1983 Garner EDI
1983 Garner EDI
1983 Garner EDI
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ABSTRACT
The development and validation of a new measure, the Eating Disorder In-
ventory (EDI) is described. The EDI is a 64 item, self-report, multiscale meas-
ure designed for the assessment of psychological and behavioral traits
common in anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia. The EDI consists of eight sub-
scales measuring: 1) Drive for Thinness, 2) Bulimia, 3) Body Dissatisfaction,
4) Ineffectiveness, 5) Perfectionism, 6) Interpersonal Distrust, 7) Interocep-
tive Awareness and 8) Maturity Fears. Reliability (internal consistency) is
established for all subscales and several indices of validity are presented.
First, AN patients (N = 113) are differentiated from female comparison (FQ
subjects (N = 577) using a cross-validation procedure. Secondly, patient self-
report subscale scores agree with clinician ratings ofsubscale traits. Thirdly,
clinically recovered AN patients score similarly to FCs on all subscales.
Finally, convergent and discriminant validity are established for subscales.
The EDI was also administered to groups of normal weight bulimic women,
obese, and normal weight but formerly obese women, as well as a male com-
parison group. Group differences are reported and the potential utility of the
EDI is discussed.
I
INTRODUCTION
During the past decade, anorexia nervosa and more recently bulimia in
normal-weight women have been the focus of growing attention from the
public sector and various health disciplines. There is a consensus that they are
no longer rare disorders, but rather are prevalent with a marked
preponderance in young women. A significant morbidity and mortality have
been associated with anorexia nervosa while the risks of bulimia in normal-
weight women have not yet been well documented. Attempts to objectively
David M. Garner, Ph.D. is Associate Professor, Department of Psychiatry and Psychology, University of
Toronto, and Coordinator of Research, Department of Psychiatry, Toronto General Hospital; Marion P.
Olmstead, M.A. is a Doctoral Candidate in Clinical Psychology, York University, Toronto; Janet Polivy,
Ph.D. is Associate Professor, Department of Psychiatry and Psychology, University of Toronto. Please
address reprint requests and correspondence to: Dr. David M. Gamer. Department of Psychiatry, Toronto
General Hospital, 101 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1L7.
I
METHODS
Questionnaire Construction
A large pool of items was generated by clinicians who were both familiar
with the research literature on anorexia nervosa and who had experience
treating patients with the disorder. Items were designed to measure eleven con-
structs; however, only eight of these dimensions met the reliability and valid-
ity requirements for the scale. A short description of the intended item content
of each of the retained eight subscales and the clinical sources from which they
were derived are presented below.
Drive for Thinness * indicates excessive concern with dieting, preoccupa-
tion with weight and entrenchment in an extreme pursuit of thinness. Bruch
(1973, 1978) and others have described this as a cardinal feature of anorexia
nervosa. Items reflect both an ardent wish to lose weight as well as a fear of
weight gain.
Bulimia* indicates the tendency toward episodes of uncontrollable over-
eating (bingeing) and may be followed by the impulse to engage in self-induced
vomiting. The presence or absence of bulimia differentiates subtypes of
anorexia nervosa (Beumont et al., 1976; Russell, 1979; Casper et al., 1980;
Garfinkel et al., 1980) and has been described in women with no prior history
of anorexia nervosa (Pyle, Mitchell and Eckert, 1981; Russell, 1979; Johnson et
*A recent factor analysis of the EAT (Gamer et al., 1982) has revealed two-item clusters of similar content to
that of the EDI Drive for Thinness and Bulimia subscales. While the correlations between the respective similar
subscales is relatively high (Drive for Thinness with EAT "Dieting," N = 18, r=.8O; Bulimia with EAT
"Bulimia and Food Preoccupation," N = 18, r = .85), a substantial amount of the variance between scales is not
shared. Examination of the item content of the similar scales indicates that the EAT factors are broader in focus
than those of the EDI. Furthermore, the subscales of the EDI were theoretically or deductively derived (fol-
lowed by empirical refinement and validation) while the EAT factors were empirically or inductively derived
from an initial pool of items reflecting symptoms of anorexia nervosa. Despite some conceptual and possibly
predictive overlap, the EDI is not intended as a replacement for the EAT. The EAT is a sound measure of a
range of symptoms common in anorexia nervosa while the EDI focuses more on the specific cognitive and
behavioral dimensions which may meaningfully differentiate subgroups of patients, or which may distinguish
those with serious psychopathology from extreme "dieters."
al., in press). Recent studies have found that bulimia is relatively common
among college females (Wardle, 1980; Halmi et al., 1981; Hawkins and Cle-
ment, 1980); however, these studies have not employed well-standardized
measures.
Bod\/ Dissatisfaction reflects the belief that specific parts of the body asso-
ciated with shape change or increased "fatness" at puberty are too large (e.g.
hips, thighs, buttocks). Body dissatisfaction has been found to be related to
other body image disturbances which have been considered a basic deficit in
anorexia nervosa (see Garner and Garfinkel, 1981 for a review). Crisp (1977,
1980) has suggested that dieting in anorexia nervosa is a response to dissatis-
faction with pubertal "fatness" and the symbolic meaning that it has for the in-
dividual.
Ineffectiveness assesses feelings of general inadequacy, insecurity, worth-
lessness and the feeling of not being in control of one's, life. This feature has
been described by some as the fundamental disturbance in anorexia nervosa
(Bruch, 1973; Selvini-Palazzoli, 1978; Strober, 1980; Wingate and Christie,
1978). While there have been attempts to operationalize this construct in terms
of locus of control (Garner et al., 1976; Hood et al., 1982), it has been sug-
gested that the concept of ineffectiveness also includes a negative self-evalua-
tion (self-concept) component which is not addressed by locus of control
(Garner et al., 1982).
Maturity Fears measures one's wish to retreat to the security of the preado-
lescent years because of the overwhelming demands of adulthood. Crisp
(1965, 1980) has suggested that the central psychopathology of anorexia ner-
vosa is an avoidance of psychological maturity through the mechanism of car-
bohydrate avoidance.
Scoring
The test format is similar to that of the EAT (Garner and Garfinkel, 1979)
where Ss respond to six point, forced choice items by rating whether each item
applies "always," "usually," "often," "sometimes," "rarely," or "never." The
scoring is identical to the EAT with the most extreme "anorexic" response
(always or never depending on the keyed direction) earning a score of 3; the
immediately adjacent response 2, the next response 1 and the three choices op-
posite to the most "anorexic" response receiving no score (0). Scale scores are
the summation of all item scores for that particular scale (see the appendix for
instructions to Ss and sample question format).
TABLE 1
Subjects
RESULTS
The first two independent AN and FC samples were used to select items
from the original pool. Retained items had to meet two statistical criteria.
First, they had to demonstrate validity by significantly differentiating between
the AN and FC groups. Secondly, items had to be more highly correlated with
the subscale to which they were intended to belong than to any other subscale.
Items in the original pool were evaluated independently in each of the first two
AN and FC samples; thus the validity and homogeneity requirements for re-
tained items were replicated. After the questionnaire had been administered to
the first AN and FC sample, it was necessary to generate additional items for
some subscales.* These items were evaluated on the second and third AN and
FC samples. It is important to note that the item content of subscales was
essentially finalized on the second AN and FC samples; although we were pre-
pared to make minor revisions on the third trial, this turned out to be unneces-
sary. The third cross-validation samples merely confirmed the utility of the
previously selected items.
A final requirement was that subscales have coefficients of internal consis-
tency (Cronbach's alpha) above .80 for the AN samples. Although item-scale
correlation coefficients above .40 for the AN groups were considered
desirable, three items with item-total correlations below .40 were retained
because they were considered conceptually important. The average item-total
Additional items were derived for the Interoceptive Awareness and Maturity Fears subscales. Since these
items were administered only to the second and third AN and FC subsamples, final N s for these two subscales
are smaller than for the other six subscales.
TABLE 2
TABLE 2
BULIMIA: Subscale Items, Item-Total Correlations, Reliability
Coefficients for AN and FC groups
Item Item on Subscale Item-Total
Number Correlation
AN FC_
4. I eat when I am upset. 58 .51
5. I stuff myself with food. 79 .53
28.1 have gone on eating binges where I have felt 69 .64
that I could not stop.
38.1 think about bingeing (overeating). 74 .60
46.1 eat moderately in front of others and stuff 75 .67
myself when they're gone.
53.1 have the thought of trying to vomit in order 70 .42
to lose weight.
61.1 eat or drink in secrecy. 73 .60
Reliability Coefficients (Standardized Cronbach's Alphas) AN = .90 FC = .83
TABLE 2
MATURITY FEARS: Subscale Items, Item-Total Correlations,
Reliability Coefficients for AN and FC groups
Item Item on Subscale Item-Total
Number Correlation
AN FC
3. I wish that I could return to the security of .72 .12
childhood.
6. I wish that I could be younger. .66 .16
14. The happiest time in life is when you are a .67 .40
child.
22.* I would rather be an adult than a child. .63 .63
35. The demands of adulthood are too great. .27 .25
39.* I feel happy that I am not a child anymore. .82 .62
48. I feel that people are happiest when they are .80 .28
children.
58.* The best years of your life are when you .72 .42
become an adult.
Reliabilitj 1 Coefficients (Standardized Cronbach's Alphas) AN = .88 FC= .65
Response Bias
In order to examine the possible effects of "response set," the mean subtotal
score of all positively keyed items was compared to that of all negatively
keyed items. There were no significant differences within either the AN or FC
groups. For the AN group, negative and positive mean subtotals correlated .74
(p < .001) and for the FC group, the correlation was .67 (p < .001) suggesting
minimal response set bias.
Comparison Samples
Following initial scale validation, the test was administered to other com-
parison groups. A group of 195 women who would meet the diagnosis of
bulimia (BU) according to the DSM-III (APA, 1980) diagnostic criteria, where
episodes of bulimia and vomiting occurred daily to weekly, completed and
returned the questionnaire by mail as part of a large scale demographic
study.* These BU respondents resided throughout North America and were
randomly selected from the complete 1500 subject sample, the inclusion
criteria being: 1) the presence of bulimia, 2) self-induced vomiting one time a
week or more often, 3) female sex, 4) a current age less than 25 (in order to
match the BU sample to the AN and FC groups), and 5) no prior history of
weight loss sufficient to warrant a diagnosis of anorexia nervosa. According to
Russell (1979) and Palmer (1979), these BU women would share many of the
psychological themes with the anorexia nervosa group. A group of 44 female
obese (OB) subjects obtained from a local dieting group completed the ques-
tionnaire as well as 52 female formerly obese (FOB) subjects who had lost
weight from a mean of 130% to 100% of average weight. A small group of 17
recovered AN patients were also administered the questionnaire. The final
comparison group was 166 first and second year male college (MC) students
from the University of Toronto. Demographic characteristics for the com-
parison groups are presented in Table 1.
*Apprciation is extended to Dr. Craig Johnson of the Michael Reese Medical Center, Chicago for making
these data available.
Both the OB and the FOB groups were administered an early version of the
EDI which did not include all of the items on the Interoceptive Awareness and
Maturity Fears subscales. The OB comparison group, as expected, had signifi-
cantly higher Body Dissatisfaction scores (x = 21.1 .88, p < .001) than either
the AN or FC groups. The OB group was also higher than the FOB group
(x=13.2 .95, p < .001) on Body Dissatisfaction and higher (p< 0.001) than
the FC group on the Bulimia (x = 4.6.66) and Drive for Thinness
(x=8.3.79) subscales. The OB and FOB groups did not differ from the FC
group on Ineffectiveness, Interpersonal Distrust or Perfectionism. The FC
group scored significantly higher than males (MC) only on the eating and
body attitude subscales {Drive for Thinness, Bulimia and Body Dissatisfac-
tion) (p <.003), while the MC's were higher than the FC's on Interpersonal
Distrust (p < .01). The mean subscale scores for the AN, recovered AN, FC
and MC groups are presented in Table 3. In keeping with the manner in which
subscale items were selected, the AN group had significantly higher scores
(p < .001) than the FC and MC groups on all subscales. It is notable that the
recovered AN group scored lower than the AN group (p< 0.001) on each sub-
scale and were not significantly higher (at p > 0.05) than the FC group on any
subscale.
TABLE 3
Mean Scale ( standard error) Scores for AN, Recovered AN, FC, and MC groups
Since several subscales of the EDI overlap conceptually with available psy-
chological tests, convergent and discriminant validity could be determined for
subsamples of AN patients. Table 5 presents the correlations for the AN group
between EDI subscales and tests measuring: "anorexic" attitudes (EAT, Garner
and Garfinkel, 1979), "restraint" (Herman and Polivy, 1975), overall body dis-
satisfaction (modified from Berscheid et al., 1973), dissatisfaction with bodily
regions associated with changes at maturation (i.e. breasts, buttocks, hips and
abdomen), locus of control (Reid and Ware, 1973), self-control (Reid and
Ware, 1973), feelings of inadequacy (Janis and Field, 1959), depression (BDI,
Beck, 1978), physical anhedonia (Chapman, Chapman and Raulin, 1976),
somatization, obsessionality, anxiety, depression and interpersonal sensitivity
(Hopkins Symptom Check List, HSCL, Derogotis, Lipman, Rickels, Uhlen-
huth and Covi, 1974).
Because of the likelihood of such a large number of intercorrelations yield-
ing significant findings by chance (Type I Error), an alpha level of p < 0.001
was chosen for each correlation. With 120 comparisons, a Bonferroni-type ad-
TABLE 4
Table 6 presents the intercorrelations between EDI subscales for the AN and
FC samples. Although these correlations are presented mainly for descriptive
purposes, it is worth noting that there are 56 individual correlations. With a
comparison-wise alpha of 0.001 and a Bonferroni-type adjustment, the family-
wise error rate is 0.05 (Myers, 1979). For the AN group, only 9 of the 28 corre-
lations were significant, with no coefficients reaching .60. Because of the large
FC sample size, most subscales were significantly correlated even though the
coefficients were generally low (only three were above .60).
Construct Validity
Nunnally (1967) has indicated that construct validity can only be deter-
mined by a series of experiments which demonstrate that the theoretical con-
struct and operational measures are indeed related to one another. The con-
gruence between clinicians' ratings and patients' subscale scores provides some
evidence of construct validity. Moreover, the demonstration of convergent
and discriminant validity for subscales as well as their ability to differentiate
between the AN and FC groups contribute to the construct validity of the sub-
scales of the EDI.
TABLE 5
TABLE 6
* p < 0.001 for each comparison, for family of 56 comparisons p < 0.05
+ N = 3 5 for subscales 7 and 8
+ + N=82 for subscales 7 and 8
DISCUSSION
The current study proposes the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI) as a new
measure of attitudinal and behavioral dimensions relevant to anorexia ner-
vosa and bulimia. Results indicate that the EDI is a reliable (internally consis-
tent) and valid test within the limits imposed by the samples selected for this
initial study. Eight subscales were deductively derived and then empirically
validated with the aim that they differentiate, with very little overlap, between
patients with anorexia nervosa and females from a college comparison group.
Subscales indicate two levels of disturbance considered relevant to patients
with anorexia nervosa. The first three subscales (Drive for Thinness, Bulimia
and Body Dissatisfaction) assess attitudes and/or behaviors related to eating
and body shape. While disturbances in these areas are central to anorexia ner-
vosa, they may also exist in other groups of dieters. The remaining five sub-
scales of the EDI measure traits which have been identified by clinical theorists
as fundamental aspects of the psychopathology of anorexia nervosa. These
subscales have been labelled Ineffectiveness, Interpersonal Distrust, Interocep-
tive Awareness, Perfectionism, and Maturity Fears, and their content has been
described in detail in the methods section of this report. Despite some consen-
sus regarding the significance of these areas of disturbance in the pathogenesis
of anorexia nervosa, there have been few attempts to operationalize or objec-
tively assess them.
Appendix
EDI
Name: .Date:
Age: _
Present Weight: .Height:. .Sex:.
Highest Past Weight: _ (lbs)
(excluding pregnancy)
How Long Ago? _ . (months)
How Long Did You Weigh This? . (months)
Lowest Past Adult Weight: (lbs)
How Long Ago? . (months)
How Long Did You Weigh This? . (months)
What Do You Consider Your Ideal Weight To Be? (lbs)
Age at Which Weight Problem Began (if any)
Father's Occupation:
Instructions:
This is a scale which measures a variety of attitudes, feelings and behaviours.
Some of the items relate to food and eating. Others ask you about your feel-
ings about yourself. THERE ARE NO RIGHT OR WRONG ANSWERS SO
TRY VERY HARD TO BE COMPLETELY HONEST IN YOUR ANSWERS.
RESULTS ARE COMPLETELY CONFIDENTIAL. Read each question and
place an (X) under the column which applies best for you. Please answer each
question very carefully. Thank you.
Evidence for the validity of the subscales comes from several sources other
than their ability to differentiate between anorexia nervosa and comparison
groups. First, there was good agreement between patients' self-report profiles
and the clinical judgements of experienced clinicians. This type of criterion
validity is often difficult to demonstrate because it is influenced by both pa-
tient and clinician sources of error. Secondly, a small group of clinically
recovered anorexia nervosa patients scored similarly to college females on all
subscales. Thirdly, varying degrees of convergent and discriminant validity
were established for the anorexia nervosa sample depending on the number of
other tests administered and their relevance to the hypothesized constructs
underlying each subscale. For example, the subscales tapping attitudes toward
eating and shape were highly related to other available measures of these
dimensions and less related to personality traits. On the other hand, subscales
aimed at psychological functioning usually had minimal correlations with
other measures of eating. Moreover, the subscales assessing "personality"
traits had logical patterns of correlations with other trait measures. The Inef-
fectiveness subscale was most highly correlated with feelings of inadequacy,
depression and external locus of control; Perfectionism with a measure of in-
terpersonal sensitivity; Interpersonal Distrust with low self-esteem and depres-
sion. Percent of average weight was only significantly correlated with the
Bulimia and Body Dissatisfaction subscales.
The EDI differentiated between individuals with anorexia nervosa and
obesity as well as formerly obese subjects recruited from a weight-loss pro-
gram. It may be concluded that the EDI does not simply measure concern with
weight or dieting but rather indicates more disturbed attitudes. It could be
postulated that the EDI would be sensitive to gross psychopathology reflected
in the minority of obese individuals for whom being overweight is an overt
manifestation of more pervasive emotional disturbance. This impression has
been confirmed for a small number of obese patients whom we have tested and
treated but not described in this report.
The EDI was administered to a large group of normal weight women with
bulimia but who had not experienced sufficient weight loss to meet a diagnosis
of anorexia nervosa. Similar to the anorexic sample, the bulimic group scored
significantly higher than normal on EDI subscales related to Bulimia, Drive for
Thinness and Body Dissatisfaction. In an independent comparison of bulimic
anorexia nervosa patients and bulimic normal weight women with no history
of anorexia nervosa, we have found that both groups score similarly on all EDI
subscales except Maturity Fears on which the anorexia nervosa patients
display greater psychopathology (Gamer, Garfinkel and O'Shaughnessy, sub-
mitted).
Garner, Polivy, Olmsted and Garfinkel (submitted) have used the EDI to
compare the psychological characteristics of weight-preoccupied college
women with those of patients with primary anorexia nervosa. While the
groups were similar in Drive for Thinness and. Body Dissatisfaction and
Perfectionism, the most salient difference was that the anorexia nervosa sub-
The authors are grateful for the assistance of Dr. Paul Garfinkel, Ms.
Martha O'Shaughnessy, Ms. Vanessa Boratto, Ms. Victoria Mitchell, Ms.
Shirley Kartuz and Ms. Wendi Rockert. This research was supported by the
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