Clinical Case in Skin Cancer

Clinical Cases in Dermatology
Series Editor: Robert A. Norman
Sharad P. Paul
Robert A. Norman Editors
Clinical Cases
in Skin Cancer
Surgery and
Treatment
Clinical Cases
in Dermatology
Series editor
Robert A. Norman
Tampa, Florida, USA
For further volumes:

http://www.springer.com/series/10473
This series of concise practical guides is designed to facilitate
the clinical decision-making process by reviewing a number
of cases and defining the various diagnostic and management
decisions open to clinicians. Each title will be illustrated and
diverse in scope, enabling the reader to obtain relevant clini-
cal information regarding both standard and unusual cases
in a rapid, easy to digest format. Each book will focus on the
one disease or patient group, and will include fairly common
cases to get people to know they are doing things right if they
follow the case guidelines. Each will be about 1520 cases and
100125 pages total with key pictures for each case. The dead-
lines/timelines for each title will be short and facilitate rapid
publication models.
Sharad P. Paul Robert A. Norman
Editors
Clinical Cases in
Skin Cancer Surgery
and Treatment
Editors
Sharad P. Paul Robert A. Norman
University of Auckland Dermatology Healthcare
Auckland Tampa
New Zealand Florida
USA
Clinical Cases in Dermatology

ISBN 978-3-319-20936-4 ISBN 978-3-319-20937-1 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-20937-1
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Preface
Clinical Cases in Skin Cancer Surgery and Treatment is

designed to be a guide for dermatologists, surgeons, family
practitioners, residents and anyone who is engaged in the
practice of cutaneous surgery to do with skin cancer. The case-
study-based format allows readers to understand planning of
procedures and surgical techniques, and the differing cases are
designed to relate to different situations that may arise within
dermatosurgery practices.
Clinical Cases in Skin Cancer Surgery and Treatment pro-
vides relevant surgical and anatomical tips, and finer points of
surgical techniques gleaned from the authors experience. Each
chapter covers a different type of case, flap or skin graft closure,
and will help the attending physician or surgeon in improving
their skill levels and knowledge. The author, who has been
teaching cutaneous surgery for two decades, provides enough
detail to allow residents or family practitioners to develop fur-
ther competence in the surgical management of skin cancers,
while ensures that this book serves as a useful guide. For more
experienced cutaneous surgeons, the book helps in fine-tuning
techniques and reinforcing good practice methods.
Auckland, New Zealand Sharad P. Paul

Tampa, FL, USA Robert A. Norman
v
Contents
1 Skin Cancer of the Ear: Mastoid

Interpolation Flap Reconstruction Tips . . . . . . . . . 1
Sharad P. Paul
2 One Technique Fits All: The Versatility

of the Full Thickness Graft on the Lateral
Wall of the Nose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Sharad P. Paul
3 Islands on the Cheek: Island Flaps on the Cheek

and a Modified Oblique-Sigmoid Flap . . . . . . . . . . 21
Sharad P. Paul
4 Rotation Flaps of the Scalp: Study

of the Design, Planning and Biomechanics
of Single, Double and Triple Pedicle Flaps . . . . . . 31
Sharad P. Paul
5 Double-Advancement H Flaps for Very

Large Defects of the Forehead: Design,
Planning and the Use of Sub-periosteal
Dissection to Increase Mobility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Sharad P. Paul
6 The Modified Rhomboid Flap:

An Improvement on the Traditional Technique
and Its Use in Defects of the Ala Nasi . . . . . . . . . . 55
Sharad P. Paul
vii
viii Contents
7 The Keystone Design Perforator Island Flap:

An Easy Option for the Lower Limb,
But How Does It Actually Work?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Sharad P. Paul
8 Amelanotic Malignant Melanoma

of the Toe Presenting as an Ulcer:
Management and Biopsy Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Sharad P. Paul and Michael Inskip
9 Revisiting the Halo Graft: Why Does

It Heal Faster When Compared
to Conventional Split-Skin Grafts? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Sharad P. Paul
10 Balloon Cell Nevi and Balloon Cell

Melanomas: What Are They? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
11 Topical Treatment of Skin Cancers

and the Risks of Fighting Fire with Fire . . . . . . . 115
Sharad P. Paul
12 When a Lipoma Wasnt a Lipoma:

A Discussion About Granular
Cell Tumors of Skin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Sharad P. Paul and Vladimir Osipov
13 How Small Is Small for a Melanoma? . . . . . . . . . . 137

Sharad P. Paul
14 Multiple Basal Cell Carcinomas

and Superficial Radiotherapy (SRT) . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Robert A. Norman
15 Adenocystic Carcinoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

Lisa M. Diaz and Robert A. Norman
Contents ix
16 Sebaceous Carcinoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

17 Metastatic Cutaneous Adenocarcinoma. . . . . . . . . 167

18 Zosteriform Cutaneous Metastasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Contributors
Lisa M. Diaz, DO Dermatology Resident, Broward Health

Medical Center, Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA
Michael Inskip, MB ChB, FRACGP Sun Patrol Skin

Cancer Clinic, Berwick, VIC, Australia
Robert A. Norman, DO, MPH Dermatology Healthcare,

Tampa, FL, USA
Vladimir Osipov, MD, FCAP Department of Anatomic

Pathology, QML, Townsville, QLD, Australia
Sharad P. Paul, MD, MPhil Department of Skin Cancer,

School of Medicine, University of Queensland, QLD,
Australia
Faculty of Surgery, University of Auckland, Auckland,

New Zealand
Skin Surgery Clinic, Auckland, New Zealand
xi
Chapter 1
Skin Cancer of the Ear:
Mastoid Interpolation Flap
Reconstruction Tips
Sharad P. Paul
Background
Skin cancers are very common on the ear, due to its unpro-
tected position on the body during outdoor activity, and con-
tinuous exposure to the sun through the car window while
driving. The incidence of squamous cell carcinomas on the ear
appears to be higher than that of basal cell carcinomas with
reports suggesting squamous cell carcinomas being the most
common (>50 %), followed by basal cell carcinomas (30
40 %), and less frequently, melanomas(<5 %) [1]. The ear has
special considerations due to its lack of underlying subcutane-
ous tissue. This allows for the potential of early perichondrial
involvement of cutaneous tumors. It is therefore important to
always examine regional lymph nodes of the neck, especially
in cases of squamous cell carcinoma and malignant mela-
S.P. Paul, MD, MPhil

Department of Skin Cancer, School of Medicine,
University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
Faculty of Surgery, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
e-mail: [email protected]
S.P. Paul, R.A. Norman (eds.), Clinical Cases in Skin Cancer 1

Surgery and Treatment, Clinical Cases in Dermatology,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-20937-1_1,
2 S.P. Paul
noma. When it comes to skin cancers of the ear with perichon-

drial involvement, up to a third of patients may have lymphatic
spread [2]. Of course the goal following oncological resection
is to recreate the ear to match the other ear; however as both
ears are rarely viewed simultaneously in any facial view and
may be partially or completely covered by hair, the size, posi-
tion, and orientation of the ear to the scalp and anterior face
may be more important than a geometrically exact match of
the other ear. The most important skin-cartilage components
that are necessary to make a recognizable ear are the helix,
tragus, antitragus, and concha [3].
Many techniques have been discussed for reconstruction
of the ear using flaps and grafts, after removal of skin cancer
[47]. I am presenting a case of a malignant melanoma of the
ear that needed a wider excision after excision of an initial
2 cm lesion (which was closed primarily with a wedge-
excision after undermining) in this case a mastoid interpo-
lation flap was used after the wider excision. The technique of
the retro-auricular mastoid interpolation flap, its planning
and useful tips are detailed in this article.
Case History
A 62-year old white female patient presented with a

changing pigmented lesion on her R ear. Clinical exami-
nation and dermatoscopy suggested a probable malig-
nant melanoma in situ and the lesion was excised. The
histological examination revealed a melanoma-in-situ
and a malignant melanoma Stage 1 A, Breslow thick-
ness 0.3 mm, Clark level 2, non-ulcerated malignant
melanoma.
Histopathology report:
EXCISION RIGHT EAR
Gross Description:
The specimen consists of a skin ellipse 24 x 14 x
5 mm with a central
variegated light and dark brown patch 15 x 6 mm.
The entire lesion is processed.
Chapter 1. Skin Cancer of the Ear 3
SYNOPTIC REPORT FOR INVASIVE

MALIGNANT MELANOMA
Tumour Type: Invasive malignant melanoma arising
in an area of melanoma
in-situ
Clark Level: 2
Breslow Thickness: 0.3mm
Size of Invasive Tumour: 0.6mm width
Ulceration: Nil
Tumour Infiltrating Lymphocytes: Nil
Regression: Nil
Angiotropism: Nil
Lymphovascular Invasion: Nil
Perineural Spread/Neurotropism: Nil
Mitotic Rate: Not enough invasive tumour for a 1 sq
mm count
Microscopic Satellitosis: Nil
Radial Margin of Excision: Margins clear of lesion.
Closest melanoma
in-situ margin is 4mm. Closest invasive melanoma
margin is 5mm.
Associated Nevus: Nil
SUMMARY DIAGNOSIS:
INVASIVE MALIGNANT MELANOMA,
CLARK LEVEL 2, BRESLOW THICKNESS 0.375mm
MARGIN CLEAR
This tumor had an in-situ margin of 4 mm and the
invasive melanoma had been removed with a margin of
5 mm. Margins for melanoma-in-situ have been the sub-
ject of recent debate. The accepted 5 mm guidelines were
originally developed at a consensus meeting in 1992. A
recent review in 2012, by a Mohs surgery team at a refer-
ral center for melanoma-in-situ suggested that the fre-
quently recommended 5-mm margin for melanoma is
inadequate. Standard surgical excision of melanoma in
situ should include 9 mm of normal-appearing skin, simi-
lar to that recommended for early invasive melanoma
[8]. Given our patient had a Stage 1 A invasive malignant
4 S.P. Paul
melanoma with an in-situ component, it was decided to

wide-excise this excision site with 1 cm margins. An inter-
polation flap was planned (see Figs. 1.1 and 1.2) avoiding
the hair-bearing area. Given the original lesion was
already 2 cm in diameter, the ear was already tissue defi-
cient and this created an additional challenge.
Figure 1.1 Ear wide excision plan
Figure 1.2 Ear interpolation flap plan

The Technique
The mastoid interpolation flap, which is the staged pedicle flap
described herein, is very useful for helical ear defects when
cartilage needs to be removed. It helps re-create a normal-
looking ear. For smaller helical rim defects, a skin graft, cutane-
ous helical rim advancement flap, primary closure, or wedge
resection often provides an excellent reconstructive result.
Helical rim area can be a problem in itself with thin skin.
However when cartilage needs to be removed, this increases
the risk of perichondritis, which can be a surgical nuisance.
In a large series of patients after ear reconstruction, it was
shown 24 % of cases become infected and may progress to
perichondritis, if untreated [9]. Trauma, surgical or otherwise is
the most common cause in nearly half the incidences of peri-
chondritis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa the most common
micro-organism isolated [10]. The treatment of such perichon-
dritis is primarily antibiotics and surgical debridement when
needed, and the antibiotic of choice is Ciprofloxacin [11].
It is important to secure hemostasis during the procedure
and place a drain to prevent hematoma formation. If perichon-
dritis develops in spite of antibiotics, which is rare, then it is
important to aggressively drain any abscess early. Fortunately,
this is very rare after elective surgery for skin cancer.
As a general rule, the initial reconstructive effort is aimed
only at repair of the anterior portion of the primary defect.
Re-creation of the helical rim and posterior primary defect
coverage is done at the second stage when the pedicle is
detached and the ear is reconstructed. Some surgeons cut a
template of foil or paper and lay over the mastoid to mark
the outlines of the flap. It is important to avoid hair-bearing
areas to avoid a hairy ear post-operatively. Rather than cut-
ting out a template, I prefer to press the ear and lay it flat
against the mastoid. Given that the excision margins are
already marked on the ear, this allows to accurately plan the
flap by continuing the markings onto the mastoid skin sur-
face (Fig. 1.2). The combination of posterior ear, post-
auricular sulcus, and mastoid skin usually provides an
6 S.P. Paul
Figure 1.3 Ear mastoid interpolation flap being raised
excellent tissue match for the anterior helical soft tissue

defect. The flap is elevated and the secondary mastoid scalp
and primary anterior helical defect margins are slightly
undermined to provide increased flap mobility (Fig. 1.3) [12].
In our case, some thinning of the flap was needed as the mas-
toid skin was thicker than the excised skin of the anterior
helical defect. If the ear has a prominent helical rim curl with
or without loss of the rim cartilage, a few double-armed or
basting sutures may be placed through the cartilage into the
anterior lip of the helical rim to recreate the natural curl [12].
Even with such sutures in place, it is often necessary to
later on thin the flap to achieve perfect contours. I normally
wait for 6 months post-operatively before planning any ter-
tiary procedure such as this.
If the defect extends only to the helical rim, the flap can be
started at the junction where mastoid skin meets the poste-
rior ear. If the defect extends further medial to the scaphoid
fossa or beyond, the flap incision is then ideally started on the
posterior ear and extended onto the mastoid area. The flap
should be sized slightly larger than the measured width of the
defect and be long enough so that excessive tension is not
placed on the flap after it is sutured [13].
Figure 1.4 Mastoid interpolation flap sutured in place with drain
Once the flap is sutured in place, a drain is inserted to avoid

any post-operative collection or hematoma formation. I tend to
use a Penrose or a glove drain fashioned using a sterile surgical
glove. Some authors prefer to use nasal packing or gel foam but
in my experience, I have found this unnecessary. It is standard
to apply a pressure dressing for 48 h, after which I usually
remove the drain. I avoid suction drains (and prefer the glove
drain) as the former are more bulky. I prefer to use a light dress-
ing post-operatively which is not as noticeable (Fig. 1.4).
I usually divide the flap at 3 weeks. Some authors divide the
flap at 2 weeks and suggest that there is little benefit to cutting
the pedicle closer to the ear (Figs. 1.5 and 1.6). The reasoning here
is that it is difficult to see how long the flap needs to be cut once
it is sewn in place, there is a risk of making the flap too short [3].
One of the most important steps in this mastoid interpola-
tion flap is that the incisions are made precisely around the
outline of the flap, taking care to preserve a vertical band of
subcutaneous tissue at the ear-mastoid groove. This preserva-
tion of tissue at the ear-mastoid groove is often overlooked
and in my view is very important. This is seen in Fig. 1.3.
where the flap has been raised and portion of the ear has
been removed. This ends up the vascular pedicle that allows
8 S.P. Paul
Figure 1.5 Flap division done at 3 weeks; image at 1 month postop-

eratively
Figure 1.6 Post-flap division; image at 1 month postoperatively
the skin island to be passed onto the anterior surface of the

ear to re-create of the shape of the ear back to its original
shape. The donor defect is closed primarily.
One of the other important points to note in a case such as
this even where a significant chunk of cartilage has been
Figure 1.7 Illustration of mastoid interpolation flap used
removed, is that the restoration of ear cartilage support after

resection is usually not necessary in concave hollows of the ear.
Cartilage support of the shape and position of the ear is
maintained primarily by the shape and length of the helical
rim and antihelix. Concave hollows such as the concha and
triangular fossa add to the individual architecture and varia-
tions in ear shape but little to structural support. Therefore,
when adjacent cartilage is still present, even when cartilage is
removed the defect may be replaced by soft tissue only.
In summary, the post-auricular mastoid interpolation flap
is an exceptionally useful tool to have in our armamentarium
for the reconstruction of helical rim defects (Fig. 1.7). In my
experience, it provides excellent helical contour when
performed correctly and can be used after removal of large
defects. In the case presented here, the patient already had a
2 cm lesion removed that turned out to be a melanoma. The
wider excision was done to ensure 1 cm margins. Even allow-
ing for all these factors, the patient ended up with normal ear
contour, with minimal lipping. Once the mechanism of the
flap is understood, this is a relatively easy technique to
execute, even if the procedure needs to be completed in two
stages.
10 S.P. Paul
References
1. Songcharoen MD, Smith RA, Jabaley ME. Tumors of the exter-
nal ear and reconstruction of defects. Clin Plast Surg. 1978;5:447.
2. Brent B. Reconstruction of the auricle. In: McCarthy JG, editor.
Plastic surgery, vol. 3. Philadelphia: Saunders; 1990. p. 213146.
3. Eppeley BL. Auricular reconstruction after oncological resec-
tion. Oper Tech Plast Reconstr Surg. 1999;6(4):27583.
4. Johnson TM, Nelson BR. Aesthetic reconstruction of skin cancer
defects using flaps and grafts. Am J Cosmet Surg. 1992;9:
25366.
5. Lewin ML. Reconstruction of the helix. Arch Otolaryngol.
1948;47:8028.
6. Lewin ML. Formation of the helix with a postauricular flap. Plast
Reconstr Surg. 1950;5:43240.
7. Mellette JR. Ear reconstruction with local flaps. J Dermatol Surg
Oncol. 1991;17:17682.
8. Kunishige JH, Brodland DG, Zitelli JA. Surgical margins for
melanoma in situ. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2012;66(3):43844.
9. Calder JC, Naasan A. Morbidity of otoplasty: a review of 562
consecutive cases. Br J Plast Surg. 1994;47:1704.
10. Kishore H, Prasad C, Sreedharan S, Sampath H, Prasad C, Hari
Meyyappan M, Shri Harsha K. Perichondritis of the auricle and
its management. J Laryngol Otol. 2007;121:5304.
11. White N. Perichondritis after elective surgery. Letters. Postgrad
Med J. 2003;79:604.
12. Johnson TM, Fader DJ. The staged retroauricular to auricular
direct pedicle (interpolation) flap for helical ear reconstruction.
J Am Acad Dermatol. 1997;37:9758.
13. Justiniano H, Eisen D,B. Pearls for perfecting the mastoid inter-
polation flap. Dermatol Online J. 2009;15(6):2.
Chapter 2
One Technique Fits All:
The Versatility of the Full
Thickness Graft on the
Lateral Wall of the Nose
Sharad P. Paul
Background
It is extremely difficult to reconstruct the human nose to
achieve anatomic perfection. The essential tropes of nasal
reconstruction are support, lining and cover. There are many
techniques used to reconstruct the sidewalls of the nose after
cutaneous surgery for skin cancer advancement flaps, pivotal
flaps, island flaps and skin grafts. One of the problems with
skin grafts and indeed virtually all scars is that they contract
with time. Therefore choice of technique or skin graft should
take these factors into account while planning reconstruction.
Some authors have even called the nose a separate aes-

thetic unit of the face [1]. The nose is made up of concave


DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-20937-1_2,
12 S.P. Paul
and convex surfaces with several intervening ridges and val-

leys. The nose, from a reconstructive viewpoint has been
divided into seven subunits ala (2), sidewalls (2), dorsum,
soft triangles and nasal tip. The subunit principle of nasal
reconstruction suggests that if greater than 50 % of a nasal
subunit has been removed or affected, then replacing the
entire subunit gives a superior result to defect-only recon-
struction [2]. When it comes to lesions under 1 cm, some have
suggested that a defect-only approach, rather than following
the subunit principle should suffice [3].
In this case report, I discuss reconstruction of a large
multi-subunit lesion on lateral aspect of the nose using a full
thickness skin graft. Tips and techniques are discussed along
with donor site selection. When it comes to the lateral aspects
of the nose, the versatility of the full thickness graft and the
defect-only approach when dealing with defects even >2 cm
are discussed.
Case History
A 70-year-old lady underwent excision of a large basal
cell carcinoma on the lateral aspect of her nose. After
we achieved margin control, she was left with a large
defect involving virtually the entire lateral aspect of her
nose the alar subunit and the nasal sidewall were
involved with some extension onto the dorsum of the
nose (Fig. 2.1). The defect extended to the perichon-
drium (but did not involve cartilage) in its depth. Even
given the size and depth of this defect, I elected to use
a full thickness skin graft taken from the pre-auricular
region to close this defect as I felt it would give the best
possible esthetic result. Of course, when dealing with
skin cancer, these subunits cease to be purely aesthetic
and should be more considered anatomical subunits.
The skin graft was quilted in place with a quilting
suture through the base of the wound (Fig. 2.2). This
method allows me to avoid using a bolus or tie-over
dressing and therefore use a thin hydrocolloid or
Chapter 2. One Technique Fits All 13
Figure 2.1 Large lateral nasal defect
Figure 2.2 Skin graft sutured and quilted in place
foam dressing post operatively. One of the concerns

when laying grafts on perichondrium is that graft take
can be reduced by accumulation of fluid seroma or
haematoma, and it is important to try and reduce this
risk. Tissue sealants or platelet gel and quilting sutures
potentially provide an additional intra-operative
modality for prevention of fluid accumulation.
14 S.P. Paul
Figure 2.3 Postoperative appearance at 2 weeks
The mechanism is their ability to act as a hemostatic

agent tissue sealant and improve wound healing [4].
When it comes to the nose and full thickness grafts, I
have particularly found the quilting suture useful, both
to reduce risk of fluid accumulation and to avoid using
a bulky dressing post-operatively.
The initial graft dressing was done at 5 days post-
operatively. After the surgery, the sutured graft was cov-
ered with a foam dressing (Allevyn, Smith & Nephew,
Christchurch, NZ) and following that with a thin hydro-
colloid dressing (DuoDERM Extra Thin Dressing,
ConvaTec, Australia) to make it inconspicuous.
The graft was fully healed at 3 weeks and did not
leave any residual deformity, either contour or color
mismatch. The image shown at 2 weeks post operatively
shows some small suture granulomata on a well-healed
graft (Fig. 2.3) due to my use of a continuous fast-
absorbing braided suture (VICRYL RAPIDE (poly-
glactin 910) suture, Ethicon)
Discussion
Skin grafts have been known in surgery from circa 2500 BC,
when Indian surgeons used them to reconstruct noses [5]. It was
during this period the forehead Indian flap was also developed
to repair amputated noses (sadly, amputation was punishment
for alleged adultery for women, and is still reportedly used as
punishment in parts of the world such as Afghanistan). In 1875,
Wolfe described the full-thickness skin graft that forms the
basis for the technique described in this paper [6]. (As an aside,
Wolfe was an interesting character, who threw himself into the
war for unification of Italy along with Garibaldi [7]. After the
war, he returned to his career as an ophthalmologist. Wolfe
actually first described the full thickness skin graft as a method
to correct ectropion of the eyelids).
Skin grafts have often been considered a less than ideal solu-
tion for closure of nasal defects due to the color mismatch they
may cause. On the other hand, several plastic surgeons rou-
tinely use full-thickness skin grafts for large nasal tip defects. In
my view, skin grafts are an excellent option when it comes to
the lateral aspect of the nose, but not a good option for anterior
surfaces of the nose such as the nasal tip or dorsum because
the color mismatch is more likely to become noticeable. On the
lateral aspects of the nose, because light casts a shadow, minor
alterations in color are often not noticeable.
It is good to review some general principles of reconstruc-
tion of the nose here, especially to do with full thickness skin
grafting and also offer some useful tips and techniques.
It is more accepted that allowing for proper client and
donor-site selection, a full-thickness skin graft can play an
important role in reconstruction of lower third nasal defects,
which were previously felt to be off-limits to skin grafts [8].
Unlike flaps which seem to be preferred to skin grafts (to
avoid a color mismatch), a skin graft must recruit blood sup-
ply from the surrounding tissues at the recipient site. The
stages in this process are well known: plasmatic imbibition,
inosculation and the bridging phenomenon [9]. The bridging
phenomenon is of particular use when laying grafts on
16 S.P. Paul
relatively avascular sites like the cartilage of the nose. As long

as a portion of the defect is well vascularized, a skin graft can
recruit vessels from this area to supply blood vessels to the
graft overlying the avascular recipient site [10].
I generally perform the procedure under local anesthesia.
Contact between the graft dermis and the recipient bed is
critical for inosculation however, I do not aggressively de-
fat the graft it is gently de-fatted using scissors and not by
scraping, as in my view that can damage valuable dermal
blood vessels. The donor site selection is critical, especially to
match like with like, as thickness of skin on the nose varies.
The skin of the lower third is thick and composed of seba-
ceous glands, unlike the thin skin of the upper two-thirds of
the nose [11]. While some authors do not prefer fenestration
of the graft, I tend to make slits that not only allow fluid or
blood to escape, but also to allow for easier quilting of the
graft via those fenestrations. If the lesion extends to the alar
rim, then it is not suitable for a full thickness graft as the alar
notching this causes can be unsightly. Suitable donor-sites
are pre-auricular, post-auricular, glabellar and naso-labial
region skin. Some authors specifically use non-absorbable
sutures [12]. Some authors suggest that systemic antibiotics
with an appropriate bacterial spectrum should be advised in
full thickness skin graft reconstruction after surgery for non-
melanoma skin cancer of the nose [13]. In my experience of
performing skin grafts on the lateral aspect of the nose rou-
tinely for large nasal defects, I have not found empirical use
of antibiotics has added any value. I also prefer to use absorb-
able sutures so that there is no need for suture removal and
keeping the graft moist with dressings or ointment speeds up
the resolution of the sutures.
As mentioned earlier, I do not aggressively de-fat the skin
graft. In fact, in deeper defects, which may cause a contour
defect and leave a pit, I find retaining the fat useful. This
concept of skin-fat grafting of the nose and its usefulness has
also been commented on by other teams [14]. If anything this
makes skin grafting of the nose easy and more versatile.
In keeping with the principle of matching skin thickness,

the naso-facial sulcus is often an excellent donor site. Some
authors feel that the utility of the naso-facial sulcus is such
that it should be considered as a primary donor site for full
thickness skin graft repairs of small to medium-sized defects
of the alar and distal nose [15]. However, in some men, the
hair-bearing potential of the melo-labial skin may preclude it
as a donor site [16].
After a review of the appearance of full-thickness grafting
cases, the authors offered the following seven suggestions: [17]
1. For the thicker skin of the nasal ala and tip, conchal bowl
or pre-auricular skin prove an ideal match owing to the
matching number of sebaceous glands. The post-auricular
skin is thinner and less exposed to the sun and is used for
grafts for the nasal sidewall.
2. If any area of the donor skin has actinic keratosis or sebor-
rheic dermatitis, another site is chosen.
3. If there is scarring from previous surgery, this skin is
avoided.
4. The conchal bowl is limited in its size as a donor site, and
for larger grafts, either a pre-auricular or post-auricular
site is selected.
5. If the recipient site shows severe sun damage with elastosis
and telangiectasia, prefer the pre-auricular skin followed
by the conchal bowl skin is preferred.
6. Because the nose tip is convex, defects in this area are cov-
ered with conchal bowl skin, which is concave and will fit a
convex surface.
7. On the nose tip or ala, whenever the superior margin of the
defect can be closed vertically as a partial elliptical closure,
the resulting dog-ear grafts may be used to fill the remain-
ing defect.
In a study comparing flaps and grafts, it was noted that
grafts are less acceptable cosmetically for nasal-tip defects
after Mohs surgery [18]. Recent advances have also sug-
gested using adipose-derived-stem cells without skin grafts [19]
18 S.P. Paul
to close nasal defects but full thickness skin grafts are a much
simpler option.
As I mentioned earlier, I also personally avoid grafts for
the nasal tip. However, for nasal sidewall and lateral aspects,
full thickness skin grafts offer an excellent outcome.
Some authors also fenestrate the grafts like I do, and also
stress that the key to the success of this graft is maintaining a
firm, constant and equal pressure over the graft in order to
prevent separation from the vascularized surface by haema-
toma [20]. In my experience, I find this is easily achieved by
quilting the graft onto the perichondrium, when the graft has
to be laid on cartilage.
In conclusion, full thickness skin grafts can be the default
or go to option for lateral defects of the nose, even for distal
parts of the nose (as long as the defect does not involve the
alar rim). A full thickness graft is easy to perform, versatile
and the tips and techniques described above can help the
surgeon achieve excellent results.
References
1. Gonzalez-Ulloa M, Castillo A, et al. Preliminary study of the
total restoration of the facial skin. Plast Reconstr Surg.
1954;13(3):15161.
2. Burget GC, Menick FJ. The subunit principle in nasal reconstruc-
tion. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1985;76(2):23947.
3. Dimitropolous V, Bichakjian C, Johnson T. Forehead donor site
full-thickness skin graft. Dermatol Surg. 2005;31(3):3246.
4. Bullocks J, Basu B, Hsu P. Prevention of hematomas and sero-
mas. Semin Plast Surg. 2006;20(4):23340.
5. Hauben DJ, Baruchin A, Mahler A. On the history of the free
skin graft. Ann Plast Surg. 1982;9(3):2425.
6. Wolfe JR. A new method of performing plastic operations. Br
Med J. 1875;2:3601.
7. Sykes PJ. Wolfes part in the Italian Risorgimento and his skin
graft. Ann Plast Surg. 2012;69(3):22831.
8. McCluskey PD, Constantine FC, Thornton JF. Lower third nasal
reconstruction: when is skin grafting an appropriate option?
Plast Reconstr Surg. 2009;124(3):82635.
9. Ratner D. Skin grafting. From here to there. Dermatol Clin.

1998;16(1):7590.
10. Smahel J. Thehealing of skin grafts. Clin Plast Surg.
1977;4(3):40924.
11. Michelson LN, Peck Jr GC, Kuo HR, et al. The quantification
and distribution of nasal sebaceous glands using image analysis.
Aesthetic Plast Surg. 1996;20(4):3039.
12. Ciudad C, et al. Full-thickness skin grafts on the nose: donor
sites. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2010;62(3 Suppl 1).
13. Kuijpers DI, Smeets NW, Lapire K, Thissen MR, Krekels GA,
Neumann HA. Do systemic antibiotics increase the survival of a
full thickness graft on the nose? J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol.
2006;20(10):1296301.
14. Kreutzer C, von Gregory HF, Fischer H. Skin-fat-graft: a simple
tool for reconstruction of small deep defects of the nose. Facial
Plast Surg. 2014;30(3):24759.
15. Hussain W, et al. The nasofacial sulcus as a primary donor site for
full-thickness skin grafts of the nasal alar and distal nose.
Dermatol Surg. 2012;38(6):9268.
16. Booth SA, Zalla MJ, Roenigk RK, Phillips PK. The nasolabial
fold donor site for full-thickness skin grafts of nasal tip defects. J
Dermatol Surg Oncol. 1993;19:5539.
17. Silapunt S, Ray P, Alam M, et al. Clinical appearance of full-
thickness skin grafts of the nose. Dermatol Surg. 2005;31(2):
17783.
18. Jacobs MA, et al. Clinical outcome of cutaneous flaps versus full-
thickness skin grafts after mohs surgery on the nose. Dermatol
Surg. 2010;36(1):2330.
19. Jo DI, et al. Coverage of skin defects without skin grafts using
adipose-derived stem cells. Aesthetic Plast Surg. 2013;37(5):
104151.
20. Lancaster JL, et al. How I do it; securing a full thickness skin
graft. Short communications. J Laryngol Otol. 2002;116:2067.
Chapter 3
Islands on the Cheek:
Island Flaps on the Cheek
and a Modified
Oblique-Sigmoid Flap
Sharad P. Paul
Background
Cutaneous island flaps have long been used in plastic and

dermatologic surgery to reconstruct cheek defects following
excision of skin cancers. One of the first to use such an island
flap was the German Surgeon, Ernst Blasius (18021875),
who described this technique in the closure of skin defects in
1850 [1]. As we know, The design of a V-Y flap is very simple.
The principle is to use skin from an area of relative excess to
fill an area of deficiency. A V-shaped flap is incised adja-
cent to and advanced into the defect [2]. However, one of the
major problems with the V-Y advancement flap when used as


DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-20937-1_3,
22 S.P. Paul
a cheek advancement flap is the vertical scar, which violates

the relaxed skin tension lines of the cheek [3]. Therefore it is
best reserved for lesions alongside creases such as the naso-
labial fold. Defects involving the lower eyelid region on the
cheek can be challenging because of the unique anatomical
arrangements of the structures in this region. One of the risks
of using V-Y advancement flaps are poor scars and ectropion
of the lower lids [4]. It is important to assess this risk pre-
operatively. The pinch test and snap back test are used to
detect the presence of lower lid laxity. The result is abnormal
if the lid can be distended more than 6 mm from the globe or
does not briskly returns to its natural position [5]. Gravity
may also exert a pull on the lower eyelid leading to delayed
ectropion formation in inferiorly based island flaps on the
cheek. Therefore it is often advisable to anchor the flap to the
periosteum of the lower orbit [2]. Standard technique in such
situations is to anchor the flap dermis to the periosteum of
the infraorbital rim with permanent sutures. While some sur-
geon use absorbable sutures, I prefer to use 4.0 nylon or
polypropylene permanent sutures in this situation.
Larger V-Y flaps can be complicated by their gravita-
tional weight and contraction that can pull down on the
lower eyelid margin despite the appropriate orientation of
tension vectors [6]. In the authors experience, such ectro-
pion formation is often delayed and noticeable after several
months, even a year post-surgery. There are also problems
with using a pedicle flap against a skin crease line while
using a island flap, the tension across the flap suture line
tends to aggravate skin tension and leads to trap-door
deformity. In contrast, when using a transposition flap such
as a bilobed flap, the tension across the line of closure will
result in pin-cushioning of the flap.
In this case report, we review the oblique-sigmoid island
flap and our modification of the flap to suit lower eyelid
defects and cheek defects against the RSTL. Given the ten-
sion vectors and the orientation of the scar, it reduces both
Chapter 3. Islands on the Cheek 23
the risk of ectropion and also scar contraction given the scar
is not orientated vertically, and therefore gravity plays less of
a part.
Case Study
This 65-year old patient presented with a large left
lower eyelid skin basal cell cancer. The horizontal lie of
the lesion meant that primary closure was not possible
if following the relaxed skin tension lines.
Pre-op assessment revealed the risk of ectropion
given her lax lower eyelid skin. Further given the
orientation of the lesion, closure against the RSTL on
her mid cheek would leave a poor cosmetic outcome.
It was decided to use a modified sigmoid-oblique
island flap. Figures 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3 shows the RSTL
as well as the orientation of the excision ellipse
being against the RSTL. The illustration (Fig. 3.4)
shows the tension vectors of the oblique-sigmoid
Figure 3.1 Sigmoid oblique flap plan

24 S.P. Paul
island flap. The clinical photographs show my modifi-

cation of the oblique-sigmoid flap and the discussion
below details the technique as well as offers helpful
tips and techniques.
Figure 3.2 Sigmoid oblique flap being raised
Figure 3.3 Sigmoid oblique flap sutured

Figure 3.4 Sigmoid island flap
The Oblique-Sigmoid Island Flap

The oblique-sigmoid island flap was originally described by
Ono and colleagues [7]. The design was developed as an
attempt to overcome traditional problems with cutaneous
island pedicle flaps [8] trapdoor formation, depressed scar
(due to orientation of scar against RSTL or vertical scars on
the cheek) and dog-earing.
The Technique
The tumor is excised with adequate margins. Ono originally
described a circular excision of the tumor. In my experience,
we can simply excise the lesion with adequate margin without
paying attention to the exact shape. Ono describes creating
26 S.P. Paul
triangular skin flaps 12 mm in length. This is a particularly

important step in my view and it is especially important to
orientate the tips of these isosceles triangles in the direction
of the RSTL as per the illustration and clinical photographs.
A subcutaneous island pedicle flap is created this has a lazy-
S orientation facing the defect and a spindle-shape on the
other side (see clinical photographs). The flap then slides in
an oblique fashion to close the defect. It is this oblique
advancement that reduces the risk of ectropion formation for
lower eyelid defects. In my experience, as in Onos original
review of 32 patients, we dont usually see trap-door forma-
tion or depressed scars, which are relatively common with
island pedicle flaps on the cheek especially if attention is
paid to unfolding the pedicle while dissection (explained
further below). Further, as the post-operative scar is spindle
shaped, and orientated along the RSTL, this allows for a
much more natural contour defect post-operatively.
It is worth spending some time in discussing the mobiliza-
tion of subcutaneous island pedicle flaps and the approaches
espoused by various authors. Field described a technique
wherein longitudinal dissection is done through the pedicle
this effectively creates a bi-pedicled flap is the safest in terms
of preventing disruption to the sensation of the flap [9].
Dzubow advocated incising the underlying muscle on all but
one side to allow the flap to swing on a muscular pedicle [10].
Heller, on the other hand Heller, describes elevating the flap
on a long horizontal pedicle [11].
Chan [12] has described an elegant technique of dissecting
island flaps, which in my experience helps to reduce the pin-
cushioning that can occur with island flaps. This unfolding of
the pedicle also creates less bulkiness post operatively. In
Chans method, defect XY is created as shown in Fig. 3.5. (my
modification of the Chan technique) A triangular advance-
ment flap AX is marked out. The leading edge of the triangular
flap X is undermined just deep to the sub-dermal plexus to
about a third of its length B. The tail of the Flap A is then
undermined towards the defect, going deeper at a 30 angle as
one approaches the defect, to about half of the length of the
A A B Y
C D
Figure 3.5 Dissection technique of Island flaps cheek
flap. An oblique subcutaneous pedicle AC is therefore created.

The flap is then advanced using AC as a long oblique pedicle,
helped by the unfolding of the flap BX when the leading
edge of the flap was undermined to create the pedicle.
For small defects where there is adequate mobility of the
subcutaneous tissue, conventional methods of lateral under-
mining may be sufficient to advance the flap and no under-
mining beneath the flap need take place allowing the flap
to sit-on the defect. However, when larger defects are con-
cerned (and in this case report I am discussing the use of
oblique-sigmoid island flaps to close a large defect >1 cm)
conventional techniques of dissecting the V-Y island flap (or
indeed any island flap) prove inadequate. This dissection
technique often avoids the need for undermining.
If the pedicle of the flap is totally free from any tethering
tension, then the caudal part of the flap can be sutured on to the
adjacent skin on each side for support and the cephalad part of
the flap, under no tension at all, can be stacked on itself with
an abundance of tissue to support the lid margin [12].
When compared to the V-Y island flap, the oblique-sigmoid
flap has a narrower width (as it is more elliptical, rather than a
triangle) and this serves to exert some horizontal tension,
which in turn reduces the risk of lower eyelid ectropion.
One of the problems with island flaps in the loss of sensa-
tion that can occur due to the dissection and patients need to
28 S.P. Paul
be warned about numbness. In 1975, Field described a new

method of dissecting island flaps of the cheek. He originally
developed it as he grew disenchanted with the post-
operative bulkiness -- his method of undermining and effec-
tively creating dual neurovascular pedicles [13] has been
shown to reduce the risk of post-operative loss of sensation.
While I have found Fields method useful for V-Y island
advancement flaps, for the oblique-sigmoid flap, due to its
design characteristics, the method I described earlier of
creating an unfolded pedicle works well.
In discussing the oblique-sigmoid flap, some authors have
noted the reduced incidence of pin-cushioning using this
technique when compared to others. When a surgeon removes
a lesion, the skin edges fall back due to elastic recoil of the
dermis. This creates a wound that is initially 2030 % wider
than the defect. As healing occurs over the next days and
weeks, the skin around the defect contracts. The amount of
contraction depends on the site of the defect. If the width of
the flap has been made equal to that of the immediate defect,
contracture of the wound edges will cause the flap to buckle
upward or pop up, i.e. pin-cushion [14].
Ono originally described the defect for removal of small
skin tumors of the cheek under 1 cm. In my opinion, for such
small tumors undermining and primary closure utilizing the
RSTL often achieves superior results when compared to the
island flap. In my modification, this flap becomes very useful
for larger cheek defects and lower eyelid defects especially
where the vectors of excision lie against the RSTL.
In conclusion, the oblique- sigmoid flap is an excellent tech-
nique to use on the cheek when an island flap is planned. It has
less complications when compared to traditional V-Y advance-
ment flaps and allows for a scar that is more aligned with the
normal contours of the cheek. I reserve the V-Y island flap when
the lesions are located along the nasolabial crease. For mid cheek
and lower eyelid lesions the oblique-sigmoid flap, modified using
the techniques I have described above, makes a good choice.
However, we must pay heed to Blasius, who is credited
with inventing the island pedicle flap for closure of cheek
defects. Blasius stressed: Die Heilung erfolge per primam

intentionem. Namely, the best healing is by primary closure.
It was his intention to convince surgeons that primary closure
in plastic surgery is superior to all other methods and that is
something that must not be forgotten in our eagerness to try
out new techniques.
References
1. Hauben DJ. Ernst Blasiuss contributions to plastic surgery. Plast
2. Omidi M, Granick M. Versatile V-Y FLAP. Dermatol Surg.
2004;30:3.
3. Basu A. Aesthetic refinements of the island V-Y advancement
cheek flap. Letters. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2013;132(3):463e4e.
4. Oudit D, et al. A modification of the V-Y advancement flap to
cover a defect of the outer canthus and both eyelids. Eur J Plast
Surg. 2005;27:3836.
5. Guimaraes de Menezes Bedran, Eliana, et al. Ectropion. Semin
Ophthalmol. 2010;25(3):5965.
6. Okazaki M, Haramoto U, Akizuki T, et al. Avoiding ectropion by
using the Mitek Anchor System for flap fixation to the facial
bones. Ann Plast Surg. 1998;40:16973.
7. Ono I, Gunji H, Sato M, et al. Source. Plast Reconstr Surg.
1993;91(7):124551.
8. Zook EG, Van Beek AL, Russell RC, Moore JB. V-Y advance-
ment flap for facial defects. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1980;65:
78697.
9. Field LM. The subcutaneously bipedicled island flap. J Dermatol
Surg Oncol. 1980;6:45460.
10. Dzubow LM. Subcutaneous island pedicle flaps. J Dermatol
Surg Oncol. 1986;12:5916.
11. Heller N. Subcutaneous pedicle flaps in facial repair. Ann Plast
Surg. 1991;27:4218.
12. Chan STS. A technique of undermining a V-Y subcutaneous island
flap to maximise advancement. Br J Plast Surg. 1988;41:627.
13. Field LM. Undermining subcutaneous island flaps. Arch
Dermatol. 1988;124(1):201.
14. Salmon P, Klaassen M. The rotating island pedicle flap. Dermatol
Surg. 2004;30:9.
Chapter 4
Rotation Flaps of the Scalp:
Study of the Design, Planning
and Biomechanics of Single,
Double and Triple Pedicle Flaps
Sharad P. Paul
Background
The scalp is a common site of skin cancer. Rotation flaps are
considered workhorses when it comes to reconstructing scalp
defects following skin cancer surgery or after surgery to correct
alopecia. These are random flaps i.e. depend on the vascular
supply of the subdermal plexus and not based on a named skin
perforator or specific cutaneous artery (the latter are termed
axial pattern flaps). The length of the random flap depends on
the intravascular resistance of the supplying vessels and the
perfusion pressure. When the perfusion pressure drops below a
critical closing pressure of the arterioles in the subdermal plexus,
nutritional blood flow ceases and flap ischemia occurs [1].


DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-20937-1_4,
32 S.P. Paul
Another way to differentiate random flaps is to classify them based

on it their movement: is pivotal (rotating about a pivot as in rota-
tion, rhomboid or bilobed flaps) or advancement flaps (wherein the
skin is advanced forward with little sideways movement).
When it comes to rotation flaps, there is a biomechanical
difference when compared to advancement flaps (even if
rotation flaps do have a component where skin is advanced).
In an advancement flap, the length to width ratio is critical. In
a rotation flap, the traditional concept of a width-to-length
ratio does not dictate flap survival rather perfusion pres-
sure becomes more important [2].
As the name indicates, the rotation flap is a hemicircular
flap and closure of a defect is effected by gently rotating skin
about a pivot, along the perimeter of a portion of a circle.
Typically, rotation flaps are designed to move along an arc of
30 or less with the radius approximately two to three times
the diameter of the defect and the arc length approximately
four to five times the width of the defect [3, 4].
In these case studies, I review the different types of rota-
tion flaps and the methods of adapting these flaps to close
large defects of the scalp following cutaneous surgery for skin
cancer. A detailed explanation is given of the different ten-
sion vectors and the orientation of different types of rotation
flaps. While single, double and triple pedicled rotation flaps
may be considered similar, they each have different biome-
chanical considerations that need to be taken into account
while using these flaps to close large scalp defects.
Case Study 1
A 75 year old lady presented with a 3 cm keratinizing
non-healing lesion on her scalp that she had attributed to
trauma. Biopsy had proven this to be a squamous cell
carcinoma. The lesion was excised. It was decided to avoid
a skin graft as it would leave an area of hair loss. I elected
to perform a single rotation flap as per the figures
(Figs. 4.1, 4.2, and 4.3). The biomechanics and planning of
a single rotation flap are discussed.
Chapter 4. Rotation Flaps of the Scalp 33
Figure 4.1 Single rotation flap plan
Figure 4.2 Single rotation flap sutures in place
Figure 4.3 Single rotation flap post op

34 S.P. Paul
Case Study 2
A 65 year old lady was referred to my clinic with a large
3 cm basal cell carcinoma on her scalp. A skin graft
would had left her with a 3 cm area of hair loss. A skin
graft would also result in a color-mismatched contour
defect. It was not possible to close this defect primarily.
Figure 4.4 Double rotation flap plan
Figure 4.5 Double rotation flap sutured in place

I elected to use a double rotation flap (O to S flap) as the

biomechanics and line of closure would not distort the
hair pattern at the vertex and also allow for a smaller
area of mobilization than if I had used a single rotation
flap. The planning and biomechanics of the double-rota-
tion flap is discussed (Figs. 4.4 and 4.5).
Case Study 3
A 60-year old bald gentleman was referred with a large
3.5 cm exophytic lesion on his scalp which turned out to
be a squamous cell carcinoma. Options of closure in this
case involved a skin graft (given the gentleman was
already bald), a single or double rotation flap. On exami-
nation of the scalp, due to previous radiotherapy to the
scalp (not close to the present lesion) there was limited
mobility to allow for a rotation arc of a single rotation
flap. While, the O to S (double rotation flap) was also an
option, I elected to use a tripolar-rotation flap given the
location of the lesion at the vertex of the scalp. I have
found this particularly useful on the vertex of the scalp
where dissection of each of the pedicles is begun at 3, 7
and 11 Oclock positions. The planning of this flap is dis-
cussed. Unlike a Mercedes Flap this flap is more a rota-
tion than an advancement flap (Figs. 4.6 and 4.7). While
Figure 4.6 Triple rotation flap plan

36 S.P. Paul
Figure 4.7 Triple rotation flap sutured in place. The bruising

was temporary and flaps remained fully viable
there was some bruising of the flap at the end of surgery

the flaps remained fully viable with no tip necrosis or
need for any further dressings or procedure.
The Single-Rotation Flap

The classical rotation flap is pivoted around a fixed point at
the base of the flap and rotated along an arc toward the
defect (Fig. 4.8).
Classically, rotation flaps are designed to move along an
arc of 30 or less with the radius approximately two to three
times the diameter of the defect and the arc length approxi-
mately four to five times the width of the defect [4].
Larrabee conducted a series of elegant experiments [5] to
test the tension and closure lengths of rotation flaps. He cre-
ated a series of single rotation flaps. The variables he mea-
sured included the radius of each semicircle, the size of the
defect, and the amount of undermining that was needed to
close the defect using the flap. He also measured the force
needed to close the defect at each stage i.e. no flap (primary
closure), 45 flap, 90 flap, 135 flap and 180 rotation flaps.
Rotation flap
Figure 4.8 Rotation flap
90
45 135
Figure 4.9 Rotation flap biomechanics
What he found was that tension was concentrated at 90 and

135. In other words, extending the semicircle of the flap
beyond 135 did not allow for easier closure, although some-
times there were cosmetic indications for doing so (Fig. 4.9).
38 S.P. Paul
In another series of experiments, Throckmorton [6] and

others studied the relationship between the length of the inci-
sion and the amount of linear movement required to cover a
defect using a rotation flap by trigonometric analysis. Their
analyses showed the amount of flap stretch required to close
defects, assuming a 2-dimensional surface and uniform
deformation of the flap during rotation. They found that for
any incision longer than twice the diameter of the defect, the
linear distance that the flap must be rotated ends up between
1.0 and 1.5 times the diameter of the defect.
They concluded that extending the incision beyond twice the
diameter of the defect produces only a small decrease in the
required linear movement of the flap and a small decrease in ten-
sion. Therefore there is little benefit in extending the incision. I
usually remove the lesion with adequate margins and do not
create a triangle as advocated in the classical rotation flap design.
After the flap is rotated, I simply remove the dog-ear at the end.
Throckmortons trigonometric analyses suggest that a
ratio of 1.6:1 represents the ideal proportions of flap length
to defect diameter [6]. However, the effect of altering the
curvilinear releasing incision was not addressed by their
mathematical model. We have already discussed that the arc
of closure is usually four to five times the width of the defect
and this seems to be the norm. When it comes to the scalp, the
single rotation flap usually faces antero-posteriorly.
The Double-Rotation Flap or the O-to-S Flap

The O to S flap may appear like a single rotation flap
performed on two fronts (Fig. 4.10), but biomechanically it is
a different flap. The fundamental necessity to perform this
flap is the availability of lax tissue on opposing sides of the
defect (Fig. 4.11) Therefore each flap is rotated and fixed at
about half of a hemi-circle i.e. 90. Because the final shape
ends up as a zigzag resembling a S or Z shape, this flap is
variably referred to as an O-to-Z or O-to-S flap. While the
two flaps are identical and opposite to each other, this design
tolerates some discrepancies in size and therefore allowances
Figure 4.10 O to S flap
Figure 4.11 O to S flap
can be made to fit the flap in with sub-units or contours of the

face. For an anterior scalp defect, for example, it is often
necessary to extend the scalp flap incision further than the
forehead/temple to achieve equivalent mobility of the inelastic
scalp tissue [7].
Buckhingham [7] and colleagues undertook a series of
cadaver experiments to study the biomechanics of the O-to-S
40 S.P. Paul
Figure 4.12 O to S flap biomechanics
flap. They drew concentric circles and measured flap angles

as well as lengths by increasing lengths to 2, 3, 4 and 5 radii.
They found that optimal design is achieved by selecting a
starting-point of the flap (on the defect) and creating a curvi-
linear flap with points 45 from each other at 2, 3, and 5 radii.
However, their experiments came up with an important find-
ing: While 45 is the optimal angle for these flaps, undermin-
ing alone confers no advantage to decrease closing tension
without accompanying flap incision, and incising the flap
farther than 4 radii did significantly reduce the closing ten-
sion in this study (Fig. 4.12). Therefore, they concluded that
flap lengthening or increased undermining beyond 4 radii did
not confer any advantage [7].
The Triple or Tri-polar Rotation Flap

While using multiple flaps is often needed on the scalp after
cutaneous surgery for skin cancer, these techniques were first
popularized by wartime surgery [8]. On the basis of the origi-
nal three-legged incision introduced by Cushing, Gillies
described the curved tripod, also known as the Isle of Man

flap, due to its similarity to the Viking sun symbol on the Isle
of Man crest. This was the forerunner of the triple rotation
flap of the scalp [9].
A crude way to understand the biomechanics of a triple
rotation flap is to consider the purse-string suture. Many
authors have advocated undermining and the use of a purse-
string suture to close circular cutaneous defects [10, 11].
Indeed, circular defects are quite common on the scalp after
excision of skin cancers. However, the purse-string suture is
rarely used because the skin of the scalp is not as easy to
mobilize in a circular fashion, as tension lines tend to run
horizontally. Further, attempting such closure may not only
cause puckering and buckling of the skin, but also results in
poor scarring or wound breakdown [12]. A modification of
the purse-string principle and the rotational elements of the
Isle of Man flap led to the original Mercedes flap (named
because the design is similar to the insignia of the vehicle)
in this, three points are chosen around the defect depending
on the direction or length needed for the three arms of this
formation. Three flaps are then advanced (rather than
rotated) as indicated in the illustration (Fig. 4.13. B shows
this direction of the advancement).
When the tripolar flap is planned using triple rotational
flaps, the resulting closure ends up like a pin-wheel or the
closure of a traditional camera lens. In a review of the triple
rotation flap, the authors concluded that the triple rotation
flap appears to serve best the essential purpose of immediate
expedient coverage of the defect and primary closure of the
donor area, permitting distribution of tension over the sur-
rounding scalp away from the suture lines [13].
When I utilize this flap for scalp defects after skin cancer
surgery, I reserve this flap for vertex of the scalp defects.
Given hair follicles tend to form a whorl here, it is easy to
orientate the flap antero-posteriorly at the 3, 7 and 11
Oclock positions at the vertex of the scalp (Fig. 4.7)
In conclusion, scalp rotational flaps are extremely useful in
closing circular defects of the scalp >2 cm after excision of
skin cancers and are a superior alternative to skin grafts as
42 S.P. Paul
B B
A A
Figure 4.13 Tripolar advancement flap
they avoid creating areas of alopecia and do not leave a con-

tour defect as split-skin grafts tend to do. However, single,
double and triple rotational flaps have different geometry
and biomechanics and it is therefore useful to revisit their
general principles as I have done here. Closing the scalp with-
out tension is important as tight closures in the scalp can lead
to necrosis and skin loss which may in turn lead to more
complicated bare-bone defects.
References
1. Cutting C. Critical closing and perfusion pressures in flap sur-
vival. Ann Plast Surg. 1982;9:524.
2. Baker S. Local flaps in facial reconstruction. 2nd ed. St Louis:
Mosby/Elsevier; 2007.
3. Papel I. Facial plastic and reconstructive surgery. 2nd ed.

New York: Thieme Medical Publishers; 2002.
4. Patel KG, Sykes JM. Concepts in local flap design and classifica-
tion. Oper Tech Otolaryngol. 2011;22:1323.
5. Larrabee WF, Sutton D. The biomechanics of advancement and
rotation flaps. Laryngoscope. 1981;91(5):72644.
6. Throckmorton GS, Williams FC, Potter JK, Finn R. The geome-
try of skin flap rotation. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2010;68:25458.
7. Buckingham ED, Quinn FB, Calhoun KH. Optimal design of
O-to-Z flaps for closure of facial skin defects. Arch Facial Plast
Surg. 2003;5(1):925.
8. Dingman RO, Argenta LC. The surgical repair of traumatic
defects of the scalp. Clin Plast Surg. 1982;9:13144.
9. Gillies H, Millard Jr DR. Rotation flaps. In: Gillies H, Millard Jr
DR, editors. The principles and art of plastic surgery. Boston:
Little/Brown; 1957. p. 11432.
10. Cohen PR, Martinelli PT, Schulze KE, et al. The purse-string
suture revisited: a useful technique for the closure of cutaneous
surgical wounds. Int J Dermatol. 2007;46:3417.
11. Lin H, Li W. Complete closure using a double purse-string clo-
sure for skin defects. Dermatol Surg. 2009;35:14069.
12. Cohen PR, Martinelli PT, Schulze KE, et al. The cuticular purse
string suture: a modified purse string suture for the partial clo-
sure of round postoperative wounds. Int J Dermatol. 2007;46:
74653.
13. Michaelidis IG, Stefanopoulos PK, Papadimitriou GA. The triple
rotation scalp flap revisited: a case of reconstruction of cicatricial
pressure alopecia. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2006;35(12):11535.
Chapter 5
Double-Advancement H
Flaps for Very Large Defects
of the Forehead: Design,
Planning and the Use
of Sub-periosteal Dissection
to Increase Mobility
Sharad P. Paul
Background
Celsus, of ancient Rome, is the first person credited with
using advancement flaps to close skin defects. In the early
1800s, French surgeons described and advocated advance-
ment flaps under the term lambeau par glissement (sliding
flaps) [1]. Since then these flaps have become widely used to
close skin defects, especially those of the forehead.


DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-20937-1_5,
46 S.P. Paul
The forehead is a large and highly expressive and dynamic

cosmetic unit. Most forehead defects that cannot be closed
primarily are reconstructed with laterally based advancement
flaps [2]. As with any cutaneous defect, options for closure
include secondary intention (no closure), primary closure,
skin grafting and rearranging adjacent tissue as a random
cutaneous flap. Of course tissue expansion works well but not
only does this need two stages, but it is inconvenient for a
patient to be walking around with the noticeable bulge of a
tissue expander under the skin of his forehead. Rotation flaps
work very well on the scalp as we have discussed, but given
their scar-line runs across forehead crease lines, they offer a
poor choice for reconstruction of forehead defects. Skin
grafts are routinely performed by many plastic surgeons for
mid-forehead defects. However, in my opinion, skin grafts are
a poor choice for the middle of the forehead, as they tend to
leave a very noticeable color mismatch.
It is extremely common to use advancement flaps on the
forehead, as their incision lines can be hidden among forehead
wrinkles. For larger defects, bilateral advancement flaps are use-
ful and for lateral forehead and temporal defects, transposition
flaps are often used [2, 3]. Within the dermis there are two dis-
tinct vascular arcades: a superficial vascular plexus that runs
between the reticular and papillary dermis, and a more robust
deep vascular plexus or subdermal plexus that runs between
the reticular dermis and subcutaneous tissue [4]. As the advance-
ment flaps become longer to close larger defects, it is important
that the dissection is progressively deepened towards the base of
the flap to ensure supply from the larger-bore vessels.
Advancement flaps depend on the advancement of the sur-
rounding tissue along a linear axis to close a defect (Fig. 5.1a, b
illustrate double advancement flaps). The advancement of two
skin edges from a fusiform skin excision represents the sim-
plest of advancement flap design [4]. Classically, advancement
flaps have a length-to-width ratio of 1:1 or 2:1 [5, 6] and going
beyond 3:1 may lead to flap necrosis.
Advancement flaps are reliant on a random pattern blood
supply, which comes from the anastomoses within the subdermal
Chapter 5. Double-Advancement H Flaps 47
or dermal plexus. The perfusion pressure of feeding vessels

and intravascular resistance determines the viable length of
an advancement flap. In well-vascularized areas such as the
forehead and scalp, it is possible to sometimes go beyond the
3:1 length-to-width ratio.
However, closure of very large >5 cm defects can pose a
great challenge for the cutaneous surgeon. Reconstruction of
the forehead using bilateral advancement H flaps is dis-
cussed here, with my preferred method of increasing tissue
mobility by utilizing the concept of sub-periosteal undermining.
Figure 5.1 (a) H-advancement flap design. (b) Advancement flap

illustration
48 S.P. Paul
In this context, the relevant anatomy of advancement flaps,

the underlying structures of the forehead, dissection tech-
niques and a review of advancement flaps is undertaken.
Case Studies
1. A 36 year old Chinese gentleman presented with a
large 5 cm squamous cell cancer on his forehead.
Firstly the diagnosis was unusual for his skin type,
especially given his age. This further posed a
reconstructive conundrum if the flap involved the
lower forehead, it would pull his eyebrows closer
together. Obviously, a lesion of this size could not be
closed primarily. I decided to use a double-advancement
flap with one of the incisions extending onto the
frontal hairline. This minimizes the visible scar on the
forehead. I have found this useful forehead in patients
with few wrinkles on the forehead, as if often the case
in young Asians. Secondly, dissection was proceeded
in the sub-periosteal plane in the temporal scalp to
gain further mobility of the skin flaps and to achieve
primary closure (Figs. 5.2 and 5.3).
Figure 5.2 SCC forehead and plan of advancement flaps

Figure 5.3 Advancement flaps sutured in place
2. An 80-year old gentleman presented with a large

5 cm deeply infiltrating BCC of his central forehead.
The simplest choice here may have been a skin graft
but this would leave him with an area of de-pigmenta-
tion on his central forehead. Planning a double-
advancement flap in this case isnt easy because when
faced with a lesion of this size, mobilizing flaps would
move the eyebrows closer. This is where the technique
of sub-periosteal undermining in the temporal region
proves effective in gaining valuable inches of skin. For
a start, sub-periosteal dissection spares the temporal
blood vessels which are liable to get damaged during
superficial dissections. Further there is also concern of
damage to the facial nerve branch if one was to pro-
ceed the discussion over the upper zygomatic region.
Inferior to the zygomatic arch, the facial nerve branches
travel below the SMAS layer and innervate the mus-
cles of facial expression via the underside of the mus-
cles. With standard double advancement flaps and
utilizing sub-periosteal undermining, primary closure
was achieved easily while ensuring the safety of vital
structures (Figs. 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, and 5.5).
50 S.P. Paul
Figure 5.4 Large infiltrating BCC central forehead
Figure 5.5 Bilateral advancement flaps sutured in place
Discussion
Double opposing H flaps offer a high degree of patient sat-
isfaction when planned well and can be used for defects up to
6 cm in diameter [7]. While planning any large flaps
(or indeed any flap), it is preferable to achieve margin control

i.e. ensure that the tumor has been excised completely. As
discussed earlier, the H-flap is essentially two rectangular
flaps that are advancement from opposing sides to close the
defect. Ebrahimi and colleagues reserve this flap for tumors
in upper middle or lateral portion of the forehead, defect size
between 4 cm and 6 cm, no bone involvement, and patients
with no history of radiotherapy [7]. When one of the limbs of
the flap is hidden in the hairline (as we have done in Case
study 1.) it allows for a superior end result.
However, when dissection proceeds over the temporal
scalp and temporal region, typically it becomes more difficult
to achieve flap mobility. Psillakis and others described the
technique of sub-periosteal dissection while performing face-
lifts as open non-endoscopic procedures. The thinking was
that as the SMAS was firmly attached to the periosteum
through the facial muscles, this technique improved mobility
of the cheek and temple [8].
In the temporal region, the dissection is deepened to
expose the deep temporalis fascia. The loose areolar issue
that forms the plane between the superficial and deep fascia
in the temporal region allows for easy dissection down to the
sub-periosteal plane, which is then raised using tissue eleva-
tors. The lateral extent of this sub-periosteal dissection is
marked to ensure no damage to the branches of the facial
nerve [9]. Dissecting in the sub-periosteal plane avoids
branches of the supraorbital and supratrochlear vessels [10].
Revascularisation in the sub-periosteal plane is rapid, as early
as 4 days according to several authors [11]. However, I would
stress that I only resort to sub-periosteal dissection when the
defects are greater than 5 cm and it is obvious that closure of
the advancement flaps is not possible in the conventional
fashion. In other cases of scalp dissection, the sub-galeal
plane is both easier and is adequate. There have been some
concerns raised by some authors [12] about the possibility of
sub-periosteal dissection affecting the regenerative capacity
of the calvarium, even though the technique does help close
these large defects. This is after all a method that has been
52 S.P. Paul
borrowed from techniques honed by years of facelift ana-

tomical research. Periosteal elevation causes an increase in
overall cell counts during wound healing as well as cortical
abnormalities. Dissection in the sub-galeal plane preserves
the important boneperiosteal interface and seems to elicit
less vigorous wound healing response both cellularly and
vascularly [12]. While more histological research is needed,
the technique of sub-periosteal elevation does offer major
advantages in helping us close very large defects of the fore-
head with less eyebrow and vital structure distortion (than
would be the case otherwise).
Any patient with a large forehead defect >5 cm needs a
careful assessment and a radiological examination to ensure
no bone involvement by the tumor being removed. Given
these large double advancement flaps are still random pat-
tern flaps, they are avoided in smokers and those with a his-
tory of radiotherapy. While dealing with large central forehead
defects and the need to preserve eyebrow position, several
authors have proposed the one-stage combination of advance-
ment of a lateral U-shaped flap and a median forehead rota-
tion flap for reconstruction of large defects in the paramedian
and lateral forehead [2]. However, techniques such as these
result in scars across wrinkle lines and therefore the tech-
nique of double opposed rectangular flaps we have advo-
cated here achieves superior results. When reconstructing the
lateral or middle parts of the forehead, it is important to
maintain symmetry of the hairline and eyebrows. However, it
is equally important to preserve the motor and sensory func-
tion [13]. It is especially important to note the anatomy of the
facial nerve as it crosses the zygomatic arch. The temporal
branch courses between the deep and superficial lobes of the
parotid gland, then divides into multiple rami below the arch.
It lies deep to the SMAS and superficial to the periosteum of
the arch. The temporal branch then courses superiorly in
close approximation with the superficial layer of temporal
fascia [14]. When sub-periosteal dissection is done medially
for cosmetic surgery endoscopic assistance is used. This is not
needed at the lateral forehead and temporal region and
easily performed using a small flat elevator to initiate the

dissection and a larger flat elevator to free up a broader area
of periosteum [15]. Typically the advancement flap raised is
anchored to the temporalis fascia to prevent any lateral
recoil post-operatively.
I concur with the opinion of other authors that the H-flap
(or the double opposing rectangular advancement flap) is the
preferred aesthetic flap for large upper forehead defects in
central or lateral parts of forehead because direction of bilat-
eral advancement is parallel to RSTLs and another advan-
tage is upper border of flap is situated in the hairline and not
visible [7]. I have found this approach extremely useful in
closing large defects of sizes approximating 56 cm of the
forehead.
References
1. Sclafani, AP, Shawl MW. Advancement flaps. New York:
Medscape E-medicine; 2014.
2. Redondo P. Repair of large defects in the forehead using a
median forehead rotation flap and advancement lateral
U-shaped flap. Dermatol Surg. 2006;32(6):8436.
3. Jackson IT. Forehead reconstruction. In: Jackson IT, editor. Local
flaps in head and neck reconstruction. St. Louis: Mosby; 1985.
p. 4385.
4. Patel KG, Sykes JM. Concepts in local flap design and classifica-
tion. Oper Tech Otolaryngol. 2011;22:1323.
5. Murakami CS, Nishioka GJ. Essential concepts in the design of
local skin flaps. Facial Plast Surg Clin North Am. 1996;4:45568.
6. Papel I. Facial plastic and reconstructive surgery. 2nd ed.
New York: Thieme Medical Publishers; 2002.
7. Ebrahimi A, Nejadsarvari N. Upper forehead skin reconstruc-
tion with H-Flap. J Cutan Aesthet Surg. 2013;6(3):1524.
8. Psillakis JM, Rumley TO, Camargos A. Subperiosteal approach
as an improved concept for correction of the aging face. Plast
Reconstr Surg. 1988;82(3):38394.
9. Holck DE. The transtemporal subperiosteal approach for midface
lifting. In: Midfacial rejuvenation. New York: Springer; 2012. p. 3947.
54 S.P. Paul
10. Yoshioka N, Kishimoto S. Anteriorly based pericranial flap: an

anatomic study of feeding. Skull Base Surg. 1991;1:1614.
11. Lo AK, Colcleugh RG, Anderson C. Pericranial healing and the
temporalis myoosseous flap in the rabbit model. Plast Reconstr
Surg. 1992;90:237.
12. Rapp SJ, Jones DC, Billmire DA, Taylor JA. Dissection in the
subgaleal and subperiosteal plane: implications on scalp wound
healing. J Plast Surg Hand Surg. 2013;47:1638.
13. Grigg R. Forehead and temple reconstruction. Otolaryngol Clin
North Am. 2001;34:583600.
14. Heinrichs HL, Kaidi AA. The subperiosteal facelift. Semin Plast
Surg. 2002;16(2):84355.
15. McCurdy JA, Lam SM. Cosmetic surgery of the Asian face.
New York: Thieme; 2011.
Chapter 6
The Modified Rhomboid
Flap: An Improvement
on the Traditional Technique
and Its Use in Defects
of the Ala Nasi
Sharad P. Paul
Background
The original rhomboid flap was described by Professor

A.A. Limberg of (then) Leningrad, who first described this
technique and spent a lifetime refining it [1]. However, it was
in Modern Trends in Plastic Surgery that the English-speaking
medical community really became aware of this surgical
innovation [2]. In this book, Limberg detailed his rhomboid
flap essentially the shape is a parallelogram with two angles
of 120 and two of 60 (Fig. 6.1). These angles, of course, can


DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-20937-1_6,
56 S.P. Paul
Rhomboid flap
(Limberg)
60
Figure 6.1 Rhomboid flap
be modified depending on the shape of the lesion or defect.

All sides of a surgical rhomboid and all sides of the flap are
equal. As many as four flaps can be raised from one rhom-
boid, when planned in the classical form [3].
Limberg and his followers (including us) use a bit of surgi-
cal license when referring to the rhomboid shape. Because,
mathematically speaking, a parallelogram with sides of equal
length (equilateral) is a rhombus but not a rhomboid (the
latter does not have equal sides).
A rhombus has equal sides and 60 and 120 angles. In
general, any quadrilateral whose two diagonals are perpen-
dicular is called a kite. Every rhombus is a kite, and any quad-
rilateral that is both a kite and parallelogram is mathematically
a rhombus. Therefore surgically speaking, we are using the
term rhomboid to mean rhombus. As Euclid, the Greek
mathematician clarified [4]:
Of quadrilateral figures, a square is that which is both equilateral
and right-angled; an oblong that which is right-angled but not equi-
lateral; a rhombus that which is equilateral but not right-angled;
and a rhomboid that which has its opposite sides and angles equal
to one another but is neither equilateral nor right-angled. And let
quadrilaterals other than these be called trapezia.
The rhomboid flap is a reliable, versatile, and widely used

tool in head and neck surgery [5]. Although its geometry is
well described, the mechanics of the flap when planned in the
classical fashion do not always take into account the RSTL or
skin creases. In this case study, I discuss the modified rhom-
boid flap and its applications for head and neck surgery after
Chapter 6. The Modified Rhomboid Flap 57
skin cancer. More specifically, the unique design of the modi-

fied rhomboid flap makes an especially good choice for sur-
gery to the ala nasi and the anatomy and planning are
detailed in this regard.
The Modified Rhomboid Flap

In the classical design of a Limberg flap, a rhombus-shaped
segment of skin containing the lesion is excised. A flap is cre-
ated by incising the skin at a 180 angle relative to the short
diagonal of the rhombus and then extending this excision
parallel to one of the adjacent sides of the rhombus. This area
is then undermined and the flap thus created is rotated into
the surgical defect (Fig. 6.2) [6]. One of the interesting things
we note in the rhomboid flap is that the flap itself closes only
a portion of the defect while the 60 angle closest to the point
about which the flap is rotated is closed directly. In other
words, one is still closing a 60 ellipse under tension [7].
There are two fundamental problems with the traditional
rhomboid flap. The cutting out of a rhomboid shape does not
take into account skin tension lines. Secondly, the closure line of
the flap is also not orientated along the RSTL which is one of
the guiding principles of cutaneous plastic surgery. Larrabee,
who has made a remarkable contribution to the modern
understanding of the dynamics of several different random
flaps spent time analyzing rhomboid flaps. He concluded that
A
A B B
Figure 6.2 Rhomboid flap mechanism illustrated

58 S.P. Paul
a a
a1
a a* a2
a a b
d2 d2
f2
d1 a1 a1
d1 f1
f1 f2 a2
a2
c d
Figure 6.3 (ab) Modified rhomboid flap is bisected by the RSTL
the actual position of the final scars is more variable than the
changes in length of the flap and is related to local tissue char-
acteristics, e.g. the ease of tissue advancement from different
directions. The most important result from his study was a clari-
fication of the distribution of tension in a 60 rhomboid flap.
Most of the tension is located at the closure of the donor site.
In other words, an ideally designed rhomboid flap would
have the RSTL bisecting the 60 angle of the flap. This is the
basis of the modified rhomboid flap.
In the modified rhomboid flap, the lesion is cut out without
attempting to create a rhomboid shape (therefore no unneces-
sary tissue is excised). The 60 flap is planned with the 60 flap
angle being bisected by RSTL. Care is taken to ensure that the
limbs of the flap are equilateral. Figure 6.3 illustrates a modi-
fied rhomboid flap on the cheek (unlike in Fig. 6.2 the shape
is not made into a rhomboid; rather the defect is simply cut
out in this case a circular lesion the black line in the image
indicates the RSTL in that location which bisects the 60 flap).
And Fig. 6.3 illustrates the difference between a traditional
rhomboid flap and the modified version in the latter, the
RSTL or skin creases bisect the 60 flap. However, in the
modified rhomboid flap, there is no need to cut additional tis-

sue for the sake of creating a rhomboid shape.
Case Studies
Case 1: A biopsy-proven basal-cell carcinoma was excised
from the R ala nasi of a 71-year-old woman and the defect
was closed with a modified rhomboid flap. I simply cut
out the lesion with adequate margins, then plan the modi-
fied rhomboid flap using the three essential principles in
my method: flap angle bisected by the nasolabial crease;
flap lengths equal; flap lengths somewhere between
radius and diameter (Fig. 6.4). The end result is shown
with the flap sutured in place (Fig. 6.5). The unique shape
Figure 6.4 Modified rhomboid flap of the ala nasi plan
Figure 6.5 Modified rhomboid flap of the ala nasi sutured in

place
60 S.P. Paul
of the ala nasi and the adjacent naso-labial crease ensures

that there is no scar visible post-op as all the sutures are
in skin creases or the margin of the ala nasi.
Case 2: A nodular BCC involved more than half the ala
nasi on the L side of the nose on a 60-year old woman.
After the lesion was excised and tumor clearance ensured,
the modified rhomboid flap was planned. The image
(Fig. 6.6.) shows the design clearly with the nasolabial
crease bisecting the flap. Figure 6.7 shows the flap sutured
in place with no distortion of the ala nasi and suture line
well hidden in crease lines. You will note that in both
examples discussed in this paper, I have based the flap
caudally rather than cranially. This is because if a rhom-
boid flap is planned from the superior aspect i.e. cranially,
then it tends to bridge over the ala nasi as some nasola-
bial flaps tend to do (and often need revision). In Fig. 6.7.
the slight notch on the L ala nasi was the pre-existing
normal shape of the patients L ala nasi. There was no
discrepancy between the sides at the end of the procedure.
The nasolabial crease provides a perfect site for the modi-
fied rhomboid flap as it lies alongside a rounded structure
(the ala). This flap is also useful in other sites like the ear
lobe or indeed anywhere where a conventional rhomboid
flap is planned. It has the advantages of a more anatomical
closure utilizing the RSTL.
Figure 6.6 Modified rhomboid flap of L ala nasi plan

Figure 6.7 Modified rhomboid flap of L ala nasi sutured in

place
Discussion
Many surgeons like Lister and Gibson spent considerable

time in analyzing the closure of wound defects using rhom-
boid flaps and several variants of the original design [8]. One
important point with either the classical Limberg design or
the modified version I have presented here is this at any
angle other than 60 we will theoretically have either
compression or stretching of the flap itself [9]. Therefore 60
is the optimal angle for the flap.
It is worth looking at other variants of rhomboid flaps.
Dufourmentel modified the rhomboid flap and published
his paper in 1962 [10]. As in a classical Limberg flap, the
defect is created in the shape of a rhomboid. The excision is
then extended at an acute angle of up to 60 relative to the
original incision (see 1. In Fig. 6.8) therefore this flap
creates unequal tension on the lateral borders of the defect
and is useful in repairing rhomboid defects where the acute
angle of the defect is between 60 and 90. Dufourmentel felt
that this flap was ideally suited to close lozenge-shaped
defects. Some authors feel that even if the rhomboid flap is a
pivotal flap, Dufourmentels design actually ends up making
this a straight advancement of tissue [7].
62 S.P. Paul
60
60 60 30
60
60
1 2 3
Figure 6.8 Limberg (1), Duformental (2) and Webster (3) Flaps
In 1978, Webster et al. [11] described the combined use of

a 30 transposition flap and an M-plasty to repair rhomboidal
defect however his technique was also plagued by unequal
tensions on the lateral borders of the defect.
However, while it is easy to be geometrically accurate
while planning the flap, the variability of tissue dynamics
between individuals makes it difficult to accurately predict
tension. When measurements were done in piglet skin by
Larrabee, he noted as much as 29 % discrepancy from pre-
dicted values [5]. As Lister and Gibson noted as early as in
1972, predicting the flap movement needs a computer rather
than a plastic surgeon [12]. Therefore as I discussed earlier,
60 seems to cause the least distortion (and least disagree-
ment) when it comes to rhomboid flaps.
The closest to the technique I am describing here was a
paper titled A square peg into a round hole flap which was
published in 1987 [13]. The authors, Quaba and Sommerlad
mention the modifications they made to traditional rhom-
boid flaps thus [13]:
1. The lesion is excised as necessary without considering the
shape of the defect produced; corners need not be sacri-
ficed to produce a rhomboid-shaped defect. Many defects
will end up having an almost circular shape.
2. The flap is always planned to be smaller than the defect.
The chosen diagonal is therefore, extended by about two-
thirds of its own length. In other words, they suggest that
the flap length be 2/3 the diameter of the defect. I have
found that the flaps works as long as the flap length is

somewhere between radius and diameter and precise mea-
surement is not necessary.
3. Although it may look rather like putting a square peg into
a round hole, surprisingly, it is rarely necessary to trim the
corners of the flap.
4. One of the problems with transposition flaps of this nature
is the risk of pin-cushioning, which is also sometimes referred
to (as Quaba and Sommerlad do) as trap-door formation,
although there is an important distinction, in my view trap-
door deformities result while using a island flap, as the ten-
sion across the flap suture line tends to aggravate the tension.
In contrast, when using a transposition such as a bilobed flap
or rhomboid flaps, the tension across the line of closure may
result in pin-cushioning of the flap.
Quaba and Sommerlad, in their excellent paper suggest

that this trap-dooring was observed in approximately 9 % of
patients, especially where small defects were closed with
apparently over-generous flaps. Therefore keeping the flap
small often works better. As I have illustrated in Fig. 6.3, the
modified rhomboid flap often looks rather small for the
defect, but with planning as detailed in this paper it is a very
versatile flap.
In conclusion, the modified rhomboid flap is a major
improvement on traditional rhomboid flap designs. While
these flaps can be used anywhere a traditional rhomboid
would have been contemplated, it is especially suited to
defects of the ala nasi region as the anatomy of the site allows
for perfect alignment of this flap.
References
1. Limberg AA. Mathematical principles of local plastic procedures
on the surface of the human body. Leningrad: Medgis; 1946.
2. Gibson T, editor. Modern trends in plastic surgery. London:
Butterworths; 1964.
64 S.P. Paul
3. Chasmar LR. The versatile rhomboid (Limberg) flap. Can J Plast

Surg. 2007;15(2):6771.
4. Euclids Elements of Geometry: The Greek text of J.L. Heiberg
(18831885). Euclidis Elementa, edidit et Latine interpretatus
est I.L. Heiberg, in aedibus B.G. Teubneri, 18831885 (Translation
edited by Richard Fitzatrick). First Edition 2007. Published by
Richard Fitzpatrick.
5. Larrabee WF, Trachy R, Sutton D, Cox K. Rhomboid flap
dynamics. Arch Otolaryngol. 1981;107:7557.
6. Lober CW, Mendelsohn HE, Fenske NA. Rhomboid transposi-
tion flaps. Aesthetic Plast Surg. 1985;9(2):1214.
7. Bray DA. Clinical applications of the rhomboid flap. Arch
Otolaryngol. 1983;109:37.
8. Lister GD, Gibson T. Closure of rhomboid skin defects: the flaps
of Limberg and Dufourmentel. Br J Plast Surg. 1972;25:30.
9. Koss N. A mathematical analysis of the rhomboid flap. Surg
Gynecol Obstet. 1975;141:439.
10. Dufourmentel C. An L-shaped flap for lozenge shaped defects:
principle technique applications. Transact Third Int Congr
Plast Surg. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica; 1964. p. 7723.
11. Webster RC, Davidson TM, Smith RC. The thirty degree trans-
position flap. Laryngoscope. 1978;88:85.
12. Lister GD, Gibson T. Closure of rhomboid skin defects: the flaps
of Limberg and Dufourmentel. Br J Plast Surg. 1972;25:300.
13. Quaba AA, Sommerlad BC. A square peg into a round hole: a
modified rhomboid flap and its clinical application. Br J Plast
Surg. 1987;40:16370.
Chapter 7
The Keystone Design
Perforator Island Flap:
An Easy Option
for the Lower Limb, But
How Does It Actually Work?
Sharad P. Paul
Background
Closure of wounds after excision of skin cancers on the leg
provide a challenge, especially after wide excision of mela-
noma. For these cases, the traditional approach is to use a
split skin graft however this leaves the patient with a deep
contour defect and color mismatch. Many authors have
echoed the question after excision of a melanoma: Is flap
closure preferable to skin grafting? In a study of over 700
patients after skin cancer excisions, in the flap repair group
26.0 % of cases noted post-operative complications


DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-20937-1_7,
66 S.P. Paul
compared to 43.1 % in graft repair group (p < 0.03) where

conventional split-skin grafts were used. Failure rate was
significantly higher in the graft repair group than the flap
repair group (20.8 % vs. 9.09 %; p = 0.04) [1]. These studies
were done comparing traditional split-skin grafting from a
separate donor site. Yang and Bartholomeusz have reported
that, in another survey of skin grafting in Australia, 73.5 %
of surgeons reported that, at 1 month, skin graft take of
greater than 80 % occurred more than 90 % of the time [2].
However, there was some morbidity associated with hospi-
talization and lack of early mobilization of the patient.
78.6 % of surgeons wrapped the limb with bandages only,
whereas 21.4 % placed the limb in a hard splint; 46.1 % of
surgeons kept their patients in hospital for between 2 and 7
days after a split skin graft [2].
Part of the problem with lower limb skin is the relatively
poor vascularity. Further, as many patients with sun-damaged
skin have poor quality friable skin, skin grafting becomes a
challenge. Partial-thickness grafts will take on virtually any
body tissue including periosteum (bare bone and bare carti-
lage being the exception). Full-thickness grafts, while the
preferred choice on the face, due to the better cosmetic out-
come often fare poorly on the lower limbs due to the poor
quality skin and the increased metabolic demand of having
an intact dermis. A study of full-thickness skin grafts of the
lower limb in 28 patients found that the graft take was
classified as good (>80 %) in 18 patients, partial (5075 %) in
7 patients and poor (<25 %) in 5 patients [3]. These authors
found that contrary to surgical wisdom, full-thickness grafts
are feasible on the lower limb, albeit with reduced take and
increased risk of complications.
In the face and scalp random pattern flaps work well due
to the excellent dermal and sub-dermal blood supply. Random
flaps perform poorly on the lower limb for a reasons men-
tioned earlier. If a large random pattern flap survives on the
lower limb, it would be the exception rather than the rule.
Chapter 7. The Keystone Design Perforator Island Flap 67
In Australasia, the guidelines for melanoma wide excision

recommend the following: Melanoma in situ: margin 5 mm;
Melanoma <1.0 mm: margin 1 cm; Melanoma 1.02.0 mm: mar-
gin 12 cm; Melanoma 2.04.0 mm: margin 12 cm; Melanoma
>4.0 mm: margin 2 cm. For melanomas 24 mm thick, where
possible, it may be desirable to take a wider margin (2 cm) for
these tumors depending on tumor site and surgeon/patient pref-
erence [4]. Therefore following wide excision, the surgeon is
faced with closing a deep defect >4 cm in diameter and this led
to a search for island flap closures. Free flaps of course are the
gold standard, but seem an overtreatment for what is a rela-
tively straightforward wide excision, notwithstanding that they
require specialized resources, equipment and expertise.
Island flaps in the lower limb are an option but they need
to be based on perforators to be failsafe. V-Y island advance-
ment flaps have been described in the lower limb. While the
design is similar to V-Y flaps in other parts of the body, the
reach of the V-Y advancement flap, especially in the leg, can
be improved by basing it on one or two perforators and divid-
ing the deep fascia around the flap [5]. However, the first step
in planning a perforator based flap is to identify a perforator
close to the defect. This is best done using a Doppler probe
[6]. In Australasia, where the majority of skin cancers are
managed in primary care, this presents a resource problem
and hence surgeons attempted to devise random patterned
island flaps that would by their very design incorporate one
or more perforators.
This paper presents different island flap techniques in the
reconstruction of defects after excision of a malignant mela-
noma of the lower limb. The Bezier or the French curve flap, is
also described and illustrated. However, greater attention is paid
to the keystone flap, which has gained wide prominence interna-
tionally, at least in the melanoma capitals of Australia and New
Zealand. The keystone Design Perforator Island Flap is detailed,
with an analysis of the mechanics of the flap and some recent
controversies regarding the science behind the flap.
68 S.P. Paul
The Bezier Flap Technique

The Bezier flap is based on the French curve design of oppos-
ing ellipses (Fig. 7.1) [7]. The flap becomes a template of the
excisional defect (a). The flap is advanced into the area that
requires cover, with enough freeing of the deep fascia or
muscle attachment to allow movement on one side, yet not
detaching the flap fully from such underlying supports as to
imperil its viability (b). The apices of the flap then fit into the
defect, employing a double V-Y closure (c) [8]. As we can see,
the Bezier flap is really an extension of the V-Y flap.
Historically, Dieffenbach was the first to describe a V-Y type
flap closure, in the nineteenth century, when he described this
technique for the nasolabial region [9]. The development of
the Bezier design can be seen as a transition from straight
lines and triangular flaps to curvilinear patterns, to ultimately
end up with an ellipse the size of the flap almost equating
to the size of the defect [8].
a b
Tumor defect
Bezier island flap Bezier island flap
c
Bezier flap
Figure 7.1 Steps of the Bezier island flap

The Keystone Design Perforator Island Flap

This flap was first described by Felix Behan [10]. In Roman
architecture, it was necessary to design a stone called a key-
stone a way of locking arches in a building using gravity.
Behan felt that the shape of this flap seemed to lock into the
defect.
The keystone flap is a curvilinear shaped trapezoidal
design flap and the curvilinear shape of the flap fits well into
body contours especially in the lower limb. The flap has a
ratio of 1:1 for the width of the defect to the width of the flap.
The length of the flap is determined by the size of defect that
is excised and a 90 angle is created at the limits of the exci-
sion as shown in Fig. 7.2. Blunt dissection allows mobilization
of the surrounding tissue while the flap advances to close the
defect. We can see this is an island flap being designed
within dermatomal segments, and the longitudinal design
allows nerves and veins to be incorporated in the flap
design therefore it is limited to certain bodily sites as illus-
trated in Fig. 7.3.
Additionally, Behan et al. [8] classified the keystone flap
into several subtypes:
Type I: The deep fascia is left intact for smaller lesions up to
2 cm (Type I keystone) The trapezoidal shaped flap is con-
toured along the side of the defect with 90 angle at the
limits of the island flap (Fig. 7.4).
Type II: For larger areas >2 cm, located over muscular com-
partments, the deep fascia is divided along the outer cur-
vature of flap to permit further mobilization of the flap
Type IIA: Division of the deep fascia along the outer curvilin-
ear line (in one case, our patient ended up with a trouble-
some seroma after division of fascia was performed as part
of a keystone flap. However, this resolved after 46 weeks
with compression stockings)
70 S.P. Paul
90
90
Figure 7.2 Keystone flap design
Type IIB: Skin graft to the secondary defect when undue ten-
sion exists (In type IIB a graft is often needed where tissue
has limited elastic stretch on the lower one-third of the lower
limb which is why I personally avoid this type as if a skin
graft is needed, it is simpler to just do a skin graft)
Type III: Double keystone flap (Fig. 7.5) this is reserved for
considerably larger defects (510 cm) where a double key-
stone design can exploit maximum laxity of the surrounding
Head and neck
Trunk
Forearm
Hand
Leg
Foot
Figure 7.3 Sites for the Keystone flap

72 S.P. Paul
90
90
Figure 7.4 Type I Keystone island flap
tissues. (Ive found this useful in sacral region for closure

of pilonidal sinuses as well after wide excision of deep
melanomas)
Type IV: Rotational keystone flap this is more useful in
joint contractures and I shall not detail this here.
For closure after wide excision of melanoma, the Type I
and Type II (with division of fascia) keystone flaps are espe-
cially useful.
90 90
90 90
Figure 7.5 Double Keystone flap
Case Study
A 60-year-old woman presented with a 3 cm basal cell
cancer on the lower limb. This was over the pretibial
region and he had notable varicose veins. I elected to
perform a keystone flap. In the image (Fig. 7.6) I have
marked the direction of the RSTL to show why an ellip-
tical closure would not work. A skin graft was an option
but less ideal as the lesion was right on the pre-tibial
region overlying bone. The keystone flap was raised and
in this case a Type II flap was used with fascial division
needed to achieve closure. The end result at 3 weeks
post-operatively shows a well-healed flap with no con-
tour defect (Figs. 7.7, 7.8, and 7.9). While most of this
discussion has been for island flaps post-melanoma
excision, as in this case it can be also used for non-
melanoma skin cancers on the lower limb.
74 S.P. Paul
Figure 7.6 Keystone flap planning
Figure 7.7 Keystone flap raised; in this case fascia was

released to help closure
Figure 7.8 Keystone flap sutured in place

Figure 7.9 Postoperative appearance at 3 weeks shows well

healed flap with no contour defect
Discussion
The keystone design perforator island flap is an elegant flap
and easy to manage. However, the nature of the flap, and the
anatomy of its closure have led to several misconceptions and
controversies [11].
Going back the dynamics, in general a basic fasciocutane-
ous flap used to reconstruct a defect is one that is advanced
into the primary defect in a V-Y fashion either in a straight
(as in a standard perforator based V-Y flap) or a curved
(Bezier) fashion. However, as the amount of advancement
afforded by these techniques is often disappointing, people
began to raise the flap as a fasciocutaneous island on a single
perforating vessel [12]. Orientating the flap in the longitudi-
nal axis helps conserve the subcutaneous lymphatic vessels
under the lateral limbs and reduces the risk of distal
lymphedema.
Moncrieff and others from the Sydney Melanoma Unit
modified the keystone flap along the lateral limbs, they
excise the full thickness of the dermis but no deeper, and the
subcutis is released with gentle, blunt spreading dissection.
This preserves the subcutaneous venous and lymphatic flow-
through underneath the flap (Fig. 7.10 from Moncrieff et al.)
76 S.P. Paul
a b
Figure 7.10 Steps of the modified Keystone flap by the Sydney

Melanoma Unit
effectively creating a keystone peninsula. The authors from

the Sydney Melanoma Unit commented that their modifica-
tion of the keystone flap was significantly associated with a
significantly decreased major complication rate, including
when the double opposing flaps were used [13].
However, Felix Behan, the original inventor of the tech-
nique disagreed. With regard to the adequacy of flap perfu-
sion, the developer of the flap explains that the integrity of
the island flap increases the vascular perfusion by a possible
sympathectomy effect.
Behan noted the oft-stated surgical dictum: In all non-
islanded flaps, where the subdermal plexus is retained, there
is a suppressive effect on vascular dynamics [11]. This is one
of the reasons for island flaps in the first place. Indeed after
experimental studies on island flaps, Milton had surmised
that when it came to cutaneous surgery, an island is safer
than a peninsula [14].
But the controversy surrounding the keystone design per-
forator island flap continues. Douglas questioned the sound-
ness of the keystone science [15]. Behan had originally stated
that that the V-Y advancement at each end of the long axis of
the keystone island creates a relative redundancy in the
central portion of the flap and relaxes the tension in the short
axis [10]. In a paper titled, The keystone flap: not an advance,
just a stretch [16], Douglas team suggested that that the com-
plete relaxation of skin in one axis (from in vivo length) does
produce modest tension benefits in the orthogonal axis.
However, the amount of increased orthogonal stretch was in
the order of 1 mm, a very minimal and dubious benefit [16].
The surgical debate continues and as in some surgical tech-
niques, we know that the technique seems to do the job, even
if the mechanisms are not clearly understood. While no
objective study has proven (yet) that this flap indeed reduces
tension, the flap has gained wide acceptance. As to the exact
science behind this technique, further studies are needed to
do with the biomechanics to put this debate to rest.
References
1. Kim S, et al. The reconstructive approach following skin cancer
excision on the lower limb: is flap closure preferable to skin
grafting? Int J Surg (London, England). 2013;11(8):681.
2. Yang SM, Bartholomeusz H. The techniques of Australian plas-
tic and reconstructive surgeons in split skin grafting of the lower
limb following skin cancer excision. ANZ J Surg. 2006;76(Suppl):
A5769.
3. Rao K. Full thickness skin graft cover for lower limb defects follow-
ing excision of cutaneous lesions. Dermatol Online J. 2008;14(2):4.
4. Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Management of Melanoma
in Australia and New Zealand. The Cancer Council Australia/
Australian Cancer Network/Ministry of Health, New Zealand.
2008.
5. Venkataramakrishnan V. Perforator based V-Y advancement
flaps in the leg. Br J Plast Surg. 1998;51(6):4315.
6. Taylor GI, Doyle M, McCarten G. The Doppler probe for plan-
ning flaps: anatomical study and clinical applications. Br J Plast
Surg. 1990;43:116.
7. Bezier Recherche Commentaire de Iexpression algebrique du
rayon vecteur de lellipse. 1873 Vendome, Imprimer. de
Lemercien, reprinted from the Bulletin de la SOC. arch., lit. et
sci., du Vendomois.
78 S.P. Paul
8. Behan FC, Terrill PJ, et al. Island flaps including the Bezier type
in the treatment of malignant melanoma. Aust N Z J Surg.
1995;65:87080.
9. Dieffenbach JF. Die Nasenbehandlung in Operativ Chirurgie.
Leipzig: F.A. Brockhaus; 1845.
10. Behan FC. The Keystone Design Perforator Island Flap in
reconstructive surgery. ANZ J Surg. 2003;73:11220.
11. Behan FC, Lo C. Principles and misconceptions regarding the
keystone island flap. Ann Surg Oncol. 2009;16:17223.
12. Niranjan NS, Price RD, Govilkar P. Fascial feeder and perforator-
based V-Y advancement flaps in the reconstruction of lower
limb defects. Br J Plast Surg. 2000;53:67989.
13. Moncrieff MD, Bowen F, Thompson JF, Saw RPM, Shannon KF,
Spillane AJ, et al. Keystone flap reconstruction of primary mela-
noma excision defects of the leg the end of the skin graft? Ann
Surg Oncol. 2008;15(10):286773.
14. Milton SH. Experimental studies on island flaps. Plast Reconstr
Surg. 1972;48(6):5748.
15. Douglas CD, et al. The keystone concept: time for some science.
Perspectives. ANZ J Surg. 2013;83:498504.
16. Douglas CD, Low NC, Seitz MJ. The keystone flap: not an
advance, just a stretch. Ann Surg Oncol. 2013;20:97380.
Chapter 8
Amelanotic Malignant
Melanoma of the Toe
Presenting as an Ulcer:
Management and Biopsy
Guidelines
Background
The number of cases of malignant melanoma worldwide is
increasing faster than any other form of cancer amongst
white-skinned populations [1]. New Zealand and Australia
have high ambient UV, Celticdescent populations, and the
highest incidence rates of and mortality rates from cutaneous
melanoma in the world [2]. In 2007 in New Zealand, from a
total population of four million people, 2173 new cases were
S.P. Paul, MD, MPhil ()

M. Inskip, MB ChB, FRACGP
Sun Patrol Skin Cancer Clinic, Berwick, VIC, Australia

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-20937-1_8,
80 S.P. Paul and M. Inskip
registered of melanoma and 292 people died from the disease

[3], whereas in Australia, a country of 21 million inhabitants,
10,342 people were diagnosed with melanoma and 1279 died
from this disease [4].
One of the problems with nail and foot melanomas is the
misdiagnosis and late presentation. These melanomas of the
nail unit and toes are often amelanotic and typically diagnosed
at a later stage than melanoma at most other body sites. It
naturally follows that the tumors end up thicker, and the prog-
nosis worse. A large UK survey of four regions demonstrated
that nail unit melanomas represented 1.4 % of melanoma over
a 10 year period, giving an incidence of 1 per million of popu-
lation per year. This study noted that the 5-years survival for
these tumors overall in the order of 51 % [5].
Diabetic patients have been estimated to have a lifetime
risk of 15% of developing a neuropathic foot ulcer. Diabetic
foot ulcers are a common occurrence and are often dealt with
by podiatrists or nurses in diabetic clinics. Biopsy of ulcers is
rarely performed in diabetic clinics, and this poses significant
challenges in the diagnosis or misdiagnoses of melanomas in
these patients [6].
Kong [7, 8] and colleagues have previously reported two cases
of foot melanoma presenting as diabetic ulcers and Gregson and
Allain [9] have reported a case of an amelanotic malignant
melanoma developing at the site of a diabetic foot ulcer.
While it seems obvious to biopsy a suspicious lesion, certain
types of malignant melanoma may initially be misdiagnosed
as benign diseases up to 39 % of the time and therefore it is
important to have an experienced dermato-pathologist [10].
Early diagnosis and appropriate referral for treatment
makes a significant difference in the survival rate and prog-
nosis of the patient with a foot or toe melanoma. The diffi-
culty in diagnosing it makes it a formidable challenge,
especially where it presents as a foot ulcer, either attributed
to trauma or diabetes. It is not only important therefore to
examine the feet of diabetics, but also not be misled by a
history of trauma. In the context of our case report, the pre-
sentation of toe melanomas, their management and guide-
lines regarding management and review are discussed [10].
Chapter 8. Amelanotic Malignant Melanoma 81
Case Study
A 64 year old woman presented to a general practice sur-
gery in outer suburban Melbourne with a tender, ulcer-
ated lesion on the dorsal tip of her 4th L toe. This had
begun 3 months ago. She gave no history of trauma. She
was a non-smoker and was not diabetic. She had no history
of peripheral vascular disease or venous insufficiency.
This lesion had been treated previously at another
general practice for some 6 weeks with a course of oral
antibiotics, regular dressings, and topical silver nitrate.
No attempt at biopsy had been made.
Examination revealed a non-pigmented ulcerated
lesion 15 mm diameter taking up the entire nail bed and
nail matrix (Fig. 8.1). The nail itself was completely absent.
Dermatoscopy was not revealing due to the degree of
maceration and contact bleeding. There were no signs of
peripheral vascular disease or venous insufficiency.
A 4 mm punch biopsy was taken under local anesthetic
digital block. Histology was reported as invasive malig-
nant melanoma with Breslow thickness of at least 1.2 mm.
Figure 8.1 Toe melanoma

The patient was referred to the local regional mela-

noma service where a partial amputation of the toe was
performed together with sentinel lymph node biopsy of
the L groin.
Histology was reported as follows:
(Histology report from initial partial amputation of
4th toe)
Macroscopic description
Partial amputation 43 6 18 mm. The toe nail bed
area consists of red brown crusted tissue 14 15 mm
and a fragment of nail 4 4 mm. Three representa-
tive samples have been processed through this area.
Remaining tissue submitted for decalcification.
Microscopic description synoptic report malig-
nant melanoma
Site Left 4th toe
Breslow thickness 4.2 mm
Clark level 4 (at least)
Architectural type acral lentiginous
Predominant cell type epithelioid
In situ component present
Invasive component present
Mitotic index 13 mitoses per square mm (5 high
power fields)
Tumour infiltrating lymphocytes absent
Microsatellites absent
Perineural invasion absent
Lymphovascular invasion present, lymphatic space
invasion
Ulceration present 5 mm wide
Regression absent
Associated nevus absent
Margins in situ and invasive melanoma is completely
excised with a minimum of 11 mm clearance of the
proximal skin margin. Decalcified bone sections
contain no melanoma
(Fig. 8.2. Histology 4 magnification shows the entire
melanoma; Fig. 8.3. Histology 20 magnification)
Figure 8.2 Histopathology subungual melanoma 4 magnification
Figure 8.3 Histopathology subungual melanoma 20 magni-

fication
Sentinel lymph node biopsy was reported as positive

with multifocal & nodal deposits of metastatic mela-
noma with maximum diameter 4 mm.
Further amputation of the L 4th toe was under-
taken together with inguinal lymph node dissection.
Two further lymph nodes were positive for metastatic
melanoma.
Within 2 months the patient developed multiple small
(<5 mm) purple coloured raised lesions on the skin of her
dorsal foot. Biopsy confirmed local melanoma deposits
suggestive of in-transit cutaneous metastases.
Staging CT scan of brain, chest, abdomen & pelvis
showed two 2 mm pulmonary nodules and at least three
L pelvic lymph nodes the largest 3 cm diameter.
Her current stage is 3B with an expected 57 % 5 year
survival.
BRAF mutation testing was negative and she has
now been commenced on Ipilimubab.
Discussion
White populations have a much greater risk of developing

toe melanoma than Asians or Africans. Contrary to conven-
tional wisdom non-white races overall have a much lower
rate of the disease, they are just most likely to develop
melanomas in acral locations such as the palmar, plantar
surfaces and nail bed [11].
Melanoma of the toe is prevalent at different rates in black
populations of America and Africa, getting some authors like
Oettl [12] to suggest that shoe-wearing may reduce the inci-
dence of toe and foot melanoma. However, the following
year, Lewis [13] studied several tribes in Uganda and con-
cluded that shoe wearing did not make any difference. More
recently, Green undertook a study of 275 melanomas diag-
nosed on the soles and palms to investigate risk factors and
concluded that sun exposure was a significant risk factor in

the development of ALM despite their plantar and nail bed
location [14].
The iconic reggae musician, Bob Marley died in 1981 of an
acral melanoma and one he had attributed to an injury while
playing soccer barefoot. Indeed 2344 % of patients report
direct trauma as causing their subungual melanoma [15, 16].
While the overall incidence of acral melanomas is the same
across all races, subungual melanomas represent approxi-
mately 20 % in dark-skinned and oriental populations com-
pared to about 2 % of cutaneous melanomas in white
populations [16]. Just as squamous cell carcinomas are
reported after burns, Mhrle and others feel that in subungual
melanoma, trauma is likely to be an etiologcal factor [16].
Does diabetes increase foot melanoma risk? In a case
report about a diabetic foot ulcer that turned out to be a
melanoma, the authors suggested that one of possibilities for
the relatively fast growth of acral lentiginous melanoma may
point to the diabetes [17, 18]. However, there has been no
causal link established between diabetes and toe melanoma.
However, interestingly, Metformin when used in combination
with melanoma drugs like bevacizumab shows synergistic
effect. Metformin inhibits the growth of most tumor cells, but
BRAF-mutant melanoma cells are resistant to metformin in
vitro, and metformin even accelerates their growth in vivo.
Unexpectedly, drugs used for advanced melanoma like
VEGF inhibitors and metformin synergize to suppress growth
of BRAF-mutant tumors, revealing that a combination of
drugs may be effective in patients [19]. Other authors con-
cluded that Metformin blocks melanoma invasion and metas-
tasis development in AMPK/p53-dependent manner [20].
Therefore more work needs to be done in the realm of mela-
noma in diabetic patients and some diabetes medications
seem to have a role in combination therapy.
Another interesting aspect of foot and toe melanoma is the
different genetic mutations involved with acral melanomas
when compared with melanomas in other cutaneous sites.
Recent studies provide evidence that acral melanoma is distinct
from common cutaneous melanoma at the genomic level, and

show that the genomic landscapes of acral and mucosal mela-
nomas are more similar to each other than to other subtypes
[21]. These findings open the door to more research into man-
aging these acral melanomas differently to cutaneous melano-
mas. This may also explain the differing mortality levels.
There are two main patterns of nail unit melanoma --lon-
gitudinal melanonychia and amelanotic tumours (as in our
case here). The first may be associated with alteration of nail
plate anatomy in more advanced cases; the latter is almost
always associated with nail plate change [22].
However, as we have discussed earlier early diagnosis is
key. This need for an early diagnosis and ensuring that lesions
are biopsied early led to the development of Clinical
Guidelines for the recognition of melanoma of the foot and
nail unit [22]. The authors of the guidelines used the CUBED
acronym to help identify melanoma of the foot and toe and
recommend referral when any two features are noted [22]:
C Coloured lesions where any part is not skin colour.
U Uncertain diagnosis. Any lesion that does not have a defi-
nite diagnosis
B Bleeding lesions on the foot or under the nail, whether the
bleeding is direct bleeding or oozing of fluid. This includes
chronic granulation tissue.
E Enlargement or deterioration of a lesion or ulcer despite
therapy
D Delay in healing of any lesion beyond 2 months.
Using the CUBED acronym, it is certain that a lesion such
as the one we have presented in our case study would be
biopsied early. In general, toe melanomas of the nail unit
have different genetic attributes when compared with cuta-
neous melanomas and given many are amelanotic and
appear (as in our case) as an ulcer, dermoscopy is difficult
(unless longitudinal melanonychia is present).
As mentioned earlier in a study referred to in this paper,
nail melanomas have a 5-years survival in the order of only
51 %. It is best therefore that clinicians and patients both
have a low threshold for diagnosis of nail melanoma and his-

tory of trauma and diabetes are viewed within the light of
newer research.
References
1. Lens MB, Dawes M. Global perspectives of contemporary epi-
demiological trends of cutaneous malignant melanoma. Br J
Dermatol. 2004;150:17985.
2. International agency for research on cancer WHO cancer mor-
tality database. [IARC]. 2014. http://www-dep.iarc.fr/WHOdb/
WHOdb.htm. Accessed 27 Oct 2014.
3. New Zealand Health Information Service. Cancer: new registra-
tions and deaths. Wellington: Ministry of Health; 2010.
4. Sneyd MJ, Cox B. A comparison of trends in melanoma mortal-
ity in New Zealand and Australia: the two countries with the
highest melanoma incidence and mortality in the world. BMC
Cancer. 2013;13:372.
5. Banfield CC, Redburn JC, Dawber RP. The incidence and prog-
nosis of nail apparatus melanoma. A retrospective study of 105
patients in four English regions. Br J Dermatol. 1998;139:2769.
6. Thomas S, Meng Y, Patel VG, Strayhorn G. A rare form of mela-
noma masquerading as a diabetic foot ulcer: a case report. Case
Rep Endocrinol. 2012;2012:4.
7. Kong M-F, Jogia R, Jackson S, et al. Malignant melanoma pre-
senting as a foot ulcer. Lancet. 2005;366:1750.
8. Kong M-F, Jogia R, Srinivasan BT, et al. Malignant melanoma
presenting as foot ulcer. Diabetic Med. 2005;22:9567.
9. Gregson CL, Allain TJ. Amelanotic malignant melanoma dis-
guised as a diabetic foot ulcer. Diabetic Med. 2004;21:9247.
10. Soon SL, Solomon Jr AR, Papadopoulos D, et al. Acral lentigi-
nous melanoma mimicking benign disease: the Emory experi-
ence. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2003;48:1838.
11. Chang JW, Yeh KY, Wang CH, Yang TS, Chiang HF, Wei FC, Kuo
TT, Yang CH. Malignant melanoma in Taiwan: a prognostic
study of 181 cases. Melanoma Res. 2004;14:53741.
12. Oettl AG. In: Della Porto G, Mlbock O, editors. Epidemiology
of melanoma in South Africa. Structure and control of the mela-
noncyte. Berlin: Springer; 1966. p. 292.
13. Lewis MG. Malignant melanoma in Uganda. Br J Cancer.

1967;21:438.
14. Green A, McCredie M, MacKie R, et al. A casecontrol study of
melanomas of the soles and palms (Australia and Scotland).
Cancer Causes Control. 1999;10(1):215.
15. Takematsu H, Obata M, Tomita Y, Kato T, Takahashi M, Abe
R. Subungual melanoma: a clinicopathologic study of 16 Japanese
cases. Cancer. 1985;55(11):272531.
16. Mhrle M, Hfner H. Is subungual melanoma related to trauma?
Dermatology. 2002;204(4):25961.
17. Tan S, Chua H, Lim JTE, Goh CL. Malignant melanoma seen in
a tertiary dermatological centre, Singapore. Ann Acad Med
Singapore. 2001;30(4):4148.
18. Thomas S, Meng Y, Patel VG, Strayhorn G. A rare form of mela-
noma masquerading as a diabetic foot ulcer: a case report. Case
Rep in Endocrinol. 2012;2012(502806):4.
19. Martin MJ, Hayward R, Viros A, Marais R. Metformin acceler-
ates the growth of BRAF V600E-driven melanoma by upregu-
lating VEGF-A. Cancer Discov. 2012;2(4):34455.
20. Cerezo M, Tichet M, Abbe P, Ohanna M, Lehraiki A, Rouaud F,
et al. Metformin blocks melanoma invasion and metastasis
development in a AMPK/p53-dependent manner. Mol Cancer
Ther. 2013;12:160515.
21. Furney SJ, Turajlic S, Stamp G, Thomas JM, Hayes A, Strauss D,
Gavrielides M, Xing W, Gore M, Larkin J, Marais R. The muta-
tional burden of acral melanoma revealed by whole-genome
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Res. 2014;27:8358.
22. Bristow IR, et al. Clinical guidelines for the recognition of mela-
noma of the foot and nail unit. J Foot Ankle Res. 2010;3:25.
Chapter 9
Revisiting the Halo Graft:
Why Does It Heal Faster
When Compared
to Conventional Split-Skin
Grafts?
Sharad P. Paul
Background
The halo graft was first devised by me when I was a plastic
surgical registrar at Hutt Hospital, Wellington, New Zealand
in 1991. The technique involves harvesting a split skin graft as
a halo around the defect and therefore eliminated the need
for two surgical sites. I had suggested this technique to my
mentor (the late) Max Lovie but we never got around to for-
mally studying the technique. I finally refined it over the
years and then formally conducted a clinical trial in 28
patients in 2007/08 when I was a visiting surgical consultant.


DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-20937-1_9,
90 S.P. Paul
The results were published in 2010 in Dermatologic Surgery

[1] and presented at the Nordic Plastic Surgical Congress [2]
the same year.
In 2011, Parker studied my halo graft technique in a
smaller study of 11 patients in the USA and presented his
findings with a paper titled Halo grafts: why you dont need
to dread skin cancers on the lower leg anymore [3].
More recently, a team from Queensland, Australia con-
ducted a retrospective study of 68 patients over a 31 month
period they reported a mean healing time for the halo split
skin grafts of 4 weeks with a 10 % graft failure rate [4].
The halo graft is a useful and versatile technique.
Partial-thickness grafts are harvested circumferentially from
the annulus area around the defect. The mathematical calcu-
lation allows for tailoring this technique to defects of various
sizes. It requires minimal equipment, confines the surgical
wounds to one site, and speeds up wound healing after skin
grafting. Because the graft and donor sites are adjacent, I
only recommend that this technique be used for non-melanoma
skin cancers.
This article reviews the original halo graft study, with two
case reports and discusses the reasons why such a simple
innovation allows for more rapid healing.
The Halo Graft Surgical Technique

The lesion to be excised is marked out in a circular fashion
with the appropriate margins of excision (Fig. 9.1). The annu-
lus area is then marked around the initial circle the halo
graft technique requires that the outer circle be 1.4 times the
diameter of the inner circle), with the radius of the outer
circle (r) being 1.4 times the radius of the inner circle.
The skin graft is harvested from the halo area i.e., the outer
area geometrically called the annulus as shown. I use a No. 22
blade and take shavings of partial thickness skin. The split-skin
graft fragments are placed over the recipient defect i.e., the inner
circle where the lesion was excised (Fig. 9.2). I dress the graft
Chapter 9. Revisiting the Halo Graft 91
a b
Figure 9.1 Preoperative Halo graft markings
a b
Figure 9.2 Halo graft markings postoperatively showing (a) mini-

mal scarring or contour defect and (b) with less contour defect than
a conventional graft
with a foam dressing (Allevyn, Smith & Nephew, Christchurch,

New Zealand), which is placed over the whole wound. 2- layer
compression bandages are applied using cotton-wool and crepe
and the patient is fully mobilized. The graft dressing is done at
1 week. The wound is usually completely healed in 23 weeks. (If
the wound appears inflamed or is potentially infected, I use
Allevyn Ag i.e., silver-impregnated Allevyn dressing)
The Geometry
Annulus = A space contained between the circumferences of
two circles, one within the other.
92 S.P. Paul
If the outer radius is 1.141 times the inner radius, the annu-
lus area becomes 3.14 which equates to . In other words the
outer radius needs to be approximately 1.4 times the inner
radius to make the annulus area the same as the area of the
inner (recipient) circle.
Case Study 1
A 55-year old female was referred to me with a 2.5 cm
BCC on her left leg, overlying the tendo-achilles
region. Given the location and orientation of the
lesion, primary closure was not feasible. A halo split-
skin graft was planned. In this technique the area to
be excised is marked out (in this case an approximate
3 cm diameter circle). The outer annulus area was
marked at 1.4 times the inner radius i.e., diameter of
the outer circle was 4.2 cm and the radius 2.1 cm). Split
skin grafts were harvested from the annulus area and
laid on the defect like a jigsaw. Dressings were done in
the usual manner and the wound was fully healed at
13 days (Figs. 9.1, 9.2, and 9.3). The patient was mobi-
lized with soft cotton-wool and crepe bandages for
compression. The wound was kept dry until the first
graft dressing at 7 days.
a b
Figure 9.3 Halo grafts laid onto the defect

Case Study 2
A 61-year old female was referred to me with a 3.1 cm
BCC on her left leg, on the lateral aspect of her calf.
Given the location and orientation of the lesion pri-
mary closure was not feasible. A halo split-skin graft
was planned. In this technique the area to be excised is
marked out (in this case an approximate 4 cm diameter
circle). The outer annulus area was marked at 1.4 times
the inner radius i.e., diameter of the outer circle was
5.6 cm and the radius 2.6 cm). Split skin grafts were
harvested from the annulus area and laid on the defect
like a jigsaw. Dressings were done in the usual manner
and the wound was fully healed at 18 days. Even though
the split skin grafts were laid on subcutaneous fat, the
wound were fully healed (defined by not needing fur-
ther dressings) in 18 days (Figs. 9.1b, 9.2b, and 9.3b). The
patient was mobilized with soft cotton-wool and crepe
bandages for compression. The wound was kept dry
until the first graft dressing at 5 days (Table 9.1).
Table 9.1 Halo graft study [1]

Patient Defect Male/ Final dressing
no. diam.(Cms) NMSC female post-op day
1 3.1 BCC F 17
2 2.7 other M 16
3 3 BCC M 17
4 2.5 other F 13
5 3 SCC M 21
6 3.1 BCC F 18
7 4 BCC M 15
8 3.5 SCC F 19
9 3.5 SCC M 17
(continued)
94 S.P. Paul
Table 9.1 (continued)

Patient Defect Male/ Final dressing
no. diam.(Cms) NMSC female post-op day
10 4.5 SCC M 20
11 2.5 SCC F 14
12 3.9 Other M 17
13 2.5 BCC M 16
14 4.5 SCC F 20
15 2.5 SCC M 14
16 2.3 BCC M 14
17 2.5 BCC F 17
18 2 BCC M 17
19 2.4 SCC M 19
20 4.3 SCC F 20
21 3 SCC M 17
22 2.7 SCC F 17
23 4 SCC M 20
24 4 SCC F 14
25 2 BCC F 17
26 4.5 BCC M 20
27 2.5 SCC M 14
28 2 SCC M 16
Mean 3.107142857 17
Total number of patients 28 (11 Female, 17 Male)
Mean size of lower leg defect that was grafted 3.1 cm
Average time of complete epithelialization (defined by no
further need for dressings) 17 days post-op
The halo graft is an extremely useful and versatile tech-

nique. It requires minimal equipment, confines the surgical
wounds to one site and speeds up wound healing following
skin grafting. The precise mathematical calculation allows for
tailoring this technique to defects of varied sizes.
Due to the adjacent nature of the graft and donor site, we
have only used the technique for non-melanoma skin cancers.
The data in this article demonstrate that this technique produces
superior results to conventional methods of grafting, improves
patient comfort and avoids the need for immobilization of the
patient. Further, as taking of the skin graft is from adjacent tissue,
the tissue gradient is less leading to a reduced contour defect.
Discussion
A skin graft has long been part of a surgeons armamentar-
ium. Reverdin first described the use of the pinch graft in
1869 [5]; Olliers and Thierschs then demonstrated the appli-
cation of the split-thickness graft in 1872 and 1886, respec-
tively [6]; and Wolfes and Krause's described the full-thickness
graft in 1875 and 1893, respectively [7]. A partial thickness
graft or split-skin graft contains a portion of the dermis and
the complete epidermis. The healing process of skin grafts has
been well described by Rudolph and Klein [8].
A split-skin graft is more likely to survive on its recipient site
because it is more suited to the stage of plasmatic imbibition
and revascularization when compared to a full-thickness graft.
The thinner split-skin graft contracts less than an intermediate
thickness split-skin graft; a full thickness graft hardly exhibits
any secondary contracture. Split-skin grafts are more likely to
survive in areas with less vascularity such as periosteum or peri-
tenon and are the grafts of choice for the lower limb [9].
The rapid healing of the halo graft led me to research the
possible reasons for faster than expected healing. For a start
the patient is fully mobilized. Exercise accelerates cutaneous
wound healing and decreases wound inflammation and this
has been confirmed by studies in mice [10]. Recent studies
96 S.P. Paul
have shown that exercise improved cutaneous wound healing

in older adults [11]. While the mechanism(s) responsible for
this effect was not elucidated, the authors suggested that the
acceleration of wound healing could be due to an enhanced
neuroendocrine response, and suggested further investigation
into this hypothesis and evaluation of pro-inflammatory cyto-
kines in the local wound environment. The authors concluded
that a relatively short-term exercise intervention is associated
with enhanced rates of wound healing among healthy older
adults. Thus, exercise activity may be an important component
post-operatively to promote wound healing [11].
Naturally using small split-skin grafts in pieces reduces the
metabolic demand for each graft. However, the overall shape
of the wound created i.e., inner defect, followed by shallower
donor site may also be a factor. When studying mathemati-
cal models of ischemic wounds, it is interesting that the
authors created a model that mimicked our halo graft with a
central ischemic wound surrounded by a shallower wound
that was relatively more oxygenated [12]. They found addi-
tional benefits of hyperoxia via hyperbaric oxygen (which
exercise also helps induce).
There is also reduced morbidity with the avoidance of
hospitalization. A survey done of the common practices of
surgeons in Australasia found the following [13]: 73.5 % of
surgeons reported that at 1 month, skin graft take of >80 %
occurred more than 90 % of the time. Most grafts (58.12 %)
were perforated. Meshing (22.22 %) and laying the graft as a
sheet (19.66 %) were at similar rates. 78.63 % wrapped the
limb with bandages only, while 21.37 % would place the limb
in a hard splint. 46.15 % of surgeons rested their patients in
hospital for between 2 and 7 days.
Interestingly, the circular shape also has further added bene-
fits. Circumferential nature of graft and donor site adds interest-
ing dynamics to the equation. In dermal wounds, the wound
opening is closed by epidermal cell migration and granulation
tissue contraction. However, in epidermal wounds, it is generally
accepted that re-epithelialization is due entirely to epidermal
cells at the wound edge moving inwards to close the wound [14].
Further, experimental evidence suggests that a circumfer-

ential tension at the wound edge may well be the mechanism
underlying epidermal movement, acting like a purse string
that pulls the wound edge inwards. The work of Martin and
Lewis revealed a thick cable of actin around the epidermal
wound margin localized within the leading row of basal cells
in circular defects [15].
In conclusion, the halo graft is an extremely useful and
versatile technique. It requires minimal equipment, confines
the surgical wounds to one site and speeds up wound healing
following skin grafting. The precise mathematical calculation
allows for tailoring this technique to defects of varied sizes.
Due to the adjacent nature of the graft and donor site, we
have only used (and only recommend) the technique for non-
melanoma skin cancers. It would also be common sense to
avoid this technique where the entire field is covered with
actinic keratosis, as we sometimes see in severely sun-
damaged skin in Australasia. The data in our original study
demonstrate that this technique produces superior results to
conventional methods of grafting, improves patient comfort
and avoids the need for immobilization of the patient.
Further, as taking of the skin graft is from adjacent tissue, the
tissue gradient is less leading to a reduced contour defect.
A team from Queensland, Australia led by Fietz and
Sivyer repeated a clinical trial of halo grafts and concluded
thus: The authors of this study agree with Paul that the HSSG
(Halo split-skin graft) is a technique that does not require
specialized equipment and that it is an economical and effec-
tive procedure for managing NMSC (non-melanoma skin
cancer) on the leg when SSG (split-skin grafting) is indicated
[14]. It can also be used in areas like the scalp (in bald heads)
where a split-skin graft is being contemplated.
Key advantages of a halo split-skin graft can be summa-
rized thus:
Graft taken from halo around defect
Single site of administration of local anesthesia
No special instruments or immobilization
98 S.P. Paul
Faster wound healing and reduced contour defect

Significant less donor-site pain
No need for hospitalization and reduced morbidity
Interestingly, recurrence of cutaneous squamous cell carci-

noma have been reported even at remote limb donor sites
[16], therefore any increased concern regarding donor and
recipient sites being adjacent in a halo graft may be unfounded.
References
1. Paul SP. Halo graftinga simple and effective technique of
skin grafting. Dermatol Surg. 2010;36:1159.
2. Paul SP. A new technique of skin grafting: introducing the Halo
Graft in 2010. Presentation at Nordic plastic surgery congress. 11
June 2010.
3. Parker T. Halo grafts: why you dont need to dread skin cancers
on the lower leg anymore. Presentation at American academy of
dermatology, 43rd annual meeting of American college of Mohs
surgery, Las Vegas, April 2011.
4. Fietz D, Sivyer G, OBrien D, Rosendahl C. The halo split skin
graft in the management of non-melanoma skin cancer of the
leg: a retrospective study. Dermatol Pract Conc. 2013;3(4):11.
5. Davis JS. The story of plastic surgery. Ann Surg. 1994;113:641.
6. Smahel J. The healing of skin grafts. Clin Plast Surg. 1977;4(3):
40924.
7. Brady JG, Grande DJ, Katz AE. The purse-string suture in facial
reconstruction. J Dermatol Surg Oncol. 1992;18(9):8126.
8. Rudolph R, Klein L. Healing processes of skin grafts. Plast
9. McLean DH, Buncke HJ. Autotransplant of omentum to a large
scalp defect with microsurgical revascularization. Plast Reconstr
Surg. 1972;49:268.
10. Keylock KT, et al. Exercise accelerates cutaneous wound healing
and decreases wound inflammation. Am J Physiol Regul Integr
Comp Physiol. 2008;294:R17984.
11. Emery CF, Kiecolt-Glaser JK, Glaser R, Malarkey WB, Frid
DJ. Exercise accelerates wound healing among healthy older
adults: a preliminary investigation. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med

Sci. 2005;60(11):14326.
12. Friedman A, Xue C. A mathematical model for chronic wounds.
Math Biosci Eng. 2011;8(2):25361.
13. Yang SM, Bartholomeusz H. The techniques of Australian plastic
and reconstructive surgeons in split skin grafting of the lower limb
following skin cancer excision.ANZ J Surg. 2006;76(Suppl):A5769.
14. Martin P, Lewis J. The mechanics of embryonic skin wound
healing-limb bud lesions in mouse and chick embryos. In: Adzick
NS, Longaker MT, editors. Fetal wound healing. New York:
Elsevier; 1991. p. 26579.
15. Martin P, Lewis J. Actin cables and epidermal movement in
embryonic wound healing. Nature. 1992;360:17983.
16. Wright H, McKinnell TH, Dunkin C. Recurrence of cutaneous
squamous cell carcinoma at remote limb donor site. J Plast
Reconstr Aesth Surg. JPRAS, 2012;65(9):126566.
Chapter 10
Balloon Cell Nevi
and Balloon Cell Melanomas:
What Are They?
Background
Balloon cell nevus was first described by Judalaewitsch [1] over
a century ago in 1901. The first detailed case report was in 1935,
when Miescher described a balloon cell nevus in a nine-year-old
boy [2]. Miescher in this article erroneously hypothesized that a
transformation of nevus cells into sebaceous cells produced a
balloon cell. It is now known that a balloon cell is a nevocellular
nevus [3]. The most common anatomical sites are the head and
neck, followed by the trunk and extremities [4]. The significance
of the balloon cell formation appears to be due to the degenera-
tion of melanosomes and the progressive vacuolization that
results [5]. Many balloon cell nevi resemble benign intradermal

M. Inskip, MB ChB, FRACGP
Sun Patrol Skin Cancer Clinic, Berwick, VIC, Australia
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-20937-1_10,
nevi or other benign lesions and are possibly under-diagnosed as

a result. It is important to understand this pathophysiology espe-
cially as balloon cell malignant melanoma is known to occur and
makes up 0.15 % of all cutaneous melanomas [6]. The article
presented here is of two cases that were clinically not diag-
nosed the first thought to be an intradermal nevus but turned
out to be balloon cell nevus; the second, which resembled a
seborrheic keratosis, was a malignant melanoma on biopsy. As in
many instances, clinically benign intradermal nevi may not be
biopsied, this entity may well be under-diagnosed. Further, as
junctional activity has been known to occur over an incom-
pletely removed balloon cell nevus, it may represent a precursor
form of a dermal nevus cell [7]. Another notable feature of this
balloon cell melanoma case however, is that it is pigmented
(unlike reported balloon cell melanomas) and unequivocal bal-
loon cells are seen in the dermo-epidermal junction. This has
never been previously reported and is inconsistent with the previ-
ous hypothesis that a balloon cell melanoma is a vertical growth
phase melanoma of dermal origin.
Case Reports
Case 1
A 40-year-old white male presented with a lesion on his
cheek resembling a typical non-pigmented intradermal
nevus. He requested removal as it was interfering with
shaving. After this lesion was shave excised, the histol-
ogy turned out to be a balloon cell nevus. The histologi-
cal features are described here (Figs. 10.1, 10.2, and
10.3) and the images show balloon cells stained with
S100, H & E and Melan A stains (all with 400
magnification)
In contrast to the typical appearance resembling an
intradermal nevus in white skin, reports in Asian skin
types however indicate that the appearance of a balloon
cell nevus tends to be polypoid or pedunculated and
more resembling a soft fibroma or papilloma [8].
Chapter 10. Balloon Cell Nevi and Balloon Cell 103
Figure 10.1 Clear cell appearance of the melanocytes: H&E,

200 magnification
Figure 10.2 A transitional area, where conventional melano-

cytes in the superficial dermis transition into the ballooning
melanocytes: H&E, 100 magnification
Figure 10.3 Classical appearance of the balloon cell nevocytes.

Note mild nuclear pleomorphism: H&E, 400 magnification
Histopathological Examination
Balloon cells are characterized by their comparatively large sizes,

centrally placed small round nuclei and relatively clear cyto-
plasm. When transitional nevus cells are evident at the periphery,
one can see both balloon cells and nevus cells giving a ground
glass appearance [9]. The cytological features of a balloon cell
melanoma are similar with the added presence of nuclear pleo-
morphism, atypia, mitoses and the absence of intervening stroma [10].
Electron Microscopy
Ultramicroscopic examination is especially important in the

case of balloon cell nevi. Balloon cells are formed by progressive
vacuolization of melanocytes or nevus cells brought about by
the enlargement and eventual destruction of melanosomes [11].
Balloooning is essentially large vacuole formation by coales-
cence of small vacuoles that originate as abnormal melanosomes.
Figure 10.4 Normal melanosomes in some of the melanocytes: elec-

tron microscopy
Melanosomes in a balloon cell nevus tend to merge and the major-

ity degenerate leaving large cavities. Only a minority still exhibit
giant melanosomes. Interestingly, most of these abnormally large
melanosomes are not melanized. Melanosomes of intradermal
nevus cells are, in contrast, very small and fully melanized [12].
The initial stages of ballooning shows a large number of
melanosomes, a well-developed endoplasmic reticulum and fre-
quent mitoses all pointing to a proliferative rather than a
degenerative process. However, such proliferation seems to be a
self-regulatory process where unlimited production of mela-
nosomes continues without accompanying melanization until
degeneration of the melanosome i.e., the so called ballooning
process. In contrast, human embryonic hair follicles tend to
employ phagocytosis as a self-destructive mechanism [13].
The electron microscopic images (Figs. 10.4 and 10.5) show
a melanosome and the process of ballooning degeneration
quite clearly.
Figure 10.5 Abnormal, disintegrating melanosomes in the balloon

cells: electron microscopy
Case 2
A 66-year-old man presented to a primary care skin
cancer clinic in Melbourne, Australia requesting a rou-
tine skin check. He was not concerned about any par-
ticular lesion. There was no personal or family history of
melanoma or non-melanoma skin cancers. He had
worked outdoors in construction and as a firefighter for
over 20 years. He had never used sun beds or used weld-
ing equipment. He gave no significant history of recre-
ational sun exposure.
On examination the patient had Fitzpatrick skin
type 2 with significant actinic damage to the face,
forearms and dorsum of the hands, with multiple solar
lentigines and scattered small actinic keratoses on the

temples. A whole body skin examination was under-
taken with the aid of a Heine Delta 20 non- polar-
izing dermatoscope. (Heine Optotechnik, Herrshing,
Germany). Digital clinical and dermatoscopic images
were taken with a Medicam 800 Fotofinder cam-
era with non-polarizing lens (Fotofinder Systems
GmbH, Aichner, Birnbach, Germany), the derma-
toscopy images being at 20 magnification. A lesion
of concern was found on the right posterior upper
arm. It measured 8 mm in diameter and was slightly
domed, being raised 23 mm from the skin surface
and resembled a seborrheic keratosis (Fig. 10.6).
Figure 10.6 Right posterior shoulder lesion

Dermatoscopically it was pigmented, and structure-

less with two colours, blue-grey centrally and brown
peripherally, almost symmetrically combined, as well
as white reticular lines (inverse or negative network).
There was a polymorphous pattern of vessels both
linear and and dots (Fig. 10.7). The lesion was quite
different dermatoscopically to all the patients other
pigmented skin lesions (ugly duckling sign) even if
appeared a possible seborrheic keratosis clinically.
The decision was made to undertake an excisional
biopsy on suspicion of melanoma.
Figure 10.7 Dermatoscopy of right shoulder lesion: balloon

cell melanoma
Histopathological Examination
Sections showed a broad, asymmetric nested and single-cell

proliferation of severely atypical melanocytes along the der-
moepidermal junction, with extension into, and filling the
dermis. The junctional component exhibited prominent
Pagetoid upward scatter. The dermal component lacked matu-
ration on descent, and extended to a depth of 0.95 mm (Clark
level 4). The cells contained hyperchromatic pleomorphic
nuclei, and a swollen, ballooned appearance, with abundant
pale granular and/or vacuolated cytoplasm. Virtually all of the

cells within the tumor exhibited this appearance, including the
epidermal component. There was moderate mitotic activity
with 3 mitotic figures seen per mm sq. No ulceration, lympo-
hovascular invasion, perineural invasion, satellitosis, or regres-
sion was noted. Excision was complete.
Figure 10.8 Shows a low power 20 photomicrograph.
There is a broad, asymmetric proliferation of atypical mela-
nocytes along within the epidermis, and filling the dermis to
a depth of 0.95 mm (level 4) Fig. 10.9. 40 magnification
photomicrograph of the lesion shows the lesion to consist
almost entirely of ballooned melanocytes, including the epi-
dermal component. Extensive Pagetoid scatter is present. The
dermal component does not exhibit maturation on descent.
The patient underwent a wider local excision to >10 mm
margins (including depth) as per guidelines for managing
Stage 1 A melanomas. Sentinel lymph node biopsy was not
undertaken.
Discussion
As intradermal nevi are especially common in Celtic skin
types, it is possible that balloon cell nevi are under-diagnosed
[4]. Further balloon cell nevi tend to have different appear-
ances in white and Asian skin types, making a definitive clini-
cal diagnosis impossible without microscopy. As discussed
Figure 10.8 Low power (20) photomicrograph . There is a broad,

asymmetric proliferation of atypical melanocytes along within the
epidermis, and filling the dermis to a depth of 0.95 mm (level 4)
Figure 10.9 Photomicrograph 40 shows the lesion to consist

almost entirely of ballooned melanocytes, including the epidermal
component Extensive Pagetoid scatter is present. The dermal com-
ponent does not exhibit maturation on descent
earlier, balloon cell nevi are great mimics with many different
clinical appearances. Therefore sebaceous, xanthomatous and
neurogenic origins have been proposed in the past [2]. There
was also a theory that balloon cells were regressive variants
of nevus cells confined to children or adolescents [14]. We
now know that the ballooning process is a self-destructive
degenerative process of melanosomes. The male to female
ratio is almost even and most occur in the first three decades
of life. While 30 % of balloon cell nevi occur on the head and
neck, there are a handful of cases reported of balloon cell
nevi on the conjunctiva or iris.
The transformation rate for melanocytc nevi into malig-
nant melanomas is under 0.0005 %. However, melanomas
arising in balloon cell nevi are said to make up 0.15 % of all
melanomas [15]. The prognosis of balloon cell melanomas cor-
relates with tumor thickness similar to other histological types
of malignant melanomas. The preferred method of removal
is a complete elliptical excision. However, given many are
clinically diagnosed as benign intradermal nevi it is common
for them to have been shaved. Incomplete shave excision can

result in a balloon cell nevus recurring as a regular junctional
nevus. It is therefore important to understand this ballooning
phenomenon as it can prevent erroneous diagnosis as well as
avoid undue alarm during such a recurrence occurring. Also
understanding of the electron microscopy of these balloon cell
nevi helps diagnose balloon cell melanomas and distinguish
them from other clear cell carcinomas.
Kao defined balloon cell malignant melanoma as a mela-
noma composed of more than 50 % foamy cells [6]. The mela-
noma case presented in this case report complies with this
definition. In a review of the literature the various clinical
appearances of balloon cell melanomas were characterized as
nodular, ulcerated, polypoid and papillomatous, but the com-
mon absence of pigmentation was noted. The case presented
here is the first pigmented balloon cell malignant melanoma
ever published.
Balloon cell malignant melanomas have previously been
regarded as a vertical growth phase melanoma [16, 17] and as
there have been no reported cases of such melanomas with a
junctional component of balloon cells, it has been speculated
that balloon cell melanomas may have a dermal origin [17].
The histology in this case however clearly shows a dermo-
epidermal junctional component of balloon cells. This has
never been previously published and is inconsistent with the
previous dermal origin hypothesis [17].
Metastatic balloon cell melanomas in lymph nodes may be
particularly difficult to diagnose because of extensive balloon
cell alteration of the melanoma cells. Clear cell morphology
should raise the diagnostic possibility of melanomas arising
in balloon cell nevi [18].
Given both the balloon cell cases here of a nevus and a
melanoma were picked up more by chance than pre-
operative clinical diagnosis, and in clinics routinely dealing
with skin cancer, it is likely that both are under-diagnosed. It
is important therefore to understand the histology and
dermatoscopy and hence these cases have been presented
here to broaden awareness as to their occurrence and under-
lying pathology.
Acknowledgement The authors would like to thank Dr. Vladimir

Osipov, Pathologist- in- charge, QML Pathology, Townsville, Australia
for the excellent electron microscopic images clearly showing the bal-
looning of nevi and Robin Osipova for her editorial support. The
authors would also like to thank Dr. Jill Magee, Dorevitch Pathology,
Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia for the excellent description and images
of the balloon cell melanoma.
References
1. Judalewitsch G. Zur histogenese der weichen nevi. Arch
Dermatol Syph. 1901;58:158.
2. Miescher G. Umwandlung von naevuszellan in talgdrusenzellen.
Arch Dermatol Syph. 1935;171:11424.
3. Jones EW, Sanderson KV. Cellular naevi with peculiar foam
cells. Br J Dermatol. 1963;75:4754.
4. Martinez-Casimiro L, Snchez Carazo JL, Alegre V. Balloon cell
naevus. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2009;23(2):2367.
5. Hashimoto K, Bale GF. An electron microscopic study of bal-
loon cell nevus. Cancer. 1972;30(2):53040.
6. Kao GF, Helwig EB, Graham JH, Kao GF, Helwig EB, Graham
JH. Balloon cell malignant melanoma of the skin. A clinico-
pathologic study of 34 cases with histochemical, immunohisto-
chemical, and ultrastructural observations. Cancer.
1992;69:294252.
7. Lewis BL. Junctional activity recurring over an incompletely
removed balloon cell nevus. Arch Dermatol. 1971;104:5134.
8. Lai W-Y, et al. Balloon cell naevus. J Med Sci. 2004;24(2):1058.
9. Schrader WA, Helwig EB. Balloon cell nevi. Cancer. 1967;
20:150214.
10. Gardner WA, Vazquez MD. Balloon cell melanoma. Arch
Pathol. 1970;89:4702.
11. Okun MR, Donnellan B, Edelstein L. An ultrastructural study of
balloon cell nevus. Cancer. 1974;34:61525.
12. Mishima Y. Melanotic tumors. In: Zelickson AS, editor.
Ultrastructure of normal and abnormal skin. Philadelphia: Lea
and Febiger; 1967. p. 388424.
13. Hashimoto K. The ultrastructure of the skin of human embryos.
8. Melanoblast and intrafollicular melanocyte. J Anat. 1971;108(Pt
1):99108.
14. Hornstein O. Zur kenntnis des sogenannten blasenzell naevus.

Arch Klin Exp Dermatol. 1966;226:97110.
15. Tsao H, Bevona C, Goggins W, Quinn T. The transformation rate of
moles (melanocytic nevi) into cutaneous melanoma: a population-
based estimate. Arch Dermatol. 2003;139(3):2828.
16. Lee L, Zhou F, Simms A, et al. Metastatic balloon cell malignant
melanoma: a case report and literature review. Int J Clin Exp
Pathol. 2011;4(3):31521.
17. Magro CM, Crowson AN, Mihm MC. Unusual variants of malig-
nant melanoma. Mod Pathol. 2006;19 Suppl 2:S4170.
18. Baehner FL, Ng B, Sudilovsky D. Metastatic balloon cell mela-
noma: a case report. Acta Cytol. 2005;49(5):5438.
Chapter 11
Topical Treatment of Skin
Cancers and the Risks
of Fighting Fire with Fire
Sharad P. Paul
Background
While surgical excision remains the mainstay of managing

non-melanoma skin cancers, many authors have published
successful topical or non-surgical options for treating non-
melanoma skin cancers [1]. A recent review article compared
the efficacy of topical 5-fluorouracil (5FU), topical imiqui-
mod 5 % cream, intralesional 5FU, intralesional methotrex-
ate (MTX), intralesional bleomycin, and intralesional
interferon (IFN) for non-melanoma skin cancers [2].
5-fluorouracil has been around since the 1960s and it acts
as an antimetabolite, interfering with DNA synthesis [3].
Imiquimod was then approved in 1997 for the treatment of
genital warts and this nucleoside analogue will be discussed
in greater detail in this case study. Diclofenac, an NSAID, acts

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-20937-1_11,
116 S.P. Paul
by down regulating cyclooxygenase enzymes and increasing

apoptosis. Topical diclofenac 3 % gel in 2.5 % hyaluronic acid
(which delivers and retains the drug in the epidermis) is
approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for the
treatment of actinic keratosis. Diclofenac acts by reducing
dysplastic keratinocytes in cancerous lesions, including AKs,
by stimulating programmed cell death via COX-2 inhibition
and may inhibit angiogenesis [4]. Ingenol mebutate, a macro-
cyclic diterpene-ester, is a recently marketed natural extract
from Euphorbia peplus. The sap of this plant has long been
used as a topical traditional remedy for common skin lesions,
such as warts and neoplasms and has a dual action: the
induction of rapid cellular death in the treated area, followed
by an inflammatory response within days of application, able
to eliminate residual cells [5, 6]. Other emerging topical
therapies include Piroxicam, Betulinic acid, Resiquimod or
calcium/potassium dobesilate [7].
Imiquimod belongs to the class of 1H-imidazo-[4,5-c]
quinolones a group of drugs that was originally developed
as nucleoside analogues with the aim to find new potential
antiviral agents [8]. Indeed, Imiquimod was first released as
treatment for genital warts before its actions against skin
cancer were studied. Imiquimod is a relatively small sized
molecule (Mr = 240.3). The molecular size, as well as it being
hydrophobic, allow it to penetrate the skin epidermal bar-
rier and therefore make it suitable for topical formulations
[9]. In many studies Imiquimod has shown itself effective
against skin cancers and pre-cancerous lesions, especially
basal cell cancers and actinic keratosis [10, 11]. There have
also been reports of Imiquimod being used as topical treat-
ment against cutaneous metastases of melanoma and some
authors have reported its use as first-line therapy against
melanoma in situ [12, 13].
We report a case of an invasive malignant melanoma aris-
ing de novo at the specific site of application of Imiquimod
(Aldara Cream 5 %) for a biopsy-proven superficial
BCC. Therefore while Imiquimod has added to our topical
armamentarium with respect to skin cancer management,
Chapter 11. Topical Treatment of Skin Cancers 117
care must be exercised in prescribing this treatment and it is

especially important to follow-up patients regularly.
In recent years, Imiquimod has become widely used as
topical treatment for skin cancers. Its tumouricidal activity is
based mainly on activating the innate immune system, for
which dendritic cells seem primarily responsible. These den-
dritic cells initiate a tumour-directed cellular immune
response [14]. Researchers have noted that dendritic cells
respond to much lower concentrations of imiquimod than
many other cell types [15]. At higher, but therapeutically rel-
evant concentrations, Imiquimod exerts some pro-apoptotic
activity against tumour cells.
Toll-like Receptors (TLR), especially TLR 7 and TLR 8
are important receptors of this innate immune system. It is
generally felt that Imiquimod is an agonist of TLRs 7 and
8 [16]. However, while these innate immunity-related
actions are well known, there are some findings which can-
not be explained easily by TLR-dependent mechanisms
for example Imidazoquinolines like Imiquimod can
stimulate the proliferation of B cells in vitro, even in the
absence of other immunocytes [17].
However, in recent times Imiquimod has been shown to
paradoxically cause tumors, or more precisely tumors have
been reported at bodily sites of treatment. In 2006, two cases
of invasive SCC arising after treatment of squamous
carcinoma-in-situ with 5 % imiquimod cream were reported
[18]. While the exact mechanism of tumor-induction by
Imiquimod is unclear, presumably it is due to its local altera-
tion and stimulation of an exuberant immune response.
Keratoacanthomas have also been reported as arising after
treatment with topical Imiquimod [19].
Some authors have used Imiquimod off-label and have
reported resolution of primary melanoma-in-situ (lentigo
maligna) and recurrent lentigo maligna with 5 % Imiquimod
cream [20, 21]. Some authors have also noted Imiquimod
inhibits melanoma development by promoting pDC cyto-
toxic functions and impeding tumor vascularization [22], and
there have been many reports where researchers have used
Imiquimod topically to treat melanoma metastases [23].
118 S.P. Paul
In this context, we believe our case report to be notewor-

thy and worth reporting as in our patient, 5 % Imiquimod
was used as topical treatment for a biopsy-proven BCC and
the patient ended up developing an invasive melanoma over
the site. While, as discussed earlier, keratoacanthomas have
been known to develop at the precise site of a treated super-
ficial BCC -- an invasive melanoma arising in this situation is
unusual and to our knowledge, not been reported previously.
In the case of our patient, the area on his back was marked
for treatment, which was then undertaken for 6 weeks with
5 % Imiquimod (AldaraTM cream) with two treatment-free
days each week as per usual protocol. At 8 weeks, when the
patient was reviewed, he had a complete clearance of the
BCC noted earlier; however, he had developed a new pig-
mented lesion over the site of topical application of Imiquimod
which both on dermoscopy and clinical examination was
suspicious for melanoma. Histopathological analysis has con-
firmed this to be an invasive melanoma. While many authors
are advocating the use of Imiquimod for melanoma, we
would like to present this case, where an invasive melanoma
has arisen at the precise site of application of Imiquimod
(Aldara Cream 5 %) for a superficial BCC.
Case History
A 60 year old white male presented to our skin cancer
center with superficial BCC areas on his mid back.
Given he had three to four sBCCs present within a
10 cm area, it was decided to treat these lesions topi-
cally using Imiquimod (Aldara Cream 5%). A biopsy
was undertaken initially to confirm sBCC. We used the
standard protocol recommended by the manufacturers
i.e., the cream was applied to the affected area once a
day at bedtime for five consecutive days per week
(Monday to Friday) for 6 weeks. The patient was
reviewed at 8 weeks and it was noted that the patient
had developed a de novo pigmented lesion over the site
of application of Imiquimod. Given the clinical impres-

sion was that of a malignant melanoma, this lesion was
excised. The approximate area within which the treat-
ment was undertaken is shown in Fig. 11.1. The image
clearly shows the de novo pigmented lesion arising
within the field of treatment.
HISTOPATHOLOGY
Specimen:
EXCISION SKIN LESION BACK
Figure 11.1 Box shows area of application of Aldara for s BCC

120 S.P. Paul
Gross Description:
The specimen consists of a skin ellipse 15 mm 10 mm
5 mm bearing a central dark brown irregular lesion
approximately 9 mm 7 mm. 3r 6l
Microscopy:
SYNOPTIC REPORT FOR INVASIVE
MALIGNANT MELANOMA
SUMMARY DIAGNOSIS:
I NVASIVE MALIGNANT MELANOMA,
CLARK LEVEL 3, BRESLOW THICKNESS 0.8
MM, CLOSEST SIDE MARGIN 1.25 MM.
OTHER SIDE MARGIN 2.5 MM. CLOSEST
DEEP MARGIN 4.1 MM.
Tumor Type: Invasive malignant melanoma arising in
an area of melanoma in-situ
Ulceration: Nil
Tumor Infiltrating Lymphocytes: Mild
Regression: Nil
Lymphovascular Invasion: Nil
Perineural Spread/Neurotropism: Nil
Mitotic Rate: 0 per sq mm
Microscopic Satellitosis: Nil
Radial Margin of Excision: Closest side margin
1.25 mm. Other side margin 2.5 mm.
Deep Margin: Closest deep margin 4.1 mm.
Associated Nevus: Nil
The case has also been viewed by Dr F.O. who agrees
with the diagnosis. Reported By: Dr. H T.Anatomical
Pathologist
Office Data: nl/lm/as
Ordered by: SHARAD PAUL
Observation date: 16-Aug-2014
Histological report is detailed above which reveals
a non-ulcerated tumor of 0.8 mm Breslow thickness,
Clark Level 3 invasive melanoma, arising in an area of
melanoma-in-situ. A compete skin and lymph node
examination revealed no other abnormalities. After

reviewing the histopathology, this patient was managed
with a wide local excision with 1 cm margins in keeping
with standard guidelines for management of Stage 1A
melanoma of skin.
Discussion
Dermatologists, surgeons and skin cancer doctors are faced

with an epidemic of skin cancer in Australia and New
Zealand. Actinic Keratoses and Squamous Cell Carcinomas
share multiple genomic mutations that suggest common ori-
gins [24]. It is well known that increases in p53 mutations are
seen in sun-damaged skin, AK, and SCC [25]. Given the need
to reduce unnecessary surgery as well as associated costs,
researchers have turned their focus to topical applications to
deal with skin cancer. Some prevailing topical treatments
include 5-fluorouracil, diclofenac sodium, topical photody-
namic therapy (PDT) with 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA)
Imiquimod and few others discussed earlier.
Given the clinical interest for TLR agonists in metastatic
melanoma and indeed skin cancer, it is essential to determine
the mechanism of action of Imidazoquinolines such as
Imiquimod. Imiquimod has many cellular effects that stimulate
Th-1 innate immunity. The drugs effects is mediated after
binding to TLR 7, the receptor that is found on dendritic cells
and monocytes. TLR-7 is also involved in regulation of cellular
apoptosis. Following Imiquimod treatment, immunologic
memory is established, and this differentiates this drug from
other topical agents [26]. From Imiquimods early use for
genital warts, it was noted that a significant proportion of
patients ended up non-responders.
Some authors have been enthusiastic about the field
clearance effects of Imiquimod the concept of lymphatic
transport of immune cells and factors with subsequent immu-
122 S.P. Paul
nological curing of tumors, not only in the treated area, but

also those in field around the treatment site. Akkilic-
Materna and colleagues suggest that their observations on
the actions of Imiquimod support the concept of lymphatic
transport of immune cells and factors with subsequent immu-
nological curing of tumors, not only in the treated area, but
also those in the area between the imiquimod application site
and the regional lymph nodes what they term the lym-
phatic field clearance [27] Others have raised concerns
about recurrence after Imiquimod use and whether
Imiquimod may select more aggressive tumor cells or may
just convey a natural course of tumor recurrence as we see
with other treatment modalities [28].
Recurrence aside, there have been several reports of
Imiquimod triggering keratoacanthomas and indeed infiltrat-
ing or aggressive SCC [29]. There has been also a report of a
pulmonary embolism occurring after Imiquimod use [30].
The exact mechanism of inducing tumors remains unknown,
although the exuberant immunological response is blamed
a sort of fighting fire with fire when utilizing immune-
modulating agents that stimulate apoptosis.
There are now several reports that have supported the use
of Imiquimod in amelanotic lentigo maligna [31], peri-ocular
lentigo maligna [32], facial lentigo maligna [33] and even in
large lentigo malignas prior to staged excision [34]. However
given the reports of Imiquimod causing aggressive SCC, or in
our case, an invasive melanoma arising at the site of topical
Imiquimod use, I would like to stress the importance of fol-
low up after Imiquimod use.
Schn and others have discussed that more pleiotrophic
antitumoral responses have to be considered when studying
imidazoquinolines. They demonstrated that imiquimod is
able to act not only as synthetic adjuvant but also as direct
inducer of apoptosis for melanoma cells in vitro and in vivo.
They concluded that cell death was exerted by apoptosis
rather than necrosis and that this pro-apoptotic signal is
selectively activated in melanoma cells, but not in primary
human melanocytes [35].
Of course, in this case report, it is impossible to prove

causal effect other than to say that the melanoma arose at
the exact Imiquimod treatment site. However, I believe it is
prudent, given this case-study, to undertake ongoing surveil-
lance of patients after Imiquimod use.
References
1. Kirby JS, Miller CJ. Intralesional chemotherapy for nonmela-
noma skin cancer: a practical review. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2010;
63:689702.
2. Chitwood K, Etzkorn K, Cohen G. Topical and intralesional
treatment of nonmelanoma skin cancer: efficacy and cost com-
parisons. Dermatol Surg. 2013;39:130616.
3. Klein E, Milgrom H, Helm F, Ambrus J, Traenkle HL, Stoll
HL. Tumors of the skin: effects of local use of cytostatic agents.
Skin (Los Angeles). 1962;1:817.
4. Maltusch A, Rowert-Huber J, Matthies C, Lange-Asschenfeldt S,
Stockfleth E. Modes of action of diclofenac 3 %/hyaluronic acid
2.5 % in the treatment of actinic keratosis. J Dtsch Dermatol
Ges. 2011;9:10117.
5. Lebwohl M, Swanson N, Anderson LL, Melgaard A, Xu Z,
Berman B. Ingenol mebutate gel for actinic keratosis. N Engl
J Med. 2012;366:10109.
6. Rosen RH, Gupta AK, Tyring SK. Dual mechanism of action of
ingenol mebutate gel for topical treatment of actinic keratoses:
rapid lesion necrosis followed by lesion-specific immune
response. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2012;66:48693.
7. Micali G, et al. Topical pharmacotherapy for skin cancer. J Am
Acad Dermatol. 2014;70(6):979.e1e12.
8. Harrison CJ, Jenski L,Voychehovski T, Bernstein DI. Modification
of immunological responses and clinical disease during topical
R-837 treatment of genital HSV-2 infection. Antiviral Res.
1988;10:20924.
9. Gerster JF, Lindstrom KJ, Miller RL, et al. Synthesis and structure-
activityrelationships of 1H-Imidazo[4,5-c]quinolines that induce
interferon production. J Med Chem. 2005;48:348191.
10. Salasche SJ, Levine N, Morrison L. Cycle therapy of actinic kera-
toses of the face and scalp with 5 % topical Imiquimod cream: an
open label trial. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2002;47(4):5717.
124 S.P. Paul
11. Beutner KR, Geisse JK, Helman D, Fox TL, Ginkel A, Owens
ML. Therapeutic response of basal cell carcinoma to the immune
response modifier imiquimod 5 % cream. J Am Acad Dermatol.
1999;41:10027.
12. Smyth E, Flavin M. Treatment of locally recurrent mucosal
melanoma with topical imiquimod. J Clin Oncol. 2011;29(33):
80911.
13. Gagnon L. Imiquimod advantage. Dermatology Times. 2011;
32(9):869.
14. Stanley MA. Imiquimod and the imidazoquinolones: mechanism
of action and therapeutic potential. Clin Exp Dermatol.
2002;27:5717.
15. Gibson SJ, Lindh JM, Riter TR, et al. Plasmacytoid dendritic
cells produce cytokines and mature in response to the TLR7
agonists, imiquimod and resiquimod. Cell Immunol. 2002;
218:7486.
16. Kaisho T, Akira S. Toll-like receptor function and signaling.
J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2006;117:97987.
17. Tomai MA, Imbertson LM, Stanczak TL, et al. The immune
response modifiers imiquimod and R-848 are potent activators
of B lymphocytes. Cell Immunol. 2000;203:5565.
18. Goh MS. Invasive squamous cell carcinoma after treatment of
carcinoma in situ with 5 % imiquimod cream. Australas J of
Dermatol. 2006;47:1868.
19. Campelani E, Holden CA. Keratoacanthoma associated with the
use of topical imiquimod correspondence. Clin Exp Dermatol.
2013;38:5538.
20. Chapman MS, Spencer SK, Brennick JB. Histologic resolution of
melanoma in situ (lentigo maligna) with 5 % imiquimod cream.
Arch Dermatol. 2003;139:9434.
21. Kamin A, Eigentler TK, Radny P, et al. Imiquimod in the treat-
ment of extensive recurrent lentigo maligna. J Am Acad
Dermatol. 2005;52(2 Suppl 1):512.
22. Aspord C, Tramcourt L, et al. Imiquimod inhibits melanoma
development by promoting pDC cytotoxic functions and imped-
ing tumor vascularization. J Investig Dermatol. 2014. (Advance
online publication).
23. Bong AB, Bonnekoh B, Franke I, et al. Imiquimod, a topical
immune response modifier, in the treatment of cutaneous metas-
tases of malignant melanoma. Dermatology. 2002;205:1358.
24. Ashton KJ,Weinstein SR, Maguire DJ, Griffiths LR. Chromosomal
aberrations in squamous cell carcinoma and solar keratosis
revealed by genomic hybridization. Arch Dermatol. 2003;139(7):

87682.
25. Brash DE, Zeigler A, Jonason AS, Simon JA, Kunala S, Leffell
DJ. Sunlight and sunburn in human skin: p53, apoptosis and
tumor promotion. J Investig Dermatol Symp Proc. 1996;19(2):
13642.
26. McGillis ST, Fein H. Topical treatment strategies for Non-
melanoma skin cancer and precursor lesions. Semin Cutan Med
Surg. 2004;23:17483.
27. Akkilic-Materna M, Massone C, Komericki P. Imiquimod and
lymphatic field clearance: a New hypothesis based on a remote
immune action on skin cancer. Acta Derm Venereol. 2011;
91(4):432435(4).
28. Skaria AM. Facial basal cell carcinomas recurring after imiqui-
mod therapy correspondence. Dermatology. 2013;226:134.
29. Fernndez-Vozmediano J, Armario-Hita J. Infiltrative squamous
cell carcinoma on the scalp after treatment with 5 % imiquimod
cream. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2005;52:7167.
30. Leroy B, Wolf F, Descotes J, Vial T. Imiquimod and pulmonary
embolism: a case report. Fundamental and Clinical Pharmacology.
2012;26 Suppl 1:375.
31. LAPRESTA A, GARCA-ALMAGRO D, SEJAS AG.
Amelanotic lentigo maligna managed with topical imiquimod.
J Dermatol. 2012;39:5035.
32. O'Neill J, Ayers D, Kenealy J. Periocular lentigo maligna treated
with imiquimod. J Dermatol Treat. 2011;22(2):10912.
33. Ventura F, et al. Topical imiquimod treatment of lentigo maligna.
Case Rep Dermatol. 2009;1:7881.
34. Cotter M, et al. Treatment of lentigo maligna with imiquimod
before staged excision. Dermatol Surg. 2008;34(2):14751.
35. Schn M, Bong AB, Drewniok C, et al. Tumor-selective induc-
tion of apoptosis and the small-molecule immune response
modifier imiquimod. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2003;95:113849.
Chapter 12
When a Lipoma Wasnt
a Lipoma: A Discussion
About Granular Cell Tumors
of Skin
Sharad P. Paul and Vladimir Osipov
Background
Granular Cell Tumors, first described by Abrikossoff on the
tongue in 1926, are known to occur in skin, connective tissue,
breasts, gastro-intestinal and genital tracts with the head
and neck being the commonest region and the tongue the
commonest site [1]. They are very rare tumors, and some
authors have suggested that they make up around 0.5 % of all
soft tissue tumors [2]. Frequent locations are the tongue
(40 %), breast (15 %), respiratory tract (10 %), and esophagus

V. Osipov, MD, FCAP
Department of Anatomic Pathology, QML, Townsville, QLD,
Australia
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-20937-1_12,
128 S.P. Paul and V. Osipov
(2 %) [3]. The tumour can often be multicentric (514 % of

cases) [3]. These tumors have a higher incidence amongst
women and a greater prevalence amongst black people.
There has also been a case report of a mother and son both
of whom presented in childhood with multiple granular cell
tumors [4].
While the origins of granular cell tumors are often
debated and Abrikossoff originally postulated a myogenic
origin and termed this a myoblastoma, they are now con-
sidered to be neoplasms of neural origin, as evidenced
immuno-histochemical studies [5]. However, there have
been reports of dermal non-neural granular cell tumors in
the literature [6].
It is considered difficult by some authors to make a
diagnosis of malignancy in these tumors on the basis of
cellular pleomorphism, mitotic activity, or ultrastructural
findings; macroscopic features such as size greater than
5 cm, rapid growth rate, or invasion of adjacent structures
are more likely to suggest malignancy [7]. Most Granular
Cell Tumors are benign with a self-limiting growth pattern;
however, when they metastasize, the commonest sites are
to the regional lymph nodes, lungs or bones [8]. Granular
Cell Tumors are rare on the trunk and usually present as a
solitary painless mass, with the patient usually noticing a
lump [9].
The case we are presenting is that of a young white male
aged 27, who presented with a 2-month history of a 2 cm
mass on his buttock which was preventing him from sitting
down due to pain. Our initial clinical impression of this
fibro-fatty mass was initially of a well-circumscribed
lipoma or neurofibroma and the differential diagnosis
included a cyst. The pain and tenderness to touch were
attributed to pressure effects on his sciatic nerve. Given
this was a young male patient presenting with a painful
dermal/subcutaneous mass, we did not consider a granular
cell tumour until histopathological examination, due to
this unusual case presentation.
Chapter 12. When a Lipoma Wasnt a Lipoma 129
Case History
A 27 year-old white male was referred to our centre by his
GP with a lump noted by the referring doctor on the
patients right buttock. The mass was 2 cm in diameter and
was felt to be a lipoma clinically. The patient himself was
not aware of the lump and had visited his GP only because
every time he sat down he felt pain over his buttock
region, which was radiating down his leg. This symptom
was consistently reproducible and prevented the patient
from sitting down on a hard surface like a wooden bench.
The patient was otherwise well with no medical con-
ditions or medications. There was no family history of
any malignancy or cutaneous masses or lipomata.
On examination, we felt a well localized an approxi-
mately 2 cm soft tissue mass which was clinically located
in the deep dermis or the subcutaneous fat. There was
no attachment to muscle and no overlying skin changes.
Our differential diagnoses included a lipoma or neuro-
fibroma. Given the lesion was well-localized, not greater
than 2 cm and not adherent to muscle or deep fascia, we
proceeded to excision of the lesion under local anesthe-
sia without imaging.
During the operation, the lesion seemed well local-
ized and intra-operatively appeared to resemble a seba-
ceous cyst or pilomatrixoma.
Histological reports are detailed below. A compete skin
and lymph node examination revealed no other abnormali-
ties. After reviewing the histopathology, this patient was
managed with a wide local excision with 1 cm margins.
Histopathological examination:
The tumour was well-circumscribed, spanned the
entire dermis and showed broad interface with the
underlying adipose tissue. The interface with the epidermis
was quite irregular, with prominent epidermal pseudo-
epitheliomatous hyperplasia (Figs. 12.1 and 12.2).
This feature creates a well-know pitfall that may hap-
pen in a limited sample of a granular cell tumour. One can
Figure 12.1 H&E, 20 magnification

see how easy a diagnosis of invasive well-differentiated

squamous cell carcinoma can be made in a superficial
biopsy sample. This can lead to a potentially harmful sur-
gery, especially when the lesion is present in the tongue,
which is a common site for Granular Cell Tumors. The
tumor cells are quite monomorphous, with small round
nuclei and abundant granular eosinophilic cytoplasm
(Fig. 12.3). The tumor cells were diffusely positive with
S-100 immunohistochemical stain.
Discussion
Granular Cell Tumors are uncommon and when they occur

they are most common on the head and neck. Surgical exci-
sion is the treatment of choice. The recurrence rate for
Granular Cell Tumors has been reported at 2 %, when local
wide excision has been undertaken [10]. Most Granular Cell

Tumors can be easily managed by wide local excision; how-
ever, in cosmetically sensitive areas where tissue preservation
is paramount such as the penis, Mohs Micrographic Surgery
has been used [11]. Our patient was unusual, given it was the
symptomatic nature of the lesion that led to the diagnosis
the patient was unable to sit due to buttock pain which
resulted in the initial referral, and the impression during sur-
gery was of a cyst, neurofibroma or a pilomatrixoma. A sur-
vey of buttock tumors suggested that when pain is present, it
is usually due to cyst formation in old haematomas, and pain
along the course of the sciatic nerve and its branches was
present in 40 % of the cases [12].
Granular Cell Tumors are usually painless masses in the
head, neck or extremities and hence in our patient, the diag-
nosis was only made subsequently upon histological exami-
nation. It is interesting that as far as Granular Cell Tumors
are concerned, when malignant cases are reported (in 12 %),
the most common site is the soft tissue of the thigh, rather
than the head and neck area. [13] The malignant versions of
Granular Cell Tumors are more common in African-American
females, and the mean age range of patient with malignant
tumors is similar to the benign group i.e. 3050 years. The
treatment of choice is wide complete local excision, as was
performed in our patient. The recurrence rate after incom-
plete excision results in a recurrence rate of 2150 % [14].
This case report suggests that Granular Cell Tumors must be
considered in the differential diagnoses of lipomas. Several
authors have mistaken them for lipomas. Approximately 5 %
of GCT occur in the gastrointestinal tract, with predilection
for the esophagus. Due to the similarity in endoscopic
appearance, some gastroenterologists [15] suggest granular
cell tumors may often be mistaken for lipomas and are per-
haps more common than the reported literature suggests.
While they are rare, they are commoner in blacks and
show a slight female preponderance. Usually presenting as
solitary and painless masses, less than 10 % are multiple, and
fewer than 3 % of tumors show features of malignancy. Mean
age is 4060 years. An interesting report noted a 45-year-old

man with a single, firm, painless and mobile cutaneous nodule
2 cm in size on his right arm. This was excised and the histol-
ogy confirmed as a granular cell tumour [16]. However, the
authors in this case noted a strange occurrence. Four years
after the initial diagnosis, the patient presented with enlarging
subcutaneous nodules on the trunk, left arm and left buttock,
associated with a drop in hemoglobin.
A nodule was surgically removed from the left buttock,
and this time the histopathological examination revealed a
granular cell tumour with malignant features. The authors
caution that in benign cutaneous granular cell tumors, as our
case was, recurrences can occur many years after the original
diagnosis. Therefore long-term follow up is important. This
recurrence may involve malignant transformation and also
involve gastrointestinal organs besides the skin [16]. Indeed
authors have reported granular cell tumors as incidental
findings when haemorrhoids have been removed and
histological analysis has been done [17]. There is also a report
of a cutaneous granular cell tumor of skin of the arm diag-
nosed on fine needle aspiration cytology, which the clinicians
had felt was a possible dermatofibroma [18]. The authors in
this case comment that while in most cases the cytological
features are distinctive enough, soft tissue sarcomas need to
be excluded. As they note, sarcomas typically show promi-
nent nucleoli, multinucleated cells, and the characteristic
rhomboid crystals. The absence of cross-striations and glyco-
gen distinguishes a granular cell tumour from a rhabdomy-
oma while the absence of lipid droplets excludes a
lipoma-variant such as a hibernoma [18].
And recently, in a large multi-centre study of 119 cases of
granular cell tumors of skin, the authors studied the propensity
of vascular invasion and other invasive features in granular
cell tumors of the skin and noted that infiltration of arrector
pili muscle occurred in 23 % and perineural spread in 66 % of
cases. While vascular invasion occurred in 23 % of cases, no
intraluminal embolus was found. Therefore vascular invasion
of granular cell tumors of the skin consists of an infiltration of
the subendothelial layers, without intraluminal cells, and is not

necessarily a marker of adverse prognosis [19].
Just as authors earlier mistook a granular cell tumour for
a dermatofibroma, there is a paper where the lesion was ini-
tially diagnosed clinically as a dermatofibrosarcoma or a
spontaneous keloid only to end up as granular cell tumour of
skin on histological examination [20]. Granular cell tumors
should therefore be included in the differential diagnosis of
scar-like lesions, keloidal lesions or lesions suspected of
being lipomata. These tumors should be removed completely
and patients then examined regularly to detect new tumors
given the risk of both new tumors and later occurrence of
malignancy.
References
1. Abrikossoff A. ber myome ausgehend von der quergesteiften
willkurlchen musculator. Virchows Arch Pathol. 1926;260:
21523.
2. Tsuchida T, Okada K, Itoi E, Sato T, Sato K. Intramuscular malig-
nant granular cell tumor. Skeletal Radiol. 1997;26(2):11621.
3. Lack EE, Worsham GM, Callihan MD, et al. Granular cell
tumor: a clinico-pathologic study of 110 patients. J Surg Oncol.
1980;13:30116.
4. Rifkin RH, Blocker SH, Palmer JO, Ternberg JL. Multiple
granular cell tumors: a familial occurrence in children. Arch
Surg. 1986;121(8):9457.
5. Rejas RA, Campos MS, Cortes AR, Pinto DD, de Sousa SC. The
neural histogenetic origin of the oral granular cell tumor: an
immunohistochemical evidence. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal.
2011;16(1):610.
6. Chaudhry IH, Calonje E. Dermal non-neural granular cell tumour
(so-called primitive polypoid granular cell tumour): a distinctive
entity further delineated in a clinico-pathological study of 11 cases.
Histopathology. 2005;47:17985.
7. DAndrea V, Ambrogi V, et al. Granular cell myoblastoma
(Abrikossoff tumor) of the chest wall: a never described site of a
rare tumor. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1994;108:7923.
8. Jardines L, Cheung L, LiVolsi V, et al. Malignant granular cell

tumors: report of a case and review of the literature. Surgery.
1994;116:4954.
9. Jung-Suk A, et al. Granular cell tumors of the abdominal wall.
Yonsei Med J. 2007;48(4):72730.
10. Strong EW, McDivitt RW, Brasfield RD. Granular cell myoblas-
toma. Cancer. 1970;25:41522.
11. Gardner ES, Goldberg LH. Granular cell tumor treated with
Mohs micrographic surgery: report of a case and review of the
literature. Dermatol Surg. 2001;27(8):7724.
12. Herz R. Sciatica caused by cyst formation in old hematomas.
Surgery. 1948;24:714.
13. Argenyi ZB. Granular cell tumor. In: Pathology and genetics of
skin tumors, World Health Organization Classification of Tumors.
Lyon: IARC Press; 2006. p. 2745.
14. Meissner M, Wolter M, Schofer H, Kaufmann R. A solid ery-
thematous tumour. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2010;35:445.
15. Squillace SJ, Deutsch JC. Granular cell tumors of the gastroin-
testinal tract. Visible Hum J Endosc. 2010;9(2).
16. Kanat O, Ozguc H, Yalcinkaya U, Cubukcu E. A case of granular
cell tumor with an interesting clinical course. Indian J Dermatol
Venereol Leprol. 2012;78(2):1935.
17. Mourra N, Werbrouck A, Bauer P. Anal region: an unusual
location of granular cell tumour. Int J Colorectal Dis.
2010;26(6):8112.
18. Das S, et al. Granular cell tumor of skin diagnosed on fine needle
aspiration cytology. Indian J Dermatol. 2012;57(4):3301.
19. Battistella M, et al. Vascular invasion and other invasive features
in granular cell tumors of the skin: a multicentre study of 119
cases. J Clin Pathol. 2014;67:1925.
20. Hegemann B, Helmbold P, Marsch WC. Keloidartiger
Granularzelltumor. Der Hautarzt. 2001;52(10):9079.
Chapter 13
How Small Is Small
for a Melanoma?
Sharad P. Paul
Background
Melanoma is the second most common cancer in men aged
3049 years and the fourth most common cancer in men aged
5059 [1]. For women, it is the most common cancer in
women aged 2529 and second only to breast cancer in
women aged 3035 years [2]. Australia and New Zealand
record the highest rates of melanoma in the world [3],
>55/100,000 people due to high UV indices and largely Celtic
populations. Early detection of a melanoma is the best way to
reduce mortality the 10-year survival rate has been reported
as high as 99.5 % for early melanomas <0.76 mm thick, but is
only 48 % for lesions >3 mm thick [4].
Earlier detection is probably the reason for the reduction in
mortality from about 60 % for those diagnosed in 1960 to about

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-20937-1_13,
138 S.P. Paul
11 % for those diagnosed 45 years later [5]. Educational and

public health campaigns have no doubt helped raise awareness,
help self-detection and bring down the mortality rate [6]. The
ABCD (asymmetry, border irregularity, color variegation,
diameter >6 mm) acronym was created in 1985 to help people
recognize early melanomas and differentiate them from benign
pigmented lesions [4]. The addition of E, for evolving, to the
acronym ABCD is intended to heighten awareness of the diag-
nostic importance of change, which has been recognized for
many years [7]. In the rules of the ABCD acronym, E criterion
must coexist with at least one of the other criteria of the ABCD
acronym.
Part of the problem with these criteria is that the evolution
(E) aspect has been applied particularly to nevi with both
medical and lay populations obsessed with screening nevi.
However, we know that most melanomas do not arise in pre-
existing nevi [8] in one of the most detailed studies that
looked to answer this question, it was found that when super-
ficial spreading melanomas were analysed by level, the pres-
ence of a nevus varied from 31.3 % of level I melanomas to
21.3 % of level IV melanomas. When thickness was mea-
sured, an associated nevus was found in 27.0 % of superficial
spreading melanomas less than 1.0 mm thick, and 14.8 % of
melanomas with a thickness of 1.0 mm or greater [8].
However, one interesting yet unexplained finding has been
that patients presenting with a melanoma arising in a
pre-existing naevus had a greater Breslow thickness despite
presenting sooner than those with de novo melanomas [9].
The second issue with the diameter (D) aspect is that it
raised an erroneous expectation that melanomas need to be
at least 6 mm in diameter. One study conducted in Australia
suggested that 31.1 % of melanomas were <6 mm in diameter
[10]. One of the clinically concerning things about these
small-diameter melanomas is the finding that melanomas
6 mm display many of these same histo-pathological atypia
as larger melanomas [11].
While dermatoscopy has really helped the diagnosis of
melanoma, the ABCD rule of dermatoscopy may not be as
useful in the identification of small melanomas, as there is
13 How Small Is Small for a Melanoma? 139
insufficient inter-observer agreement in evaluating the pres-

ence of each of the criteria in lesions 5 mm [12]. To further
complicate matters, studies have shown that dermatoscopy
did not improve diagnostic performance for lesions 6 mm in
diameter, even for those trained in dermatoscopy [13]. This
brings us to the question with regard to melanomas how
small is small? Does the ABCD criteria not apply to small
melanomas? How can one diagnose small melanomas? We
present a case of a tiny <2 mm pigmented lesion that turned
out to be a melanoma.
Interestingly, in 1987, Schmoeckel and Braun-Falco even
suggested that pigmented lesions under 5 mm cannot be con-
sidered melanomas as clinical and histological features only
became apparent when lesions enlarged beyond 5 mm size
[14]. Then, as mentioned earlier, a large retrospective study
from the Sydney Melanoma Unit concluded that 31.1 % of
lesions were 6 mm or less in diameter [10]. A few years later,
a paper presented a series of invasive small-diameter mela-
nomas, debating if the D should be removed from the
ABCD acronym [15]. Recently, a case report reviewed the
dermatoscopy and dermatopathology findings of a tiny inva-
sive melanoma in a 38-year-old patient who had >100 nevi
with the smallest diameter ever of a reported melanoma of
1.6 mm [16].
In this case report I am presenting a 2 mm melanoma-in-
situ presenting as a solitary de novo lesion in a 60-year-old
patient with no previous history of melanoma or multiple
nevi illustrating the fact that when it comes to a melanoma,
size does not matter and very tiny 2 mm lesions can also be
melanomas. Perhaps, tiny melanomas 2 mm need to be
termed micromelanomas!
The presentation here is unusual because of the age (60),
and clinical presentation of this lesion not being clinically
different to the patients other nevi. Further this patient had
<5 nevi other overall. This lesion did not look particularly
sinister on clinical examination with the naked eye. The
dermatoscopic and histological aspects are reviewed in the
context of this clinical case and the associated literature of
small-diameter melanomas.
140 S.P. Paul
Case History
A 60-year old lady (Caucasian, Fitzpatrick Type 2 skin)
presented for a screening skin examination with no pre-
vious family history or significant personal medical his-
tory of skin cancer. On examination she had a very
small 2 mm pigmented lesion on her R forearm
(Fig. 13.1). She had not been aware of this lesion given
its tiny size. She had very few nevi (<5) and all other
nevi appeared equally pigmented and around 2 mm in
diameter. None of them appeared particularly dark on
clinical examination.
Fig. 13.1 Small 2 mm pigmented lesion on forearm
Dermatoscopy
On examination with a dermatoscope (Heine Delta 20 der-
matoscope, manufactured by Heine, Optotechnic GmbH,
Herrsching, Germany), the lesion being discussed had no
obvious melanin network, but it had asymmetry of color; fur-
ther the blueness suggested that is was probably both mela-
nocytic and atypical (Fig. 13.2). As we discussed earlier, small
melanomas are not only missed by the ABCD rule, but der-
Fig. 13.2 Dermatoscopy
matoscopy is notoriously difficult, with most dermatoscopic

algorithms not being useful.
Looking for Chaos and Clues in dermatoscopy has been
described as an extremely useful method [17]. In this method
chaos is defined as the presence of asymmetry in structure
or color. In the presence of chaos one looks for any of the
following eight clues:
1. Thick reticular lines
2. Grey or blue structures of any kind
3. Pseudopods or radial lines at the periphery
4. Black dots in the periphery
5. Eccentric structure-less area of any color
6. Polymorphous vascular pattern
7. White lines
8. Parallel lines on ridges
In the case being described here, the lesion exhibited
chaos (asymmetry of color or structure) and also a clue
142 S.P. Paul
(grey or blue structure of any kind). Therefore excision

biopsy was done. Interestingly, this lady had very few (<5)
nevi and none of the other equally small and pigmented nevi
exhibited any asymmetry.
In dermatoscopy, most two-step algorithms commonly
recommended were established to differentiate melano-
cytic from non-melanocytic lesions as a first step. However,
using a chaos and clues method helps us differentiate
malignant from benign lesions first by looking for chaos
over symmetry. In comparing these methods, Kittler and
others commented that looking for chaos and clues is
preferable over other methods given that the first step of
the traditional dermatoscopic 2-step algorithm, if applied
consistently, has a low specificity especially in patients
with severely sun-damaged skin, as is often found in
Australasia [18].
Histopathology
Argenziano and others suggest that small melanomas need
more stringent criteria and a consensus approach to diagno-
sis among examining pathologists, as there is no gold stan-
dard. In their study they suggest that severe cytologic atypia
represents a useful clue in differentiating small melanomas
from small dysplastic nevi [19].
Sections here show superficial sun-damaged skin bearing a
small proliferation of atypical melanocytes showing pagetoid
scatter to the granular layer along with trans-epidermal
elimination of melanin pigment. Superficial dermis shows
melanophages and there is no dermal invasion. The appear-
ance is suggestive of a melanoma in-situ because of the com-
bination of cytologic atypia and epidermal invasion (Figs. 13.3,
13.4, and 13.5). Figure 13.3 shows the biopsy specimen;
Fig. 13.4 shows atypical hyperchromatic melanocytes singly
and in nests and Fig. 13.5 shows transepidermal (pagetoid)
invasion.
Fig. 13.3 2-mm pigmented skin lesion
Fig. 13.4 Atypical hyperchromatic melanocytes singly and in nests

144 S.P. Paul
Fig. 13.5 Transepidermal pagetoid invasion
Discussion
Tiny melanomas (micromelanomas, the term suggested by

the author) as discussed earlier, naturally will not fit the
ABCD acronym. In a study of pigmented lesions 36 mm in
diameter, the authors showed that clinical criteria for diag-
nosing melanoma are not as reliable in the diagnosis of pig-
mented lesions of less than 6 mm diameter [20]. In this case
of a tiny pigmented lesion of 2 mm diameter, the unusual
features were the absence of several nevi, which is usually the
case in other reported cases. In this situation, this was the
only nevus that exhibited any chaos and therefore using the
chaos and clues algorithm proved decisive. The lesion
turned out to be a melanoma-in-situ and was managed by
wide surgical excision to ensure 5 mm margins all around.
In conclusion, melanomas under 2 mm are being increas-
ingly reported and given the minute size, the ABCD screening
acronym becomes redundant. Further, traditional dermatoscopic
diagnostic methods often fail, and the chaos and clues
algorithm may be the best method to follow while performing

dermatoscopy. In previously reported small-diameter melano-
mas, the lesions were noted to be darker than other nevi (the
so-called ugly duckling sign) [21]. Further, patients usually had
dysplastic nevus syndrome with >100 nevi. Our patient exhib-
ited neither of the above clinical features and hence this case
was considered noteworthy. The lesion was one of 4 nevi and all
appeared similar to the naked eye and not particularly abnor-
mal. However, when all the nevi were examined using a derma-
toscope, this particular lesion proved significant when using the
chaos and clues method of dermatoscopy; histology confirmed
features of a melanoma-in-situ. Therefore, this case serves to
illustrate that when it comes to melanoma, small-diameter may
indeed mean 2 mm.
References
1. Fitzpatrick TB, Johnson RA, Wolff K. Color atlas and synopsis of
clinical dermatology. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1997.
p. 1801.
2. Brown TJ, Nelson BR. Malignant melanoma: a clinical review.
Cutis. 1999;63:27584.
3. MacLennan R, Green AC, McLeod GR. Increasing incidence of
cutaneous melanoma in Queensland, Australia. J Natl Cancer
Inst. 1992;84:142732.
4. Friedman RJ, Rigel DS, Kopf AW. Early detection of malignant
melanoma: the role of physician examination and self-
examination of the skin. CA Cancer J Clin. 1985;35:13051.
5. Thompson JF, Scolyer RA, Kefford RF. Cutaneous melanoma.
Lancet. 2005;365:687701.
6. Berwick M, Begg CB, Fine JA, et al. Screening for cutaneous
melanoma by skin self-examination. J Natl Cancer Inst.
1996;88:1723.
7. Rigel DS, Friedman RJ, Kopf AW, Polsky D. ABCDE: an evolv-
ing concept in the early diagnosis of melanoma. Arch Dermatol.
2005;141:103234.
8. Marks R, Dorevitch AP, Mason G. Do all melanomas come from
moles? A study of the histological association between mela-
nocytic naevi and melanoma. Australas J Dermatol.
1990;31(2):7780.
146 S.P. Paul
9. Weatherhead SC. Melanomas arising from naevi and de novo

melanomas does origin matter? Br J Dermatol.
2007;156:726.
10. Shaw HM, McCarthy WH. Small-diameter malignant melanoma:
a common diagnosis in New South Wales, Australia. J Am Acad
Dermatol. 1992;27:67982.
11. Kamino H, Kiryu H, Ratech H. Small malignant melanomas:
clinicopathologic correlation and DNA ploidy analysis. J Am
Acad Dermatol. 1990;22:10328.
12. Pizzichetta MA, Talamini R, Piccolo D, et al. The ABCD rule of
dermatoscopy does not apply to small melanocytic skin lesions.
Arch Dermatol. 2001;137:13767.
13. Chamberlain AJ, Fritschi L, Kelly JW. Nodular melanoma:
patients perceptions of presenting features and implications for
earlier detection. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2003;48:694701.
14. Schmoeckel C, Braun-Falco O. Diagnosis of early malignant
melanoma: sensitivity and specificity of clinical and histological
criteria. In: Elder DE, editor. Pathobiology of malignant mela-
noma, vol. 8. Basel: Karger; 1987. p. 96106.
15. Gonzalez A, West AJ, Pitha JV, Taira JW. Small-diameter inva-
sive melanomas: clinical and pathologic characteristics. J Cutan
Pathol. 1996;23(2):12632.
16. Pellizzari G, Magee J, Weedon D, Rosendahl C. A tiny invasive
melanoma: a case report with dermatoscopy and dermatopathol-
ogy. Dermatol Pract Concept. 2013;3(2):6.
17. Rosendahl C, Cameron A, McColl I, Wilkinson D. Dermatoscopy
in routine practice: chaos and clues [online]. Aust Fam Physician.
2012;41(7):4827.
18. Tschandl P, Rosendahl C, Kittler H. Accuracy of the first step of
the dermatoscopic 2-step algorithm for pigmented skin lesions.
Dermatol Pract Concept. 2012;2(3):8.
19. Ferrara G, Tomasini C, Argenziano G, Zalaudek I, Stefanato
CM. Small-diameter melanoma: toward a conceptual and practi-
cal reappraisal. J Cutan Pathol. 2012;39:7213.
20. De Giorgi V, Savarese I, Rossari S, et al. Features of small mela-
nocytic lesions: does small mean benign? A clinical-dermoscopic
study. Melanoma Res. 2012;22(3):2526.
21. Inskip M, Magee J, Weedon D, Rosendahl C. When algorithms
falter: a case report of a very small melanoma excised due to the
Dermatoscopic ugly duckling sign. Dermatol Pract Concept.
2013;3(2):9.
Chapter 14
Multiple Basal Cell
Carcinomas and Superficial
Radiotherapy (SRT)
Robert A. Norman
Patient History
The patient is a 56-year-old male with a history of basal

cell carcinoma on his back, scalp and face. He was sched-
uled for an initial evaluation of the skin lesions and the
patient stated that over the past year the lesions were
increasing in size and he had been experiencing bleeding,
crustiness and scaliness in these areas. The patient had no
past treatments. Upon biopsy, multiple lesions were diag-
nosed as basal cell carcinoma.
R.A. Norman, DO, MPH

Dermatology Healthcare, Tampa, FL, USA
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-20937-1_14,
148 R.A. Norman
Patient Management
The patient presented with a 10 mm diameter lesion on his
mid upper back, a crusty and scaly 10 mm diameter lesion on
his upper scalp and a 3.0 2.0 mm lesion on the right hairline
(forehead). The treatment options discussed with the patient
were wide local excision and superficial radiation therapy
(SRT). The patient opted for superficial radiation therapy as
treatment for his lesions.
Treatment Parameters for the Upper Middle

Back Lesion
The upper mid back clinical lesion was identified and circled.
A 57 mm border was drawn around the lesion. The tumor
depth was estimated to be <5 mm. A 0.762 mm thick led
shield was utilized over a 2 cm field and placed over the
lesion and extended field. Superficial radiotherapy was
administered with a 3 cm cone for 15 treatments of 300 cGy
at 70 kVp, 10 ma. Treatments were delivered Monday
through Friday for three weeks, for a total dose of 4500 cGy
(Figs. 14.1 and 14.2).
Treatment Parameters for the Upper Scalp

Lesion
The upper scalp lesion was identified and circled. A 57 mm
border was drawn around the lesion. The tumor depth was
estimated to be <5 mm. A 0.762 mm thick led shield was
utilized over a 2 cm field and placed over the lesion and
extended field. Superficial radiotherapy was administered
with a 3 cm cone for 15 treatments of 300 cGy at 70 kVp,
10 ma. Treatments were delivered Monday through Friday
for three weeks, for a total dose of 4500 cGy (Figs. 14.3, 14.4,
and 14.5).
14 Multiple Basal Cell Carcinomas and SRT 149
Fig. 14.1 Patient outcome on his mid upper back lesion first day of
treatment
Fig. 14.2 Patient outcome on his mid upper back lesion tenth day
of treatment
150 R.A. Norman
Fig. 14.3 Patient outcome on his upper scalp lesion first day of
treatment
Fig. 14.4 Patient outcome on his upper scalp lesion tenth day of
treatment
Fig. 14.5 Patient outcome on his upper scalp lesion 4 weeks after
treatment
Treatment Parameters for the Right Hairline

(Forehead) Lesion
The right hairline (forehead) lesion was identified and cir-
cled. A 57 mm border was drawn around the lesion. The
tumor depth was estimated to be <5 mm. A 0.762 mm thick
led shield was utilized over a 2.0 3.0 cm field and placed
over the lesion and extended field. Superficial radiotherapy
was administered with a 4 cm cone for 15 treatments of
300 cGy at 70 kVp, 10 ma. Treatments were delivered Monday
through Friday for three weeks, for a total dose of 4500 cGy
(Figs. 14.6, 14.7, and 14.8).
152 R.A. Norman
Fig. 14.6 Patient outcome on his right hairline (forehead) lesion

first day of treatment

tenth day of treatment

4 weeks after treatment
Conclusion
The patient tolerated the treatment with minimal side effects.

The treated areas experienced erythema and mild desquama-
tion during treatment. The patient had very successful
cosmetic and clinical results and was able to avoid surgery.
SRT is a viable and effective choice for many non-melanoma
skin cancers.
Chapter 15
Adenocystic Carcinoma
Presentation
A 39-year-old Caucasian male presented to the derma-

tology clinic with the chief complaint of an enlarging
growth on his right heel (Fig. 15.1). Based on its clinical
appearance, pyogenic granuloma was at the top of the
differential. A biopsy was taken and sent to pathology
for examination.
L.M. Diaz, DO
Dermatology Resident, Broward Health Medical Center,
Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA
R.A. Norman, DO, MPH ()

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-20937-1_15,
156 L.M. Diaz and R.A. Norman
Figure 15.1 39-year-old Caucasian male with a pink, ulcer-

ated nodule on the right heel
Differential Diagnosis
Pyogenic granuloma
Basal cell carcinoma
Melanoma
Metastatic carcinoma
Angiosarcoma
Atypical fibroxanthoma
Spitz nevus
Adenocystic carcinoma
Squamous cell carcinoma
Biopsy Results Suggestive of adenocystic carcinoma.
Diagnosis Adenocystic carcinoma

15 Adenocystic Carcinoma 157
Microscopic Feature
The classic findings of cutaneous adenocystic carcinoma
(ACC) occur in the deep dermis and are characterized by
basaloid cells in islands that form cribriform patterns and
tubular structures (Fig. 15.2). Multiple cystic spaces can be
seen containing mucin that stains positively with hyaluronic
acid (Figs. 15.3 and 15.4). Perineural invasion is observed in
most cases. The lumina of the tubular structures have promi-
nent basement membrane material that is PAS positive and
diastase-resistant [13].
Unlike the similarly appearing adenoid basal cell carci-
noma, ACC typically does not have a connection to the over-
lying epidermis or adnexal structures. This separation is a
helpful clue for pathologists when making the diagnosis, as
oftentimes these two can be difficult to differentiate.
Immunohistochemical studies demonstrate that cutaneous
ACC stains positively for S-100, epithelial membrane antigen
Figure. 15.2 H&E, 40. Low magnification view shows an ulcerated

epidermis with underlying nests of tumor
Figure 15.3 H&E, 40. The tumor is invasive and extends into the
deep dermis
Figure 15.4 H&E, 400. A close up of a basaloid nest which con-

tains scattered round, cystic spaces (cookie cutter pattern)
15 Adenocystic Carcinoma 159
(EMA), and is occasionally positive for carcinoembryonic

antigen (CEA) [13].
Discussion
Adenocystic or adenoid cystic carcinoma is a rare, aggressive
carcinoma. There are approximately fifty cases published in
the literature [4]. It typically arises from the major or minor
salivary glands but may also arise primarily from an extra-
salivary gland site like the skin, external auditory canal, respi-
ratory tract, esophagus, breast or prostate [3].
Primary cutaneous ACC presents clinically as a firm,
slow-growing nodule or tumor with poorly defined borders.
Although usually asymptomatic, some patients may complain
of pruritus, tenderness, or alopecia. The average age of those
affected by cutaneous ACC is 59 with 57 % of cases involving
male patients. Approximately 41 % of cutaneous ACC occurs
on the scalp. Other areas commonly affected include the
chest, abdomen, back, eyelids, and perineum [5].
Salivary ACC is more aggressive than cutaneous SCC with
greater rates of local destruction, recurrence and late
metastasis [6]. The lungs and lymph nodes are the primary
sites of metastasis. Although cutaneous SCC is more indolent
than salivary ACC, it does have a high incidence of local
recurrence. One study with an average follow up time of 58
months calculated the local recurrence rate to be 44 % after
wide excisional surgery [5]. Another study calculated the
recurrence rate to be 50 % [7]. Some authors argue that this
high recurrence rate is a consequence of the carcinomas ten-
dency of discontinuous perineural invasion or skip areas
that lead to high rates of false negative reports upon histo-
logical examination [3, 7]. In one study, approximately 76 %
of the cases demonstrated perineural invasion [5]. For this
reason, some authors believe that Mohs micrographic surgery
is a better treatment option than the customary wide local
excision with histologically clear margins.
As mentioned, treatment for cutaneous ACC has tradi-

tionally consisted of wide local surgical excisions with
histologically proven negative margins. While some authors
debate the benefit of Mohs micrographic surgery, all agree
that patients diagnosed with cutaneous ACC must have life-
long follow up for possible recurrence later on. One study
described a recurrence of cutaneous ACC 35 years after ini-
tial treatment [5]. Furthermore, once a patient has been diag-
nosed with cutaneous ACC, it is recommended that a work up
be performed to rule out the possibility of metastatic primary
salivary gland ACC. This can be done with a thorough physi-
cal exam as well as CT imaging of the head and neck, chest
and abdomen.
References
1. Headington JT, Teears R, Niederhuber JE, Slinger RP. Primary
adenoid cystic carcinoma of skin. Arch Dermatol. 1978;114(3):
4214.
2. Cooper PH, Adelson GL, Holthaus WH. Primary cutaneous ade-
noid cystic carcinoma. Arch Dermatol. 1984;120(6):7747.
3. Xu YG, Hinshaw M, Longley BJ, Ilvas H, Snow SN. Cutaneous
adenoid cystic carcinoma with perineural invasion treated by
Mohs micrographic surgery: a case report with literature review.
J Oncol. 2010;2010:469049.
4. Fueston JC, Gloster HM, Mutasim DF. Primary cutaneous ade-
noid cystic carcinoma: a case report and literature review. Cutis.
2006;77(3):15760.
5. Naylor E, Sarkar P, Perlis CS, Giri D, Gnepp DR, Robinson-
Bostom L. Primary cutaneous adenoid cystic carcinoma. J Am
Acad Dermatol. 2008;58(4):63641.
6. Morrison AO, Gardner JM, Goldsmith SM, Parker DC. Primary
cutaneous adenoid cystic carcinoma of the scalp with p16 expres-
sion: a case report and review of the literature. Am J
Dermatopathol. 2014;36(9):1636.
7. Salzman MJ, Eades E. Primary cutaneous adenoid cystic carci-
noma: a case report and review of the literature. Plast Reconstr
Surg. 1991;88(1):1404.
Chapter 16
Sebaceous Carcinoma
Presentation
An 82-year-old Caucasian male with a past medical his-
tory significant for Hepatitis C, squamous cell carci-
noma, basal cell carcinoma, and actinic keratosis
presented with the chief complaint of a growth on his
right neck. A 2.5 3.5 0.5 cm non-tender, ulcerated
erythematous nodule was noted on the lateral aspect of
the right neck (Fig. 16.1). A biopsy of the nodule was
taken and sent to pathology for examination.
L.M. Diaz, DO
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-20937-1_16,
Figure 16.1 Elderly Caucasian male with large eroded lesion

on the neck
Amelanotic melanoma
Keratoacanthoma
Sebaceous carcinoma
Merkel cell tumor
Biopsy Results Sebaceous carcinoma: lesion extends to the

deep margin.
Chapter 16. Sebaceous Carcinoma 163
Diagnosis Sebaceous carcinoma
Microscopic Features
Under the microscope, sebaceous carcinoma appears as

irregular lobular arrangements of cells of various sizes and
with varying levels of differentiation. Wolfe et al. categorized
sebaceous carcinomas based on their grade of differentiation.
Well-differentiated cells with foamy cytoplasm were catego-
rized as Grade 1 (Fig. 16.2) [1]. Undifferentiated cells with
little cytoplasm were categorized as Grade 4. Nuclear atypia
is observed with oval nuclei, prominent nucleoli, and high
mitotic rates [2]. Sebaceous carcinoma classically demon-
strates intra-epithelial or Pagetoid spread.
Figure 16.2 H&E. 400 magnification. Sheets of tumor cells with

highly variable shapes and sizes. Some have a foamy cytoplasm
while others have scanty eosinophilic cytoplasm. There is also vari-
ability of the nuclei
Immunohistochemical staining of sebaceous carcinoma

reveals the following positive markers: epithelial membrane
antigen (EMA), androgen receptor (AR), CA15-3, and
ADP. Markers that are usually negative include: S100,
Ber-EP4, and carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) [2, 3].
Discussion
Sebaceous carcinoma is a rare and extremely aggressive
tumor. There are approximately 200 cases reported in the
literature. In the past, these tumors have been divided into
periocular and extraocular cases. The majority of sebaceous
carcinomas, approximately 75 %, occur around the orbit.
They arise from the Meibomian glands, Zeis glands, and the
sebaceous glands of the eyebrow [2]. They are found more
commonly on the upper eyebrow area. Sebaceous carcinomas
found on both the upper and lower eyelids portend a poor
prognosis [4]. Sebaceous carcinomas are often seen in Muir-
Torre syndrome, so it is important to screen patients so that
this diagnosis can be ruled out.
Although often reported around the orbit, sebaceous carci-
nomas may occur anywhere on the body. Most published cases
have been reported on the face, scalp, neck, trunk, and upper
limbs. In 2009, Dasgupta et al. conducted a retrospective review
of 1,349 cases of sebaceous carcinomas. This review challenged
previously accepted knowledge regarding sebaceous carcino-
mas. It was once thought that sebaceous carcinomas affected
middle-aged Asian females more often than any other popula-
tion. However, this study demonstrated that Caucasians were
the predominantly affected population comprising 86.2 % of
the cases. Only 5.5 % of those affected were of Asian or Pacific
Islander ancestry. The median age of diagnosis was 72 and
approximately 54 % of subjects were male [4].
A sebaceous carcinoma typically presents as a slow-growing,
firm nodule. It can easily be mistaken for other more common
dermatological or ophthalmological conditions, which can lead
Chapter 16. Sebaceous Carcinoma 165
to a delay in diagnosis. When benign, sebaceous carcinomas are

managed with wide excisional surgery. Sebaceous carcinomas
that are malignant are more difficult to treat. In these cases,
surgery is performed for local disease and radiation or chemo-
therapy is used for recurrent or metastatic disease [5, 6].
Dasgupta and colleagues calculated the overall survival
rate at 5 and 10 years to be 71.1 and 45.9 %, respectively. In
their study, the cause of death was attributable to cancer in
31 % of the cases. Furthermore, they determined that there
was no significant difference in overall survival rates in peri-
orbital versus extraorbital cases [4]. These findings were con-
trary to the findings in previously published data in which
studies contained smaller sample sizes. Indicators of poor
prognosis include: poorly differentiated cells, multicentric
tumors, pagetoid spread, involvement of regional lymph
nodes, symptoms for more than 6 months, tumor size greater
than 10 mm, and vascular, lymphatic, and orbital invasion [5].
The patient presented in this case underwent eight ses-
sions of superficial radiation treatment.
References
1. Wolfe 3rd JT, Yeatts RP, Wick MR, Campbell RJ, Waller
RR. Sebaceous carcinoma of the eyelid. Errors in clinical and
pathologic diagnosis. Am J Surg Pathol. 1984;8:597606.
2. Afroz N, Zaidi N, Rizvi SR. Sebaceous carcinoma with apocrine
differentiation: a rare entity with aggressive behavior. Indian
J Pathol Microbiol. 2013;56:40810.
3. Ansai S, Takeichi H, Arase S, Kawana S, Kimura T. Sebaceous car-
cinoma:an immunohistochemical reappraisal.Am J Dermatopathol.
2011;33(6):57987.
4. Dasgupta T, Wilson LD, Yu JB. A retrospective review of 1349
cases of sebaceous carcinoma. Cancer. 2009;115:15865.
5. Kyllo RL, Brady KL, Hurst EA. Sebaceous carcinoma: review of
the literature. Dermatol Surg. 2015;41(1):115.
6. Nelson BR, Hamlet KR, Gillard M, et al. Sebaceous carcinoma.
J Am Acad Dermatol. 1995;33:115.
Chapter 17
Metastatic Cutaneous
Adenocarcinoma
Presentation
A 98-year-old Caucasian female with a past medical history
significant for breast cancer, squamous cell carcinoma,
basal cell carcinoma, and actinic keratosis presented to the
dermatology clinic with the complaint of a 1.5 0.8 cm ery-
thematous plaque on her right chest. A shave biopsy was
performed and sent to pathology for examination.
Metastatic cutaneous adenocarcinoma
Melanoma
L.M. Diaz, DO
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-20937-1_17,
Biopsy Results Multiple groups of atypical cells with duct

formation. Some cells contain mucin goblets. The CEA is
positive while the CK5/6 and CK20 are negative. These find-
ings support a metastatic lesion. Given the patients history of
breast carcinoma, this most likely represents a recurrence.
Diagnosis Metastatic cutaneous adenocarcinoma
Metastatic breast adenocarcinomas usually consist of round,

discrete tumor lobules in the mid to deep dermis demar-
cated by a Grenz zone (Fig. 17.1). Neoplastic cells may also
be present in the lymphatics or blood vessels. The cells typi-
Figure 17.1 H&E 25. Low magnification shows tumor filling the
upper dermis
Chapter 17. Metastatic Cutaneous Adenocarcinoma 169
cally resemble the primary tumor. However, various pat-

terns may be observed, examples of which include: a
single-line of cells infiltrating the collagen, dense sheets of
cells, or glandular clusters of cells with mucin or glycogen
(Fig. 17.2). Immunostains are typically positive for CK7 and
CEA (Fig. 17.3).
Discussion
The overall incidence of cutaneous metastasis from any type
of visceral malignancy is 5.4 % [1]. However, breast cancer is
the most frequently encountered cutaneous metastasis carci-
noma and has an even higher rate of cutaneous presentation.
One study showed that of 7518 patients with visceral malig-
Figure 17.2 H&E, 400 magnification. Chords and tumor nests are
visible. Some nests show duct formation where tumor cells are lined
along the edge with a central fluid-filled space
Figure 17.3 CEA 400. Positive staining of the tumor cells portend
an adenomatous origin
nancies, approximately 26.5 % of females with breast cancer

were found to have cutaneous metastasis [2]. On average,
these cutaneous signs appear 5 years after the initial diagno-
sis and treatment for the breast cancer [3].
Most clinical presentations of cutaneous metastatic breast
cancer are acute in onset and nodular in appearance. A retro-
spective review conducted by Mordenti et al. determined that
80 % presented as skin papules or nodules, 11 % as telangi-
ectatic carcinomas, 3 % as erysipeloid carcinomas, another
3 % as en cuirasse, 2 % as alopecia neoplastica, and 0.8 %
presented in a zosteriform fashion [4]. Unique to metastatic
cutaneous breast carcinomas are the erysipeloid and en cui-
rasse presentations. The erysipeloid carcinomas present as
an expanding, erythematous patch or plaque. The en cui-
rasse version presents as a hard, leathery, morphea-like
indurated plaque that covers the chest, much like the armor
breastplate from which its name is derived [3].
Chapter 17. Metastatic Cutaneous Adenocarcinoma 171
Typically these hallmark inflammatory skin changes

begin 10 weeks before the diagnosis of cutaneous metasta-
sis is made. Patients may complain of symptoms like
increased warmth, erythema, edema, pruritus, and nipple
retraction. The most frequent areas of involvement are the
chest, abdomen, and back. The appearance of cutaneous
metastatic carcinoma portends a poor diagnosis. Most
patients will die of disease within 36 months. By this time,
the focus of treatment is delaying progressive disease, mini-
mizing bothersome symptoms, and maintaining the quality
of life for the patient [5].
References
1. Krathen RA, Orengo IF, Rosen T. Cutaneous metastasis: a meta-
analysis of data. South Med J. 2003;96(2):1647.
2. Spencer PS, Helm TN. Skin metastases in cancer patients. Cutis.
1987;39(2):11921.
3. Nava G, Greer K, Patterson J, Lin KY. Metastatic cutaneous
breast carcinoma: a case report and review of the literature. Can
J Plast Surg. 2009;17(1):257.
4. Mordenti C, Peris K, Concetta Fargnoli M, Cerroni L, Chimenti
S. Cutaneous metastatic breast carcinoma. Acta dermatovenero-
logica. 2000:9.
5. Kalmykow B, Walker S. Xutaneous metastases in breast cancer.
Clin J Oncol Nurs. 2011;15(1):99101.
Additional Reading
Vichapat V, Garmo H, Holmberg L, Fentiman IS, Tutt A, Gillett C,
et al. Patterns of metastasis in women with metachronous contra-
lateral breast cancer. Br J Cancer. 2012;107(2):2213.
Virmani NC, Sharma YK, Panicker NK, Dash KN, Patvekar MA,
Deo KS. Zosteriform skin metastases: clue to an undiagnosed
breast cancer. Indian J Dermatol. 2011;56(6):7267.
Chapter 18
Zosteriform Cutaneous
Metastasis
Presentation
A 49-year-old Caucasian male was seen by the dermatolo-
gist in the setting of a skilled nursing facility. He com-
plained of a painless rash on his left upper arm. His left
shoulder and left upper arm were noted to have erythema-
tous papules and vesicles in a dermatomal distribution.
The patient was unable to provide any further history
so his caretaker was consulted. The caretaker reported
that the patient had a history of cancer in his left shoul-
der that had been treated with radiation therapy. He now
had lymphedema in that arm as a result. The patient had
been diagnosed with herpes zoster in the recent past and
was treated with acyclovir with some improvement. The
patient was restarted on acyclovir and a shave biopsy was
taken and sent to pathology for examination and to rule
out a herpes zoster infection.
L.M. Diaz, DO
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-20937-1_18,
Herpes zoster
Contact dermatitis
Eczema
Cellulitis
Cutaneous metastases
Biopsy Results Sections show multiple nests of atypical

cells that are positive for CK7 but negative for CK20 and
MART1 (Fig. 18.1). These findings are consistent with a
metastatic carcinoma. The differential can include a lung pri-
mary. Clinical correlation is recommended.
Figure 18.1 40 magnification. CK7 positive staining of the cytoplasm

Chapter 18. Zosteriform Cutaneous Metastasis 175
Diagnosis Cutaneous metastatic carcinoma, the source is

most likely a primary lung cancer.
Metastases are typically categorized broadly as adenocarci-
noma, squamous cell carcinoma or undifferentiated carcino-
mas [1]. The neoplastic cells are usually found in the mid to
deep dermis but may also be found in the subcutaneous tissue
(Fig. 18.2). The cells tend to demonstrate patterns that resem-
ble the primary source of the tumor. Some patterns that are
Figure 18.2 H&E, 40 magnification. Multiple nests and single cells

are found just under the epidermis. These cells show marked vari-
ability with irregularly-shaped nuclei
commonly observed include: nodular growths of tumor cells

with scanty intervening stroma, strands or rows of cells infil-
trating a fibrotic dermis, dense sheets of cells, or malignant
glandular clusters of eosinophilic cells containing mucin or
glycogen. Some of the cells may demonstrate epidermotro-
pism by abutting the epidermis. Lymphatic invasion and dif-
fuse, intralymphatic tumor emboli may be seen [1, 2].
Discussion
Cutaneous metastases are not commonly seen in dermatol-
ogy offices and occur in 0.610.4 % of all patients with cancer
[3]. Therefore, if a patient does not provide a history of can-
cer, it is easy for this diagnosis to be missed. Cutaneous mani-
festations of metastases can present in various ways, some of
which may resemble other common dermatological diagno-
ses. One study showed that in 45 % of cases of biopsied cuta-
neous metastases, the diagnosis was missed altogether [2].
There are cases reported in the literature of cutaneous
metastases presenting as a rash, melanoma, basal cell carci-
noma, keratoacanthoma, subcutaneous nodules, hidradenitis
suppurativa, herpes zoster, vascular tumors, and epidermal
inclusion cysts. The sites most commonly involved in descend-
ing order include the upper trunk, abdomen, head (especially
the scalp), and the neck. Metastatic lung cancers were noted to
present most commonly on the head, neck and upper trunk.
Metastases to the extremities are extremely uncommon [25].
A retrospective review performed by Sariya and col-
leagues found that 86 % of patients who presented with
cutaneous findings were found to have Stage 4 cancer. Of
those patients, 76 % succumbed to the disease in an average
of 9.4 months. Therefore, cutaneous metastases in most often
a late finding in advanced disease states. The same retrospec-
tive study showed that the average time between diagnosis of
primary cancer and the development of cutaneous findings
was approximately 36 months. By that point, the majority of
patients had disease progression to Stage 3 or greater [2].
Chapter 18. Zosteriform Cutaneous Metastasis 177
Cases describing zosteriform cutaneous metastases from a

primary lung tumor are exceedingly rare. Even more rare is
the location of the metastasis on the upper extremity [6]. The
cause of the unique zosteriform presentation has not been
adequately explained. One author surmised that the mecha-
nism for the zosteriform, band-like presentation was a result
of the retrograde flow of lymph after obstruction by cancer
cells [6]. Other authors hypothesize that the tumor cells
spread from the cutaneous lymph nodes to the sensory
nerves where they reach the dorsal root ganglia [3, 7, 8].
Metastatic neoplastic cells may present in a myriad of
forms, often making it difficult to diagnose correctly. For this
reason, obtaining an accurate medical history is paramount.
Although cutaneous metastasis are rare, it is important for
physicians to always be suspicious of this diagnosis in their
patients with a history of cancer. One study showed that in
12 % cases, the cutaneous findings were the first sign of an
occult cancer [2].
References
1. Helm TN, Elston DM. Dermatologic manifestations of metastatic
carcinomas. Medscape. Updated on Aug 11 2014. http://emedi-
cine.medscape.com/article/1101058-overview#aw2aab6c11 .
Accessed 6 Jan 2014.
2. Sariya D, Ruth K, Adams-McDonnell R, et al. Clinicopathologic
correlation of cutaneous metastases. Arch Dermatol. 2007;143(5):
61320.
3. Fernandez-Anton Martinez MC, Parra-Blancob V, Aviles
Izquierdoa JA, Suarez Fernandeza RM. Cutaneous metastases of
internal tumors. Actas Dermosifilogr. 2013;104(10):84153.
4. Nava G, Greer K, Patterson J, Lin KY. Metastatic cutaneous
breast carcinoma: a case report and review of the literature. Can
J Plast Surg. 2009;17(1):257.
5. LaSueur BW,Abraham RJ, DiCaudo DJ, OConnor WJ. Zosteriform
skin metastases. Int J Dermatol. 2004;43(2):1268.
6. Li WH, Tu CY, Hsieh TC, Wu PY. Zosteriform skin metastasis of
lung cancer. Chest. 2012;142(6):16524.
7. Hodge SJ, Mackel S, Owen LG. Zosteriform inflammatory meta-

static carcinoma. Int J Dermatol. 1979;18:1425.
8. Bassioukas K, Nakuci M, Dimou S, Kanellopoulou M, Alexis
I. Zosteriform cutaneous metastases from breast adenocarci-
noma. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2005;19:5936.
Additional Reading
Nibhoria S, Kanwardeep KT, Kaur M, Kumar S. A clinicopathologi-
cal and immunohistochemical correlation in cutaneous metasta-
ses from internal malignancies: a five-year study. J Skin Cancer.
Published online Aug 25 2014.
Terashima T, Kanazawa M. Lung cancer with skin metastasis. Chest.
1994;106(5):144850.
Index
A B
Acral melanoma, 8586 Balloon cell melanomas
Adenocystic carcinoma (ACC) electron microscopy,
differential diagnosis, 154 104106
microscopic feature, Fitzpatrick skin type 2,
155157 106108
Mohs micrographic surgery, histopathological
157158 examination, 108109
primary cutaneous, 157 metastatic balloon, 110111
pyogenic granuloma, transformation rate, 110
153154 Balloon cell nevi
salivary, 157 celtic skin types, 109
Amelanotic malignant electron microscopy,
melanoma 104106
acral melanoma, 8586 histological features,
amelanotic tumour, 86 102104
CUBED acronym, 86 histopathological
ipilimubab, 84 examination, 104
longitudinal self-destructive degenerative
melanonychia, 86 process, 109
metformin, 85 transformation rate, 110
neuropathic foot ulcer, Basal cell carcinomas (BCC)
80, 85 lower eyelid
sentinel lymph node biopsy, modified oblique-sigmoid
84 island flap, 2325
subungual melanoma, RSTL, 2324
8283, 85 lower limb
toe melanoma, 81, 8485 keystone flap, 7375
VEGF inhibitor, 85 type II flap, 73
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-20937-1,
180 Index
Basal cell carcinomas (BCC) SCC, 48

(cont.) sub-periosteal dissection,
nose 5152
full thickness skin graft, Double keystone flap, 70, 72, 73
1213 Double-rotation flap, 3435
lateral nasal defect, anterior scalp defect, 39
12, 13, 15 basal cell carcinoma, 34
postoperative appearance, biomechanics, 3940
14 lax tissue, 3839
patient study, 116119
SRT
patient history, 145 F
patient management, 146 5-fluorouracil (5FU), 113114
right hairline lesion, Full thickness skin graft, 15, 17
149151 absorbable sutures, 16
upper mid back lesion, adipose-derived-stem cells,
146, 147 1718
upper scalp lesion, 146, bridging phenomenon, 1516
148149 donor-sites, 16, 17
Bezier flap technique, 68 fluid accumulation, 13
hemostatic agent, 14
Indian forehead flap, 15
C initial graft dressing, 14
Chans method, 2627 inosculation, 15
Chaos method, 139140 lateral nasal defect,
Clues method, 139140 12, 13, 15
local anesthesia, 16
plasmatic imbibition, 15
D postoperative appearance, 14
Dermatoscopy, 136137 quilting suture, 1213, 18
chaos and clues method, skin-fat grafting, 16
139140 Full-thickness skin graft, 66
melanocytic and atypical,
138139
Diclofenac acts, 114 G
Double-advancement H flaps Granular cell tumors
ambeau par glissement, 45 cytological features, 131
BCC, 4849 dermatofibroma, 132
bilateral, 47, 53 incidence, 125126, 129
design and illustration, 46, 47 Mohs micrographic surgery,
distinct vascular arcades, 46 130
length-to-width ratio, 4647 origins, 126
mid-forehead defects, 46 patient history, 127129
motor and sensory self-limiting growth pattern,
function, 52 126
rotation flaps, 46 vascular invasion, 131132
Index 181
H trapezoidal flap, 69, 70

Halo split-skin graft (HSSG), V-Y island advancement
9294 flap, 67
advantages, 9798
clinical trials, 8889
geometry, 9192, 96 M
partial-thickness grafts, 90 Malignant melanoma, 2
rapid healing, 9596 Mastoid interpolation flap
surgical technique, 9091 technique, 34, 9
cartilage support, 9
ear interpolation flap plan,
I 36
Imiquimod ear-mastoid groove, 78
antiviral agents, 114 ear wide excision plan, 34
BCC, 114, 116119 flap division, 7, 8
field clearance effects, glove drain, 7
119120 helical ear defects, 5
genital warts, 114 helical rim re-creation, 5
melanoma metastases, 115 hemostasis, 5
molecular size, 114 invasive malignant
SCC, 115, 120 melanoma, 3
tumouricidal activity, 115 malignant melanoma, 2
Inosculation, 15, 16 melanoma-in-situ, 2
Invasive malignant melanoma perichondritis, 5
mastoid interpolation flap post-auricular, 9
technique, 34 post-flap division, 7, 8
melanoma-in-situ, 2, 3 Melanoma
Ipilimubab, 84 dermatoscopy, 136137
chaos and clues method,
139140
K melanocytic and atypical,
Keystone design perforator 138139
island flap, 7375 diameter, 136, 137
BCC, lower limb, 73 evolution, 136
Bezier flap technique, 68 histopathology, 140142
classification, 6970, 72, 73 incidence, 135136
fasciocutaneous flap, 75 micromelanomas, 137, 138, 142
full-thickness skin graft, 66 superficial spreading, 136
melanoma wide excision, 67 Metastatic cutaneous
modest tension benefits, 7677 adenocarcinoma
modified keystone flap, 7576 differential diagnosis, 165166
non-islanded flaps, 76 erysipeloid carcinomas, 168
random pattern flap, 66 erythematous plaque, 165
sites, 69, 71 incidence, 167
split skin graft, 6566 microscopic features, 166168
sympathectomy effect, 76 symptoms, 169
182 Index
Metformin, 85 R
Modified oblique-sigmoid island Rotational keystone flap, 72
flap RSTL, 2326, 28, 5859
BCC, lower eyelid, 23
bi-pedicled flap, 26
Chans method, 2627 S
cutaneous island pedicle Scalp rotational flaps
flaps, 25 advantages, 4142
island pedicle flap, 2829 O to S flap (See Double-
loss of sensation, 2728 rotation flap)
pin-cushion, 28 single-rotation flap, 3233
RSTL, 2326, 28 biomechanics, 3637
tension vectors, 2325 keratinizing non-healing
vs. V-Y island flap, 27 lesion, 32
Modified rhomboid flap, 6263 trigonometric analysis, 38
dynamics, 5758 tri-polar rotation flap, 35
fundamental problems, 57 advancement flap, 41, 42
head and neck surgery, 5657 exophytic lesion, 35
L ala nasi plan, 6061 Isle of Man flap, 4041
lozenge shaped defects, 61, 62 purse-string suture, 41
mechanism, 57 scalp vertex, 36, 41
parallelogram, 5556 three-legged incision,
R ala nasi plan, 5960 4041
RSTL bisection, 5859 Sebaceous carcinoma
30 transposition flap differential diagnosis,
and M-plasty, 62 160161
trapezia, 56 microscopic features,
Mohs micrographic surgery, 161162
130, 157158 Muir-Torre syndrome, 162
Muir-Torre syndrome, 162 recurrent/ metastatic disease,
162163
survival rates, 163
N ulcerated erythematous
Neuropathic foot ulcer, 80, 85 nodule, 159160
Single-rotation flap, 3233
biomechanics, 3637
O keratinizing non-healing
Oblique-sigmoid flap, 28 lesion, 32
trigonometric analysis, 38
Skin-fat grafting, 16
P Split-skin graft (SSG), 6566,
Perichondritis, 5 See also Halo split-skin
Plasmatic imbibition, 15, 95 graft (HSSG)
Index 183
Superficial radiation therapy V

(SRT) V-Y island advancement flap, 67
patient history, 145
patient management, 146
right hairline lesion, 149151 Z
upper mid back lesion, Zosteriform cutaneous
146, 147 metastasis
upper scalp lesion, differential diagnosis, 172173
146, 148149 herpes zoster infection, 171
metastatic lung cancers,
174, 175
T metastatic neoplastic cells,
Toll-like receptors (TLR), 175
115, 119 microscopic features, 173174
Tri-polar rotation flap, 35 retrospective review, 174
advancement flap, 41, 42
exophytic lesion, 35
Isle of Man flap, 4041
purse-string suture, 41
scalp vertex, 36, 41
three-legged incision, 4041
Type I keystone island flap, 69, 72

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Clinical Cases in Dermatology

Series Editor: Robert A. Norman

For further volumes:

Clinical Cases in Dermatology

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015949138

Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland is part of Springer

Clinical Cases in Skin Cancer Surgery and Treatment is

Auckland, New Zealand Sharad P. Paul

1 Skin Cancer of the Ear: Mastoid

2 One Technique Fits All: The Versatility

3 Islands on the Cheek: Island Flaps on the Cheek

4 Rotation Flaps of the Scalp: Study

5 Double-Advancement H Flaps for Very

6 The Modified Rhomboid Flap:

7 The Keystone Design Perforator Island Flap:

8 Amelanotic Malignant Melanoma

9 Revisiting the Halo Graft: Why Does

10 Balloon Cell Nevi and Balloon Cell

11 Topical Treatment of Skin Cancers

12 When a Lipoma Wasnt a Lipoma:

13 How Small Is Small for a Melanoma? . . . . . . . . . . 137

14 Multiple Basal Cell Carcinomas

15 Adenocystic Carcinoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

16 Sebaceous Carcinoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

17 Metastatic Cutaneous Adenocarcinoma. . . . . . . . . 167

18 Zosteriform Cutaneous Metastasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

Lisa M. Diaz, DO Dermatology Resident, Broward Health

Michael Inskip, MB ChB, FRACGP Sun Patrol Skin

Robert A. Norman, DO, MPH Dermatology Healthcare,

Vladimir Osipov, MD, FCAP Department of Anatomic

Sharad P. Paul, MD, MPhil Department of Skin Cancer,

Faculty of Surgery, University of Auckland, Auckland,

Skin Surgery Clinic, Auckland, New Zealand

S.P. Paul, MD, MPhil

S.P. Paul, R.A. Norman (eds.), Clinical Cases in Skin Cancer 1

noma. When it comes to skin cancers of the ear with perichon-

A 62-year old white female patient presented with a

SYNOPTIC REPORT FOR INVASIVE

melanoma with an in-situ component, it was decided to

Figure 1.1 Ear wide excision plan

Figure 1.2 Ear interpolation flap plan

Figure 1.3 Ear mastoid interpolation flap being raised

excellent tissue match for the anterior helical soft tissue

Figure 1.4 Mastoid interpolation flap sutured in place with drain

Once the flap is sutured in place, a drain is inserted to avoid

Figure 1.5 Flap division done at 3 weeks; image at 1 month postop-

Figure 1.6 Post-flap division; image at 1 month postoperatively

the skin island to be passed onto the anterior surface of the

Figure 1.7 Illustration of mastoid interpolation flap used

removed, is that the restoration of ear cartilage support after

Some authors have even called the nose a separate aes-

S.P. Paul, MD, MPhil

S.P. Paul, R.A. Norman (eds.), Clinical Cases in Skin Cancer 11

and convex surfaces with several intervening ridges and val-

Figure 2.1 Large lateral nasal defect

Figure 2.2 Skin graft sutured and quilted in place

foam dressing post operatively. One of the concerns

Figure 2.3 Postoperative appearance at 2 weeks