Plant Engineering: Electrical Cable Test Applicability Matrix For Nuclear Power Plants

Plant Engineering: Electrical Cable Test Applicability
Matrix for Nuclear Power Plants
2011 TECHNICAL REPORT

Plant Engineering:
Electrical Cable Test
Applicability Matrix for
Nuclear Power Plants
This document does NOT meet the requirements of

10CFR50 Appendix B, 10CFR Part 21, ANSI
N45.2-1977 and/or the intent of ISO-9001 (1994)
EPRI Project Manager

G Toman.
3420 Hillview Avenue

Palo Alto, CA 94304-1338
USA
PO Box 10412
Palo Alto, CA 94303-0813
USA
800.313.3774
650.855.2121
[email protected] 1022969
www.epri.com Final Report, December 2011
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THE TECHNICAL CONTENTS OF THIS DOCUMENT WERE NOT PREPARED IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE
EPRI NUCLEAR QUALITY ASSURANCE PROGRAM MANUAL THAT FULFILLS THE REQUIREMENTS OF 10 CFR
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NOTE
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Electric Power Research Institute, EPRI, and TOGETHERSHAPING THE FUTURE OF ELECTRICITY are
registered service marks of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc.
Copyright 2011 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.
Acknowledgments The following organization prepared this report:
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)

1300 West W.T. Harris Blvd.
Charlotte, NC 28262
Principal Investigator
G. Toman
This report describes research sponsored by EPRI.
EPRI acknowledges A. Anadakumaran and H. Sedding of

Kinectrics, Inc. for contributing portions of Appendix A.
This publication is a corporate

document that should be cited in the
literature in the following manner:
Plant Engineering: Electrical Cable

Test Applicability Matrix for Nuclear
Power Plants.
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2011.
1022969.
iii
Product
Background
Description
When assessing cable degradation or failure assessment, using the
correct test and assessment methodology is critical to obtaining the
correct answer. Many in-plant and laboratory tests exist. Some apply
to the cable types used in nuclear plants. Some apply only to
distribution cables. Most have pertinence to only one issue or even
one cable design. This report provides a correlation between specific
cable problems and the appropriate tests that may be used to resolve
the issue. The report starts with summary discussions of the various
cable types and their designs and their basic degradation mechanisms
under dry and wet conditions. Linkages are then provided between
the aging mechanisms and assessment tests. Short descriptions of the
test methods are also provided.
Troubleshooting techniques for all cables and fault location

methodologies for medium-voltage cables are also discussed.
Objective
To link cable aging mechanisms with tests that can identify their
presence and assess the severity of the condition. The report also
discusses the tests and their applicability to specific cable
conditions and problems.
Approach
Many tests have been developed for various types and designs of
cables. Although most of these tests have applicability under a given
set of conditions, most tests apply to a very specific set of cable
designs and applications. Some are limited to the aging of specific
insulation materials; others are applicable to certain cable designs,
such as shielded cables. Some may or may not be useful if the shield
in a cable has tarnished or otherwise deteriorated.
This document provides guidance on the applicability of tests

depending on the insulation, voltage rating, and design of the cable.
The report discriminates between when a test provides results that
are indicative of the degree of degradation, whether it provides a
reasonably early indication of the onset of aging, or whether the test
is only suitable as a troubleshooting technique after severe
degradation or failure has occurred.
v
The methods are also discussed in terms of the effects of
environments on cables, such as elevated temperature and
submergence that may cause degradation of cable components.
Results
The report describes the common cable types and designs as a basis
for discussion of test applicability. It then describes the tests in terms
of applicability to cable component aging assessment under various
common environmental conditions.
The last section of the main body of the report describes tests in
terms of cable concerns such as post-installation testing, condition
monitoring and aging management, and troubleshooting. The
forensics process and applicable tests are also described.
Each of the tests, with the exception of medium-voltage fault

location techniques, mentioned in the main body of the report is
described in the Appendix. These descriptions indicate whether the
test is a standard test or under development, whether acceptance
criteria are available, and whether an expert is necessary to interpret
the results. The fault-locating techniques are described in the main
body of the report.
Applications, Value, and Use

Use of the report will ensure that the correct test is chosen for a given
situation. The possibility will be greatly reduced that the wrong test
will be chosen, which results in confusing or erroneous information.
Keywords
Applicability of cable test methodology
Cable aging
Cable aging management
Cable testing
Table of Contents
Section 1: Introduction.............................................1-1
Background.....................................................................1-1
Cable Design, Application, and Degradation
Mechanisms ....................................................................1-2
Instrumentation ...........................................................1-2
Medium-Voltage Cable Aging Concerns........................1-7
Section 2: Cable Component Aging and Aging

Assessment .............................................2-1
Insulation and Jacket Aging and Assessment .......................2-1
Dry Condition Aging ...................................................2-1
Corona Discharge Attack on Nonshielded Medium-
Voltage Cable ............................................................2-1
Wet and Submerged Aging .........................................2-1
Chemical, Oil, and Hydraulic Fluid Exposure.................2-2
Kapton Insulation Concerns..........................................2-6
Instrument Cable Shield Aging/Deterioration ......................2-6
Section 3: Cable Test Versus Cable Concern..............3-1

Introduction .....................................................................3-1
Post-Installation Testing......................................................3-1
Condition Monitoring and Aging Management ...................3-3
Troubleshooting .............................................................3-12
Fault Assessment and Location for Medium-Voltage
Cables ....................................................................3-12
Forensics and Failure Assessment.....................................3-18
Electrical Testing of Surrounding Cable Segments.........3-22
Section 4: References...............................................4-1
Section 5: Acronyms ................................................5-1
Appendix A: Test Method Descriptions....................A-1

C-01 Oxidation Induction Time Test................................... A-2
C-02 Oxidation Induction/Onset Temperature Testing ......... A-6
vii
C-03 Gel Content (Solubility) and Swelling Ratio
Measurements ................................................................ A-8
C-04 Plasticizer Content Measurement............................. A-11
C-05 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy .................. A-13
C-06 NIR Spectroscopy ................................................. A-16
C-07 Thermogravimetric Analysis.................................... A-19
E-01 Insulation Resistance dc Test.................................... A-22
E-02 Polarization Index Test ........................................... A-26
E-03 Time Domain Reflectometry Test............................... A-29
E-04 Line Impedance Resonance Analysis ........................ A-31
E-05 Dielectric Spectroscopy .......................................... A-35
E-06 Dissipation Factor (Tan ) ....................................... A-38
E-07 Partial Discharge (Off-line) ...................................... A-43
E-08 Continuity (Loop) Resistance Test ............................. A-47
E-09 Differential Insulation Resistance .............................. A-49
M-01 Hardness Test ...................................................... A-51
M-02 Tensile Strength and Elongation-at-Break Test ........... A-54
M-03 Indenter Modulus Testing....................................... A-58
M-04 Density Testing ..................................................... A-62
M0-5 Acoustic Velocity Testing ....................................... A-65
M-06 Thermal Fingerprinting .......................................... A-67
M-07 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance in Solution ................ A-70
M-08 Micro Modulus..................................................... A-72
V-01 Visual Examination ................................................ A-74
V-02 Microscopic Examination ....................................... A-77
List of Figures
Figure 1-1 Helical metal tape shield.........................................1-6

Figure 1-2 Concentric neutral (flat strap design) ........................1-6
Figure 1-3 UniShield design: drain wire in a semiconducting
jacket .............................................................................1-7
Figure 3-1 Faulted cable termination in a metal-clad
switchgear compartment. Note: Slightly burned
condition of B-phase stress-relief adaptor ..........................3-13
Figure 3-2 Burn through of stress-relief adaptor .......................3-13
Figure 3-3 Cable fault in which the shield burned out ..............3-14
Figure 3-4 Cable with shield loss from fault ............................3-15
Figure 3-5 Thumper with TDR ................................................3-17
Figure 3-6 Murray Loop adaptation of a Wheatstone Bridge ....3-17
Figure 3-7 Large water tree viewed through a hot oil bath........3-19
Figure 3-8 Cross section of water tree shown in Figure 3-7.......3-19
Figure 3-9 Flaw in the conductor semiconducting layer at the
base of the water tree in Figure 3-8..................................3-20
Figure 3-10 Micrograph of insulation wall at a low-
resistance channel showing swelling and fissures in butyl
rubber ..........................................................................3-20
Figure 3-11 Micrograph of a breakdown channel through
bow-tie water tree ..........................................................3-21
Figure 3-12 Photomicrograph of a breakdown channel
through conductor shieldvented water tree.......................3-21
Figure A-1 Thermogram showing multiple plots from unaged
to highly aged insulation.................................................. A-3
Figure A-2 Swell/gel tests with condensing coils ...................... A-9
Figure A-3 The NIR spectroscopic equipment as used in the
field............................................................................. A-17
ix
Figure A-4 LIRA system block diagram .................................. A-31
Figure A-5 LIRA plot for a 98.43-ft (30-m) cable showing a
thermal damage signal at 73.82 ft (22.5 m) .................... A-32
Figure A-6 Loss angle, ...................................................... A-38
List of Tables
Table 2-1 Insulation degradation and condition assessment

correlation.......................................................................2-3
Table 3-1 Post-installation test applicability ...............................3-2
Table 3-2 Condition monitoring and aging management
tests ................................................................................3-5
Table 3-3 Applicability of electrical tests to medium-voltage
cable designs and insulations ............................................3-8
xi
Section 1: Introduction
Background
Many test methods exist for assessing the condition of electrical cable insulations,
conductors, and shields. Very few test methods have broad applicability, and the
user must use the tests wisely for the particular cable type, application, and
concern. With respect to cable type, instrumentation, control, and power cables
have different designs, materials, and applications that change the way in which
they function and age. Power cables are further divided by voltage class with low-
voltage cable (rated <2000 V, and operating at <1000 V) having simple designs
and medium-voltage cable (rated 5 to 46 kV) having much more sophisticated
designs and aging considerations. The tests many be divided into groups such as
manufacturing tests, postinstallation tests, maintenance tests (condition
monitoring), and troubleshooting. Some of the most common tests, such as
insulation resistance and time domain reflectometry (TDR), are excellent
troubleshooting tools, but in most cases are insensitive to the aging of cable
components so that little or no advanced warning is given with respect to the
onset of severe aging.
This report excludes manufacturing tests and focuses on post-installation, aging

management/condition monitoring, troubleshooting, and forensics tests. The
report provides a discussion of the types of aging and failures that can affect
cables and describes the applicability of available tests to the issue. Linkages to
descriptions of the tests and their advantages and disadvantages are provided.
Some tests have general applicability; others may be limited to a single cable type,
but be highly important for that cable type and its aging mechanisms.
The following section describes the types of cables used in nuclear plants, their
design, their applications, and the resulting degradation mechanisms that are of
concern so that appropriate test methods can be identified. A separate section
follows on troubleshooting methods. This report focuses on the types of cables
used in nuclear power plants and not on cables used in utility distribution systems
and other industrial applications. Accordingly, the recommendations listed here
may differ significantly from those that apply to utility distribution systems
because the designs of the nuclear plant cables differ from the designs used in
distribution systems.
1-1
Cable Design, Application, and Degradation Mechanisms
Instrumentation
The two basic types of instrumentation cable designs used in nuclear plants are
twisted shielded pairs, triples, etc., and coaxial types. While other specialty
designs exist, they are beyond the scope of this document.
Twisted Shielded Designs
Instrumentation signals can be adversely affected by electromagnetic noise that

exists in a power plant. To limit the noise in instrument circuit, the cables are
constructed with shields that drain induced electrical impulses to ground. In
twisted shielded designs, a shield surrounds a group of cabled (twisted) insulated
conductors. The group may consist of two, three, or four conductors, depending
on the connected instrument.
A number of different shield designs have been used. One of the more common
designs uses aluminized polyester (often Mylar1) tape that is wrapped around a
twisted pair or triplet of insulated conductors. A drain wire is placed along the
aluminized side of the tape to provide a connection between the tape and the
ground and to provide a convenient means of connecting the ground. Alternate
means of shielding use a metallic shield, which can be in the form of a helically
wrapped tape, a braid woven from fine wires, or fine parallel wires surrounding
the pairs or triplets.
The insulations used in instrument and control cables are the same as those used
in control and low-voltage power cables. These are cross-linked polyethylene
(XLPE), fire-retardant ethylene propylene rubber (FR-EPR), bonded jacket
EPR (chlorosulfonated polyethylene/EPR [CSPE/EPR]) and neoprene/EPR
[NEO/EPR]), and silicone rubber. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), although rarely
used as an insulation in the United States, is commonly used as an insulation
elsewhere in the world. In bonded jacket EPR, the EPR layer is not fire
retardant. A NEO or CSPE jacket is bonded to the insulation layer to provide
fire retardancy. Less common, but occasionally found, insulations are butyl
rubber, CSPE (Hypalon2), Kapton2 (polyimide tape), and Tefzel.2 Jackets are
typically NEO, CSPE, or PVC (limited U.S. usage). Instrument cables are often
rated for 300 V or less and are not subject to significant operating currents.
Therefore, the insulation thicknesses on twisted shielded cables may be two-
thirds of that used on control and power cable with similar conductor sizes,
causing the insulation system to be more sensitive to thermal and radiation aging
than control and power cables using the same insulation.
1
Mylar is a registered trademark of DuPont.
2
Hypalon, Kapton, and Tefzel are registered trademarks of DuPont.
1-2
Inside the power plant, thermal aging is the key aging concern. Most of the
polymers will harden, eventually lose tensile properties, and then finally powder
and fail if the aging is not controlled. Thermal aging will likely overshadow all
radiation effects, given the generally low dose rates around most cables.
In instrument cable applications with underground segments where submergence

occurs, jacket integrity is important. If jacket integrity is lost, additional grounds
can occur on the shield, resulting in multiple shield grounds that will cause high
circuit noise. Insulation stability is another potential submergence issue, but has
not been reported as a cause of failures.
Coaxial and Triaxial Designs
In coaxial designs, a central conductor is covered by insulation, and the second

conductor, a shield, is applied as fine wires or a wire braid over the insulation. A
jacket is then applied over the shield. The shield is grounded at one end to reduce
electrical noise. In triaxial designs, a second layer of insulation is placed over the
shield, a second shield is placed over that insulation, and a jacket is applied. The
outer shield is grounded, and the signal is carried by the inner shield and
conductor from the sensor. The inner shield is connected to chassis common.
The two shields provide additional electrical noise reduction. Coaxial and triaxial
cables are used on radiation detection circuits having very small signals and on
high-frequency circuits where noise reduction and specific impedances are
necessary. The shields are grounded at a specific location depending on the
circuit design. Multiple grounds will increase noise rather than reduce it.
Therefore, for coaxial and triaxial cables, the jackets must remain insulators to
prevent additional ground paths to the shields.
The polymers used as insulation in coaxial and triaxial designs are designed to
have specific impedance characteristics. They are not designed for high-
temperature conditions and have lower temperature ratings than power and
control cables. Various insulations have been used including polyethylene (PE),
XLPE, and EPR.
Mineral-insulated cables are available with stainless steel jackets. These cables are
impervious to radiation and elevated temperatures. However, the connectors
generally contain polymeric seals or seal systems that can age from elevated
temperature or radiation.
Control Cables
Control cables have simple designs in which an insulated conductor is cabled

with one or more additional cables. Cording (nonhydroscopic filaments) is
applied to help make the assembly round, and then a jacket is applied. In some
designs, an additional rubber layer is added over the cables individual insulated
wires to round the assembly before jacketing, and in other designs, additional
jacketing material makes the cable round. The insulation thickness in most
control cables is 30 mils (0.76 mm) thick. If nonFR-EPR insulation is used, an
additional 0.015 in. (0.38 mm) of flame-retardant NEO or CSPE (Hypalon) is
1-3
applied to add flame retardancy. Common insulations used in control cables are
XLPE, FR-EPR, EPR with a bonded layer of NEO or CSPE, EPR with a
nonbonded layer of NEO or CSPE, CSPE alone, silicone rubber, PVC, and
butyl rubber. PVC is not used as insulation in the United States, but has been
used in Canada, Japan, Korea, Eastern Europe, and the former Soviet Union.
Butyl insulation was used in very few early plants. The most common insulations
are XLPE, FR-EPR, EPR/NEO, and EPR/CSPE. EPR/NEO was phased out
of manufacture by the early 1980s.
Although the insulation systems for most control cables are rated at 90C at the
conductor, the overall cables are not suitable for 90C environments on a
continuous basis. The jackets are rated at 75C or less. In EPR with bonded
CSPE, the CSPE layer ages faster than the EPR layer and becomes the
controlling layer with respect to failure under manipulation of the cable during
maintenance and under high-pressure steam accident environments such as those
in containment.
A leading cause of control cable degradation is thermal damage. For control

cables, ohmic heating is not a concern. Exposure to elevated temperatures from
adjacent high temperature valves and piping or hot lighting fixtures are the
concern. Damaged or missing thermal insulation on pipes and valves can cause
significant damage to cable polymers in a relatively short period. In general,
thermal damage will far exceed damage caused by irradiation due to the relatively
low dose rates in the vicinity most cables. In most cases, thermal degradation is
identified before electrical failure occurs. Insulation stability is another potential
submergence issue, but has not been reported as a cause of failures. Only one
failure in a dc circuit has been attributed to polymer instability. The particular
manufacturers installation was susceptible to instability, and the insulation
design was changed. The failure occurred in a situation in which very aggressive,
elevated temperature water surrounded the cable for more than 20 years.
Low-Voltage Power Cables
Low-voltage power cables are essentially the same as those of control cables, but
have thicker insulations depending on the conductor size. The insulation
thicknesses range between 0.045 in. (1.1 mm) and 0.08 in. (2 mm). The
insulations are generally XLPE, FR-EPR, EPR/NEO, EPR/CSPE, butyl
rubber, and silicone rubber. PVC was used in many non-U.S. plants. The cables
are generally rated for 90C) conductor temperatures in a 40C ambient with the
exception of butyl rubber and PVC, which have lower thermal ratings, and
silicone rubber, which has a conductor rating of 120C and higher.
The aging concerns for low-voltage power cables are the same as those for
control cables.
1-4
Medium-Voltage Power Cables
Medium-voltage power cables are more complex than low-voltage power cables
because the voltage stresses in the insulation are higher, and voltage stressrelated
degradation mechanisms become a concern. The thickness of insulation in a low-
voltage power cable is dictated by mechanical concerns related to handling,
installation, and in-service physical stresses. The insulation is much thicker than
necessary for voltage withstanding purposes. However, at operating voltages
above 4 kV phase to phase, the thickness is of the insulation is dictated by the
applied voltage and not handling/installation concerns. The voltage is high
enough that small air gaps between the insulation and the conductor can break
down due to operating voltage or voltage surges. If an air gap existed between the
conductor and interior surface of the insulation, the discharge across the air gap
would cause small increments of damage to the insulation that would eventually
cause it to fail. To eliminate such air gaps, a conductor shield is applied to the
conductor before the insulation is applied. The earliest designs used impregnated
cotton tapes. These were phased out in the very early 1970s. The next design
used semiconducting polymer tapes. These were phased out in the mid-1970s.
The current designs use extruded polymer shields. Nearly all manufacturers use
semiconducting shields with a low resistance, but not low enough to be classified
as a conducting material. The exception is a Kerite design in which a high
permittivity layer is used instead of the semiconducting layer. The design is called
Permashield.
The conductor shield is used in all medium-voltage designs, whether the cable is
a nonshielded or shielded design, which refers to the insulation shield system. In
5-kVrated cables used in power plants, use of an insulation shield is optional. In
a cable having an insulation shield, called a shielded cable, a shield is applied to the
outer surface of the insulation, and a metal tape or wire is used to drain or ground
the shield. Like the conductor shield, the insulation shield could be cotton tape
(late 1960s), polymer tape (early 1970s), or extruded polymer (mid-1970s to
date). When extruded polymer shields came into being, the manufacturers
removed the carbon black from the insulations so that the black polymer
insulation shield, which must be removed during splicing and termination, could
be easily distinguished from the pink or brown color of the insulation.
For nuclear plants, the most common metallic component of the insulation shield
is a helically wrapped copper tape with a 10% overlap (Figure 1-1). In earlier
cable designs, the tapes were tinned to prevent the copper from deteriorating
from excess chlorine and sulfur in the jacket materials. Modern cables do not
need tinned shields because the jackets do not have free sulfur and chlorine.
Some cables used zinc tape. The tapes were used because the cables were more
flexible than distribution cables. The metallic component in a distribution cable
shield generally is made up of round or flat copper wires of sufficient size to
carry full-phase current when used in single-phase systems (Figure 1-2). The
only distribution cables expected in a nuclear plant are those associated with
off-site feeds.
1-5
Figure 1-1
Helical metal tape shield
Figure 1-2
Concentric neutral (flat strap design)
One alternate design that does not use flat tapes is the UniShield design. The
UniShield cable is a compact-design EPR insulated cable with a diameter that is
as small as that of an XLPE cable (Figure 1-3). This is achieved by having a
compacted conductor, a thinner layer of insulation, and a jacket that doubles as
the semiconducting layer. Six corrugated wires are located in the jacket and run
longitudinally to drain the jacket.
1-6
Figure 1-3
UniShield design: drain wire in a semiconducting jacket
A new shield design uses linear corrugated copper that is wrapped around the
semiconducting layer and is either glued shut or welded. This design allows a
flexible cable, with a water-impervious layer that is similar in thickness to a tape
shield system. In addition to keeping water out of the core of the cable, this
shield design improves testability of the cable using partial discharge (PD)
methods. Tape shields act as inductors once a slight tarnish occurs on their
surface, which causes attenuation of high-frequency signals and often eliminates
PD testing.
Medium-Voltage Cable Aging Concerns
Thermal Aging
Assuming no manufacturing defects and no installation errors, the main aging

concern inside a nuclear plant is thermal aging. Thermal aging can be from
ambient temperature, radiant energy from adjacent equipment, and/or ohmic
heating. Ohmic heating is generally not a significant problem in nuclear plants
due to the ampacity derating factors used during design. However, for cable
circuits with multiple conductors per phase, magnetic and resistive imbalances
between conductors can lead to severe ohmic heating of individual conductor
insulations. Accordingly, the current balance on circuits with multiple cables per
phase should be verified at least once and then whenever the terminations or
splices are disconnected and reconnected.
1-7
Partial Discharge
If gross manufacturing defects or installation errors exist, electrical degradation

from PD can cause failure of dry circuits, generally after two or more decades of
service. Preservice testing can generally identify defects that would cause failure
shortly after start of service (that is, failures that would occur in the first five
years), but may be incapable of detecting a flaw that would cause failure in two or
more decades.
For nonshielded cables, PD between phases is possible or between a phase and

ground. Where the individual phases cross each other and where they touch
ground, partial discharging is possible. Eventual cut through and failure can
occur if the PD is not corrected.
Wet Aging
For underground wet and submerged cable, the types of degradation and failure
mechanisms change with the vintage of the cable and in some cases the design.
Before the mid-1970s, EPR cables were manufactured with clean, calcined clay
that was untreated. This led to cable insulations that would absorb up to 3%
moisture by weight and had clays that were more weakly bound to the EPR than
in modern cable. In approximately 1975, the industry switched to clay that was
treated with silane that sealed the clay and made it chemically bind to the EPR,
resulting in EPR insulations that absorb no more than 0.3% moisture and that
are much stronger mechanically than earlier versions. The old-style EPRs
experience water-related degradation that results in low insulation resistance
tunnels in the insulation. The first occurrence of this type of degradation has
been observed at 30 to 33 years. No failures of modern silane-treated clay EPR
have occurred to date in standard design cables.
The UniShield design has experienced failures under wet conditions that are
attributed to other failure mechanisms. Failures have occurred when gaps
occurred between the jacket and insulation that could have occurred from pulling
damage. Other failures have occurred from corrosion of the shield drain wires
that resulted in partial discharging within the shield that led to failure.
Slices and Terminations
Cable aging must be understood in terms of a cable system rather than just an
insulation on a conductor. The splices and terminations complete the cable, and
their failure has the same effect on the plant as an insulation failure. In control
and low-voltage power cables, the conductor and insulation are continued
through a splice, and a jacket may or may not be used. In twisted shielded pairs
and triples, the conductors and their insulations are continued as well as the
shield and drain wire. A jacket covering is necessary to protect the shield and
drain at the splice. For coaxial and triaxial cables, special connectors specifically
designed for the application must be used at splices and terminations. For low-
voltage power and control, terminations generally consist of terminal lugs that
1-8
land on terminal strips with the insulation stopping at the lug. Terminations at
motors generally consist of bolted connections that are insulated with tape, heat
shrink, cold shrink, or gel systems.
For low-voltage power cables, a key termination concern is connection resistance.

If a high-resistance connection exists, ohmic heating will damage the insulation
and/or conductor leading to failure. Elevated temperature in the vicinity of a
splice or radiant energy could also damage the splice jacket and insulation.
When copper-to-aluminum connections are made, special spring-loaded

connectors are needed to prevent cold flow of the aluminum that would lead to a
high-resistance connection and overheating.
Medium-Voltage Splices and Terminations
Medium-voltage splices and terminations are generally more sophisticated and

critical than those on low-voltage cables. The terminations for nonshielded
medium cables are the same as those for low-voltage power cables. However, the
splices must have a conductor shield to prevent electrical discharging at the
conductor interface with the splice insulation.
The splices and terminations for shielded medium-voltage cable are much more
complex. In a termination, the conductor shield and insulation are removed to
allow a lug to be applied. The insulation shield is removed for a significant length
along the insulation, and a voltage stress-control layer (additional insulation, a
capacitive stress-control layer, or a high-permittivity layer) must be applied, and
the metallic layer either grounded or terminated. Care must be taken to have no
air gaps or insulation cuts in the stress-control area.
For splices, all of the layers in the cable must be replicated in the splice, and the
voltage gradients at the cut backs of the insulation shield must be controlled.
Voids or contaminants in the splice will likely cause failure. For more modern
(post-1975) medium-voltage cable, splice and termination workmanship are
more likely to cause failure than water-induced degradation of the insulation.
As with low-voltage power cables, a key medium-voltage termination concern is

connection resistance. If a high-resistance connection exists, ohmic heating will
damage the insulation and/or conductor leading to failure. Elevated temperature
in the vicinity of a splice or radiant energy could also damage the splice jacket
and insulation.
When copper-to-aluminum connections are made, special spring-loaded

connectors are needed to prevent cold flow of the aluminum that would lead to a
high-resistance connection and overheating.
A properly constructed termination or splice will have a life equivalent to that of

the cable. However, making an error-free splice or termination requires care
attention to the manufacturers procedure. Cuts, voids, and contaminants will
lead to electrical deterioration with or without water.
1-9
Section 2: Cable Component Aging and
Aging Assessment
Insulation and Jacket Aging and Assessment
Dry Condition Aging
The main aging stressors for all types of cables located in dry environments are
temperature, radiant heating, radiation, and chemical conditions. For instrument
and control cables, external temperature and radiant heating are dominant causes
of insulation and jacket aging. Although radiation can cause insulation and jacket
aging, doses that are high enough to have an effect coexist with elevated
temperature, and the thermal effects most often outweigh the radiation effects.
For power cables, external temperature and radiant heating are also dominant
causes of insulation and jacket aging. In addition, ohmic heating from conductor
current can increase thermal aging significantly. However, derating factors that
are commonly used in plant applications most often limit the degradation caused
by ohmic heating. As with instrument and control cables, in areas with
significant radiation doses, thermal effects generally dominate the aging. Table
2-1 lists the aging effects of elevated temperature, radiant heating, and radiation
on the types of insulation used in nuclear plant cables.
Corona Discharge Attack on Nonshielded Medium-Voltage

Cable
For nonshielded medium-voltage cable, corona discharge attack of the cable

surface is a potential concern in which individual phases touch each other and
touch metallic surfaces, especially within switchgear housing. The presence of
white powder on the surface of the cable where cable phases contact each other or
the switchgear housing is a sign that corona attack (PD) is occurring. The cables
should be inspected for surface erosion, and the cables should be repositioned to
stop the discharging.
Wet and Submerged Aging
Short-term exposure of cables to water will have no significant effect on the

polymers. Long-term wetting may or may not cause polymer aging and is
application, material, and vintage specific.
2-1
Chemical, Oil, and Hydraulic Fluid Exposure
Exposure of cable jackets and insulations to chemicals, oil, or hydraulic fluid is

generally inadvertent. Most plant chemicals are relatively benign with respect to
cable insulations and jackets and, once cleaned from the surface, have little or no
effect on the polymer. Long-term exposure is not recommended, so if chemical
residue is found on a cable surface, removal is recommended. Exposure of the
conductor to chemicals is likely to cause corrosion and high-resistance
connections. Repair or replacement of the termination will generally be
necessary.
Exposure of cable jackets and insulations to hydraulic fluid and oil can cause
severe degradation. Softening and swelling of rubber jackets and insulations are
likely. XLPE is less likely to be affected by hydraulic fluids and oils at lower
temperatures, but if an exposure occurs, cleaning of the surface is required to
prevent long-term effects.
There are no specific evaluation techniques beyond visual/tactile assessment for

chemical, oil, and hydraulic fluid exposure. If no immediate effects of exposure
are noted after the material is cleaned, reassessment after six months to one
operating cycle is recommended to ensure that no adverse effects have occurred.
If effects from the exposure are observed, repair or replacement will be necessary.
2-2
Table 2-1
Insulation degradation and condition assessment correlation
Insulation Material Elevated Temperature and Radiant Elevated Radiation Condition Assessment Tests
Heat
XLPE 122F (50C): little effect <5 Mrd (<50 kGy): little Due to crystallinity, in situ tests are
122158F (5070C): long-term loss of observable effect ineffective. If jacket is in good
tensile strength >5 Mrd (>50 kGy): some condition, XLPE will be in good
>158F (>70C): significantly shortened life observable effect, likely condition. Multiple laboratory tests are
overshadowed by thermal effects available.
FR-EPR 122F (50C): little effect <5 Mrd (<50 kGy): little Indenter modulus and acoustic velocity
122140F (5060C): long-term hardening observable effect testing to assess hardening in-plant.
and loss of tensile strength >5 Mrd (>50 kGy): some Inaccessible (in conduit) cables may be
>140F (>60C): significantly shortened life observable effect, likely assessed electrically via line
overshadowed by thermal effects impedance resonance analysis (LIRA).
Numerous laboratory tests are
available.
Bonded jacket EPR, 104F (40C): little effect <5 Mrd (<50 kGy): little NEO layer may be tested in-plant with
NEO/EPR 104122F (4050C): NEO layer hardens observable effect Indenter modulus to assess hardening.
with time >5 Mrd (>50 kGy): some Inaccessible (in conduit) cables may be
>122F (>50C): NEO layer hardens and observable effect, likely assessed electrically via LIRA.
cracks in a relatively short period; EPR layer overshadowed by thermal effects Numerous laboratory tests are
behaves similarly to FR-EPR above available.
Note: With severe thermal aging, the NEO
layer gives off chlorine that will corrode
surrounding metals including terminations
and exposed relay contacts.
2-3
Table 2-1 (continued)
Heat
Bonded jacket EPR, 122F (50C): little effect <5 Mrd (<5 kGy): little CSPE layer may be tested in-plant with
CSPE/EPR 122149F (5065C): CSPE layer hardens observable effect Indenter modulus or acoustic velocity to
with time >5 Mrd (>5 kGy): some assess hardening. Inaccessible (in
>149F (>65C): CSPE layer hardens in a observable effect, likely conduit) cables may be assessed
relatively short period; EPR layer behaves overshadowed by thermal effects electrically via LIRA. Numerous
similarly to FR-EPR above laboratory tests are available.
Note: Aging of the insulation system is
controlled by the CSPE layer. Once
hardened, the CSPE layer will crack when
manipulated or when exposed to a loss of
coolant accident environment. The crack will
propagate through the EPR layer as well.
Silicone rubber No thermal damage to temperatures in <5 Mrd (<5 kGy): little Silicone rubber has limited mechanical
excess of 212F (100C) observable effect properties. Physical damage is
>5 Mrd (>5 kGy): some possible. Standard troubleshooting
observable effect techniques may be used to assess
physical damage.
CSPE (Hypalon) 122F (50C): little effect <5 Mrd (<5 kGy): little CSPE may be tested in-plant with
122149F (5065C): CSPE layer hardens observable effect Indenter modulus to assess hardening.
with time >5 Mrd (>5 kGy): some Inaccessible (in conduit) cables may be
>149F (>65C): CSPE layer hardens in a observable effect, likely assessed electrically via LIRA.
relatively short period overshadowed by thermal effects Numerous laboratory tests are
available.
Note: Severely aged Hypalon will crack
when bent and will likely split in a loss of
coolant accident environment.
2-4
Heat
Butyl rubber (sulfur 122F (50C): little effect; elevated May soften when exposed to May be tested with Indenter modulus.
cure) temperatures may soften with aging significant doses
Tefzel No thermal damage to temperatures 158 Significant loss of properties at Hard plastic and laboratory tests are
176F (7080C) 20 Mrd (200 kGy) needed to assess condition.
Kapton No significant thermal aging effects Kapton is a tape that is held in Application of a grounded wet cloth
place by thin layers of Teflon. with insulation resistance testing may
Kapton is unaffected by be useful. Otherwise, physical
irradiation, but the Teflon layer assessment and testing in the
deteriorates by a few megarads laboratory are necessary.
of exposure. Thereafter, wetting
will likely cause shorting.
2-5
Kapton Insulation Concerns
Nearly all of the insulations in use in nuclear power plants are extruded onto the
conductor by forcing the molten polymer as the conductor passes through a die.
The result is a uniform layer of insulation. Kapton is the exception. Kapton is a
0.001-in. (0.025-mm) polyimide tape having a 0.0001-in. (0.0025-mm) layer of
Teflon on each face. The Kapton tape is helically wrapped on the conductor. A
second layer is applied in the opposite direction. The Teflon layers are then
sintered to each other by passing the insulated wire through a beta beam. Kapton
can withstand 3000 Mrd (30 MGy) and retain 75% of its original tensile
properties [1]. However, the Teflon layers will degrade after a few megarads (a
few 10s of kilograys), leaving only the mechanical wrap of the Kapton as the seal,
making the insulation susceptible to shorting upon wetting. Kapton can lose
tensile strength and crack in warm, wet environments if bent tightly. A detailed
discussion of the aging and issues of Kapton insulation is provided in Review of
Polyimide Insulated Wire in Nuclear Power Plants, NP-7189 [1].
Instrument Cable Shield Aging/Deterioration
The shield in an instrument circuit is grounded at one end of the circuit, and the
far end is not grounded. If both ends of the shield are grounded, a transformer
action can occur. and noise will be induced into the circuit. If the jacket fails and
the shield is grounded at multiple points, noise will be induced in the circuit. If
noise occurs, lifting of the ground and measuring insulation resistance between
shield and ground are recommended. Jacket damage from thermal stress or
chemical exposure is possible for instrument cable with twisted shielded
construction. For the function of the shield to be affected in dry applications, the
jacket would have to fail such that an extraneous conductive path would occur
between the shield and the ground. For NEO-jacketed cables, such paths are
possible because NEO shrinks circumferentially and axially when highly
thermally aged, causing wide cracks to form. Hypalon (CSPE) and chlorinated
polyethylene (CPE) jackets will harden from thermal stress, but generally do not
crack spontaneously.
Deterioration of the shield without failure of the jacket is not expected. Jacket
failure or saturation with water is a possible means of adversely affecting shield
function in underground applications. Physical damage to jackets during
installation in underground systems may result in multiple shield grounds if the
system becomes wet. Color jackets (pigmented through the depth) may also
allow enough moisture through to cause grounds. The curing of jackets that will
be dyed is different from those that are black due to carbon content. To make the
colors stable over long periods, alternate curing processes are used that allow the
material to absorb more water.
2-6
For instrument cable, the presence or absence of noise on the circuit is a direct
indication of the condition of the shield. If the shield is suspected of having
multiple grounds, a time domain reflectometer may be used to locate the
additional grounds such that targeted corrective actions can be made. In cases in
which submergence was the cause of the additional grounds, draining of the duct
system worked for at least one plant.
2-7
Section 3: Cable Test Versus Cable Concern
Introduction
This section relates cable tests to the concerns that arise for plant cables. The
concerns are as follows:
Postinstallation testing: tests that prove the cable circuit is ready for service
Condition monitoring/aging management: test and assessments that
determine the current condition of the cable and whether it is acceptable for
use for a period of time (one or more operating cycles)
Troubleshooting: tests to determine the nature of degradation and
determine whether repair is possible or replacement is necessary
Failure and forensics assessments: tests to identify the reason for failure or
degradation and the need for corrective action on similar applications and
circuits
For the purposes of this report, evaluation of identified degradation is included in

condition monitoring/aging management.
Post-Installation Testing
The purpose of post-installation testing is to confirm that no severe damage or

installation errors occurred during cable circuit installation. Possible concerns
include handling or pulling damage, high-resistance connections, and
termination or splicing errors. Manufacturing tests were performed when the
cable was made that should have eliminated significant manufacturing defects.
Therefore, only damage and errors made after shipping from the manufacturer
are of concern. Table 3-1 provides a listing of possible issues and appropriate
tests depending on cable type and construction. The need to use sophisticated
tests depends on the criticality of the circuit and the voltage class. More
sophisticated tests are recommended for medium-voltage cables than low-voltage
power cables. The nature of the cable, for example, shielded versus nonshielded
cable, may limit the types of tests that can be used.
3-1
Table 3-1
Postinstallation test applicability
Concern Components Included Limitations Related to Applicable Test Test Reference

in the Test Cable Design Number
Conductor Cable conductor, None; applicable to all Conductor circuit/ connection E-08
continuity/resistance in termination lug, and splice power cable designs resistance test
power circuits lug/barrel
Concentric neutral Concentric neutral and all Only applies to concentric Neutral circuit E-08
resistance (medium-voltage neutral connections neutral or separate connection/resistance test
cables only) neutrals required to carry
single-phase loads
Metallic shield quality Metallic shield and shield Applies to helical tape, Shield circuit resistance test; E-03, E-08
(medium-voltage cables connections linear corrugated tape, shield circuit TDR
only) and UniShield shield
designs
Circuit insulation Termination, splice, and Cable must have a shield Insulation resistance test E-01, E-06, E-07
acceptability (medium- conductor insulation to provide a test plane followed by dissipation factor
voltage cable) with respect to the (DF) test, followed by
conductor (not applicable withstand test (see Note 1) or
to nonshielded cables) insulation test followed by PD
test. Partial discharge and DF
tests must be off-line elevated-
voltage tests to be of use.
Dielectric spectroscopy may
be used as well.
Insulation acceptability (low- Conductor and splice Multiconductor circuit Insulation resistance between E-01
voltage cable) insulation remaining conductors
grounded
Note 1. The insulation resistance test is to detect gross errors such as remaining temporary grounds before applying elevated voltage to the insulation system. The result is expected
to be at least 1 Gohm-1000 ft (305 megohms-km) and are likely to be a number of multiples of these values. One hundred megohms-1000 ft (30.5 megohms-km) or less would be
indicative of a gross problem, and the cause should be identified before application of a high-voltage test.
3-2
Condition Monitoring and Aging Management
Condition monitoring and aging management tests and assessments are

performed to determine whether the environments and service conditions have
caused aging of the conductors, connections, insulations, shields, and jackets of
cables.
The tests and assessments that should be used depend on the stressor of concern
that could cause aging of a cable subcomponent, the type of cable, and the nature
of the application.
Stressors of concern include the following:

High-temperature environments and radiant heat
Normal radiation conditions in excess of 10 Mrd (100 kGy) (affects a limited
number of in-containment cables)
Ohmic heating of conductors and connections in power circuits, especially
high-resistance connections and unbalanced multiconductor per phase cables
Wet and submerged medium-voltage cables and splices
Oil, chemical, or hydraulic fluid contamination of jackets, insulation, or
exposed terminations
High vibration leading to fatigue where cables are not properly supported
between vibratory equipment such as compressors and stationary junction
boxes
For all cable types except silicone rubberinsulated cables, high-temperature

environments (>120F [>~50C]) and radiant energy will age jackets and
insulation systems, with damage increasing exponentially as the temperature
increases. Radiant energy from uninsulated piping and valves shining directly on
cables will also cause jacket and insulation aging.
Ohmic heating is generally a concern limited to power cables. Ampacity

deratings that are generally applied to power circuits of nuclear plants limit
concerns related to conductor heating. However, high-resistance connections
may occur and could cause splice or termination failure. In multiconductor per
phase power circuits such as connections to large motors and between start-up
and auxiliary transformers and the associated buses, resistive and magnetic
imbalances can cause high currents on one or more conductors and low currents
on others. The high currents may be in excess of ampacity limits and cause severe
aging of the cable insulation and jacket.
Wetting and submergence are of highest concern for medium-voltage cables and
splices, but can affect improperly made low-voltage splices. There is no literature
indicating a generic concern for low-voltage applications; however, jacket
deterioration on shielded instrument cable may lead to multiple shield grounds
and increase noise in the instrument circuit.
3-3
Oil, chemical, and hydraulic contamination of cables is generally localized and
affects a limit number of circuits and requires case-specific analysis and action.
Similarly, vibration fatigue of conductors and insulation is limited to a particular
piece of equipment and is likely to be unique to the application when observed.
Table 3-2 provides a linkage of stressors coupled with cable, splice, and
termination component that could be affected and the linkage to appropriate
tests. Table 3-3 provides a linkage between the possible tests and the cable types
and configurations to which they apply.
3-4
Table 3-2
Condition monitoring and aging management tests
Components Cable DesignRelated Test Reference

Concern Applicable Activity or Test
Affected Issues Number
High-temperature Cable, splice, Most materials will tend to In-plant assessment: In-plant
environments and/or and/or termination harden with the exception of Visual/tactile assessment, Indenter modulus, assessments:
radiant energy insulation and sulfur-cured butyl rubber, near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy (nonblack V-01, M-03,
jackets which will soften. PVC and materials) C-06
NEO will exude chlorine, Laboratory tests:
which will corrode
Elongation at break, density, swell/gel, Laboratory tests:
surrounding metals.
oxidation induction time (OIT), oxidation M-01, C-01,
induction temperature, micromodulus, C-02, M-08,
thermogravimetric analysis, infrared C-07, C-06
spectroscopy
High radiation Same as above Same as above. Note: PVC Same as above Same as above
gives off hydrochloric acid
when irradiated; hardness
does not change.
Ohmic heating Insulation Affects high-current cables One-time review of ampacity calculations to C-05, M-03, C-
deterioration on when ampacity is reached identify cables of concern. Infrared 06, V-01
high-temperature or exceeded thermography and/or conductor current
conductors measurement to assess actual conditions.
Indenter modulus, NIR spectroscopy to gain
insights on effect on cable insulation and jacket.
Visual inspection will detect severe degradation
Ohmic heating in Insulation Imbalanced conductor One-time test to verify balance of currents. C-05, M-03, C-
multiple cables per deterioration on resistances or magnetic Infrared thermography to evaluate heating. If a 06, V-01
phase applications high-temperature circuits can cause significant imbalance is identified, evaluate
conductors overheating of some cables. highest current cable with Indenter modulus or
NIR spectroscopy to gain insights on effect on
cable insulation and jacket. Visual inspection will
detect severe degradation.
3-5

Wet and submerged Water-related Pre ~1976 EPR cables are DF (tan ), dielectric spectroscopy, PD (see Note E-06, E-07
medium-voltage cables deterioration of susceptible to long-term 2), damped ac, ac withstand
insulation and/or deterioration from wet
shields aging. Post-~1976
insulations are not prone to
wet aging, with the
exception of the UniShield
design (see Note 1) XLPE
insulation is prone to water-
treeing, with later versions
being somewhat less
susceptible. Cables with
helically wrapped, metallic
tape shields are generally
not testable with PD
technology when shield has
aged.
Wet and submerged Water-related Improperly applied tape DF (tan ), dielectric spectroscopy, PD (see Note E-06, E-07
medium-voltage splices degradation of seal layers or incomplete 2), damped ac, ac withstand on cable circuit
and shield system shrinkage of heat-shrinkable including splice
mostly due to splice coverings may allow
installation errors water entry or air voids,
resulting in discharging or
tracking that can lead to
insulation breakdown.
3-6

Oil, chemical, or Jackets, shields, Oil and hydraulic fluid can Visual examination, Indenter modulus to assess V-01
hydraulic fluid insulations, cause softening and softening. If jacket is swollen and deteriorated,
contamination conductor swelling of jackets and removal is recommended to evaluate the
insulations. Deterioration insulation. If oil or hydraulic fluid has traveled
from chemical exposure along the conductor by capillary action,
depends on type. Most replacement of the circuit is recommended.
effects are worsened by
duration and elevated
temperature.
Vibratory fatigue of Conductor, Not likely to be a medium- Visual inspection, conductor resistance V-01, E-08
improperly supported insulation voltage cable concern. May
cable affect low-voltage power,
control, and instrumentation
cable on diesel generators
and piston compressors
Note 1. UniShield cables have a compact design using thinner insulation layers and having a semiconducting jacket with six embedded wires that serves as both a jacket and
shield. Multiple failure modes affect this cable when used in wet conditions that are often related to installation damage. Accordingly, even post-1976 cables have
experience water-related failures.
Note 2. Helical tape shields act as a metallic tube when new. However, slight corrosion that can occur from excess sulfur and chlorine from jackets or long-term water transfer
during service, insulate the overlap of the tape causing the tape to act as a coil. This has no effect on normal operation of the cable, but causes attenuation of high-
frequency signals. Partial discharge testing is based on measuring and evaluating the high-frequency, low-magnitude signals resulting from PDs. The attenuation from
the shield often precludes use of PD testing. EPR and butyl rubbers also attenuate high-frequency signals due to their lossy nature.
3-7
Table 3-3
Applicability of electrical tests to medium-voltage cable designs and insulations
Cable Type
Test EPR (See

XLPE, XLPE, Linear EPR EPR, Linear
Paper Insulated, EPR or XLPE XLPE, Helical Note 1),
Concentric Corrugated Concentric Corrugated
Lead Covered Nonshielded Tape Shield Helical Tape
Neutral Shield Neutral Shield
Shield
Insulation Useful Limited value, but Useful Useful Useful Useful Useful Useful
resistance, troubleshooting likely the only test troubleshooting troubleshooting troubleshooting troubleshooting troubleshooting troubleshooting
1000 ft tool; not that can be tool; not tool; not tool; not tool; not tool; not tool; not
(-km/3.281) recommended for performed; test from recommended recommended recommended recommended recommended recommended
aging management. a phase to other for aging for aging for aging for aging for aging for aging
phases grounded; management. management. management. management. management. management.
<100 Mohms-1000
ft (-km/3.281)
indicates a severe
problem. High
values are not
necessarily
indicative of sound
insulation.
dc withstand Traditional aging Not Not Not Not Not Not Not
management test recommended; few recommended recommended recommended recommended recommended recommended
especially when useful data for XLPE; will for XLPE; will for XLPE; will for EPR; will for EPR; will for EPR; will
stepped-voltage expected. miss significant miss significant miss significant miss significant miss significant miss significant
methodology with damage and damage and damage and damage. damage. damage.
leakage current leave space leave space leave space
monitoring is used. charge that will charge that will charge that will
shorten life of shorten life of shorten life of
deteriorated deteriorated deteriorated
cable. cable. cable.
Very low May be used. Not recommended; May be used. May be used. May be used. May be used. May be used. May be used.
frequency few useful data
(VLF) expected.
withstand
3-8
Cable Type
Test EPR (See

Shield
50 or 60 Hz May be used. Not recommended; May be used. May be used. May be used. May be used. May be used. May be used.
withstand few useful data
expected.
(VLF DF (tan ) May be used. Not recommended; May be used. May be used. May be used. May be used. May be used. May be used.
no shield to form
ground plane for
test.
VLF PD May be used. Not recommended; May be used. Corrosion of May be used. May be used. May be used. May be used.
few useful data tape shield EPR may EPR and EPR may
expected. may attenuate attenuate high corrosion of attenuate high
high frequencies. shield likely to frequencies.
frequencies. Verify attenuate high Verify
Verify acceptable frequencies. acceptable
acceptable attenuation Verify attenuation with
attenuation with calibration acceptable calibration
with calibration pulse. attenuation pulse.
pulse. with
calibration
pulse.
3-9
Cable Type
Test EPR (See

Shield
50 or 60 Hz May be used. Not recommended; May be used. Corrosion of May be used. May be used. May be used. May be used.
PD few useful data tape shield EPR may EPR and EPR may
expected. may attenuate attenuate high corrosion of attenuate high
high frequencies. shield likely to frequencies.
frequencies. Verify attenuate high Verify
Verify acceptable frequencies. acceptable
acceptable attenuation Verify attenuation with
attenuation with calibration acceptable calibration
with calibration pulse. attenuation pulse.
pulse. with
calibration
pulse.
Damped ac Not recommended. Not recommended; May be used. Corrosion of May be used. May be used. May be used. May be used.
no shield to form tape shield EPR may EPR and EPR may
capacitor for may attenuate attenuate high corrosion of attenuate high
resonant circuit. high frequencies, tape shields frequencies,
frequencies, limiting may attenuate limiting
limiting information high information
information attainable from frequencies, attainable from
attainable from test. limiting test.
test. information
attainable
from test.
Return voltage Not recommended. Not recommended; May be used. May be used. May be used. May be used. May be used. May be used.
no shield to form
ground plane for
test.
3-10
Cable Type
Test EPR (See

Shield
Return current Not recommended. Not recommended; May be used. May be used. May be used. May be used. May be used. May be used.
no shield to form
ground plane for
test.
Dielectric May be used. Not recommended; May be used. May be used. May be used. May be used. May be used. May be used.
spectroscopy no shield to form
ground plane for
test.
Surface-to- Not useful. May be used. May be used, May be used, May be used, May be used. May be used. May be used.
conductor but other tests but other tests but other tests
insulation more useful. more useful. more useful.
resistance
Note 1. The tests listed for EPR with helical metal tape shields apply to butyl rubber as well.
3-11
Troubleshooting
Troubleshooting activities are related to resolution of anomalous behavior or

failure of a cable circuit. Anomalous behavior includes receipt of a ground alarm
or failure to meet acceptance criteria during condition-monitoring tests. The goal
of troubleshooting is to determine the basic nature of a cable circuit problem to
help identify the appropriate corrective action. Troubleshooting will help
determine whether the cable has failed or another component is causing the
problem. It will not necessarily determine the root cause of a failure, but will help
establish whether the circuit or some of its components needs to be replaced.
Once the decision to replace or repair the cable is made, troubleshooting ends,
and corrective action and forensic assessment begins.
Fault Assessment and Location for Medium-Voltage Cables
In many cases, nuclear cable circuits are simple and relatively short, making
accurate location of the fault unnecessary. All three phases of the faulted cable
will be removed and replaced. However, some circuits are long and contain
multiple splices, and replacement of the entire circuit is neither cost-effective nor
necessary. A detailed discussion of fault location techniques with advantages and
disadvantages is provided in Underground Cable Fault Location Manual, EPRI
TR-105502 [2]. The most common methods are summarized here.
Faults Within Switchgear and Termination Housings
When a medium-voltage cable circuit trips on operation of an overcurrent or

differential relay, troubleshooting begins to determine where the fault is. If the
fault is in the circuit breaker cubicle, identification may be easy, especially if
severe damage occurs. Figure 3-1 shows a more subtle, but observable failure.
Figure 3-2 shows a close up of the hole that the fault caused. These faults are
easy to identify. However, a similar fault in a cable located in a tray or conduit
will require use of fault-location techniques.
3-12
Figure 3-1
Faulted cable termination in a metal-clad switchgear compartment. Note: Slightly
burned condition of B-phase stress-relief adaptor.
Figure 3-2
Burn through of stress-relief adaptor
3-13
Identification of Faulted Phase(s)
Insulation Resistance
The simplest and most common starting point is insulation resistance testing.
Once the cables have been determined from the source and load, insulation
resistance tests can be used to identify those phases that are faulted. A nonfaulted
phase should have an insulation resistance of at least a gigohm-1000 ft (305
Mohm-km). Unless the fault is solidly grounded, which is rare, the insulation
resistance can be quite high because the metal shield often burns out in the
vicinity of the fault. Figure 3-3 shows a faulted cable that blew out the helically
wrapped copper tape shield. Although this fault had multiple restrikes, loss of the
shield around the fault is common and can result in an insulation resistance
greater than 10 Mohms. Figure 3-4 shows another cable, with the jacket
removed, having shield loss from the fault. The damage to the insulation and
conductor in Figure 3-4 is much less severe than that shown in Figure 3-3, and
yet there is still substantial shield loss.
Figure 3-3
Cable fault in which the shield burned out. Note: The shield has vaporized and is
not visible at the edges of the hole in the jacket.
3-14
Figure 3-4
Cable with shield loss from fault
Visual Fault Location
Although generally not the primary fault-identification method, visual inspection

of a circuit that is in a tray system may identify a fault. In some cases, the burning
and soot may leave obvious signs at the location of the faults. However, the
blowout hole may be small, and the surrounding surfaces may have few signs
indicating where the fault occurred.
Fault Location Through Sectionalizing
Once the faulted phase is identified, insulation resistance testing can be used to
locate the fault by sectionalizing. In this method, the cable is cut in two. For
cables with an underground section, the cut is generally made at the point where
the cable enters the duct system, given that the fault is expected to be in the
underground section. If it is, then the underground section is replaced after
confirming the adequacy of the dry section through appropriate condition
assessment tests. If the underground segment is long and contains splices, further
sectioning can be performed to identify the faulted section.
Fault Location Through TDR
Low-Voltage TDR
The commonly available low-voltage, low-energy TDR places a low-energy pulse

between the shield and conductor to cause a reflection at the fault to occur. The
reflection from the fault is compared with the reflection from the far termination
to identify the location of the fault along the length. This system works if the
fault has a low impedance, but not zero resistance; however, the fault may not be
3-15
detected if it has a high impedance, which could be the case if the shield has been
disrupted by the fault current. A zero resistance fault would absorb all of the
pulse energy such that the pulse would not reach the far end of the cable and no
signal would be reflected. If the conductor is grounded, the return pulse from the
fault is reflected and seen as a negative pulse. The pulse from the open
termination that is reflected is a positive pulse. If an open circuit occurs, the pulse
will reflect from the open point, and there will be no reflection from the far open
circuited termination. Greater accuracy can be obtained from testing the faulted
phase from both directions. Attenuation of the TDR signal from EPR and butyl
rubber may adversely affect the results as will slight tarnishing of a tape shield,
which will cause it to act as an inductive high-frequency filter. EPRI report
TR-105502 [2] provides more detail on use of TDR.
Thumper with TDR
A thumper discharges a high-voltage capacitor into the faulted cable. The

resulting noise at the fault is a thump. The thumper alone may be used to find a
fault by doing repeated discharges into the fault while walking the length of the
circuit. In some cases, a microphone, amplifier, and headphones are used to
pinpoint the fault on distribution cables. Although some cable crews like this
system because it is easy, it has two drawbacks: The damage at the fault site
increases significantly with each thump and generally completely destroys the
insulation, and any forensics information surrounding the fault location is lost.
The second drawback is that if a portion of the thumped circuit will be reused, it
is likely to incur damage from the thumping, which could cause the remaining
section to fail prematurely. Repetitive thumping should be kept to a minimum.
However, the thumper may be used in conjunction with a TDR system that
registers the pulse at the fault as well as the reflection of the pulse from the far
termination. This TDR allows location of the fault after just a few discharges.
The thumper has sufficient voltage to break down the fault if it has too high of
an impedance for a low-voltage TDR to work properly. Figure 3-5 shows a
schematic of a thumper with a TDR attachment.
3-16
Figure 3-5
Thumper with TDR [2]
Bridge Fault Location Methods
Electrical balance bridges may be used in fault location. The Murray Loop,
which is an adaptation of the Wheatstone Bridge, is a commonly used bridge for
phase to ground faults. Figure 3-6 shows a diagram of a Murray Loop. The ratio
of D1 to D2 when the bridge is balanced is the same as the ratio of d1, the
distance through a good conductor to the fault through the connected far ends,
to d2, the distance from the test end to the fault on the faulted conductor.
Figure 3-6
Murray Loop adaptation of a Wheatstone Bridge [2]
3-17
Forensics and Failure Assessment
When repairs and replacement are being planned, careful removal and protection
of the failed cable, splice, or termination should be performed to allow failure
assessment and forensic activities to be performed. If a cable, splice or
termination has failed, a few feet (1 m) or more on each side of the splice or cable
failure point or leading away from the termination should be removed with the
failure site. The extra material will allow the forensics team to more easily
understand the context of the failure. If possible, long sections of cable (3060 ft
[9.118.3 m]) should be sent to the laboratory to allow electrical testing of the
cable after the fault has been removed. Although short sections of cable can be
tested, short sections require special terminations and make some tests, such as
low-frequency DF testing, impractical. Upon removal, the ends of the specimen
should be capped and the cable, splice, or termination wrapped in PE to keep
moisture in the cable and dirt out. The specimen should be handled with care.
Any damage done during removal should be carefully documented and forwarded
to the laboratory. The laboratory in which the forensic work will be performed
should be selected carefully. It should have experience with assessment and
testing of the type of cable and insulation system being evaluated. Not all
laboratories can perform assessments of butyl rubber and EPR. Some laboratories
have good experience with XLPE distribution cables, but may have little or no
experience with the designs used in nuclear plants. Sending a plant staff member
to witness the forensics activity is highly recommended to provide a
communications path to plant information for the forensics team and as an
opportunity to learn more about cable design and the associated failure
mechanisms.
The order of testing and assessment should proceed from the least invasive and
likely to cause more damage toward breakdown testing and complete disassembly
and dissection. Visual inspections and photographing of the as-received
condition are important. Comparison of the cable and splice construction with
that of the original plant receipt inspection or manufacturers literature is useful
for confirming that the design and configuration of the cable, splice, or
termination are as they were expected to be. Small differences could be
significant with respect to failure.
Generally, once removed from the duct, the fault location is obvious and the
faulted section can be removed from the remaining cable for detailed assessment,
and the remaining sections can be subjected to electrical condition assessment
tests and breakdown tests to understand the general condition of the cable
around the faulted section. This electrical testing will indicate whether there is
general degradation in the cable or just a localized degradation.
The evaluation of the failed section is generally achieved by a careful visual

inspection and dissection. For medium-voltage cables, the damage from the fault
and/or from burn-in or thumping of the fault often destroys the insulation
surrounding the fault, as can be seen in Figures 3-3 and 3-4. As such, the actual
cause of the failure must be inferred from the condition of the surrounding
insulation that was not destroyed. Sometimes the remnants of the degradation
3-18
causing the breakdown of the insulation remain, making a positive identification of
the cause of the failure possible. Taking transverse wafers of sections surrounding
the fault and through the fault is a common means for assessing the material in the
cable. XLPE is translucent, and flaws can often be seen in the material. Heating
the XLPE wafers in oil will cause the XLPE crystals to melt and cause the material
to become transparent. Figure 3-7 shows an XLPE-insulated conductor while in
hot oil. Figure 3-8 shows a wafer through the tree after the wafer was stained, and
Figure 3-9 shows a flaw at the base of the tree where it started.
Figure 3-7
Large water tree viewed through a hot oil bath
Figure 3-8
Cross section of water tree shown in Figure 3-7
3-19
Figure 3-9
Flaw in the conductor semiconducting layer at the base of the water tree in
Figure 3-8
Finding flaws and defects in black butyl rubber and black EPR is often difficult
because of the opacity of the materials. Finding flaws in pink EPR is somewhat
easier, but it is possible to identify only conditions observable from the surface of
the wafer. For water-related degradation, boiling the wafers in water for a
significant period will sometimes cause local swell or voids to appear, indicating
areas of water-related degradation. Figure 3-10 shows the opacity of a black butyl
rubber wafer. Boiling of the specimen revealed fissures and swelling in a low-
resistance channel in the insulation.
Figure 3-10
Micrograph of insulation wall at a low-resistance channel showing swelling and
fissures in butyl rubber
3-20
Figures 3-11 and 3-12 show wafers cut through breakdown channels. Again,
boiling of this pink EPR from a UniShield cable showed bow-tie and vented
treelike formations.
Figure 3-11
Micrograph of a breakdown channel through bow-tie water tree
Figure 3-12 Breakdown channel

Photomicrograph of a breakdown channel through conductor shieldvented
water tree
3-21
The causes of failures may be due to flaws or damage to jackets, the shield
system, conductor, or insulation. Frequently, degradation is related to a voltage
stress riser caused by a defect from manufacture or damage during installation
and handling that takes a number of decades to cause failure. A wet or
submerged environment enhances the failure mechanism.
Moisture content of the insulation, insulation shield polymer, and jacket can
provide insights with respect to the role played by water. Water content at the
outer and inner surface of the insulation provides further insight. Water-related
corrosion of the metallic shield and conductor also provide information regarding
the importance of water in the failure.
Once the polymer or tape shield has been removed from the cable, the local
differential resistance between the surface of the insulation and the conductor can
be assessed. Insulation resistance between the conductor and a small surface
probe (0.2- to 0.3-in. [5- to 8-mm] diameter) can be evaluated by passing the
probe along the surface of the insulation (see Appendix A, section E-09). In
butyl and blank EPR insulations 30+ years old that were subjected to wet-
energized aging, tunnels of low insulation resistance that were approximately
1/1000th of the resistance of the surrounding insulation have been found. When
the shield was restored and electrical breakdown tests were performed, the
insulation consistently broke down in one of these tunnels. The micrograph in
Figure 3-10 shows the degradation found in one such tunnel in butyl rubber
insulation.
Electrical Testing of Surrounding Cable Segments
Assuming a significant length of cable has been sent to the forensics lab, the
segments of cable surrounding the fault can be subjected to electrical testing once
the failed section has been removed. The electrical tests will provide information
that indicates whether the degradation was localized at the fault or throughout
the cable. Depending on the type of insulation and shield, PD, DF, dielectric
spectroscopy, or other tests may be performed to determine the overall condition
of the cable. Then, a breakdown test can be performed to determine whether the
cable is significantly degraded. If a dry section with little aging or a warehouse
sample has been provided, the unaged condition may be identified for
comparison. If the cable segments surrounding the faulted section test like new,
the failure can be assumed to be localized and likely related to a manufacturing or
installation issue. If the cable tests indicate a degraded state, dissection of the
cable surrounding the breakdown will indicate whether the condition is similar to
that in the area of the in-service fault. A determination can be made as to
whether the degradation is distributed. Distributed degradation indicates that
the cable and cables of the same type and subject to similar conditions are aging
and that testing to determine the actual condition of similar cable applications
is necessary.
3-22
Section 4: References
1. Review of Polyimide Insulated Wire in Nuclear Power Plants. EPRI. Palo Alto,
CA: 1991. NP-7189.
2. Underground Cable Fault Location Manual. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1995.
TR-105502.
4-1
Section 5: Acronyms
cm1 inverse of centimeters
CPE chlorinated polyethylene
CSPE chlorosulfonated polyethylene (Hypalon)
CSPE/EPR ethylene propylene rubber insulation with a bonded jacket of
chlorosulfonated polyethylene
DF dissipation factor
DSC differential scanning calorimeter
EPR ethylene propylene rubber
FR-EPR fire-retardant ethylene propylene rubber
FTIR Fourier transform infrared
HDPE high-density polyethylene
LIRA line impedance resonance analysis
Mrd megarad
NEO neoprene (chloroprene)
NEO/EPR EPR insulation with a bonded jacket of neoprene
NIR near-infrared
NMR nuclear magnetic resonance
OIT oxidation induction time
PD partial discharge
PE polyethylene
PI polarization index
PVC polyvinyl chloride
SBR styrene butadiene rubber
TDR time domain reflectometry
TGA thermogravimetric analysis
VLF very low frequency
XLPE cross-linked polyethylene
5-1
Appendix A: Test Method Descriptions
C-01 Oxidation Induction Time Test A-2
C-02 Oxidation Induction/Onset Temperature Test A-6
C-03 Gel Content (Solubility) and Swelling Ratio Measurements A-8
C-04 Plasticizer Content Measurement A-11
C-05 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy A-13
C-06 NIR Spectroscopy A-16
C-07 Thermogravimetric Analysis A-19
E-01 Insulation Resistance dc Test A-22
E-02 Polarization Index Test A-26
E-03 Time Domain Reflectometry Test A-29
E-04 Line Impedance Resonance Analysis A-31
E-05 Dielectric Spectroscopy A-35
E-06 Dissipation Factor (Tan ) A-38
E-07 Partial Discharge (Off-line) A-43
E-08 Continuity (Loop) Resistance Test A-47
E-09 Differential Insulation Resistance A-49
M-01 Hardness Test A-51
M-02 Tensile Strength and Elongation-at-Break Test A-54
M-03 Indenter Modulus Testing A-58
M-04 Density Testing A-62
M-05 Acoustic Velocity Testing A-65
M-06 Thermal Fingerprinting A-67
M-07 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance in Solution A-70
M-08 Micro Modulus A-72
V-01 Visual Examination A-74
V-02 Microscopic Examination A-77
A-1
C-01 Oxidation Induction Time Test
Uses
OIT testing is an aging assessment technique requiring an 8- to 10-mg sample of

material. The test evaluates the relative amount of antioxidant remaining in a
material. An antioxidant slows the rate of oxidative reactions in a material. When
antioxidants have been consumed, the material will sustain the effects of
oxidation, and physical properties will degrade more rapidly. OITs for unaged
materials are experimentally set at approximately 1 hour. Materials in advanced
stages of degradation (that is, <50% elongation-at-break) have OITs on the order
of a few minutes. For some common cable polymers, OIT has been correlated
with elongation-at-break [1,2].3
Test Description
OIT testing provides a relative measurement of the amount of antioxidant

remaining in a material. A small sample (810 mg) is taken from a cable jacket or
insulation. A thin sliver or a short tube as would occur if a new ring lug were
applied is sufficient for multiple tests. The sample is placed in a differential
scanning calorimeter (DSC), and the sample is raised to 356 to 428F (180
220C), depending on the material, while under a nitrogen blanket. When the
temperature has stabilized, the nitrogen is replaced with oxygen. The heat flow
required to maintain the temperature at a constant level is measured. When the
heat flow required to maintain temperature decreases significantly, an exothermic
reaction has taken place. The initiation of the exothermic reaction is indicative of
the point at which the antioxidants have been consumed. Antioxidants are
compounds that are purposely added to the polymer to prevent oxidation, a
primary cause of deterioration of polymer mechanical properties. In some
polymers, such as some XLPEs, no significant change in mechanical properties
occurs until all of the antioxidants have been consumed.
The time between the start of the test and the start of the exothermic reaction is
the OIT. A test temperature is chosen that results in a test duration of
approximately 1 hour for a new specimen. The OIT for a material that has aged
significantly will be on the order of 5 minutes or less. For some materials, the
OIT value decreases progressively with time at stress.
Acceptance Criteria
The acceptance criteria are based on experimentation and are expressed as time in
minutes. For PEs or EPR, it has been found that an OIT of less than 1 minute
(at the standard temperature) indicates the insulation has reached the
embrittlement stage and the elongation has decreased significantly. The OIT
decreases progressively with age and rapidly with increased total radiation dose.
3
The references cited in this Appendix are separate from the references for the main body of
the report.
A-2
An OIT of less than 4 minutes for a thermally aged, filled XLPE material having
a 52-minute unaged OIT has a corresponding elongation-at-break of less than
50% [2]. The OIT for this material when aged at 130C showed a decrease to 10
minutes after 30 days of aging. The OIT then stabilized until approximately 120
days and then began a sudden change. For this filled XLPE, use of OIT might
be difficult because of the long period of stability followed by the sudden change.
Reference 2 also provides data for unfilled XLPE that has a gradual, continually
dropping characteristic. For this unfilled XLPE, the OIT started at 36 minutes,
and when it decreased to 1 minute after approximately 300 days of thermal aging
at 130C, the elongation-at-break had decreased to approximately 50%. Use of
OIT would be more practical with this XLPE due to the steady decrease in value
with continued aging.
The correlation of OIT and mechanical property degradation of a number of

common low-voltage insulations is provided in References 1 and 2.
Figure A-1 shows a thermogram from an OIT test. A tangent is drawn with
respect to the horizontal portion of the curve. Then a tangent is drawn to the
lower portion of the curve when heat absorption stops. The intersection is the
end of the OIT period. The point at which the material reaches the test
temperature is deducted from the end to determine the OIT. Although the DSC
can automatically determine the OIT, manual interpretation is often needed if
there is a small reaction followed by a larger reaction later in the curve. The
automatic determination will use the first reaction in the OIT, which gives the
wrong interpretation.
Figure A-1
Thermogram showing multiple plots from unaged to highly aged insulation
A-3
Material Applicability
XLPE, PE, and EPR have been characterized using the test. It has been found to
be less useful for butyl rubber, SBR, and PVC.
Cable Application Limitations
A small sample size of 8 to 10 mg is required to perform the test. Reference 3

provides a preliminary study of a sampling technique and its effect on cable
function. If the specimen is taken by removal of a sliver from the insulation, a
small repair to the surface of the insulation is likely to be needed.
Test Nature
A sample of 8 to 10 mg of material is required to perform the test. Removal of a

specimen is likely to need a repair if a sliver sample is necessary.
Test Equipment Necessary
A DSC is needed.
Relative Cost
A DSC is expensive. Individual tests are relatively inexpensive.
Test Considerations
1. The test is indicative of the condition of the cable material at the site of the
sample. Condition of the remainder of the cable must be determined by
additional testing along the length or by inference from knowledge of
conditions affecting the cables run.
2. Test results might be affected by manufacturing variations in the cable
materials (that is, amount and uniformity of antioxidants in the material).
Although initial OIT values might be 1 hour or more, OITs between 1 hour
and 10 minutes might provide very limited useful information. Physical cable
properties often change only near the point at which the antioxidant has been
consumed. Therefore, OITs of 10 minutes or less are more important with
respect to correlation of OIT with actual physical condition.
Training and Experience Requirements
Training is required for personnel removing samples and operating the DSC. A
standard procedure is available [4]. References 1 and 4 provide a description of
sample preparation techniques. Skill is required to interpret the results.
Complexity of Results Interpretation
Evaluation of the data collected from analysis might require an experienced

engineer or analyst.
A-4
Maturity of Technique
OIT testing is an established technique. References 1 and 3 provide guidance

with respect to power plant applications exposed to thermal and radiation
stresses. Reference 2 provides guidance for power plant applications exposed to
thermal stress.
References
1. Reduction of Oxidation Induction Time Testing to Practice as a Life Assessment
Technique for Cable Insulation. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1996. TR-106370.
2. Improved Conventional Testing of Power Plant Cables. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
1996. TR-105581.
3. A. B. Reynolds, T. E. Doyle, and L. R. Mason, Oxidation Induction Time
(OIT) Technology for Electric Cable Condition Monitoring and Life
Assessment, Pacific-Sierra Research Corporation. U.S. Department of
Energy Report DOE/ER/82249-2. 1999.
4. Test Method for Oxidative Induction Time of Polyolefins by Differential Scanning
Calorimetry. ASTM-D3895. 2007.
A-5
C-02 Oxidation Induction/Onset Temperature Testing
Uses
Oxidation induction temperature testing is an aging assessment technique

requiring an 8- to 10-mg sample of material, making the test essentially
nondestructive. The test evaluates the relative amount of antioxidant in a
material. When antioxidants have been consumed during aging, the material will
undergo the effects of oxidation, and physical properties will degrade rapidly.
Oxidation induction temperature testing is similar to OIT testing (see section
C-01). However, the test exposes the sample to a constant rate of increase in
temperature rather than a constant temperature. The test result is a temperature
at which an exothermic reaction occurs. With increased aging, the exothermic
reaction will occur at temperatures lower than those of an unaged specimen.
Test Description
This test is similar in concept to OIT (see section C-01) in that it evaluates the
antioxidants remaining in the cable polymer.
In this test, the specimens are heated at a constant rate of 10C/min under a
pressurized oxygen atmosphere. The oxidation induction temperature is the
temperature at which exothermic reaction begins.
Decreases in oxidation induction temperature from that of a new polymer are

indicative of loss of antioxidant. At the initial stages of aging for elastomers, the
effectiveness of the antioxidants has been evident because the induction
temperature decreased only gradually during experiments. Oxidation induction
temperature has been found to be dependent on additives, degree of cure, and the
level of aging.
Acceptance Criteria
Characteristic curves of accelerated aging time versus oxidation induction

temperature are necessary to use the technique. These curves are developed by
performing accelerated aging in increments and measuring oxidation induction
temperature at each increment.
Reference 1 provides samples of such curves for styrene butadiene rubber (SBR)
and butyl rubber.
SBR and butyl rubber have been characterized with respect to pressurized
(2 MPa) oxidation induction temperature in Reference 1. The test appears to be
useful for primarily these rubber materials for which standard techniques using
atmospheric pressure provided no distinct exotherm.
A-6
A small sample of 8 to 10 mg is required to perform the test. The test is practical

if such a sample can be removed from field cables without adversely affecting
function, or if the sample is from a cable that has been removed from service.
Test Nature
A sample of 8 to 10 mg of material is required to perform the test.
A DSC is needed. If SBR or butyl rubber is to be tested, the DSC will require a
pressurized DSC cell test.
Relative Cost
A DSC is expensive; individual tests are relatively inexpensive.
Test Considerations
sample. The condition of the remainder of the cable must be determined by
conditions affecting the cable run.
2. Test results might be affected by manufacturing variations (that is, amount
and uniformity of antioxidants in material).
Training is required to operate the DSC. Training of personnel removing test

samples is also required.
Evaluation of the data collected from analysis requires an experienced engineer or

analyst.
Oxidation induction temperature is an established technique. Reference 1

provides insights with respect to its application to SBR and butyl rubber.
Reference
1996. TR-105581.
A-7
C-03 Gel Content (Solubility) and Swelling Ratio
Measurements
Uses
These tests evaluate aging of certain polymers by measuring changes in their

solubility and swelling when immersed in specific test solvents. Specimens of 8 to
10 mg are sufficient; however, larger specimens are often used. The test can be
useful to evaluate PVC, butyl rubber, NEO, CSPE, and CPE, but does not
appear useful for EPR, SBR, XLPE, and PE.
Test Description
The gel content (solubility) test measures the relative amount of material that can
be dissolved in a test solvent. The swollen weight of the sample after immersion
in a test solvent divided by the final sample weight after driving off the solvent
gives solvent uptake factor. For certain polymers, trends in gel content and
solvent uptake factor correspond to mechanical property changes with aging (for
example, elongation-at-break properties).
Use of these tests requires an understanding of the nature of the material and the
chemical process involved with aging degradation. For a highly cross-linked
polymer, the gel content will be very high. For butyl rubber that is initially highly
cross-linked, there is a long induction period followed by a relatively rapid
decrease in gel content. For PVC insulation that is uncross-linked, the gel
content is initially low. After a long aging induction period, the gel content
increases relatively rapidly. For NEO and CSPE jackets, the degree of cross-
linking further increases with aging and reflects in the solvent uptake factors.
Initially, uptake factors corresponded to two to three times and with aging
reduced to approximately a factor of 1. This change can be correlated with the
elongation properties.
Figure A-2 shows a series of swell/gel tests being performed in parallel. The
solvent is condensed in the coils above the heated solvent and returned to the vial
to preclude loss of solvent and the material under test.
A-8
Figure A-2
Swell/gel tests with condensing coils
An acceptable solvent for PVC is tetrahydrofuran. For XLPE, PE, CSPE, and
NEO, it is xylene, and for EPR, butyl rubber, and SBR, it is toluene.
Acceptance Criteria
There are no absolute acceptance criteria for these tests. Characterizations with
respect to thermal aging of PVC, butyl rubber, XLPE, EPR, and SBR are
provided in Reference 1. These characterizations include correlations with
change in elongation characteristics for the materials. Care must be used in
interpreting these results because the responses of various materials differ with
respect to aging. First, the existence of gel content (insolubility) for PVC or a gel
content less than 80% for butyl rubber is an indication that additional
confirmatory tests are required. Second, for common CSPE and NEO jackets,
the uptake factor reduces from 2 to 3 to about 1.6 as the elongation values
reaches 50% absolute.
These tests might be useful in evaluating PVC and butyl rubber, CSPE and
NEO [1,3]. For PE, EPR, SBR, and XLPE, detectable differences only occur at
the point near embrittlement.
A-9
There are no cable application limitations beyond those listed for material
applicability.
Test Nature
An 8- to 10-mg sample of material is required to perform the test. Some test

methods use 200-mg samples.
Typical chemical laboratory equipment is needed.
Relative Cost
The test is inexpensive.
Test Considerations
The test is indicative of the condition of the cable material at the site of the
additional testing along the length or by inference from knowledge of conditions
affecting the cable run.
For field sampling, training in sample removal is required. The laboratory

procedure is standardized [2].
Evaluation of the results requires an experienced engineer or analyst.
The technique is mature. Standard practices are used.
References
1996. TR-105581.
2. Determination of Gel Content and Swell Ratio of Cross-Linked Ethylene Plastics.
ASTM D2765-84. 1984.
3. Initial Acceptance Criteria Concepts and Data for Assessing Longevity of Low-
Voltage Cable Insulations and Jackets. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2005.
TR-100211.
A-10
C-04 Plasticizer Content Measurement
Uses
Plasticizer content measurement is an aging assessment technique for PVC. PVC

materials contain plasticizers to provide flexibility, and the loss of these
plasticizers increases the hardness of the material and decreases the elongation
properties. An additional concern for aged PVC is that plasticizer can migrate to
the surface and cause corrosion of contacts and surrounding metal. Accordingly,
determining whether the plasticizer is well bound in the insulation or jacket
matrix is another consideration beyond the aging of PVC.
Test Description
For PVC, the plasticizer content can be correlated with retention of elongation
properties when the material is subjected to thermal aging.
The test is performed by heating the material in a solvent and determining the
loss in weight caused by extraction of the remaining plasticizers. For unaged
materials, plasticizer contents of 20 to 30% by weight are typical, and a weight
of less than approximately 15% is indicative of thermal degradation.
Acceptance Criteria
Comparison of plasticizer content of unaged or mildly aged PVC with field

samples is desirable. A plasticizer content less than 15% indicates that the
material has undergone thermal degradation, and relative elongation-at-break
will have decreased to 50% of the original [1]. Reference 1 provides a correlation
of plasticizer content with elongation-at break versus thermal aging for one PVC
formulation. Similar results have occurred for other PVCs in separate studies [1].
The test is applicable to PVC insulation and jackets.
The test only applies to PVC.
Test Nature
An 8- to 10-mg sample is required to perform the test.
Typical chemical laboratory equipment is needed.
A-11
Relative Cost
The test is inexpensive. Normally available laboratory equipment and commonly

used methods are used.
Test Considerations
conditions affecting the cable run.
2. Testing of unaged or mildly aged specimens is desirable to provide a basis for
evaluating the degree of aging, due to loss of plasticizer, in more severely
aged specimens.
For field sampling, training in sample removal is required. The laboratory

procedure is standardized.
Evaluation of results requires an experienced engineer or analyst.
The technique is mature.
Reference
1996. TR-105581.
A-12
C-05 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
Uses
Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy can be used to identify cable

polymers. For certain materials, FTIR spectroscopy can also be used to detect
chemical changes that occur with thermal aging and combined radiation and
thermal aging. For aged XLPE, EPR, and high-density PE (HDPE), a carbonyl
peak at 1730 cm1 increases with the decline in elongation-at-break. For some
fire-retardant XLPE and FR-EPR formulations in which the carbonyl peaks are
present due to additives, the relative intensity of the carbonyl peak is determined,
which increases with aging.
Test Description
This technique uses changes in the infrared absorption spectrum of a polymer to

detect chemical changes resulting from various influences, including the
oxidation process. As infrared radiation impinges on the subject material,
chemical bonds are stretched, bent, or rotated, thereby absorbing some of the
incident energy. A range of infrared radiation frequencies is used, and the
resulting display is wave numbers (cm1) versus energy absorbance, creating
signature curves for the specimens chemical contents. The Fourier
transformation technique is a mathematical tool by which multiple spectra for a
sample are obtained and "added" to minimize the effects of random noise and
interference.
Infrared spectroscopy can also be used to identify the composition of organic

materials by comparing known polymers with the polymer test sample.
Applicability
All cable polymer functional uses, configurations, designs, and materials.
Acceptance Criteria
There are no absolute acceptance criteria for this test technique. This test
requires the establishment of baseline values. Some work in relating those values
to actual elongation or embrittlement results has been completed.
Experimental data indicate that aged and oxidized polyolefins exhibit a carbonyl
peak at 1730 cm1 or an increase in the peak intensity. The presence of elevated
absorbance in the carbonyl region corresponds to a significant loss of antioxidant
in the material. For many polyolefin insulating materials, the change in the
carbonyl peak might be detected in advance of embrittlement. Reference 1
provides data showing the increase in the carbonyl peak with increased aging for
a filled XLPE and SBR, an unfilled XLPE, an EPR, and PE insulation.
A-13
1. The technique detects the carbonyl formation in XLPE and HDPE before a
sharp decrease in elongation. This technique is less successful for EPR, SBR,
and PVC in which carbonyl formation is coincident with the decrease in
elongation.
2. Infrared spectroscopy can be used to identify the type of polymer used in
organic cable insulation.
There are no cable type limitations beyond those listed for materials.
Test Nature
A small sample must be taken from the cable jacket or insulation.
A FTIR spectrometer is needed.
Relative Cost
The test equipment is expensive; individual tests are relatively inexpensive.
Test Considerations
1. When a sample is removed from the cable, the results will characterize the
cable at the sample location only. Multiple samples from one cable or an
initial evaluation to determine the worst-case location of the cable run might
be required.
2. The test detects chemical variations in the polymer regardless of the cause
(that is, formulation, contamination, and manufacturing variations).
3. The spectrometer is suited for laboratory tests only.
An experienced FTIR spectrometer operator is required. The test procedure is

straightforward and standardized.
Evaluation of the data collected from analysis might require an experienced

engineer or analyst to form a conclusion.
A-14
Material identification by infrared spectroscopy is mature. Evaluation of aging

through carbonyl peak evaluation is experimental.
Reference
1996. TR-105581.
A-15
C-06 NIR Spectroscopy
Uses
NIR spectroscopy is a nondestructive test that may be used in situ to identify the
cable material and the degree of aging. It is only applicable to insulations that do
not contain carbon black. The test analyzes broad-band light absorbed from the
surface of cable insulation to determine its absorption characteristics in the NIR
range. By comparing NIR scans of the material in question with the library of
characterized insulations, the material type and degree of degradation can be
determined.
Test Description
A broad spectrum light from an NIR source is directed to the surface of the cable
jacket or insulation onto a spectrophotometer via a fiber-optic cable. The
spectrophotometer creates a plot of wavelength and intensity of the light. As with
FTIR spectroscopy, strong NIR absorbers include species such as C-H, O-H, N-
H, C-O, C-H, COOH, and aromatic C-H groups. Some of these functional
groups (namely, C-O, O-H, and COOH) are formed as cable polymer
components age. The concentration of these functional groups increases with
aging. In the case of PVC, the evaporative loss of plasticizers by volatilization will
result in a decrease in some of these functional groups. Each material produces
different absorption spectra as it degrades. For PVC, FR-XLPE, and FR-EPR
insulation, chemical changes as a result of oxidation due to thermal, radiation,
and combined thermal and radiation aging can be spectroscopically quantified
and correlated with changes in mechanical elongation-at-break. Laboratory-aged
specimens are used to create a spectra library of different manufacturers
polymers with varying degradation, and these are used for comparison with in-
plant results.
A-16
Figure A-3
The NIR spectroscopic equipment as used in the field
Acceptance Criteria
There are no absolute acceptance criteria. The comparison of a test result with
the library of existing aged specimens can be used to identify both the material
compound and the mechanical property changes of the material. Being able to
identify the cable compound and hence the manufacturer is particularly useful for
early vintage PVC cables because these were frequently unmarked.
The test may only be applied to cable insulation and jacket surfaces that will
transmit NIR light. Cable compounds containing carbon black cannot be
assessed because they absorb light in the NIR range.
These are the same as those for materials.
Test Nature
The test is nondestructive and can be performed in situ.
A portable NIR spectrophotometer with fiber-optic coupling cable is required.
A-17
Relative Cost
The spectrophotometer is moderately expensive. Individual evaluation of a

material is inexpensive. However, a library of results or a database of new and
aged cable insulations and jacket materials is necessary and represents a
significant cost and effort.
Test Considerations
The test may be performed in situ, but only on cables that are not dark colored.
The best colors for aging assessment are white, red, and orange, whereas
brownish-, blue-, or gray-colored wires limit the analysis of the data. The test is
indicative of the condition of the cable material at the site of the sample. The
condition of the remainder of the cable must be determined by additional testing
along the cable length or by inference from knowledge of conditions affecting the
cable run.
A source of power is necessary for the spectrophotometer.
The operation of the test device is relatively easy. Software providing

comparisons of the results is possible.
Automated comparisons of the results are possible.
The technique is mature and has been used extensively in situ for cable material
identification.
References
1. K. Anandakumaran, Condition Monitoring of Low Voltage Cables. Paper
presented at the EPRI EQ Technical Meeting, Tucson, AZ (November
2008).
2. K. Anandakumaran, Condition Assessment of Installed Nuclear Power
Plant (I&C) Cables. Annual Conference Proceedings of the Canadian
Nuclear Society (CNS), Montreal, Quebec, Canada (May 24, 2010).
A-18
C-07 Thermogravimetric Analysis
Uses
The test heats a small specimen of polymer at a constant temperature ramp rate
while monitoring weight under controlled environmental conditions. As organic
materials evolve and oxidize, a characteristic plot of weight change curve is
obtained. The residual from the test is an indication of inorganic filler in the
material. For cable insulations and jackets, the residual material after heating
includes clay fillers, metallic fire retardants, and lead (lead oxide is a stabilizer in
medium-voltage EPR insulation). Comparison of the test sample
thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) data with the known cable insulation and
jacket may allow the determination of the polymer type or show similarity
between formulations.
Some materials increase in weight as they oxidize. However, the majority of

materials show a weight loss due to the following:
Loss of water
Loss of solvent
Loss of plasticizer
Decarboxylation
Pyrolysis
Oxidation
Decomposition
This test is useful for evaluating PVC insulation or jacket subjected to radiation
or combined radiation and thermal environment. The temperature at which 5%
weight (TGA 5% temperature) loss occurs has been correlated with loss of
elongation. Under radiation or combined radiation and thermal environment,
breakdown of polymer chains occurs, and the TGA 5% temperature decreases
with aging. With only thermal aging, plasticizer loss is the predominant aging
mechanism and plasticizer content (see section C-04) measurement is a more
suitable technique to assess aging.
Test Description
The test consists of heating a small sample (~10 mg) of polymeric material at a
constant rate of 10C/min under a nitrogen atmosphere while monitoring the
change in weight. This produces a TGA plot of the temperature at which 5%
weight loss occurs. As the polymer chain is broken due to aging, the 5% weight
loss temperature decreases.
A-19
Acceptance Criteria
Characteristic curves of accelerated aging time versus TGA 5% temperature are

necessary to use the technique. These curves are developed by performing
accelerated aging in increments and measuring TGA 5% temperature at each
increment.
The test is most useful for PVC insulation or jacket that has been subjected to
radiation or combined radiation and thermal aging.
A small sample of 8 to 10 mg is required to perform the test. The test is practical

if such a sample can be removed from a field cable without adversely affecting
function or from a cable that has been removed from service.
Test Nature
An 8- to 10-mg sample is required to perform the test.
A thermogravimetric analyzer is needed.
Relative Cost
A thermogravimetric analyzer is expensive; individual tests are relatively

inexpensive.
Test Considerations
The test is indicative of the condition of the cable material at the site of the
additional testing along the length or by inference from knowledge of conditions
affecting the cable run.
Training is required to operate the thermogravimetric analyzer. Training of the

personnel removing samples is also required.
Evaluation of the data collected from analysis requires an experienced engineer or

analyst.
A-20
TGA is an established technique.
For Further Information
Assessment and Management of Ageing of Major NPP Components Important

to Safety. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria: 2000. IAEA-
TECDOC-1188.
A-21
E-01 Insulation Resistance dc Test
Uses
Insulation resistance testing is used to determine the resistance of insulation

between conductors and between conductors and ground. The test is useful for
detecting gross insulation damage that results in significantly lower insulation
resistance values (multiple decades of change). The test is not suitable for
detecting gradual aging from thermal and radiation aging. Comparisons of results
from one test to another will require compensation factors if there are significant
differences in temperature and humidity at the time of the measurements.
Measurements should be adjusted to be in terms of megohms-1000 ft or
megohms-km when used in conjunction with cable acceptance criteria.
Test Description
A cable, whether medium or low voltage, should have an insulation resistance of

at least 1 Gohm-1000 ft (305 Gohms-km) when it has not aged. Medium-
voltage cables may exhibit values this high even when localized aging is
appreciable if some sound insulation is in series with the degradation.
Accordingly, insulation resistance testing does not necessarily detect aging
degradation until it is very severe. An insulation resistance of 100 Mohms-1000
ft (30.5 Mohms-km) represents a significant degradation of the insulation
system, and the cause needs to be understood.
For low-voltage cable in dry applications, high insulation resistances are not a
direct indication that no problems exist. Cracked insulation may have high
insulation resistance because dry air is a good insulator. Accordingly, insulation
resistance does not always provide an indication of damage and will not
necessarily provide a useful trend related to gradual deterioration. However, the
technique is useful for detecting and eliminating damage that results in leakage
paths across the insulation from conditions such as cuts coupled with high
humidity or chemical contaminations. The test evaluates the bulk resistance of
the insulation and includes all materials between the two terminals of the test
device, including jackets, insulation, and air gaps. If a section of the conductor is
exposed, the success in detecting the problem will be a function of the orientation
of the exposed conductor and the length of the tracking/insulation path to the
measurements ground plane.
The bulk resistance of the insulation system might be measured from conductor
to conductor, from conductor to all other conductors, from conductor to ground
or shield, or from conductor to all other conductors grounded. The test may be
performed at any voltage from 50 to 2500 Vdc, with 50 and 500 Vdc being
common values. Most tests of control cable are performed at 500 V, which is
considered to provide sufficient electrical stress to identify significant flaws
but which is not overly stressful. The leakage current from the test is converted
to ohms.
A-22
The test is useful for detecting gross imperfections, deterioration, and damage
that result in significantly lower insulation resistance values (multiple decades
of change).
Insulation resistances for good cable are often greater than many thousands of
megohms-1000 ft. Depending on the nature of a cable damage site and its
cleanliness, the insulation resistance might remain high or might decrease to a
megohm-1000 ft or less. If the conductors are separated by dry air, the insulation
resistance will be high and a problem might not be detectable. If the conductors
are joined by moisture or a conducting film or are shorted together, the insulation
resistance will be low and the problem detectable.
The results can be significantly affected by cable routing configuration in trays

and conduit. Results might also be significantly different between dry and moist
ambient conditions and with changes in ambient temperature, with and without
the presence of severe degradation. When insulation resistances are high (that is,
in tens of gigohms), changes in one to two decades in readings at different times
are likely to be related to ambient environmental conditions and not be indicative
of any significant problem. The cause of a significant change in insulation
resistance, such as a decrease to less than 100 Mohms-1000 ft (30.5 Mohms-km)
should be evaluated. The differences in ambient temperature and humidity at the
time of measurement should be considered. Temperature compensation for
insulation resistance measurements can be performed. Values in the tens of
megohms-1000 ft are indicative of a significant problem for most low-voltage
cable types and lengths.
Measurements are generally one to 10 minutes in duration, with the insulation

resistance increasing initially and stabilizing during the test. Decaying insulation
resistance values during a measurement or instability in the measurement are
indications of an insulation problem.
Insulation resistance measurements at one and 10 minutes are often used to

compute a polarization index (PI), which is described separately (see the PI test
discussion [section E-02]).
Acceptance Criteria
Reference 1 describes compensation of insulation resistance to 1000 ft (km) and

recommends 100 Mohms-1000 ft (30.5 Mohms-km) as the action level for
considering that significant degradation has occurred. Cables may continue to
operate with such values if the cause is well understood and rapid failure in-
service has been eliminated through further testing or analysis.
Note: If the insulation is Hypalon (chlorosulfonated polyethylene), the as

manufactured insulation resistance is approximately 50 to 80 megohms-1000 ft
(16 to 26 megohms-km). The acceptance criteria for Hypalon insulation should
be 5 megohms-1000 ft (1.6 megohms-km).
A-23
Evaluating the trend in measurements taken over a period of time may provide
insights regarding the condition of the cable and the environment of the cable.
However, insulation resistance testing alone will not necessarily provide a direct
indication of the state of the cable insulation. Testing of severely degraded
insulation located in dry air might produce very high insulation resistance values.
Low insulation resistance values and insulation resistances that decrease or

fluctuate significantly during the measurement indicate damage or severe
degradation of the insulation system.
The test can be applied to any insulation system.
Insulation resistance testing should be applied to coaxial and triaxial cables with
caution because significant capacitive charges can be accumulated during the test.
These charges might adversely affect the instruments used on these circuits if the
charge is not fully drained before the circuit is returned to service.
For other cable types, the voltages used in insulation tests do not impose a
significant stress on the insulation system. Therefore, the test might not detect
even gross damage unless the damage site is in contact with the return path for
the test or has a conducting contaminant such as moisture available to complete
the return path for the leakage current.
Test Nature
The test is nondestructive and performed in situ.
A megohmmeter is needed.
Relative Cost
Test equipment is inexpensive, as is performance of the test.
Test Considerations
1. The cable generally must be disconnected.
2. Trending of results will be affected by the bulk temperature of the cable.
Measurements performed on the same cable at 32 and 86F (0 and 30C)
might vary by an order of magnitude or more. Making measurements under
similar ambient environment conditions will reduce variability of trending.
A-24
3. Differences in physical arrangement of cables within trays and conduits
might cause even similar circuits to have different insulation resistance values.
However, if the purpose of the test is to identify gross changes in insulation
resistance values, these differences in initial values might not matter.
4. Insulation resistance tests will not detect gradual radiation and thermally
induced aging. However, gross physical damage or deterioration under wet
conditions should be detectable.
The test is straightforward to perform, and only limited training is required.
Evaluation of the results requires an understanding of the cable type and its
application and physical layout for the results to be most useful. As a go/no-go
measurement, less experience is necessary.
The technique is very mature.
Reference
1. Plant Support Engineering: Aging Management Program Development Guidance
for AC and DC Low-Voltage Power Cable Systems for Nuclear Power Plants.
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2010. 1020804.
IEEE Recommended Practice for Testing Insulation Resistance of Rotating

Machinery. IEEE Standard 43-2000. New York, NY: Institute of Electrical and
Electronic Engineers.
IEEE Guide for Field Testing Power Apparatus Insulation. IEEE Standard 62-
1978. New York, NY: Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers.
A-25
E-02 Polarization Index Test
Uses
PI testing is based on insulation resistance measurement and by nature eliminates

the effects of changes in the cable environment between tests. The test originated
with motor and generator insulations and has been used on cables. The PI is
determined by dividing the insulation resistance measured at one minute into the
insulation resistance measured at 10 minutes. The PI should be 1 for a good
cable. The test is nondestructive. Values <1 or values that have decreased from
previous measurements are indicative of deteriorated insulation. PI measurements
will not detect gradual deterioration of mechanical properties. Rather, they will
help detect severe damage or severe age-related degradation that has progressed
to the point of affecting the electrical properties. Generally, electrical properties
change only after gross mechanical property changes leading to cracking have
occurred.
Test Description
PI testing measures the insulation resistance at one minute and 10 minutes after
the dc potential is applied to the cable. The ratio of the 10-minute resistance to
the one-minute resistance is the PI. The insulation resistance between the cable
conductor and the shield or exterior of the insulation is measured with a
megohmmeter, which applies a dc voltage (typically 500 Vdc) and translates the
leakage current into ohms. This test detects gross insulation imperfections,
damage, and/or deterioration in cables. This test is frequently used on large
motors, but can be used on cables as well.
A similar test is the polarization ratio test. It measures the insulation resistance at
two points in time as specified by the test method after the dc potential is applied
to the cable. The ratio of the second resistance to the first resistance is the
polarization ratio.
Use of the PI method is designed to provide a result that is independent of the

normal fluctuations between insulation resistance measurements that are caused
by variations in ambient temperature and humidity.
The PI or ratio attempts to compare the transient absorption, charging, and

leakage currents produced when the cable is initially energized by the test set to
the steady-state leakage current. The absorption and charging currents should
decay rapidly, resulting in a PI that is 1.
For most low-voltage cables, the PI will be 1 because the absorption and
charging currents decay well within one minute. Long cables and cables with
shields might have ratios >1. Values <1 indicate leakage current is increasing
during the duration of the test, which is unacceptable.
A-26
Modem test equipment is available that records the insulation resistance from
initial application of the test voltage through completion, allowing absorption
and charging currents to be observed and allowing the most appropriate
insulation resistance values to be used in the polarization ratio calculation.
Acceptance Criteria
PIs and polarization ratios must have values of at least 1 for low-voltage cables.
Polarization ratios <1 are indicative of leakage currents that are increasing with
the duration of the test, which is unacceptable. Long, well-shielded circuits
might result in indices and ratios >1. For circuits with PIs that are initially >1,
reductions in value in subsequent measurements might indicate advanced
degradation, even if the subsequent PIs are >1.
The test can be applied to any insulation system.
PI (insulation resistance) testing should be applied to coaxial and triaxial cables

with caution because significant capacitive charges can be accumulated during the
test. These charges might adversely affect the instruments used on these circuits
if the charge is not fully drained before the circuit is returned to service.
For other cable types, the voltages used in insulation tests do not impose a
significant stress on the insulation system. Therefore, the test might not detect
even gross damage unless the damage site is in contact with the return path for
the test or has a conducting contaminant such as moisture available to complete
the return path for the leakage current.
Test Nature
The test is nondestructive and is performed in situ.
A megohmmeter is needed.
Relative Cost
The text is inexpensive.
Test Considerations
1. The cable will have to be disconnected to allow tests to be performed.
2. Polarization tests will not detect gradual radiation and thermally induced
aging. However, gross physical damage or wetting of a significant length of
cable should be detectable.
A-27
The test is straightforward to perform; limited training is required.
Results are easy to interpret on a go/no-go basis. More experience with

interpretation of results might be required when unusual results occur.
A-28
E-03 Time Domain Reflectometry Test
Uses
TDR can be used as a preservice, in-service, or troubleshooting technique to

identify portions of cables that have segments with significant impedance
differences from the remainder of the cable. These impedance changes might be
indicative of wetting or severely damaged or degraded insulation. The test can
also detect open circuits in the conductor and shield system. The test will identify
the location of the impedance difference along the cable length. The test is
nondestructive by nature.
Test Description
In a TDR test, a low-voltage, narrow pulse, or step waveform is imparted to the

terminals of the cable being tested. As the wave travels along the cable, energy is
reflected back to the terminals wherever the characteristic impedance of the
insulation or conductor system changes. The voltages reflected back to the point
of application of the pulse are measured by the TDR system, and a trace is
displayed on a monitor.
The results are displayed as changes in amplitude of the measured reflected

voltage versus time. The time axis is directly proportional to the distance from
the cable termination where the pulse was applied. Evaluation of the test data
allows identification of points of loss of conductor continuity and of severe
insulation damage or wetting.
Acceptance Criteria
There are no absolute acceptance criteria.
TDR results are evaluated on the basis of comparison with a baseline result or
through detection of impedance changes that are not expected in the circuit
being evaluated. The test is most effective in detecting relatively gross conductor
damage or near short circuits. The test can also detect wet sections of cables.
The test is applicable to all cable materials.
The test can be applied to most cable geometries. The cable must be shielded or
have multiple conductors for the test to be effective. Higher quality results can be
expected from shielded and coaxial/triaxial constructions.
Test Nature
A-29
A time domain reflectometer (pulse generator and recording oscilloscope) is

needed.
Relative Cost
Test equipment is relatively inexpensive. Handheld and more sophisticated

versions are available. Individual tests are relatively inexpensive to perform.
Test Considerations
1. The test might require isolation of connected equipment from the tested
cable to eliminate interference of the signal from the equipment and to allow
connection of the test equipment.
2. Splice points between segments and segments having different insulation
systems will be detected (for example, if a circuit has two segments, one with
an EPR insulation, and one with XLPE insulation, the differences in
insulation characteristics might be detected). Therefore, a knowledge of the
cable circuit is required to allow interpretation of results.
3. The test might not detect small defects up to and including through-
insulation cuts and cracks if the damage site does not affect impedance
significantly (for example, clean, dry through cuts and cracks might not be
detected).
The test is relatively easy to perform; limited training is required.
Evaluation of the results requires an experienced engineer or analyst. Differences

in traces can be quite subtle. External factors such as electromagnetic noise can
affect results.
A-30
E-04 Line Impedance Resonance Analysis
Uses
LIRA is useful for detecting damage to and aging of cable insulation. The test
uses conductors in a cable to modulate a white noise signal or frequency sweep
that is analyzed for impedance resonances that are related to the distance to the
far termination, geometric differences along the length that affect capacitance,
and aging of the insulation either along the entire length or at specific locations.
LIRA provides a relative degree of damage and the location along the length of
the cable.
Test Description
The LIRA operating principle is based on transmission line theory. A

transmission line is the part of an electrical circuit providing a link between a
generator and a load [1]. The behavior of the transmission line depends on its
length in relation to the wavelength of the electric signal traveling on it. LIRA
uses the cable to modulate the white noise or swept frequency and then measures
the impedance of the cable in the frequency domain. A resonance occurs
associated with the wavelength related to the distance from the generator to a
capacitance anomaly. The amplitude and phase angle of the resonance provide
information that is interpreted by the LIRA algorithms. Figure A-4 provides a
block diagram of the system [2]. Figure A-5 shows a LIRA screen shot of a
thermal damage located at 73.82 ft (22.5 m) in a 98.43-ft (30-m) cable [3].
Figure A-4
LIRA system block diagram [2]
A-31
Figure A-5
LIRA plot for a 98.43-ft (30-m) cable showing a thermal damage signal at 73.82 ft
(22.5 m) [3]
Acceptance Criteria
No generic acceptance criteria exist. Some data are being generated by specific
users that relate DNORM to specific degrees of aging on specific manufacturers
insulation systems. DNORM is a value generated by the LIRA software that is
derived from the degradation signal in comparison with a stable termination
signal. Use of DNORM instead of the amplitude of the degradation signal alone
allows comparison of different tests of the same or related cables.
The test is applicable to any insulation material between two adjacent conductors
with continuous spacing or between a conductor and a concentric shield.
The test applies to coaxial cables as well as cabled conductors. In cable

conductors having configurations that are spiraled but consistently spaced along
the length of the cable, the test is performed between two adjacent conductors.
The test cannot be performed on wires that are run in a tray or conduit
independently due to the lack of consistent geometry (capacitance) between the
conductors along the run.
A-32
Test Nature
The test is nondestructive. Most tests are performed with the cable de-energized
and at least one lead lifted at one termination. The opposite end of the cable may
be open or shorted without adversely affecting the test. The only problem would
be if the impedance of the load at the opposite end closely matched that of the
cable, which should be rare. The test places a low-energy, high-frequency white
noise on the cable at approximately 3 V, which would not adversely affect any
power plant cable.
A LIRA test set composed of a cable modulator, a frequency generator, and a

digital converter, along with a computer and the LIRA software, is necessary.
Relative Cost
A LIRA test set is expensive. Individual tests are inexpensive and take a few
minutes at most to administer.
Test Considerations
The test should not be performed where equipment sensitive to radiofrequency

noise exists without analyzing for electromagnetic compatibility.
Although the software is quite sophisticated, once set up by an expert, the

operation of the test device is quite simple. Identification and location of hot
spots are easy if accurate lengths of the cable segments being testing are known.
The more subtle uses of the equipment require deeper understanding of the
system and more training.
Identification and location of a degraded condition is relatively easy. Estimating

the degree of damage and obtaining greater resolution requires an expert user of
the equipment.
The technology is a relatively young and in-plant use has been limited to
European plants for the most part.
A-33
References
1. Plant Support Engineering: Line Impedance Resonance Analysis for Detection of
Cable Damage and Degradation. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2007. 1015209.
2. P. Fantoni and J. I. Juvik, Condition Monitoring of Electrical Cables Using
Line Resonance Analysis (LIRA). Paper B.7.3 presented at the JiCable11
8th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables, Versailles, France
(June 1923, 2011).
3. G. Toman and P. Fantoni, Cable Aging Assessment and Condition
Monitoring Using Line Resonance Analysis (LIRA), ICONE16-48523.
Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on Nuclear Engineering.
ICONE16, Orlando, FL (May 11-15, 2008).
A-34
E-05 Dielectric Spectroscopy
Uses
Dielectric spectroscopy is more sophisticated form of VLF DF testing (tan ) in

which both the voltage and applied frequency are varied in the test steps. A series
of tests is performed at different frequencies varying from 0.01 Hz to
approximately 10 Hz, although much higher frequencies may be use in a
laboratory. At each frequency, a number of voltage steps are applied, and the DF
is measured at each step.
Test Description [1]
In this test, the current passing through the insulation in response to a step
change in voltage is analyzed by transforming the acquired current data into a
function of frequency to arrive at dielectric impedance as a function of frequency.
The variation in dielectric impedance is primarily due to bulk cable capacitance
and conductance.
The real and imaginary parts of the permittivity, the change in the real
permittivity, and the tan are evaluated with respect to voltage and frequency
change. At each applied voltage, a frequency sweep is performed, and the
permittivity and tan parameters are evaluated.
The following four behaviors have been defined:

Low-loss, linear permittivity: The response for new or nonwater tree
deteriorated cables. The results are nearly frequency independent, the loss is
low and has a very weak frequency dependence, and the real and imaginary
parts of the permittivity are independent of applied voltage.
Voltage-dependent permittivity: An indication of water treeing that is
significant but has not yet penetrated the whole of the insulation, in which
the real and imaginary parts of the permittivity are voltage dependent.
Transition to leakage current: An indication that the water trees penetrate
through the wall of the insulation and that the breakdown strength of the
insulation is significantly reduced. The transition is indicated by an increased
loss at the time of applied voltage. In other words, the second measurement
at a specific voltage level has a higher loss than the initial measurement.
Leakage current: An indication that water trees penetrate the whole of the
insulation and the cable has very low breakdown strength. Leakage current is
observed at low voltages, loss increases with decreasing frequency, and the
real part of the permittivity shows a voltage-dependent response.
Naturally, the desired response from a cable is low-loss, linear permittivity. For
XLPE, the test should provide an early indication of the onset of water treeing by
comparison with VLF and line frequency tan through the voltage-dependent
permittivity assessment.
A-35
Acceptance Criteria
The four behaviors defined are the basis of acceptance. At voltage-dependent

permittivity, the onset of aging is recognized with transition to leakage current
indicating more severe aging and leakage current behavior indicating that the
cable should be replaced.
The test is most useful for medium-voltage cable that has been subjected to long-
term wetting and applies to EPR as well as XLPE insulation
The test may be applied to all EPR and XLPE cables having an insulation shield,
whether helical metal tape, concentric neutral, or UniShield type.
Test Nature
This is a laboratory or off-line field test.
A variable frequency ac source and Schering bridge or a time domain dielectric

spectrometer and step voltage source are required.
Relative Cost
Test equipment is expensive. The test is generally performed by a testing

company, which also provides interpretation of the results.
Test Considerations
1. Cables must be de-energized and disconnected from the associated load.
2. Up to twice line-to-ground voltage is applied during the test.
Training in test performance and sample preparation is necessary. Generally, the

test is performed by a test laboratory by experienced personnel.
A high level of experience in interpretation of results and a strong knowledge of

the factors that can influence the results are necessary.
The test is mature with respect to field testing.
A-36
Reference
1. P. Werelius, P. Tharning, R. Eriksson, B. Homgren, and U. Gafvert,
Dielectric Spectroscopy for Diagnosis of Water Tree Deterioration in
XLPE Cables, IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation. Vol.
8, No. 1 (2001).
A-37
E-06 Dissipation Factor (Tan )
Uses
DF testing, also known as tan or power factor testing, is a term applied to

dielectric loss measurements. (Note: Power factor, a term familiar to those users
of the Doble test, is the cotangent of the dielectric loss angle []. The low loss
angles typical of cable insulation materials mean that dissipation and power factor
are virtually identical.) Measurements of dielectric loss may provide useful
information on the condition of the cable insulation and accessories. Potential
life-limiting defects in cable systems, such as voids and water trees, will increase
the losses in the system being tested, and thus may be used to identify cable
problems. The test is performed at a fixed frequency, typically 0.1 or 60 Hz,
using various voltage levels. The cable insulation condition is assessed using
parameters including the absolute DF at a prescribed voltage, the difference in
DF between two prescribed voltage levels, and the stability of the dielectric loss
during each voltage step.
Test Description
A prescribed high voltage is applied to the cable system being tested, and the
current through the sample is measured. The principle of operation is based on
the fact that when a steady-state ac test voltage is applied across a cables
insulation (i.e., conductor to shield); the resulting apparent total current that
flows consists of a charging current due to the capacitance of the cable insulation
and a leakage current. For the ideal lossless dielectric, the phase angle between
current and voltage is 90. However, the contribution of the leakage current due
to either inherent losses in the dielectric or defects, results in a loss angle,
(Figure A-6). Measurement of the loss angle through either a bridge technique
or digital methods enables the DF to be recorded. Tan is IC/IR.
Figure A-6
Loss angle,
A-38
Typically, DF testing is conducted at two or more voltages so that the tip-up or
tan may be derived. The tip-up or tan is the difference in tan between
one measured at higher voltage and one measured at a lower voltage. Historically,
DF measurements, recorded at multiple incremental voltages, were used on fluid-
filled cables to identify the ionization potential, or PD inception voltage, of the
cable being tested. The usefulness of the DF data increases significantly if tests
are performed at two or more voltages.
Acceptance Criteria
Acceptance levels exist for 60-Hz DF measurements for factory testing of new
cable insulation [1]. At present, there are no industry-recognized acceptance
criteria for testing of installed cable systems using power frequency voltage
sources.
In the case of VLF-based measurements, guidance on the interpretation of DF

data is available in the public domain in IEEE STD 400.2 [2] and EPRI Report
1020805 [3]. However, caution should be exercised when using these guideline
values for the following reasons. (1) The guidelines that appear in the referenced
documents are derived from a statistical analysis of VLF tan data obtained from
various organizations (utilities, service providers, and research institutes).
Consequently, the quality of the guidelines is a function of the number of data
points available for statistical analysis. The figures of merit provided for PE-
based cable insulations are derived from a significantly larger database than that
for the various EPR formulations. This difference in the size of the pools of data
is because water treeing in PE insulations has been a recognized problem for
distribution utilities for the past 40 years, and the overwhelming majority of solid
dielectric cables used by distribution utilities are PE. (2) The values for EPR and
butyl rubber insulation contained in EPRI Report 1020805 [3] are based solely
on data from nuclear power plant cables and although the feedback from the tests
results since the issuance of the report agree with the criteria, once a larger pool
of data is available, the criteria may require adjustment. An attempt is being
made to harmonize the EPRI Report criteria with those being generated for
inclusion in a revision of IEEE Standard 400.2. However, harmonization may
not be possible due to the difference in the use of the criteria between
distribution companies and nuclear plants. Distribution companies do not want
to remove cables from service that have residual life, whereas nuclear plants tend
to see a risk to safety and generation when a cable may be within months to years
of failure.
The DF test is applicable to all cable insulations, i.e., PE (XLPE, low-density

PE, HDPE, high molecular weight PE), EPR, and oil-paper (paper-insulated,
lead-covered, self-contained fluid-filled, and high-pressure pipe transmission
cable).
A-39
This test method may be used on all cables that have a contiguous metallic shield.
DF testing cannot be used on unshielded cables.
Test Nature
The test can be performed in the plant. Essentially, the test is nondestructive;
however, this statement needs to be qualified because it is dependent on the
applied voltage. The IEEE and EPRI documents require that the cable is tested
above nominal line-to-ground operating voltage, and thus there is a finite risk of
failure during the test if the cable is in a highly degraded condition.
A high-voltage power supply (power frequency or VLF) and an instrument

capable of measuring dielectric loss. Dielectric loss measurements are typically
accomplished using a traditional bridge method (Schering, transformer ratio-arm
or current comparator) or by means of so-called active bridges that are capable of
generating the reference signal necessary to measure the loss angle of the current
through the test object. All of this equipment is commercially available from
numerous suppliers.
Relative Cost
The test equipment is expensive. Depending on whether the testing is performed

in-house or by a service provider may determine the relative expense of
implementing this test.
Test Considerations
The following must be considered when performing DF testing of installed

cables.
1. The cables must be de-energized and isolated from all other equipment, e.g.,
motors, circuit breakers, lightning arresters, potential transformers, fuses, etc.
2. A power source capable of energizing the capacitive load represented by the
cable to the prescribed test voltage is required. This power supply should be
stable and PD free.
3. Voltages in excess of the nominal line-to-ground voltage of the cable may be
used. Thus, the risk of the cable being tested failing and the necessary
contingencies should be considered.
4. The cables being tested must be shielded. Further, the condition of the
metallic shield should be taken into account.
A-40
5. If possible, the presence of splices or joints in the circuit should be noted
because the condition of these accessories and the possibility of interruption
of the cable shield at the splice or joint may significantly affect the test
results.
6. Cable terminations should be inspected and cleaned if surface contamination
is evident. Cleaning of the termination surfaces may be performed regardless
of the presence of contamination. Further, the type of terminations should
also be considered because the presence of nonlinear stress grading materials
in a termination may significantly affect the test results.
Testing may be performed by individuals with a minimum of the formal training

of an electrical technologist, assuming that they have been also trained on the use
of the test equipment and have a firm understanding of cable systems.
Interpretation of the results may require the use of experts trained to at least the
graduate engineer level and with significant experience in this field.
No public domain values are available to assist with understanding the

implications of DF data obtained at power frequencies on installed cable systems.
Other than generic factory data on cable insulations, the lack of any reference
points renders interpretation extremely difficult and may only be possible when
the testing is performed in a trending mode.
Tan test results provide no indication of the location of degradation or damage.

The results do not indicate whether one severe degradation site or a number of
smaller less significant degradations exist in the cable. The use of tan , in
conjunction with a withstand test, will help discriminate between a very severe
flaw (that is, it will cause of failure of the severe flaw) and lesser distributed
degradation. For XLPE cables, with concentric neutrals, PD testing may be able
to identify the location of the degradation if there are discharges at the sites
rather than just leakage currents.
Although guidelines exist [3] for the interpretation of VLF DF data, caution
should be exercised, especially in the event of an anomalous result, given the factors
described. If anomalous results occur in circuits containing underground splices,
the splices should be inspected for signs of installation errors, degradation, or
damage. For circuits having butyl or black EPR rubber insulation, high tan
values, high tan , and/or increased standard deviations may be indicative of
distributed water-related degradation if the cable is >30 years old.
An expert may be necessary to provide a proper interpretation of VLF tan data.
A-41
This measurement method applied in field situations may be considered mature

and has gained relatively wide industry acceptance.
References
1. Standard for Utility Shielded Power Cables Rated 5 through 46 kV.
ANSI/ICEA S-97-682.
2. Guide for Field Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems Using Very Low
Frequency (VLF). IEEE Standard 400.2. 2007.
3. Plant Support Engineering: Aging Management Program for Medium-Voltage
Cable Systems for Nuclear Power Plants. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2010. 1020805.
A-42
E-07 Partial Discharge (Off-line)
Uses
PD testing is applied not only to condition assessment of cable systems, but

virtually all of the other major electrical components in power plants (e.g.,
generators, motors, switchgear, transformers). The term PD refers to an electrical
discharge that either occurs at the surface of a high-voltage electrode in a gaseous
medium or in a void between a metallic and a dielectric surface or two dielectric
surfaces. This process is deemed partial because it does not result in complete
electrical breakdown. In all cases, the prerequisite is a gaseous medium which by
definition implies that PD cannot occur in a liquid (e.g., a water tree). This test
has proved useful to detect incipient defects, such as voids, contaminants, and
interface problems in cables and their accessories. PD testing may be
accomplished while the equipment is operating (on-line) or during an outage in
which the cable is de-energized and isolated from connected equipment (off-
line). The following discussion is confined to off-line PD testing.
Test Description
A prescribed high voltage is applied to the cable system being tested, and the
response of an appropriate PD signal coupling device, connected to the test
object, is monitored/recorded using an appropriate instrument. PD signals
may be coupled from the system being tested using a range of devices including
the following:
1. High-voltage coupling capacitors connected directly to the cable conductor.
2. Radiofrequency current transformers or Rogowski coils applied at the cable
shield ground connections.
3. Sheath interruption couplers installed at cable joints or splices.
4. Inductive-capacitive couplers installed around the cable jacket external to the
cable shield.
Typically, for nuclear plant cable applications, only couplers of the first two types
described are used.
Off-line PD testing has been found most effective when performed in

conjunction with an ac overpotential or high-potential proof test. A basic test
procedure consists of applying a prescribed overpotential to the cable system
being tested for a fixed duration. In the case of power frequency testing, this
period is usually five minutes for medium-voltage cables. Similar testing using
VLF power supplies require a period ranging from 30 minutes up to one hour.
On successful completion of the high-potential proof test, the voltage is reduced
to a predefined level at which PD activity, if present, is recorded. If PD is
detected at this voltage, then measurements of the PD inception voltage and PD
extinction voltage are made.
A-43
Acceptance Criteria
Acceptance criteria for PD testing of cable systems do exist, such as Reference 1,

however, they are exclusively concerned with factory testing of cables and
accessories. Although some organizations have internal specifications based on
PD measurements, at present, there are no national or internationally accepted
criteria. This situation is due to the wide range of PD measurement methods
available and the complexity of interpreting PD test results. Generally, organic
polymeric insulation has relatively low resistance to PD deterioration
mechanisms, so detection of PD on any solid dielectric cable system is cause for
concern and further investigation.
Partial discharge testing is applicable to all cable insulations, i.e., PE (XLPE,

LDPE, HDPE, high-molecular-weight PE), EPR and oil-paper (paper-
insulated, lead-covered, self-contained, fluid-filled, high-pressure pipe).
This test method may be used on all cables that have a contiguous metallic
shield. However, the effectiveness of the test is dependent on the cable
insulation and semiconducting materials, the length of the cable being tested,
and the PD detection method used. These points are discussed further in the
Test Consideration section. Partial discharge testing cannot be used on
unshielded cables.
Test Nature
The test can be performed in the plant. Essentially, the test is nondestructive;
however, this statement needs to be qualified because it is dependent on the
applied voltage.
A high-voltage power supply (power frequency or VLF) and an instrument cable

of measuring PD are needed. All of this equipment is commercially available
from numerous suppliers.
Relative Cost
The test equipment is expensive. Whether the testing is performed in-house

or by a service provider may determine the relative expense of implementing
this test.
A-44
Test Considerations
The following points require consideration with respect to performing PD

testing of installed cables.
1. The cables must be de-energized and isolated from all other equipment, e.g.,
motors, circuit breakers, lightning arresters, potential transformers, fuses, etc.
2. A power source capable of energizing the capacitive load represented by the
cable to the prescribed test voltage is required. This power supply should be
stable and PD free.
3. Voltages in excess of the nominal line-to-ground voltage of the cable may be
employed. Thus, the risk of the cable under test failing and the necessary
contingencies should be considered.
4. The cables under test must be shielded. Further, the condition of the metallic
shield should be taken into account.
5. If possible, the presence of splices or joints in the circuit should be noted
because the condition of these accessories and the possibility of interruption
of the cable shield may significantly affect the test results.
6. The cable length under test as well as the cable insulation and semi-
conducting materials should be taken into account. These factors are
important because they can determine whether the application of a PD test
will be effective and/or the type of PD measurement system required to
optimize the test. Partial discharge signals are high frequency phenomena
that, as they propagate in the cable (or any other dielectric system) will be
subject to attenuation and dispersion. Essentially, the cable acts like a low
pass filter to PD signals. Consequently, depending on the length of the cable
and its dielectric properties some cable configurations may be less amenable
to PD testing. However, for cable lengths typical of nuclear plants, usually
the cable length is not a significant factor.
7. Care should be exercised when attempting to compare PD test results
obtained at 0.1 Hz with power frequency data because such comparisons
have not been studied in sufficient depth to warrant them. The
overwhelming majority of practical PD testing of installed cables has been
obtained using power frequency methods.
Testing may be performed by individuals with a minimum of the formal training

of an electrical technologist assuming that they have been also trained on the use
of the test equipment and have a firm understanding of cable systems. However,
this level of knowledge should be considered a bare minimum. Interpretation of
the results may require the use of experts trained to at least the graduate engineer
level and with significant experience in this field.
A-45
Assuming that the data available for interpretation can be attributed to PD

signals and not extraneous sources of electrical interference in the plant
environment, typically the task of the test operator is to determine, if possible,
the following.
1. The source of the PD signals, i.e., the cable itself or accessories.
2. Prognosis for the cable system; a task that is complicated by the lack of
widely accepted acceptance criteria for PD testing of installed cable systems.
Generally, PD interpretation should be considered complex and in the domain of

the expert.
This measurement method applied to cable systems in field situations may be

considered mature and has gained relatively wide industry acceptance.
Reference
1. Standard for Partial Discharge Test Procedure. Insulated Cable Engineers
Association, Inc. Carrollton, Georgia. ANSI/ICEA T-24-380-2007.
IEEE Guide for Partial Discharge Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems in a Field
Environment. IEEE Standard 400.3-2006. New York, NY: Institute of Electrical
and Electronic Engineers.
A-46
E-08 Continuity (Loop) Resistance Test
Uses
This test measures the conductor resistance of an installed cable to identify open
conductors, significant conductor damage, and splice and termination problems.
The procedure may also be used to balance the resistance of cables in a phase
having multiple conductors per phase. The test can be used as a preservice or
troubleshooting test.
Test Description
This technique measures the conductor resistance of an installed cable. When

performed periodically, changes in circuit resistance could be used to identify
gradual degradation of connections. The test might also be used to compare the
condition of similar circuits. The test could be performed by connecting the
terminations of two conductors together at one end of the circuit and measuring
the resistance between the terminals at the opposite end via an ohmmeter or
resistance bridge.
Acceptance Criteria
Expected resistance for a given circuit could be calculated for comparison with
actual circuit values. Comparisons among tests might be more useful in
determining the gradual change in conductor circuit condition. For high-current
circuits, small changes in loop resistance may be indicative of a significant
problem such as a poor connection. The high-resistance connection would be
subject to increased ohmic heating that could lead to insulation failure at the
deteriorated connection. Lower current circuits might not be as sensitive to
changes in loop resistance. Higher loop resistance, however, could result in a
significant voltage drop in the cable that could affect operation of the
connected device.
The test is applicable to all conductor materials.
The test could be used on nearly any type of cable. For heavy power cables, in
which conductor resistances may be low, a high-current test set might be most
useful for resistance measurement.
Test Nature
The test is nondestructive.
A-47
An ohmmeter, ductor (a resistance test device for low-resistance power circuit),

or resistance bridge is needed.
Relative Cost
Test equipment generally is inexpensive. Setup and performance of test might

be moderately expensive because circuits need to be disconnected to perform
the test.
Test Considerations
The test might require that leads be disconnected at both ends of the circuit.
Results might require temperature compensation if plant temperatures are

significantly different between the performance of the two tests being compared
with each other.
The test is straightforward to perform; minimal training is required.
The results are relatively easy to interpret.
Power Plant Electrical Reference Series, Volume 4, Wire and Cable. EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA: 1988. EL-5036.
A-48
E-09 Differential Insulation Resistance
Uses
The differential insulation resistance test is used in forensic analysis of cable

insulation failure to identify areas on low insulation resistance in the insulation
between the conductor and the insulation surface.
Test Description
The test may be used on low-voltage insulation, nonshielded medium-voltage

insulation after the jacket is removed, and shielded medium-voltage cable after
the jacket and shield have been removed. One lead of an insulation resistance
meter is connected to the conductor of the cable. A metallic probe with a surface
area approximately 0.20 in. (5 mm) in diameter is connected to the second lead.
The probe is then passed over the surface of the insulation to determine whether
the insulation resistance is uniform or whether areas of low insulation resistance
exist. Areas that are lower in insulation resistance by a factor of ~1000 are
indicative of severely degraded insulation. Wafering of the location is likely to
identify a flaw or deteriorated condition. Multiple low-insulation pockets would
be indicative of general degradation and an end-of-life condition rather than a
random failure.
Acceptance Criteria
There are no acceptance criteria. The test is used to identify locations in the
insulation where deterioration has occurred to allow further assessment to be
performed in that area.
The test has been successfully used on butyl rubber and EPR insulations. It may
be useful on XLPE and PVC as well.
The test is a forensics laboratory test and may be used on any insulation having
its conductor in place and its insulation outer surface accessible.
Test Nature
The nature of the test is forensic. The cable has been removed from service and is
in the process of being deconstructed.
Insulation resistance meter and a metallic probe (alternately, a wet cotton swab
may be used) are needed.
A-49
Relative Cost
The test is inexpensive to perform and uses a commonly available insulation

resistance meter.
Test Considerations
There are none.
No special training or experience is required.
The results are easy to interpret.
Plant Support Engineering: Failure Mechanism Assessment of Medium Voltage

Ethylene Propylene Rubber Cables - Revision 1. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2009.
1018777.
A-50
M-01 Hardness Test
Uses
Hardness testing is an aging assessment technique that evaluates hardening of

cable jacket and insulation materials from thermal and radiation exposure.
Handheld test devices (durometers) are available for field use.
Test Description
This test measures the relative hardness of a material in relation to a defined

scale. A small anvil is pressed against the surface of the material and a hardness
value is provided that ranges from 0 to 100 (softest to hardest). Hardness
measuring devices (durometers) are available with different hardness scales.
Selection of the durometer scale depends on initial and ultimate hardness of the
material to be used. Most polymers in use in low-voltage cables can be measured
with a type A, B, or C durometer for initial hardness, with band C more useful in
evaluating severe hardening.
Acceptance Criteria
Although significant hardening of certain jacket and insulation materials can be

readily detected with a durometer, explicit acceptance criteria and correlations
with tensile properties have not been developed. Trending of results with time is
possible. For many polymers, hardness is inversely related to elongation-at-break.
For some materials, significant service life might remain even though the
durometer reading is outside the useful range. Durometer readings >90 are in the
range where durometry has inadequate sensitivity to further hardness changes.
Durometry is useful for evaluating radiation and thermal aging of natural rubber,
NEO, CSPE (Hypalon), EPR, and butyl rubber, thermal aging of PVC, and
radiation aging of silicone rubber. Changes in the hardness of XLPE will be
masked by its crystallinity, making monitoring of aging through durometry
impractical.
Durometry is performed on the surface of a sample and is more sensitive to

surface and near-surface properties than to subsurface properties. Therefore, an
understanding of the cable type and application is necessary to allow the
measurements to be most useful. Where ambient environments cause the
dominant aging stresses, surface hardness measurement will tend to be more
indicative of overall cable jacket and insulation aging. Inferences concerning the
condition of subsurface materials (that is, insulations under a tested jacket) are
possible when the relationship of the aging of the surface material to the
subsurface material is known, and the dominant source of aging stress is known.
A-51
The test is less useful for continuously energized, high-energy power cables in
which significant ohmic heating of the conductor could cause subsurface aging of
the organic materials that might not detectable at the surface.
Measurements on small-diameter cables requires either manual skill to center the

anvil on the test specimen or a jig that positions the impressor with respect to the
cable to improve quality of the results.
Test Nature
The test is nondestructive unless extreme degradation is present; it can be

performed in situ.
A durometer is required.
Relative Cost
Test device is relatively inexpensive; individual tests are inexpensive.
Test Considerations
The results will characterize the cable material at the sample location only.
Multiple measurements along and around the surface of the cable might be
necessary to characterize the condition of the overall cable. If measurements from
unaged cable insulation or jacket materials are not available, measurements made
at locations not subject to significant thermal and radiation stresses might
provide a reasonable baseline value for comparison with more highly stressed
locations. Durometers will run out of useful range before loss of functional
usefulness for some jacket and insulation materials. In such cases, the Indenter
modulus continues to be sensitive to changes in hardness (see M-003 Indenter
Modulus Testing section).
The test is straightforward; limited training is required. Standard procedures are

available. Note: Skill requirements for use of durometry increases as the diameter
of cable being tested decreases.
Interpretation of results must be based on an understanding of cable type and

application. Interpretation of results might be simple, as in the case of a single
material only affected by ambient conditions. Interpretation might also be
difficult, however, such as when multiple layers of materials with multiple stress
sources are involved.
A-52
The technique is mature. However, characterization of cable material aging is

necessary for use.
Standard Test Method for Rubber Property - Durometer Hardness. ASTM D224-
05. 2010.
A-53
M-02 Tensile Strength and Elongation-at-Break Test
Uses
Tensile tests may be used to assess aging by evaluating tensile strength and/or
elongation-at-break. For most common cable insulation and jacket materials,
elongation-at-break is the most common laboratory test of remaining mechanical
properties. Retention of elongation properties allows the cable jacket and
insulation to be bent and respond to thermal transients without cracking.
Bending a cable causes the material on the outside of the bend to be stretched.
With severe loss of elongation properties, cracking could result when the material
is bent.
Because standard tests must be performed on specimens of 3.93 to 5.9 in. (100 to
150 mm) in length with the conductors removed, the tensile tests must be
performed on segments of cable removed from service. The test is, therefore,
destructive in nature. For small conductor cable, tube samples of the insulation
are tested with the conductor removed. For large-diameter cables, dumbbell
samples can be cut for tensile testing. A special method is used in the program
described in References 1 and 2. In this program, strips approximately 0.08 in.
wide 0.02 in. (2 mm wide 0.5 mm) thick and 2.36 in. (60 mm) long were
tested, greatly increasing the number of test specimens per length of cable.
However, even with this reduction in test specimen size, the test remains
destructive in nature.
Test Description
This test measures the ultimate elongation and strength of an insulation or jacket
material under tensile stress. The test is performed by stretching a dumbbell or
tube sample of insulation or jacket in a test stand with jaws that are separated at a
constant velocity while force is measured. The length of a segment of the sample
is measured before the start of the test. The increase in that length of the
segment of the specimen just before breaking is then determined. The results
are either expressed in the percentage of the original length (absolute elongation)
or in relative terms by giving the ratio or percentage between the result for
specimens subjected to different amounts of accumulated stress to the
elongation of an unaged specimen (relative elongation). For the purposes of
evaluating the retained properties of a cable jacket or insulation, absolute
elongation is more useful.
Elongation-at-break has been traditionally used by the cable industry to evaluate

cable insulation and jacket materials during the development of a cable design.
The test technique provides an indication of the mechanical acceptability of the
insulation and/or jacket. For insulations used in low-voltage applications,
electrical properties degrade after extreme loss of mechanical properties (that is,
embrittlement or softening occurs to the extent that the materials crack either
spontaneously or when subjected to tensile, shear, or compressive stress).
A-54
Because of its destructive nature, elongation-at-break has not been a readily
usable aging assessment technique for plant cables unless cables that can be
sacrificed are available for removal and testing, which is relatively rare in the
power industry. Where representative cables have been installed specifically for
periodic testing or a representative cable can be removed from service for testing,
elongation-at-break is a well-established, mature technique for evaluating
degradation of cable materials.
Acceptance Criteria
There are no generic acceptance criteria established for all cable polymers. At
minimum, a cable insulation system must be able to withstand the maximum
bending strain at the outer bend surface without cracking. Reference 3 provides a
basis for a retained elongation-at-break of at least 50% as satisfactory for
continued service for in-containment applications. Cables that pass loss-of-
coolant accidents consistently do so with absolute elongations of <20%. With
respect to being able to manipulate cable during maintenance without damage,
the strain for a bend radius of one cable diameter results in an outer surface strain
of 33%. Such a bend radius is much more severe than the recommended
manufacturer's minimum bend radii, which are generally greater than four cable
diameters. A cable material capable of 50% elongation-at-break definitely can
withstand a tight radius bend that would result in a strain at the outer surface
of 33%.
The use of a 50% elongation-at-break acceptance criterion requires caution.

Knowledge of the change in elongation-at-break with respect to duration and
level of thermal and/or radiation stresses is necessary. Although many materials
exhibit a gradual change in elongation characteristics with time at stress once
degradation begins (for example, Hypalon, NEO), others have very stable
elongation characteristics until very near the end of their useful life when a
relatively rapid decrease in characteristics occurs (for example, XLPE).
Therefore, an understanding of the nature of the polymer under consideration is
necessary. In addition, the rate of change in properties must be considered. Most
of the cable polymers have an initial elongation-at-break of 200 to 500%.
Therefore, a decrease to 50% absolute elongation-at-break represents a
significant degradation in cable insulation properties. If this change has occurred
over a long period of time (for example, 30 years), the rate of change in
properties might be slow enough to allow use of the cable for a reasonably long
period of time. However, should the change have occurred in a short period of
time (for example, a few years), the service conditions might be severe enough
that continued deterioration will cause the elongation-at-break to decrease to
<50% before the end of even a short period of continued service. Accordingly,
when developing acceptance criteria, consideration must be given to a materials
aging characteristic (gradual or precipitous change) and the period of exposure
causing the observed change.
A-55
Elongation-at-break measurements trend with thermal aging for NEO,

Hypalon, and PVC. XLPE, PE, SBR, silicone rubber (thermal aging), and EPR
exhibit a long induction period (a period in which no significant change in value
occurs) followed by a relatively short period of rapid decrease in elongation-at-
break. Elongation-at-break measurements trend with the degree of exposure to
radiation for most of these materials.
Special clamping arrangements might be necessary for aged tube samples to

achieve useful results. Tube specimens might be crushed in jaws or fail due to
torsional damage not representative of the application if care is not taken in
testing. Pneumatic jaws can be useful for reducing problems associated with
failures caused by crushing of the specimen in test jaws.
Test Nature
The test is destructive and most useful for characterizing cables removed from
service due to failure or because the cable is no longer needed. Relatively large
samples are necessary. Multiple tests of 5.9- to 3.93-in. (100- to 150-mm)
specimens are needed.
A tensile testing machine with appropriate test jaws is required.
Relative Cost
The cost of the test apparatus is significant; the cost of individual tests is
moderate.
Test Considerations
Averaging of multiple test results is necessary to account for the variability of

individual results and uncertainties induced by testing techniques. The results
will characterize the cable at the sample location only. Multiple samples from one
cable or an initial evaluation to determine the worst-case location of the cable run
might be required to make inferences concerning the overall cable.
Significant experience is required for the preparation of test specimens and

performance of the test to ensure acceptable results. Such conditions as improper
clamping and nicking of specimen will cause low elongation-at-break values that
are not representative of the condition of the material. Failures occurring at or in
the jaws should be considered as nonrepresentative of material properties.
A-56
Interpretation of results requires an understanding of the properties of the

polymer and the expected rate of change in elongation and tensile properties.
Knowledge of elongation-at-break for unaged specimens is highly useful in
determining the significance of the test results.
References
1. Natural Versus Artificial Aging of Nuclear Power Plant Components. EPRI,
Palo, Alto, CA: 1992. TR-l00245.
2. Natural Versus Artificial Aging of Electrical Components. EPRI, Palo, Alto,
CA: 1997. TR-106845.
Voltage Cable Insulations and Jackets. EPRI, Palo, Alto, CA: 2005. 1008211.
Standard Method for Tension Testing of Vulcanized Rubber. ASTM-D412. 2006.

Standard Method for Testing of Thermosetting Insulated and Jacketed Wire and
Cable. ASTM-D470. 2005.
Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Plastics. ASTM D638. 2010.
Standard Test Methods for Thermoplastic Insulations and Jackets for Wire and Cable.
ASTM D2633. 2008.
Standard Test Method for Polyimide Resin Film for Electrical Insulation and
Dielectric Applications. ASTM-D5214, 1993.
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Inspection, Surveillance, and Monitoring of
Electrical Equipment Inside Containment of Nuclear Power Plants with Application
to Electrical Cables. NUREG/CR-4257. Washington, D.C. 1985.
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Aging, Condition Monitoring, and Loss-of-
Coolant Accident (LOCA) Tests of Class IE Electrical Cables. NUREG/CR-5772,
SAND91-1766/1/2/3. Washington, D.C. 1991.
Review of Polyimide Insulated Wire in Nuclear Power Plants. EPRI, Palo, Alto,
CA: 1991. NP-7189.
Aging Management Guideline for Commercial Nuclear Power Plants-Electrical
Cable and Terminations, Sandia National Laboratories for the U.S. Department
of Energy, SAND96-0344. September 1996.
A-57
M-03 Indenter Modulus Testing
Uses
Indenter modulus testing is used to assess aging of cable jackets and insulation. A
small anvil is pressed against the wall of the cable while measuring force and
position. At a specific force, the anvil is retracted to prevent damage to the cable.
The slope of the force versus position curve is sensitive to the degree of
embrittlement from thermal and radiation aging for many cable polymers.
Test Description
This test measures the Indenter modulus of a polymer by pressing a small anvil at
constant velocity against the outer surface of a cable or insulated conductor while
measuring the force exerted by the anvil. The Indenter modulus is defined as the
slope of the force versus position curve. The measurement is made through use of
the Indenter polymer aging monitor (Indenter). The results of the test are related
to changes in hardness of the material being tested. Significant increases in the
Indenter modulus occur in many polymers as they age from thermal and
radiation stressors. The Indenter modulus is inversely proportional to elongation-
at-break for most cable polymers.
The Indenter has controls that retract the anvil when a force limit is reached that
prevents damage to the cable material during the test. Additional automatic
controls are provided to prevent overtravel of the anvil should the force limit not
cause retraction.
The nature of the Indenter measurement method allows the Indenter to evaluate
a large spectrum of differences in hardness from very soft materials to those that
are extremely embrittled, giving the device a much broader range than a
durometer (see section M-00l Hardness Test).
Measurements are made on the surface of the cable or insulated conductors. In

general, aging of common jacket materials can be evaluated through use of the
Indenter. When the ambient environment is the source of the aging stress,
inferences concerning the aging of the insulation might be made based on jacket
condition. Caution must be used if ohmic heating from the conductor current is
causing aging. Slight changes in the jacket Indenter modulus would be a cause
for performing additional assessment of the insulation below.
Acceptance Criteria
Acceptance criteria for several common cable types have been developed based on
the replication of nuclear environmental qualification accelerated aging [1].
These acceptance criteria are preliminary in nature.
A-58
Indenter moduli measurements are indicative of the relative aging of NEO and
for thermal and radiation stresses, of silicone rubber for radiation aging, and of
PVC for thermal aging. For certain XLPE and EPR formulations, Indenter
moduli might not change significantly until very near the end of thermal and
radiation life. For these formulations, indenter measurements on XLPE or EPR
will not be useful for evaluating aging because detection of the aging of the
material might occur too late.
Many of the cable types in use other than silicone rubberinsulated cables use
NEO or Hypalon jackets that are amenable to Indenter modulus testing. These
jackets can be used to evaluate the effects of thermal and radiation environments
on the cable, and their condition can be used as a leading indicator of insulation
aging because these jacket materials age more readily than the underlying XLPE
or EPR insulations.
The Indenter can be applied to cables up to 1.57 in. (40 mm) in diameter with
the normal clamp. Larger diameter cables are testable by removing the moving
portion of the clamp and holding the device against the cable surface.
For continuously energized cables with currents near the rated ampacity,
inferences concerning aging of the insulation by using jacket measurements
should be carefully considered, especially if the ambient temperature is low
compared with the conductor temperature (for example, 185194F [8590C]
conductor in a 104F [40C] ambient). In such a case, jacket aging might not age
as fast as insulation aging. Tests performed on the surface of the insulation at a
termination might provide additional insights. Indenter data have not been
developed for specimens that have been aged through ohmic heating of the
conductor.
For in situ measurement, approximately 2 to 4 in. (5 to 8 cm) of exposed jacket or

insulated conductor surface is necessary to allow a measurement.
Where baseline data are not available for the cable being tested, testing of a cable
segment that is located in room temperature environments and not subjected to
high-current loadings will give a reasonable basis for comparison with more
highly stressed cable segments. Indenter measurement on unaged and aged
Hypalon specimens have differences of a factor of 3, making identification of
significant embrittlement relatively easy.
Test Nature
The test is nondestructive and can be performed in situ. Test limits can be
adjusted to ensure that damage is not done to more sensitive materials.
A-59
An Indenter polymer aging monitor is required.
Relative Cost
The Indenter test device is relatively expensive; the cost of individual tests is low.
Test Considerations
Each individual measurement provides a characterization of the cable at the test

location. Readings taken along and around the cable will provide information
concerning the overall condition of the cable.
Temperature compensation is necessary for certain polymers when measurements

are made at temperatures significantly higher than room temperature. However,
these compensations are less important when assessing a cable with severe aging.
For NEO and Hypalon, order-of-magnitude changes in measurement values are

observable between the unaged and significantly aged condition.
The basic test method is easy to learn. Limited training is required to set up the
Indenter for use on specific polymers.
Complexity and Results Interpretation
Interpretation of results must be based on an understanding of cable type and

application. Interpretation of results might be simple, in the case of a single
material only affected by ambient conditions, or relatively difficult where multiple
layers of materials with multiple aging stresses are involved. Indenter
measurements of unaged and significantly aged Hypalon specimens have values
that differ by a factor of 3, making identification of significant embrittlement
easy.
The test method has been used in a number of domestic and foreign power
plants, and implementation practices continue to be developed.
Reference
Voltage Cable Insulations and Jackets. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2005. 1008211.
A-60
Evaluation of Cable Polymer Aging Through Indenter Testing of In-Plant and

Laboratory-Aged Specimens. EPRI, Palo, Alto, CA, 1996. TR-104075.
Proceedings: 1993 EPRI Workshop on Power Plant Cable Condition Monitoring.

EPRI, Palo, Alto, CA: 1993. TR-102399.
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Aging, Condition Monitoring, and Loss-of-

Coolant Accident (LOCA) Tests of Class IE Electrical Cables. NUREG/CR-5772,
SAND91-1766/1/2/3., Washington, D.C. 1991.
A-61
M-04 Density Testing
Uses
For most cable polymers, density increases with aging. Standard laboratory
density testing methods require only small samples.
Test Description
As oxidative reactions occur in cable polymers from aging under thermal and
radiation stresses, the density of the materials generally increases. These changes
from the unaged state to the fully aged state are relatively small and generally on
the order of a few percent. However, high-precision density measurements are
possible. Therefore, the trend in the change in density can be used to evaluate
polymer aging. In general, increases in density correlate to a loss of tensile
properties and an increase in hardness of polymers.
The most mature test method is the laboratory method in which a very small
specimen (micrograms to milligrams) is evaluated through use of density gradient
columns. Gradient columns contain salt solutions that have decreasing densities
from bottom to top. A small sample is dropped into the column, and the point at
which it achieves neutral buoyancy provides its density.
An alternative test is the Archimedes method in which a small specimen is

weighed in air and then in solution to determine the density. The following
equation provides the density of the sample:
sample Wair Wair Wsol sol
A third method uses solutions of incrementally different solutions. In this

method, a series of solutions having small differences in density are prepared.
Samples are dropped into the solutions to determine the point at which the
sample floats in one solution but sinks in the next solution of higher density. The
density is then estimated as being midway between the densities of the two
solutions.
Acceptance Criteria
Although there are no specific acceptance criteria for density, correlations with
elongation-at-break are possible. References 1 through 3 provide density results
for insulation and jackets of common cable types from the EPRI/University of
Connecticut Natural Versus Artificial Aging of Nuclear Power Plant
Components program and Sandia National Laboratories studies. These
references also provide elongation data for the same specimens. In the Sandia
study, for a number of thermally aged CSPE jackets, density change
corresponded to progressive decreases in elongation. Reference 4 provides
density data related to accelerated thermal aging for XLPE, butyl rubber, EPR,
and PVC.
A-62
Knowledge of the unaged density value is desirable to be able to determine the
relative change in the property with aging. A density variation measurement from
batch to batch of polymers is possible and would require compensation.
The density of most polymers used in cable construction exhibit systematic

changes in density with respect to radiation and thermal aging.
Provided small specimens can be removed from a cable, there is little limitation
with respect to application to various cable types. The test might be useful in
evaluating cables that have failed in service or that have been removed from
service for other reasons. Results from such evaluations might provide insights
regarding cables that remain in service.
Test Nature
The test is essentially nondestructive. Samples could be in the form of scrapings

or cutting of a specimen weighing a few milligrams or less.
Density gradient columns or solutions with incrementally different densities or a

microbalance (Archimedes method) are required.
Relative Cost
Given that standard laboratory equipment is available, individual tests are

inexpensive.
Test Considerations
The results will characterize the cable at the sample location only. Multiple
samples from one cable or an initial evaluation to determine the worst-case
location of the cable run might be required to make inferences concerning the
remainder of the cable.
A sample must be obtained, which may be the most difficult activity. To perform
the test, only limited training is required. The laboratory procedure can be
standardized.
Interpretation of results is relatively easy.
A-63
Density measurement techniques are mature. Data for use in evaluating results
are becoming increasingly available.
References
1. Natural Versus Artificial Aging of Nuclear Power Plant Components.
Interim Report. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1992. TR-100245.
2. Natural Versus Artificial Aging of Electrical Components. Interim Report 1991-
1995. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1997. TR-106845.
3. Nuclear Energy Plant Optimization (NEPO) Final Report on Aging and
Condition Monitoring of Low-Voltage Cable Materials, SAND 2005-7331.
2005.
4. Improved Conventional Testing of Power Plant Cables. EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA: 1995. TR-105581.
Evaluation of Diagnostic Techniques for Cable Characterization. EPRI, Palo Alto,

CA: 1989. EL-6207.
Potential Techniques for Nondestructive Evaluation of Cable Materials. Proceedings of

1993 EPRI Workshop on Power Plant Cable Condition Monitoring. EPRI, Palo
Alto: CA: 1993.TR-102399.
A-64
M0-5 Acoustic Velocity Testing
Uses
Acoustic velocity testing was developed to assess the aging of cable jackets and
insulations nondestructively. As density changes occur in polymers with aging,
the propagation time for sonic waves change.
Test Description
As the polymers of insulation and jacket insulation age, density generally

increases, accompanied by significant material embrittlement. Using
instrumentation that transmits and receives a continuous series of recurring
20-kHz pulses from piezoelectric transducers placed in contact with the cable
jacket, the propagation time for the sound pulses to travel from one probe to the
other is measured. The velocity of sound pulses within the polymer is
determined. The density of the polymer is inferred from the relationship of
density to propagation velocity.
As of this writing, further development work has ceased in favor of other more
readily available test methods.
Acceptance Criteria
Relatively limited experimental testing has been performed; therefore, acceptance

criteria do not exist.
Initial testing of PVC has been performed. No information is available

concerning applicability to other polymers. Reference 1 provides data relating
sonic velocity to density and elongation-at-break for some PVC specimens.
Initial work indicates that the propagation of the sound pulse is independent of
cable configuration.
Test Nature
The test is experimental only.
A dynamic modulus tester (ultrasonic sound generator) and an oscilloscope are

required.
A-65
Relative Cost
Cost has not yet been determined.
Test Considerations
1. This is a local test that characterizes the cable at the test location only.
Multiple samples along the length of the cable might be necessary to develop
an overall characterization.
2. The test method is currently suitable for laboratory use only. No commercial
device available as yet.
These requirement have not yet been determined.
Experienced personnel are necessary for interpretation of results at this time.
A system was developed by MHI Japan. However, MHI no longer provides in-
plant service using the system.
Reference
In-Situ Diagnostic Monitoring of Power Plant. Proceedings of the 1993 EPRI

Workshop on Power Plant Cable Condition Monitoring. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
1993. TR-102399.
A-66
M-06 Thermal Fingerprinting
Uses
Thermal fingerprinting is a failure evaluation technique for determining the peak

temperatures of exposure for crystalline and semicrystalline insulations and
jackets. The test is most useful for determining the cause of damage and the
severity of thermal operating conditions of cables removed from service after
failure or identification of significant degradation. The technique requires a
sample to be removed from the cable under evaluation. If failure has not
occurred, a small specimen could be used, and the technique could be
implemented as essentially nondestructive.
Test Description
This test evaluates the shape of the melting curve for cable polymers having
crystalline or semicrystalline structures.
Polymers tend to exhibit melting ranges rather than single melting points,
unlike metals and pure organic compounds of low molecular weight. The melting
range depends on the linearity of the polymer chain, among other variables. This
means that polymers such as cross-linked polyethylene have a much broader
melting range than high-density polyethylene. In the case of XLPE, it extends
from 0C to 106C. The existence of this broad melting range means that
temperatures reached during manufacture of cables from these materials, or use
temperatures due to storage and service conditions leave a fingerprint on the
melting range.
Whenever a semi-crystalline polymer is subjected to temperatures within its

melting range, the detailed shape of the melting curve is changed. For instance, if
the temperature is changed to 70C, then all crystals with melting points between
ambient and 70C will melt. Crystals with melting points above 70C will be
annealed and their melting points raised slightly. Also, some of the molten
material will recrystallize, but will have a melting point higher than it had in the
initial state. On cooling back to ambient the remaining molten material will
crystallizethe important point to recognize is that the melting curve will
exhibit new features caused by the thermal treatment [1].
Careful remelting of the polymer allows determination of the nature of the

thermal exposure.
To perform the test, a small sample of the material is placed in a DSC and
heated at l0C/min to a temperature of 150C to obtain the melting curve (heat
flow [mW] versus temperature (C). Changes in heat flow are proportional to the
number of crystals melting at a particular temperature.
A-67
At the end of this exposure, the material is cooled at 104F (40C)/min to 4F
(20C) to quench crystallize the material. This cooling redistributes the crystals
evenly along the melting curve and removes the "recorded thermal history." The
specimen is then reheated at 50F (10C)/min to determine the melting curve of
a quenched specimen. The quenched curve is subtracted from the initial melting
curve to obtain a subtraction curve. The derivative of the subtraction curve is
taken to determine the temperatures to which the material had been exposed
subsequent to manufacture.
Acceptance Criteria
The purpose of the test is to determine the temperature exposure of the cable
polymers; thus, the concept of acceptance criteria does not apply.
The technique has been successfully performed on XLPE, EPR, and ethylene
propylene diene monomer. The materials under evaluation must have a
crystalline or semicrystalline nature. The technique is not useful for fully
amorphous materials such as CSPE (e.g., Hypalon).
There are none beyond material type limits.
Test Nature
The test is essentially nondestructive; a few milligrams of material must be

removed from the cable.
A DSC is required.
Relative Cost
The DSC is expensive; the cost of individual tests is moderate.
Test Considerations
Each individual measurement provides a characterization of the cable at the test

location. Readings taken along and around the cable will provide information
concerning the overall condition of the cable.
A skilled operator is required for operation of the DSC. A standard test

procedure is available.
A-68
Evaluation of the results of the test requires an experienced engineer or analyst.
Practicality has been demonstrated. There has been limited commercial usage to
date. The technique is based on mature DSC technology.
Reference
1. Fingerprinting the Thermal History of Polymeric Materials. EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA: 1992. TR-101205.
Improved Conventional Testing of Power Plant Cables. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
1996.
A-69
M-07 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance in Solution
Uses
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) testing with the polymer in solution is a test
that allows assessment of the aging of materials that are partially crystalline such
as XLPE. The crystals in the material mask changes in hardness from oxidation
and cross-linking. Melting the crystals and putting the material in solution allows
changes in oxidation and cross-linking to be identified through analysis of the T2
time, the NMR relaxation time.
Test Description
The NMR relaxation time, T2, is related to the mobility of polymer chains.
Because an increase in cross-link density reduces chain mobility, cross-linking
results in decreases in T2, but these decreases are often fairly small and show little
difference between unaged and highly aged specimens, especially when masked
by the crystalline nature of some polymers and fillers such as clay in rubber
compounds. However, when polymers are swollen in a deuterated solvent, the
increased mobility caused by the expanded network tends to significantly increase
T2 values for unaged specimens. Because the solvent is deuterated, swelling also
decreases the density of hydrogen atoms and causes an additional increase in T2.
(The contribution to relaxation from deuterated atoms is significantly less than
that from hydrogen atoms.) With aging, cross-linking leads to a reduction in
solvent uptake and an increase in the concentration of protons so that the T2
values are substantially reduced. When T2 measurements are taken on samples
swelled in a good solvent, the swelling and hydrogen density factors lead to a
significant amplification effect so that the T2 sensitivity to differing levels of
cross-linking (aging) is much greater, and the needed resolution between unaged
and aged specimens is obtained. This method has been successfully used for
NEO, CSPE, EPR, and XLPE [1].
Acceptance Criteria
A correlation between the NMR T2 and elongation-at-break or another aging

assessment methodology would be necessary to use the technique.
The test is applicable to most cable polymers.
There are no specific cable application limitations.
A-70
Test Nature
The method requires 8- to 10-mg of material for each test. The solvent is
material specific. Deuterated chloroform (CDCl3) is used for CSPE and NEO.
Benzene-d6 is recommended for XLPE. Cyclohexane-d12 may be used for CPE.
The pretreatments before performing the test vary by polymer [1].
The test is performed using a NMR spectrometer with the capability of heating
the solution during the test.
Relative Cost
The NMR spectrometer is very expensive. The tests in Reference 1 were

performed on a set costing >$300,000. It is believed that the tests could be
performed on more common commercial units costing $60,000, but verification
is not available at this time.
The tests must be performed by an experienced NMR operator and the

methodology (that is, solvent used and preconditioning) is material specific.
The value of T2 indicates the degree of aging. Once the correlation between T2
and elongation-at-break has been established, interpretation is not difficult.
The test method is in the developmental stage and has not been widely used.
Reference
1. Cable Polymer Aging and Condition Monitoring Research at Sandia National
Laboratories Under the Nuclear Energy Plant Optimization (NEPO) Program.
A-71
M-08 Micro Modulus
Uses
A very small probe is pressed against the surface of a polymer, two steps of load
are applied, the probe displacement is measured at each load, and a modulus is
calculated from the difference in force and difference in displacement. Because
the probe is so small, the modulus of the transverse section can be evaluated
through the depth of a piece of insulation, and the uniformity of degradation
from the outer wall of the insulation to the inner wall can be evaluated.
Test Description
The modulus-profiling approach allows us to quantitatively map (profile) the

modulus across the cross section of a material with 50-m resolution (~20
measurements per millimeter of cross section). The usual procedure involves first
mounting three small pieces of the polymeric material side by side in a viselike
holder. This holder is then metallographically polished, exposing the cross
sections of the three samples. The holder is next placed in the apparatus such
that a loaded probe with a paraboloidally shaped tip can be used to indent the
central sample perpendicular to its cross section. Using a two-step loading
procedure, the amount of indentation of the probe into the sample is used
(together with the known loading on the probe and the probe tip geometry) to
calculate the inverse tensile compliance, a quantity closely related to the tensile
modulus of the material. By scanning across the sample cross section, a detailed
map of modulus versus probe location is obtained [1].
Acceptance Criteria
There are no set acceptance criteria for the micro modulus test. The test is most
useful for determining whether the rate accelerated aging exceeds the point where
oxygen diffusion is too slow to allow uniform aging through the depth of the
material.
The test applies to all common rubber and XLPE insulations.
No limitations beyond being able to obtain a specimen of approximately 0.39

1.18 in. (1 3) cm (3, 0.39 0.39 in. [1 1 cm] layers).
Test Nature
The test requires a significant-size specimen. However, because it would

normally be performed on specimens generated from accelerated aging, this
should not be a problem.
A-72
A specialty test rig is necessary. One is owned by Sandia National Laboratories

that created the test, and the other is owned by Akron Rubber Development
Laboratory, a commercial contractor to the rubber industry.
Relative Cost
The test equipment is expensive. The specimen preparation is moderately

expensive. The cost to perform the tests is modest.
Test Considerations
Once the specimen has been prepared and mounted in the test rig, the test is
computer controlled, and a modulus profile across the surface of the material is
generated automatically.
The test is a specialty test only available through two laboratories. Personnel
experienced with the preparation of samples and the operation of the test rig are
required.
The interpretation of the results requires a polymer expert to determine useful

inferences.
The technique is mature, but only performed by two laboratories.
Reference
1. Cable Polymer Aging and Condition Monitoring Research at Sandia National
Laboratories Under the Nuclear Energy Plant Optimization (NEPO) Program.
A-73
V-01 Visual Examination
Uses
Visual examination might be used as a screening tool for aging assessment and
can be used as a preliminary evaluation technique in troubleshooting and failure
evaluation. For many cable and termination types, visible signs of degradation are
detectable when significant aging has occurred. Observation of such conditions
generally indicates that further investigation of aging cables subject to similar
service conditions is desirable.
Test Description
Visual examination of cables and terminations can provide insights on
degradation from ambient environments and conditions of the application.
Although degrees of gradual aging are generally not discernable, significant
deterioration in the form of color changes, changes in surface texture, crazing (a
covering of fine surface cracks), cracking, loss of flexibility, surface tackiness, and
hardening are detectable. Observation of such conditions indicates that further
evaluation or corrective action is necessary. Absence of such indications in areas
having more severe normal thermal and/or radiation environments provides a
general indication that low-voltage cable has not experienced severe aging.
Observation of cables and terminations during inspection, surveillance, and

maintenance of connected and adjacent components can allow detection of the
onset of severe degradation of cable and help prevent in-service failure.
Acceptance Criteria
The absence of unacceptable conditions is used as an acceptance criterion. For

example, the absence of cracking, crazing (a covering of fine surface cracks), and
significant hardening (as detectable by gentle manipulation) could be used as a
basis for continued use of cables. The acceptance criteria are based on the
materials of construction and the configuration of the cable under consideration.
Identification of an unacceptable condition will require further investigation to
determine the cause and extent of the problem.
Note: This system of evaluation is for verifying that gross deterioration has not
occurred. If the absence of gross deterioration can be affirmed even in severe
condition applications, inferences concerning the overall adequacy of the low-
voltage cable system are possible. However, to more fully understand the degree
of aging of cables, other condition monitoring techniques capable of determining
lesser degrees of degradation should be considered.
A-74
Visual techniques could be applied to any material. However, the observable

characteristics of aging differ by insulation and jacketing material types.
Observation of cracks and crazing of jackets and areas where insulation is exposed
would require further evaluation for any cable material. Weepage of plasticizer
would be applicable to PVC. Discoloration would be a criterion for any cable
material that is not filled with carbon black.
Although most cable types have observable characteristics that are indicative of
accumulation of a significant amount of time at elevated stress levels, visual
examination will only be practicable in areas where the cable is available for viewing.
Test Nature
No equipment is necessary.
Relative Cost
The test is inexpensive to perform.
Test Considerations
1. Although limited portions of the cable and insulated conductors will be
available for examination, conditions at the terminations of the cable, where
loads and instruments are connected, often are the most severe with regard to
the overall length of the cable. The absence of adverse observations can be
used to infer the overall condition of the cable.
2. If maintenance and test personnel are trained in visual detection of adverse
conditions, feedback concerning cable deterioration might be obtained at
relatively low cost.
3. The application of the technique might be based on management by
exception; that is, only adverse findings are reported. Attention to cables
located in severe normal thermal and radiation environments will provide the
earliest indication of degradation.
Personnel performing inspections will require training regarding unacceptable

conditions and means of identifying them. More experienced electricians might
already have the requisite knowledge from hands-on experience.
A-75
Identification of potential problems does not require a high degree of skill.

However, determining the importance of the finding and determining further
actions to be taken require a skilled engineer or analyst.
The test is mature.
A-76
V-02 Microscopic Examination
Uses
Microscopic examination of an insulation or jacket material might be used as a

failure evaluation technique to determine the nature of a point defect such as the
area of electrical breakdown. The technique could identify conditions such as
contaminants and voids from the time of manufacture and ruptures from
crushing.
Test Description
For certain types of cable failures, microscopic examination of the failure site
might provide an indication of the cause. The use of this technique requires that
the location of the fault be known. The faulted area is examined visually with the
aid of a microscope to determine the nature of the faulted area. When electrical
faults occur, the breakdown generally destroys the cause of the fault. Therefore,
examination of the insulation material in the vicinity immediately adjacent to the
fault must be used. Thin layers of material can be microtomed for identification
of inclusions, voids, and other physical defects or damages.
Acceptance Criteria
There are no acceptance criteria for this type of examination.
The technique is more useful for materials that are not fully opaque because
reflectance and light transmission are important in microscopic examination. The
technique might be of limited use for materials that are carbon black filled.
The technique is not limited by cable construction.
Test Nature
The test is destructive in nature, but is useful for failure evaluations.
A microscope is needed; a microtome might also be necessary.
Relative Cost
The microscope and microtome are relatively expensive.
A-77
Test Considerations
The test is useful to characterize the vicinity of damage or an electrical fault site.
A skilled examiner is required for the preparation of the specimen.
Knowledge of the potential causes of failure and experience in microscopic

evaluation is necessary.
The test is very mature.
A-78
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Plant Engineering: Electrical Cable Test Applicability Matrix For Nuclear Power Plants

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Plant Engineering: Electrical Cable Test Applicability Matrix For Nuclear Power Plants

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Plant Engineering: Electrical Cable Test Applicability

Matrix for Nuclear Power Plants

2011 TECHNICAL REPORT

This document does NOT meet the requirements of

EPRI Project Manager

3420 Hillview Avenue

THIS DOCUMENT WAS PREPARED BY THE ORGANIZATION(S) NAMED BELOW AS AN ACCOUNT OF

THE FOLLOWING ORGANIZATION PREPARED THIS REPORT:

Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)

Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)

This report describes research sponsored by EPRI.

EPRI acknowledges A. Anadakumaran and H. Sedding of

This publication is a corporate

Plant Engineering: Electrical Cable

Troubleshooting techniques for all cables and fault location

This document provides guidance on the applicability of tests

Each of the tests, with the exception of medium-voltage fault

Applications, Value, and Use

Section 2: Cable Component Aging and Aging

Section 3: Cable Test Versus Cable Concern..............3-1

Section 5: Acronyms ................................................5-1

Appendix A: Test Method Descriptions....................A-1

Figure 1-1 Helical metal tape shield.........................................1-6

Table 2-1 Insulation degradation and condition assessment

This report excludes manufacturing tests and focuses on post-installation, aging

Twisted Shielded Designs

Instrumentation signals can be adversely affected by electromagnetic noise that

In instrument cable applications with underground segments where submergence

Coaxial and Triaxial Designs

In coaxial designs, a central conductor is covered by insulation, and the second

Control cables have simple designs in which an insulated conductor is cabled

A leading cause of control cable degradation is thermal damage. For control

Low-Voltage Power Cables

Medium-Voltage Cable Aging Concerns

Assuming no manufacturing defects and no installation errors, the main aging

If gross manufacturing defects or installation errors exist, electrical degradation

For nonshielded cables, PD between phases is possible or between a phase and

Slices and Terminations

For low-voltage power cables, a key termination concern is connection resistance.

When copper-to-aluminum connections are made, special spring-loaded

Medium-Voltage Splices and Terminations

Medium-voltage splices and terminations are generally more sophisticated and

As with low-voltage power cables, a key medium-voltage termination concern is

When copper-to-aluminum connections are made, special spring-loaded

A properly constructed termination or splice will have a life equivalent to that of

Dry Condition Aging

Corona Discharge Attack on Nonshielded Medium-Voltage

For nonshielded medium-voltage cable, corona discharge attack of the cable

Wet and Submerged Aging

Short-term exposure of cables to water will have no significant effect on the

Exposure of cable jackets and insulations to chemicals, oil, or hydraulic fluid is

There are no specific evaluation techniques beyond visual/tactile assessment for

Instrument Cable Shield Aging/Deterioration

For the purposes of this report, evaluation of identified degradation is included in

The purpose of post-installation testing is to confirm that no severe damage or

Concern Components Included Limitations Related to Applicable Test Test Reference

Condition monitoring and aging management tests and assessments are

Stressors of concern include the following:

For all cable types except silicone rubberinsulated cables, high-temperature