13 5
* W = Waray; I = Ilocano; C - Cebuano; = Total.
The negative meanings expressed were much more limited and often
specific to a particular individuals or group of respondents. For example,
although many Cebuano respondents discussed the positive meanings
they associated with English, there was a few comments such as the
following:
- "The disadvantage in using English is that many people dislike you
for using the language." (Social stigma)
"Speaking in English or in Tagalog [at home] made me feel so awk-
ward. I was afraid that friends and neighbours would think I am act-
ing strangely."
A number of the Waray and Cebuano students pointed to the limita-
tions of their PLOT, while a proportion of the Waray respondents was
critical of Filipino on the grounds of its limited usefulness and the confu-
sion it caused at school. The strongest negative meanings, however, -
overwhelmingly higher than any other were revealed by the Ilocano
students who considered that English caused confusion at school.
The comments of one of the Cebuano respondents illustrated the nega-
tive impact of the trilingual situation in the school context.
"In our home, we oftentimes use the Cebuano and Filipino languages...
But when I go to shopping malls, I start feeling uncomfortable with it. Usually
teenagers, like myself, like to speak in English so I use the English language, too.
Speaking these languages in and out of the house has disadvantages. Some of us
students can hardly speak, read, and write very well. I, for one, can not perfectly
speak or use the English language. Although I am used to speaking the Filipino
and Cebuano languages, I can not perfectly read the Cebuano writings. I am having
a difficulty in reading and in using it."
For the majority of the respondents, however, the trilingual context of

their day to day lives seemed a taken for granted reality that presented
no special difficulties, despite the predominance of English in the school
setting. Another Cebuano student wrote :
"In school, we use three languages Cebuano, Filipino and English. But the me-
dium of instruction used is actually English. Honestly speaking, I really feel com-
fortable."
4.4. Conclusions
In considering the conclusions to be drawn from this study, it is impor-
tant to recognise its limitations. As the data were collected in three re-
gional linguistic communities, the paper does not consider the effect of
English on other Philippine languages and particularly upon the mainly
Tagalog speaking areas of Luzon, which includes the "melting pot" of
Manila. Furthermore, the respondents were senior secondary school stu-
dents attending what were regarded as leading schools in their region;

they could thus be said to have benefited from some of the better oppor-
tunities which the schooling system could provide. The experiences of
young people from poor rural areas where schools were often lacking
basic resources and adequately trained teachers, or those from low socio-
economic background who were forced to leave school early before they
had mastered literacy in any language, have not been included in this
paper.
One important feature of the results was the differences in activation
and attitudes revealed among respondents from the different linguistic
groups. English, for example, was more often activated among the Cebu-
ano and the Waray groups of students than among the Ilocanos. This
variation might initially be assumed as complementary to the consistently
greater usage of Filipino revealed by the Ilocanos. This preference, in
turn, could be explained by the proximity of the Ilocos region to the
Manila area, and the heartland of Tagalog, the language on which Fili-
pino is based. In contrast, Leyte and Cebu are geographically isolated
from Manila so that people in these two provinces have naturally had
less contact with the national language.
Other political and historical factors can also be seen to have influ-
enced these language differences. The Cebuano preference for English
over Filipino could be rooted in memories of the struggle to have Cebu-
ano endorsed as the national language of the country in preference to
Tagalog, on the grounds that Cebuano was the indigenous language
which at that time had the greatest number of native speakers. In the
Visayan regions of Cebu and Leyte, therefore, Filipino has often been
regarded as the language imposed by the central authorities, while Eng-
lish has been seen as opening up possibilities for interaction and employ-
ment. Conversely, the high levels of negative evaluation of English and
relatively low levels of English activation among the Ilocanos may be
traced to their perception of English as the language of colonial domi-
nation and to the bitter struggle of Ilocano nationalists against Ameri-

cans at the turn of the nineteenth century.
Overall, it can be seen from the detailed discussion in the results section
that the statistical measures of language usage and domains of activation
and the more humanistic cultural data from student essays on language
attitudes and meanings provided strong confirmation of one another. The
conclusion to be drawn from these results was that the use of English
as the language of instruction for Science and Mathematics in schools
throughout the country had not significantly affected the use of Philip-
pine languages as a means of oral communication in the home, the neigh-

bourhood and the local community, according to the reported experience
of the young participants in this study.
In reading and writing activities, however, English was clearly the do-
minant language, although its use had not precluded the development of
Filipino as a language of literacy as well. The low to almost non-existent
levels of reading and writing in PLOT, however, could be attributed to
the entrenched status which English, supplemented by Filipino, has in
these communication activities.
This situation may be partly explained by the different opportunities
to learn the languages. In the years before they go to school, children
learn to speak their PLOT informally through their everyday interactions
in the home, neighbourhood and local community and the language is
maintained through the natural on-going interaction of daily life. The
literacy skills of reading and writing, on the other hand, are formally
learned at school not through the language of the home and local
community which they have learned orally, but in what is for many, two
new languages - English and Filipino which are then used as the
media of instruction in schools. There is thus no context in which children
specifically learn to read and write in PLOT.
At the same time there is only a very limited amount of reading materi-
als available in PLOT. Outside the school, the print and broadcast media
remain dominated by the English language. Most of the newspapers and
magazines that circulate in each of the localities included in this investiga-
tion are in English as opposed to PLOT. At the most, a couple of tabloids
and a variety of illustrated "komiks" published in Tagalog are available
in the sidewalks of the city streets. These could help to account for the
comparatively higher levels of reading and writing in the Filipino lan-
guage, compared to PLOT.
In conclusion, this small-scale investigation in three non-Tagalog
speaking communities revealed a complex but stable trilingual situation

which the emerging generation of young people gave evidence of taking
for granted or accepting as normal. While the majority of respondents
seemed to interpret this situation in positive terms, there was a minority
who expressed negative views towards one of the languages concerned or
explained the confusion it engendered for them. Thus this study provided
only some limited evidence of conflict between the languages or of re-
spondents who were antagonistic to a specific language. The evidence of
the resilience of the Philippine languages indicated by this empirical re-
search would appear to be consistent with the judgement of Gonzales
(1998: 519) that "none of the major Philippine languages and hardly any
of the minority languages" are faced with extinction at the present mo-
ment.
In the present study, the data on linguistic activation to different inter-
locuters and the meanings assigned by the students to the various lan-
guages pointed in particular to a pattern of what Sibayan (1978) called
"complementary distribution", where each of the languages used was rec-
ognised by the participants as having its own particular on-going role.
These findings closely reflect the assessment by Gonzales (1998:519520)
that a trilingual situation is being maintained in the non-Tagalog speak-
ing regions of the Philippines. He maintained that PLOT (or the "vernac-
ular", as it is often referred to in the Philippines) was still "the language
of the home and the neighbourhood", while Filipino was the national
language, which functioned as "a symbol of unity and linguistic identity".
English, in contrast, was "the language of academic discourse, especially
for business, science and diplomacy". In the experience of the respon-
dents in this study, access to English as the literary language of education,
science and international communication had not resulted in a general
shift away from Filipino as the national language or from the spoken use
of their PLOT, as a core value of their community life (Smolicz 1981;
Smolicz, Hudson and Secombe 1998) and the language closest to their
homes and hearts.
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Bautista, M. L. S.
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English as the Medium of Instruction for Science

and its Effects on the Languages of the Philippines

Jerzy Smolicz, Iluminado Nical and Margaret

The Philippines enjoys particular linguistic advantages in the South-East

tional language, now known as Filipino.

2. The multilayered linguistic heritage of the Philippines

Throughout its history, the Philippines has been a country of cultural

the Americans who replaced them overpowered the emerging indigenous

argued, however, that the double exposure to colonial linguistic domi-

While the American English language initiatives were initially directed

Independence was conceptualised in terms of the European model of

3. The introduction of bilingual education

the Bilingual Education Program was re-affirmed in the democratic

was necessary". Some allowance continued to be made for schools to use

4. An investigation of language use and attitudes

The data on the activation of languages with different interlocutors in

4.2. Discussion of results: usage and domains of activation

English and other Philippine languages in the three communication activ-

Table 1: Comparison of language usage of Filipino students

Communication Mean frequency of language F-ratio Scheffe

In relation to speaking ' respondents in all three communities reported

Table 2: Comparison of Filipino students' mean usage of languages in different do-

Languages and Communities F-ratio SchefFe Test

d. Fellow students 3.11 2.84 3.62 15.57** 3 > 2&1

activation in multilingual settings was therefore applied in order to

Table 3: Patterns of language activation to different interlocutors among Filipino stu-

Speech Patterns of language use

Speech Patterns of language use

status of English as the medium of instruction in Mathematics and Sci-

4.3. Language attitudes and meanings

ings. Filipino was regarded as the language of national significance and

Table 4: Filipino students' attitudes towards languages

ATTITUDES to PLOT FILIPINO ENGLISH

erytime we speak to each other in Waray." (Feeling comfortable + Home

Meanings given to languages Languages and communities

PLOT FILIPINO ENGLISH

Meanings given to languages Languages and communities

PLOT FILIPINO ENGLISH

* W = Waray; I = Ilocano; C - Cebuano; = Total.

For the majority of the respondents, however, the trilingual context of

dents attending what were regarded as leading schools in their region;

nation and to the bitter struggle of Ilocano nationalists against Ameri-

pine languages as a means of oral communication in the home, the neigh-

speaking communities revealed a complex but stable trilingual situation

1978 Bilingual Education in the Philippines: Strategy and Structure. In Alatis,

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