Bascom Avr Programming

Claus Kuhnel
BASCOM
Programming of
Microcontrollers with Ease
An Introduction
by Program Examples
BASCOM Programming of Microcontrollers with Ease:
An Introduction by Program Examples
Copyright © 2001 Claus Kuhnel

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any
form except by written permission of the author.
All rights of translation reserved.
Publisher and author assume no responsibility for any errors that

may arise from the use of devices and software described in this
book.
Universal Publishers/uPUBLISH.com
USA • 2001
ISBN: 1-58112-671-9
www.upublish.com/books/kuhnel.htm
Preface
The microcontroller market knows some well introduced 8-bit micro-
controller families like Intel's 8051 with its many derivatives from
different manufacturers, Motorola's 6805 and 68HC11, Microchip's
PICmicros and Atmel's AVR.
The 8051 microcontroller family has been well-known over many
years. The development of new derivatives is not finished yet. From
time to time new powerful derivatives are announced.
You will find derivatives from Philips, Dallas, Analog Devices and
Cygnal and others with the known 8051 core but enhanced clock and
peripherals. For example, complete analog-to-digital and digital-to-
analog subsystems were integrated in some chips.
Atmel developed the AVR microcontroller family which is well suited
for high-level language programming and in-system programming.
For all those microcontrollers there is development software ranging
from simple assemblers for DOS to integrated development envi-
ronments for Windows95/98/NT on the market.
Apart from programming environments as they are offered, for ex-
ample, by KEIL, IAR or E-LAB Computer for professional applica-
tions, also the more economical and nonetheless sufficiently
equipped development environments can maintain ground.
BASCOM-8051 and BASCOM-AVR are development environments
built around a powerful BASIC compiler which is suited for project
handling and program development for the 8051 family and its de-
rivatives as well as for the AVR microcontrollers from Atmel.
The programming of microcontrollers using BASCOM-8051 (version
2.0.4.0) and BASCOM-AVR (version 1.11.3.0) will be described in
this book.
Some applications help understand the usage of BASCOM-8051 and
BASCOM-AVR.
3
Acknowledgement
I should like to thank the following:
• in the first place, Mark Alberts of MCS Electronics, who developed
the BASCOM programming environment at an outstanding price-
performance ratio,
• Atmel for the development of the AVR RISC microcontrollers
which introduced new capabilities into the microcontroller families,
• Christer Johansson of High Tech Horizon, who supports safe
communication of microcontrollers and PC by the development
and free distribution of the S.N.A.P. protocol and the necessary
tools effectively and
• Lars Wictorsson of LAWICEL for the development of the
CANDIPs, microcontroller modules with CAN interface.
4
Contents
1 Supported Microcontrollers ............................................................. 9
1.1 8051 Family .............................................................................. 9
1.2 AVR Family............................................................................. 11
2 BASCOM....................................................................................... 23
2.1 BASCOM Demos.................................................................... 23
2.2 BASCOM Commercial Versions............................................. 25
2.3 Update of BASCOM Commercial Versions ............................ 25
2.4 BASCOM Projects .................................................................. 27
2.4.1 Working on Projects ........................................................ 27
2.4.2 BASCOM Options ............................................................ 28
2.5 BASCOM Tools ...................................................................... 37
2.5.1 Simulation ........................................................................ 37
2.5.2 Terminal Emulator ........................................................... 40
2.5.3 LCD Designer .................................................................. 42
2.5.4 Library Manager ............................................................... 46
2.5.5 Programming Devices ..................................................... 50
2.6 Hardware for AVR RISC Microcontroller ................................ 55
2.6.1 DT006 AVR Development Board ..................................... 55
2.6.2 AVR-ALPHA with AT90S2313 ......................................... 56
2.7 Instead of "Hello World".......................................................... 57
2.7.1 AVR.................................................................................. 57
2.7.2 8051 ................................................................................. 58
2.7.3 Things in Common........................................................... 59
2.7.4 Simulation ........................................................................ 64
2.8 BASCOM Help System........................................................... 67
3 Some BASCOM Internals ............................................................. 69
3.1 Building new instructions ........................................................ 69
5
3.2 Parameters for Subroutines in BASCOM-AVR....................... 71
3.3 BASIC & Assembler................................................................ 73
3.3.1 AVR .................................................................................. 74
3.3.2 8051 ................................................................................. 75
4 Applications ................................................................................... 77
4.1 Programmable Logic............................................................... 77
4.2 Timer and Counter.................................................................. 81
4.2.1 AVR .................................................................................. 81
4.2.2 8051 ............................................................................... 104
4.3 LED Control .......................................................................... 107
4.3.1 Single LED ..................................................................... 107
4.3.2 Seven-Segment Displays ............................................... 108
4.3.3 Dot-Matrix Displays ........................................................ 114
4.4 LCD Control .......................................................................... 119
4.4.1 Direct Control ................................................................. 119
4.4.2 LCD with Serial Interface ............................................... 122
4.5 Connecting Keys and Keyboards.......................................... 128
4.5.1 Single Keys .................................................................... 129
4.5.2 Matrix Keypad ................................................................ 132
4.5.3 PC-AT Keyboard ............................................................ 136
4.6 Data Input by IR Remote Control.......................................... 140
4.7 Asynchronous Serial Communication................................... 143
4.8 1-WIRE Interface .................................................................. 151
4.9 SPI Interface ......................................................................... 161
2
4.10 I C Bus................................................................................ 167
4.11 Scalable Network Protocol S.N.A.P .................................... 173
4.11.1 S.N.A.P. Features ........................................................ 174
4.11.2 Description of S.N.A.P. Protocol .................................. 175
4.11.3 S.N.A.P. Monitor........................................................... 179
4.11.4 Digital I/O...................................................................... 183
6
4.12 CANDIP - Interface to CAN ................................................ 197
4.13 Random Numbers .............................................................. 209
4.14 Moving Average.................................................................. 214
5 Appendix ..................................................................................... 219
5.1 Decimal-Hex-ASCII Converter.............................................. 219
5.2 DT006 Circuit Diagram ......................................................... 220
5.3 Characters in Seven-Segment Display................................. 222
5.4 BASIC Stamp II .................................................................... 223
5.5 Literature .............................................................................. 224
5.6 Links ..................................................................................... 225
6 Index ........................................................................................... 231
7
8
1 Supported Microcontrollers
BASCOM is an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) that sup-
ports the 8051 family of microcontrollers and some derivatives as
well as Atmel's AVR microcontrollers. Two products are available for
the various microcontrollers - BASCOM-8051 and BASCOM-AVR.
In a microcontroller project one needs to know the hardware base,
i.e. the microcontroller with internal and connected peripherals, and
the software used, i.e. IDE handling, programming and debugging.
In this first chapter, let's have a look at the supported microcontrol-
lers. A general overview will be given only; the various parts are
documented by the manufacturers in more detail. You may also
search the web for more information and documentation on all the
microcontrollers dealt with here.
1.1 8051 Family

The 8051 is an accumulator-based microcontroller featuring 255
instructions. A basic instruction cycle takes 12 clocks; however,
some manufacturers redesigned the instruction-execution circuitry to
reduce the instruction cycle.
The CPU has four banks of eight 8-bit registers in on-chip RAM for
context switching. These registers reside within the 8051's lower 128
bytes of RAM along with a bit-operation area and scratchpad RAM.
These lower bytes can be addressed directly or indirectly by using an
8-bit value. The upper 128 bytes of on-chip data RAM encompass
two overlapping address spaces. One space is for directly addressed
special-function registers (SFRs); the other space is for indirectly
addressed RAM or stack. The SFRs define peripheral operations and
configurations. The 8051 also has 16 bit-addressable bytes of on-
chip RAM for flags or variables.
Without external circuitry, the maximum address range of all 8051
processors is 64 Kbytes of program memory and 64 Kbytes of data
memory. External means can be made use of to increase this ad-
dress space.
Register indirection uses an 8-bit register for an on-chip RAM ad-
dress; an off-chip address requires an 8- or 16-bit data-pointer reg-
ister (DPTR). The original 8051 has only one DPTR. Derivatives from
Atmel, Dallas, and Philips have two DPTRs. Siemens microcontrol-
9
lers have eight DPTRs. The 8051 microcontroller has bidirectional
and individually addressable I/O lines.
The 8051 performs extensive bit manipulation via instructions, such
as set, clear, complement, and jump on bit set or jump on bit clear,
only for a 16-byte area of RAM and some SFRs. It can also handle
AND or OR bits with a carry bit. The Dallas versions have variable-
length move-external-data instructions. Math functions include add,
subtract, increment, decrement, multiply, divide, complement, rotate,
and swap nibbles. Some of the Siemens devices have a hardware
multiplier/divider for 16-bit multiply and 32-bit divide. Figure 1 shows
the block diagram of an 8051 [1].
Figure 1 Block diagram 8051
10
To elucidate the differences in the derivatives, Figure 2 shows the
block diagram of the C8051F0000 microcontroller from Cygnal [2].
Figure 2 Block diagram C8051F0000
This is not the place to discuss the hardware aspects of the different
derivatives of the 8051 family. The examples are meant to show that
not all parts named 8051 are alike; the core is the same but the in-
ternal peripherals differ significantly.
Once you know the used hardware, you can organize the access to
the resources of the chosen microcontroller.
1.2 AVR Family

Since Atmel's AVR microcontrollers were introduced to the market
only a few years ago, they are not so well known as the 8051 con-
trollers. Therefore, this interesting microcontroller family should be
described in more detail.
11
Atmel's AVR microcontrollers use a new RISC architecture which has
been developed to take advantage of the semiconductor integration
and software capabilities of the 1990's. The resulting microcontrollers
offer the highest MIPS/mW capability available in the 8-bit microcon-
trollers market today.
The architecture of the AVR microcontrollers was designed together
with C-language experts to ensure that the hardware and software
work hand-in-hand to develop a highly efficient, high-performance
code.
To optimize the code size, performance and power consumption,
AVR microcontrollers have big register files and fast one-cycle in-
structions.
The family of AVR microcontrollers includes differently equipped
controllers - from a simple 8-pin microcontroller up to a high-end
microcontroller with a large internal memory. The Harvard architec-
ture addresses memories up to 8 MB directly. The register file is
"dual mapped" and can be addressed as part of the on-chip SRAM,
whereby fast context switches are possible.
All AVR microcontrollers are based on Atmel's low-power nonvolatile
CMOS technology. The on-chip in-system programmable (ISP),
downloadable flash memory permits devices on the user's circuit
board to be reprogrammed via SPI or with the help of a conventional
programming device.
By combining the efficient architecture with the downloadable flash
memory on the same chip, the AVR microcontrollers represent an
efficient approach to applications in the "Embedded Controller" mar-
ket.
Table 1 shows an overview of the devices available today, including
the configuration of the internal memory and I/O. Further information
can be found on Atmel's web site [http://www.atmel.com] and in the
literature [3].
12
Device Flash [KB] EEPROM SRAM I/O Pins
ATtiny11 1 0 0 6
ATtiny12 1 64 0 6
ATtiny22 2 128 90 5
AT90S1200 1 64 0 15
AT90S2313 2 128 128 15
AT90S2323 2 128 128 3
AT90S2343 2 128 128 5
AT90S2333 2 128 128 20
AT90S4414 4 256 256 32
AT90S4433 4 256 128 20
AT90S4434 4 256 256 32
AT90S8515 8 512 512 32
AT90S8534 8 512 256 15
AT90S8535 8 512 512 32
ATmega603 64 2K 4K 48
ATmega103 128 4K 4K 48
Table 1 AVR microcontrollers and their resources
The internal resources of the AVR microcontrollers will be considered

with AT90S8515 used as an example. Figure 3 shows the block dia-
gram of an AT90S8515.
13
Figure 3 Block diagram AT90S8515
14
The I/O storage area covers 64 addresses for the peripheral device
functions of the CPU, like control registers, Timer/Counter and other
I/O functions. Figure 4 shows memory maps of the AT90S8515 pro-
gram and data memory.
0x000 0x0000
32 General Purpose
Working Registers
0x001F
Program 0x0020
Flash Memory 64 Input/Output
(4 K x 16 bit) Registers
0x005F
0x0060
Internal SRAM
(512 x 8 bit)
0x025F
0x0260
0xFFF
External SRAM
(0 - 64 K x 8 bit)
0xFFFF
Figure 4
Memory maps for program and data memory for AT90S8515
The AVR microcontrollers make use of a Harvard structure with

separate memories and busses for programs and data
A flexible interrupt module has its control register in the I/O memory
area, too. All interrupts have separate interrupt vectors in an interrupt
vector table at the beginning of the program memory. The priority
level of each interrupt vector is dependent on its position in the inter-
rupt vector table. The higher the priority of a respective interrupt, the
lower is the address of the interrupt vector. All interrupts are mas-
kable and can be enabled or disabled by a Global Interrupt En-
able/Disable.
To get an impression of the available peripheral functions, the pe-
ripheral functions of the AT90S8515 will be listed here in brief as an
example.
15
Timer/Counter
One 8-bit and one 16-bit Timer/Counter are available in conjunction
with a flexible 10-bit prescaler for different timer and counter applica-
tions.
Both Timer/Counter units can operate independently as a timer with
internal clock or as a counter with external triggering. The prescaler
divides the internal clock into four selectable timer clocks (CK/8,
CK/64, CK/256 and CK/1024).
The 8-bit Timer/Counter is a simple UpCounter.
The 16-bit Timer/Counter is more complex and supports two Output
Compare functions and one Input Capture function. Furthermore, it is
possible to use the Timer/Counter for Pulse-Width-Modulation
(PWM).
The Watchdog Timer is clocked by a separate on-chip oscillator. The
Watchdog period can be selected between 16 ms and 2048 ms.
SPI
The Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) allows synchronous serial high-
speed communication.
UART
A comfortable Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART)
allows flexible asynchronous serial communication.
Analog Comparator
The Analog Comparator compares voltages at two pins.
I/O Ports
The AT90S8515 has four I/O ports, which can be operate as digital
input or output controlled by the Data Direction Register (DDR). As
shown in Figure 5, most pins have alternative functions.
Comparing the pin configuration of the AVR microcontrollers and that
of the 8051 microcontroller family reveals one objective of this new
microcontroller family.
16
Figure 5 Pin configuration AT90S8515
All I/O ports are bidirectional with individually selectable Pull-up re-
sistors. The outputs can drop to 20 mA so that LEDs can be directly
driven.
The AVR microcontrollers support a high-voltage (12 V) parallel pro-
gramming mode and a low-voltage serial programming mode. The
serial programming mode via SPI provides a convenient way to
download programs and data into the device inside the user's sys-
tem.
To get an impression of the instruction set of the AVR microcontrol-
lers, Table 2 explains all instructions in a compact form.
17
Mnemonics Description Cycles
ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC INSTRUCTIONS
ADD Rd, Rr Add without Carry Rd ← Rd + Rr 1
ADC Rd, Rr Add with Carry Rd ← Rd + Rr + C 1
ADIW Rd, K Add Immediate to Word Rd+1:Rd ← Rd+1:Rd + K 2
SUB Rd, Rr Subtract without Carry Rd ← Rd - Rr 1
SUBI Rd, K Subtract Immediate Rd ← Rd - K 1
SBC Rd, Rr Subtract with Carry Rd ← Rd - Rr - C 1
SBCI Rd, K Subtract Immediate with Rd ← Rd - K - C 1
Carry
SBIW Rd, K Subtract Immediate from Rd+1:Rd ← Rd+1:Rd - K 2
Word
AND Rd, Rr Logical AND Rd ← Rd • Rr 1
ANDI Rd, K Logical AND with Immediate Rd ← Rd • K 1
OR Rd, Rr Logical OR Rd ← Rd v Rr 1
ORI Rd, K Logical OR with Immediate Rd ← Rd v K 1
EOR Rd, Rr Exclusive OR Rd ← Rd ⊕ Rr 1
COM Rd One’s Complement Rd ← $FF - Rd 1
NEG Rd Two’s Complement Rd ← $00 - Rd 1
SBR Rd,K Set bit(s) in Register Rd ← Rd v K 1
CBR Rd,K Clear bit(s) in Register Rd ← Rd • ($FFh - K) 1
INC Rd Increment Rd ← Rd + 1 Rd ← Rd + 1 1
DEC Rd Decrement Rd ← Rd - 1 1
TST Rd Test for Zero or Minus Rd ← Rd • Rd 1
CLR Rd Clear Register Rd ← Rd ⊕ Rd 1
SER Rd Set Register Rd ← $FF 1
MUL Rd,Rr Multiply Unsigned R1, R0 ← Rd × Rr 2
BRANCH INSTRUCTIONS
RJMP k Relative Jump PC ← PC + k + 1 2
IJMP Indirect Jump to (Z) PC ← Z 2
JMP k Jump PC ← k 3
RCALL k Relative Call Subroutine PC ← PC + k + 1 3
ICALL Indirect Call to (Z) PC ← Z 3
CALL k Call Subroutine PC ← k 4
RET Subroutine Return PC ← STACK 4
RETI Interrupt Return PC ← STACK 4
CPSE Rd,Rr Compare, PC ← PC + 2 or 3 1/2
Skip if Equal if (Rd = Rr)
CP Rd,Rr Compare Rd - Rr 1
CPC Rd,Rr Compare with Carry Rd - Rr - C 1
CPI Rd,K Compare with Immediate Rd - K 1
SBRC Rr, b Skip if bit in Register Cleared if (Rr(b)=0) 1/2
PC ← PC + 2 or 3
SBRS Rr, b Skip if bit in Register Set if (Rr(b)=1) 1/2
PC ← PC + 2 or 3
SBIC P, b Skip if bit in I/O Register if(I/O(P,b)=0) 2/3
Cleared PC ← PC + 2 or 3
SBIS P, b Skip if bit in I/O Register Set If(I/O(P,b)=1) 2/3
PC← PC + 2 or 3
BRBS s, k Branch if Status Flag Set if (SREG(s) = 1) then 1/2
PC←PC+k + 1
BRBC s, k Branch if Status Flag Cleared if (SREG(s) = 0) then 1/2
PC←PC+k + 1
18
BREQ k Branch if Equal if (Z = 1) then 1/2
PC ← PC + k + 1
BRNE k Branch if Not Equal if (Z = 0) then 1/2
PC ← PC + k + 1
BRCS k Branch if Carry Set if (C = 1) then 1/2
PC ← PC + k + 1
BRCC k Branch if Carry Cleared if (C = 0) then 1/2
PC ← PC + k + 1
BRSH k Branch if Same or Higher if (C = 0) then 1/2
PC ← PC + k + 1
BRLO k Branch if Lower if (C = 1) then 1/2
PC ← PC + k + 1
BRMI k Branch if Minus if (N = 1) then 1/2
PC ← PC + k + 1
BRPL k Branch if Plus if (N = 0) then 1/2
PC ← PC + k + 1
BRGE k Branch if Greater or Equal, if (N ⊕ V= 0) then 1/2
Signed PC ← PC+ k + 1
BRLT k Branch if Less Than, Signed if (N ⊕ V= 1) then PC ← 1/2
PC + k + 1
BRHS k Branch if Half Carry Flag Set if (H = 1) then 1/2
PC ← PC + k + 1
BRHC k Branch if Half Carry Flag if (H = 0) then 1/2
Cleared PC ← PC + k + 1
BRTS k Branch if T Flag Set if (T = 1) then 1/2
PC ← PC + k + 1
BRTC k Branch if T Flag Cleared if (T = 0) then 1/2
PC ← PC + k + 1
BRVS k Branch if Overflow Flag is Set if (V = 1) then 1/2
PC ← PC + k + 1
BRVC k Branch if Overflow Flag is if (V = 0) then 1/2
Cleared PC ← PC + k + 1
BRIE k Branch if Interrupt Enabled if ( I = 1) then 1/2
PC ← PC + k + 1
BRID k Branch if Interrupt Disabled if ( I = 0) then 1/2
PC ← PC + k + 1
DATA TRANSFER INSTRUCTIONS
MOV Rd, Rr Copy Register Rd ← Rr 1
LDI Rd, K Load Immediate Rd ← K 1
LDS Rd, k Load Direct from SRAM Rd ← (k) 3
LD Rd, X Load Indirect Rd ← (X) 2
LD Rd, X+ Load Indirect and Post- Rd ← (X), X ← X + 1 2
Increment
LD Rd, -X Load Indirect and Pre- X ← X - 1, Rd ← (X) 2
Decrement
LD Rd, Y Load Indirect Rd ← (Y) 2
LD Rd, Y+ Load Indirect and Post- Rd ← (Y), Y ← Y + 1 2
Increment
LD Rd, -Y Load Indirect and Pre- Y ← Y - 1, Rd ← (Y) 2
Decrement
LDD Rd,Y+q Load Indirect with Rd ← (Y + q) 2
Displacement
LD Rd, Z Load Indirect Rd ← (Z) 2
19
LD Rd, Z+ Load Indirect and Post- Rd ← (Z), Z ← Z+1 2
Increment
LD Rd, -Z Load Indirect and Pre- Z ← Z - 1, Rd ← (Z) 2
Decrement
LDD Rd, Z+q Load Indirect with Rd ← (Z + q) 2
Displacement
STS k, Rr Store Direct to SRAM Rd ← (k) 3
ST X, Rr Store Indirect (X) ← Rr 2
ST X+, Rr Store Indirect and Post- (X) ← Rr, X ← X + 1 2
Increment
ST -X, Rr Store Indirect and Pre- X ← X - 1, (X) ← Rr 2
Decrement
ST Y, Rr Store Indirect (Y) ← Rr 2
ST Y+, Rr Store Indirect and Post- (Y) ← Rr, Y ← Y + 1 2
Increment
ST -Y, Rr Store Indirect and Pre- Y ← Y - 1, (Y) ← Rr 2
Decrement
STD Y+q,Rr Store Indirect with (Y + q) ← Rr 2
Displacement
ST Z, Rr Store Indirect (Z) ← Rr 2
ST Z+, Rr Store Indirect and Post- (Z) ← Rr, Z ← Z + 1 2
Increment
ST -Z, Rr Store Indirect and Pre- Z ← Z - 1, (Z) ← Rr 2
Decrement
STD Z+q,Rr Store Indirect with (Z + q) ← Rr 2
Displacement
LPM Load Program Memory R0 ← (Z) 3
IN Rd, P In Port Rd ← P 1
OUT P, Rr Out Port P ← Rr 1
PUSH Rr Push Register on Stack STACK ← Rr 2
POP Rd Pop Register from Stack Rd ← STACK 2
BIT AND BIT-TEST INSTRUCTIONS
LSL Rd Logical Shift Left Rd(n+1)←Rd(n), 1
Rd(0)←0,C←Rd(7)
LSR Rd Logical Shift Right Rd(n)←Rd(n+1), 1
Rd(7)←0,C←Rd(0)
ROL Rd Rotate Left Through Carry Rd(0)←C, 1
Rd(n+1)←Rd(n),C←Rd(7
)
ROR Rd Rotate Right Through Carry Rd(7)←C, 1
Rd(n)←Rd(n+1),C←Rd(0
)
ASR Rd Arithmetic Shift Right Rd(n) ← Rd(n+1), n=0..6 1
SWAP Rd Swap Nibbles Rd(3..0) ↔ Rd(7..4) 1
BSET s Flag Set SREG(s) ← 1 1
BCLR s Flag Clear SREG(s) ← 0 1
SBI P, b Set bit in I/O Register I/O(P, b) ← 1 2
CBI P, b Clear bit in I/O Register I/O(P, b) ← 0 2
BST Rr, b bit Store from Register to T T ← Rr(b) 1
BLD Rd, b bit load from T to Register Rd(b) ← T 1
SEC Set Carry C←1 1
CLC Clear Carry C←0 1
SEN Set Negative Flag N←1 1
CLN Clear Negative Flag N←0 1
20
SEZ Set Zero Flag Z←1 1
CLZ Clear Zero Flag Z←0 1
SEI Global Interrupt Enable I←1 1
CLI Global Interrupt Disable I←0 1
SES Set Signed Test Flag S←1 1
CLS Clear Signed Test Flag S←0 1
SEV Set Two’s Complement V←1 1
Overflow
CLV Clear Two’s Complement V←0 1
Overflow
SET Set T in SREG T ←1 1
CLT Clear T in SREG T←0 1
SEH Set Half Carry Flag in SREG H←1 1
CLH Clear Half Carry Flag in H←0 1
SREG
NOP No Operation None 1
SLEEP Sleep 1
WDR Watchdog Reset 1
Table 2 Instruction Set of AVR microcontrollers
These introducing remarks on the AVR microcontrollers cannot of

course replace a detailed study of the technical documentation of the
manufacturer. Descriptions of the individual microcontrollers as well
as application notes and program examples can be found on Atmel's
web site [http://www.atmel.com]. The manufacturer's documentation
is complemented by further publications [3][4].
21
22
2 BASCOM
BASCOM-AVR is not only a BASIC Compiler, but also a comfortable
Integrated Development Environment (IDE) running under Windows
95 and Windows NT.
Such a development environment supports the whole process from
coding and testing a program to programming the used micro-
controller.
In this book the term BASCOM is used when no distinction must be
made between BASCOM-8051 and BASCOM-AVR. In all cases
where a distinction is necessary, a few changes only are required to
make the program work with the other family of microcontrollers. This
is one important advantage of high-level languages.
So as to prevent that work with BASCOM and the program examples
in this book are mere dry homework, a demo of BASCOM-8051 or
BASCOM-AVR can be used for first tests. These BASCOM demos
can be downloaded free of charge from different URLs.
For proper installation of the required BASCOM IDE, make sure a
printer is installed - the printer need not necessarily be used or con-
nected.
The licence agreement must be accepted before one of the
BASCOM IDEs is installed
2.1 BASCOM Demos

Over a link to the download area of the BASCOM developer MCS
Electronics [http://www.mcselec.com] some files are available for
download.
For download the BASCOM-8051 demo use this URL
http://www.mcselec.com/download_8051.htm
and for downloading the BASCOM-AVR demo use
http://www.mcselec.com/download_avr.htm .
On these download sites you will find the manuals as PDF and all
information required for an upgrade to the commercial versions.
After extracting all downloaded files to a separate directory, there is a
setup program for installation.
23
Installation starts as usual under Windows when this setup program
is called.
After completion of the installation, the following files need to be in-
stalled on the PC. Figure 6 shows the files installed for BASCOM-
AVR as an example. Inspecting the directory with the Explorer will
show some more files there. These files will be explained later.
Figure 6 BASCOM-AVR Demo Files
As is common for most demo programs, some restrictions must be

expected. The only restriction of both BASCOM demos is a reduced
code size of 2 KB.
If the code size exceeds this limit after compilation, the compiler will
generate error messages as shown in Figure 7.
24
Figure 7 Error messages due to exceeding the restricted code size
2.2 BASCOM Commercial Versions

If you decide to buy the commercial version of the used BASCOM
IDE, you may order it from http://www.mcselec.com or one of the
local distributors. Downloading the files and ordering the license is
done in next to no time. The license will be sent immediately by e-
mail.
The installation of the commercial version does not differ from the
procedure for the BASCOM demo. Start SetUp and follow the in-
structions of the SetUp program.
2.3 Update of BASCOM Commercial Versions

When a commercial version of BASCOM is installed, it can be up-
dated when a new version is ready for downloading from MCS Elec-
tronic's web site. In the download area you will find a link to an Aut-
oUpdate program.
Install this AutoUpdate program in your BASCOM-8051 or BASCOM-
AVR subdirectory as you installed BASCOM-8051 or BASCOM-AVR
before.
25
Figure 8 shows the downloading and extracting of updated files in an
existing installation of BASCOM-AVR.
Figure 8 Update of BASCOM-AVR
If your installation is up-to-date then there is no need for an update.

The AutoUpdate program detects this state automatically (Figure 9).
26
Figure 9 No newer version available
If you use the AutoUpdate program from time to time you will always
have an actual installation of the used BASCOM IDE.
2.4 BASCOM Projects
2.4.1 Working on Projects

After the start of BASCOM you can create a new file by selecting
File>New or open an existing file by selecting File>Open.
In the next step, check such BASCOM Options like device selection,
baud rate, clock frequency and other relating options. A detailed ex-
planation of these options will be given in the next chapter.
Now you may edit the BASIC source and compile it afterwards. As a
rule, the compiler detects here the first errors and the program must
be debugged.
The BASIC source must be edited as long as the compilation is with-
out any errors. Normally, the process of editing, compiling and de-
bugging needs to be repeated several times. It makes no sense to
debug all errors in one step. Editing several typing errors in one step
is no problem. But for more difficult errors, a separate compiler run
checks the validity of the changes carried out. It is always easier to
debug a localized error.
27
With the help of the internal BASCOM Simulator the program opera-
tion can be checked without any hardware.
The probably last task in a project is programming the device that is
used in the application hardware, followed by an excessive test of the
program on the target.
The project proves to be successful if these tests document a proper
function in the target hardware. Otherwise, some steps must be re-
peated.
Before working with the BASCOM-AVR, the development environ-
ment will be described by means of a small program example; the
next chapter describes the BASCOM options important to the
BASCOM environment used and the target hardware.
2.4.2 BASCOM Options

Each BASCOM offers a lot of options that must be defined by selec-
tion in the Option menu. The options should be selected at the be-
ginning of a project and saved. Later changes of this setup will then
only be required for details.
The following description applies to BASCOM-AVR. In BASCOM-
8051, selecting the various options is quite similar.
In the first step, the used microcontroller is defined by selecting Op-
tions>Compiler>Chip. Let us use here an AT90S8515 without ex-
ternal RAM. Figure 10 shows the parameters. On the right side you
can see the available memory of the selected microcontroller.
Each parameter in a function needs two bytes of stack. the stack size
shows the number of reserved bytes for the stack. The value 32 is
default and remains unchanged here.
Local variables are saved in a frame. The default value is 50 and
remains unchanged, too.
28
Figure 10 Selection of a device and external memory
The compiler generates many files selectable by Options> Com-

piler>Output. Figure 11 shows the possibilities for selection.
In dependence of the used programmer, Bin files and/or Hex files will
be generated. The compiler itself needs the debug file. The report file
reports all parameters and memory allocations. The error file docu-
ments all errors occurring during compilation.
29
Figure 11 Selection of files to be generated
To simplify matters, all files on the left side should be selected.

For simulations with AVR Studio (AVR only), the related object file is
required. Activating Size warning reports an exceeding of the avail-
able program memory. The last option can be very helpful.
Some programmers require Bin or Hex files with swapped LSB and
MSB. In this case, activate the Swap Words option.
The baud rate of serial communication (RS232) depends on the
clock frequency of the microcontroller. The clock frequency and de-
sired baud rate can be selected from menu Options> Com-
piler>Communication. Figure 12 shows the parameter input. The
error field shows the deviation of the generated baud rate.
It is very important to keep this deviation within defined limits as oth-
erwise communication errors may occur.
30
Figure 12 Selection of baud rate and oscillator frequency
In addition to serial communication according to RS232, BASCOM

2
supports I C, SPI and 1-Wire data transfer. As Figure 13 shows, the
menu Options>Compiler>I2C, SPI, 1WIRE allows the allocation of
pins to the respective lines. At this time at the latest, a wiring diagram
or schematic of the target hardware is required.
31
Figure 13 Selection of pins for serial communication
From menu Options>Compiler>LCD an LCD can be connected to

the selected pins. Figure 14 shows the input of the required pa-
rameters.
For BASCOM-AVR there are different methods for controlling an
LCD. If the microcontroller has an external RAM, then the LCD can
be connected to the data bus. The address bus controls lines E and
RS. The following connections are required in the bus mode.
AT90Sxxxx A15 A14 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0
8-bit Mode E RS db7 db6 db5 db4 db3 db2 db1 db0
4-bit Mode E RS db7 db6 db5 db4 - - - -
For BASCOM-8051 and BASCOM-AVR it is possible to assign any

pin of the microcontroller to the LCD pins. Usually, the 4-bit mode will
be used (four data lines).
When defining user-specific characters, bit-maps are assigned to
printable characters. This process is very simple and is supported by
the LCD designer. Using the option "Make upper 3 bit 1 in LCD De-
signer" the bit-maps can be influenced as shown.
32
Figure 14 BASCOM-AVR LCD SetUp
When communicating from the PC with the target hardware, the pa-
rameters of the terminal emulator must be coordinated with the in-
terface parameters of the target hardware. As is shown in Figure 15,
these parameters can be input via the menu Options> Communica-
tion.
33
Figure 15 Parameter selection for terminal emulator
The editor features can be adapted as preferred. Figure 16 shows

the setup options; they are selectable via menu Options> Environ-
ment .
As experience shows, the setup can be used as default for the first
time. Any changes can be made later when you are more familiar
with the editing of source text.
34
Figure 16 Selection of editor options
In BASCOM-AVR you can choose the internal simulator or AVR Stu-

dio for simulation. In menu Options>Simulator the AVR Studio can
be linked to BASCOM-AVR. Figure 17 shows the link to AVRStu-
dio.exe in path D:\Programme\AVRSTUD\, which is specific to
the author's system.
35
Figure 17 Selection of a simulator
The last important step is the selection of a programmer via menu

Options>Programmer . Figure 18 shows this selection.
In this case, the AVR ISP Programmer was selected because most
BASCOM-AVR program examples described here used the
MCU00100 evaluation board as a hardware platform. Basically, the
use of an external programmer is possible.
36
Figure 18 Selection of a programmer
2.5 BASCOM Tools

BASCOM IDE includes some important tools. The simulator and
programmer have already been mentioned.
Further tools are
• a Terminal Emulator for communication with the serial interface of
the target hardware,
• an LCD Designer supporting the design of customer-specific
characters for a connected character LCD
• a library manager supporting the management of libraries and
• for BASCOM-805,1, a Graphic BMP Converter intended to con-
vert BMP files into BASCOM Graphic Files (BGF) for display by a
Graphic LCD.
2.5.1 Simulation
BASCOM-8051 and BASCOM-AVR have their own internal simula-
tor. A simple program example describes the use of the simulator in
both BASCOM IDEs.
37
The program to be simulated controls an alphanumeric LCD of two
lines of 16 characters each. Listing 1 shows the source text.
$sim ' for simulation only otherwise comment
Dim A As Byte
M1:
A = Waitkey()
If A = 27 Then Goto M2
Cls
Upperline
Lcd A
Lowerline
Lcd Hex(a)
Print Chr(a)
Goto M1
M2:
End
Listing 1 LCD Test (LCD.BAS)
Clicking Program>Simulate or F2 starts the Simulator and the

simulation window opens up.
Figure 19 shows the simulation window of BASCOM-8051 and
Figure 20 that of BASCOM-AVR.
38
Figure 19 BASCOM-8051 Simulator
Figure 20 BASCOM-AVR Simulator

39
The program instructions can be seen at the bottom of the window. A
terminal window is placed in the middle, and a watch window pre-
senting the contents of the variables on top.
In the example, the control of an LCD is simulated. For the purpose,
the LCD windows were opened. As can be seen, the LCD windows
differ.
After program start the program runs until instruction a = Wait-
key(), and waits for a character to be received on the serial input.
Key in a character from the terminal window and this character will
be read by the program.
If the received character is not ESC, its ASCII code will be displayed
in the upper row of the LCD and its hex value in the lower row of the
simulated LCD.
In the example, the received character was "a". The ASCII code dis-
played in the upper line is 92. The hex value displayed in the lower
line is 61.
During the simulation there is the possibility for a single-step chang-
ing of the contents of the variables and the simulation of interrupts.
2.5.2 Terminal Emulator

The Terminal Emulator is used for communication with the serial
interfaces of the target hardware.
Listing 2 shows a simple test program. The program waits until it
receives one character, echoes this character, and adds some char-
acters for commentary purposes.
40
Dim A As Byte
Do A = Inkey() 'get value from serial port
If A > 0 Then 'we got something

Print "Received from serial port:"
Print "ASCII Code " ; A ;
Print " = Character " ; Chr(a)
End If
Loop Until A = 27
End
Listing 2 Test of serial communication (SERIAL.BAS)
To start the Terminal Emulator, click Tools>Terminal emulator or

press Ctrl+T. Figure 21 shows the open terminal window. The pa-
rameters for communication can be selected via menu Op-
tions>Communications; they are shown in the status line.
Figure 21 BASCOM-AVR Terminal Emulator
If a character is sent to the target hardware by typing this character in

the PC's keyboard, then the program checks the received character
(A = inkey()) and sends back a comment and the results of some
operations (Print ... ) until the ESC key is pressed and the pro-
gram stops.
41
The Terminal Emulator can be used for testing all communication
tasks of the serial interface of the used microcontroller.
2.5.3 LCD Designer

The LCD Designer is useful for defining customer-specific characters
displayed on an alphanumeric LCD. All alphanumeric LCDs, working
with Hitachi's LCD controller HD 44780 or a compatible, allow cus-
tom-specific characters to be defined.
Figure 22 shows three characters which are defined as custom-
specific characters and tested.
Figure 22
The first character is used to demonstrate custom-specific character
definition with the help of the LCD Designer.
By Tools>LCD Designer or Ctrl+L, the LCD designer is started
(Figure 23).
Figure 23
Custom-specific character definition in LCD Designer
42
The pixels in the 8x5 matrix can be set or cleared. The lowest pixel
line, though reserved for the display of the LCD cursor, can be used.
By pressing OK the character is defined and the respective instruc-
tion is written in the source text window.
For the time being, the designation of the character is provided with a
question mark which must be replaced by a character (or a variable)
within the range from 0 to 7.
Figure 24 shows the entry in the source text completed by a constant
of 1 as the name for this first user-specific character.
Figure 24 Instruction generated by the LCD designer
A small program (Listing 3) supports the test of these user-specific

character indications.
43
Deflcdchar 1 , 238 , 255 , 252 , 248 , 252 , 255 , 238 , 224
Deflcdchar 2 , 238 , 255 , 255 , 248 , 255 , 255 , 238 , 224
Deflcdchar 3 , 238 , 255 , 255 , 255 , 255 , 255 , 238 , 224
Cls
Config Lcd = 16 * 1
Lcd "Hello "
Home
Lcd Chr(1)
Home
Lcd " " ; Chr(2)
Home
Lcd " " ; Chr(3)
Home
Lcd " " ; Chr(1)
Home
Lcd " " ; Chr(2)
Home
Lcd " " ; Chr(3)
Listing 3 Customer-specific characters (LCD1.BAS)
At the beginning of the program there are three character definitions

created by using LCD Designer as described. It is important that the
defined instructions are followed by instruction CLS which activates
the data memory of the LCD.
The first thing displayed on the LCD is the word "Hello". The charac-
ters of the word "Hello" will later be eaten by the customer-specific
characters.
Figure 25 shows the LCD output as it appears during a single-step
simulation one after another. Several hardcopies of the Simulator's
LCD window were cascaded one below the other so that the various
steps taken can be seen very clearly.
44
Figure 25 LCD output in Simulator
45
2.5.4 Library Manager
A library contains assembler routines which can be accessed from a
program. The Library Manager supports the administration and
modification of such a library.
Figure 26 shows routines of the library MCS.LIB for BASCOM-8051.
Figure 26 BASCOM-8051 LIB Manager
Figure 27 shows routines of the library MCS.LIB for BASCOM-AVR.
46
Figure 27 BASCOM-8051 LIB Manager
The libraries will be searched when a used routine is declared with

the directive $EXTERNAL. The library search order is the same as the
order of the names of the libraries. Library MCS.LIB included in both
BASCOM IDEs is always the last library searched. There is no need
to specify MCS.LIB by the directive $LIB.
Since MCS.LIB is always the last library searched, routines with the
same name but a different function can be included in private librar-
ies. Because of the search order, that routine is found first and thus
redefines the definition in MCS.LIB.
To change the predefined routines in MCS.LIB, copy and rename
MCS.LIB and edit the routines to be changed. It is als possible to
create private libraries. Listing 4 shows a BlockMove routine for
BASCOM-AVR in library CK.LIB.
47
Copyright = Claus Kuehnel
WWW = http://www.ckuehnel.ch
Email = [email protected]
Comment = Avr Compiler Library
Libversion = 1.00
Date = 19.01.2000
Statement = No Source Code From The Library May Be Distributed In
Any Form
Statement = Of Course This Does Not Applie For The Compiled Code
When You Have A Bascom - Avr License
History = No Known Bugs.
History =
...
[_blockmove]
_blockmove:
ld _temp1,Z+ ;get data from BLOCK1
st X+,_temp1 ;store data to BLOCK2
dec _temp2 ;
brne _blockmove ;if not done, loop more
ret ;return
[end]
Listing 4 Library CK.LIB
A library is a simple text file. Each editor can be used for making
changes. By means of the BASCOM internal editor, a library can be
edited in the same way as a BASIC source file.
The header contains some useful information.
Each routine begins with its name in angular brackets and end with
an end tag. In this example it begins with [_blockmove]. The end
is always [END].
Listing 5 shows the access to a library function in a sample program.
Const Bl = 40 ' Defines a block length
Dim Blocklength As Byte

Blocklength = Bl
Dim Block1(bl) As Byte ' Two blocks of 40 bytes each

Dim Block2(bl) As Byte
Dim I As Byte ' Index variable
$lib "CK.LIB" ' Use _blockmove from CK.LIB

$external _blockmove
48
Declare Sub Blockmove(source As Byte , Dest As Byte , Byval Length
As Byte)
For I = 1 To Bl ' Initialize Block1

Block1(i) = I * 2
Next
' Call Blockmove subroutine
Call Blockmove (block1(1) , Block2(1) , Blocklength)
For I = 1 To 40 ' clear Block1

Block1(i) = 0
Next
For I = 1 To 40 ' copy Block2 to Block1 back

Block1(i) = Block2(i)
Next
End
' Blockmove is the entry for _blockmove assembler routine

Sub Blockmove (source As byte , Dest As byte , Length As Byte)
$asm
Loadadr Length , Z
ld _temp2, Z
Loadadr Source , Z
Loadadr Dest , X
rcall _blockmove ' copy from source to dest
' length bytes
$end Asm
Return
Listing 5 Copying a memory area (TEST_LIB.BAS)
At the beginning of the program two memory blocks of a length of 40

bytes each are declared. Block1 is (arbitrariy) initialized before the
assembler routine _blockmove copies block1 to block2.
The BASIC subroutine handles the parameter for the assembler
routine only. The copying process takes place exclusively at assem-
bler level.
To compare the runtime of such an assembler routine with a com-
mon BASIC subroutine, block1 is cleared for the purpose of copying
block2 back to block1 at BASIC level (thereafter).
A runtime measurement is possible in AVR Studio and delivers the
following results for the 4 MHz clock frequency:
49
For I = 1 To 40
Routine Blockmove (...) Block1(i) = Block2(i)
Next
Runtime 89,6 µs 474,0 µs
2.5.5 Programming Devices

2.5.5.1 AVR
As AVR microcontrollers are in-system programmable (ISP), pro-
gramming equipment is not required. Rather, the evaluation boards
can be used to program and test the first AVR programs.
If evaluation board MCU00100 is used, the AVR ICP910 Program-
mer needs to be activated. Figure 28 shows the user interface in-
cluding memory dumps for Flash memory and EEPROM.
Figure 28 Programming with AVR ICP910
If there is no evaluation board or programmer available, one of the

proposals published in the Web are a good choice to consider.
50
Figure 29 shows the circuit diagram of Jerry Meng's FBPRG Pro-
grammer driven from the parallel port of the PC
[http://www.qsl.net/fa1fb/]. A lot of people use Jerry's design with
success.
Figure 29 FBPRG Programmer
Figure 30 shows the user interface of the programmer software in a

DOS window.
51
Figure 30 FBPRG in a DOS window
Programmer software and circuit diagram of Jerry Meng's FBPRG

Programmer are available for downloading from the author's web site
assigned to this book [www.ckuehnel.ch/bascom_buch.htm].
BASCOM-AVR does not support this programmer directly. The pro-
grammer software FBPRG.EXE must be linked in menu Op-
tions>Programmer>Other to BASCOM-AVR.
This is the way to include unknown programmers in both BASCOM
IDEs.
2.5.5.2 8051
BASCOM-8051 supports the whole 8051 family of microcontrollers
with many memory types and programming needs. It is becessary to
choose the right programmer for the microcontroller in use.
The Micro-Pro 51 from Equinox Technologies was used for pro-
gramming the 8051 derivatives (mostly the AT89C2051)
[http://www.equinox-tech.com].
52
After installing the link to the external programmer, the latter can be
run directly from BASCOM-8051. Figure 31 shows the installation of
an external programmer.
Figure 31 Link to external programmer
This programmer has no special features. Figure 32 shows a loaded

hex file in the internal buffer. After programming the result should be
comparable with Figure 33.
53
Figure 32 Buffer view
Figure 33 Programming result
After programming the device, the microcontroller must be placed in

the target board. For the small AT89C2051 I used the X051 Demo
Module from the same manufacturer.
54
There are many other programming and evaluation devices on the
market. Frequently, the manufacturers of microcontrollers offer such
devices for first tests or prototyping.
2.6 Hardware for AVR RISC Microcontroller
2.6.1 DT006 AVR Development Board

Dontronics [http://www.dontronics.com] is the producer of the so
called SimmSticks. This is a standard that makes use of the well
know Simm connectors. There are motherboards and application
boards.
For BASCOM-AVR Dontronics designed the DT006. This is a moth-
erboard with integrated Sample Electronics programmer, LEDs,
switches and RS-232 serial interface.
So with this PCB you can create a programmer and you can use it as
a development board too.
The DT006 board will program the 8, 20, and 28 pin DIP chips on
board, and will also program the DT107 (8515 and 4433 footprint),
DT104 (2313 footprint) and SIMM100 (8535 footprint) AVR
SimmSticks, as well as any AVR target board that has a Kanda type
header.
Current burning software is achieved with the programmer software
built into Bascom-AVR.
This means, after you have this programmer unit up and running as a
development platform, all you need to duplicate the procedure with a
stand alone micro, is a single AT90S2313-10-PC micro, and a
DT104 PCB and a handful of simple components. Or you can use
your own circuit design on a proto board, vero board, your own art-
work, whatever.
Figure 34 shows the DT006 AVR Development Board with two Simm
expansions slots on the right side (J2, J3). Chapter 5.2 shows the
DT006 circuit diagram.
55
Figure 34 DT006 Board
2.6.2 AVR-ALPHA with AT90S2313

We [http://www.ckuehnel.ch/ask.htm] support starting with the 2313
by the small AVR-ALPHA mini module. Figure 35 shows this module.
All I/O lines are connected to the pins of that module. Prototyping
without soldering is possible using a simple breadboard.
All AVR micros are in-circuit programmable and a simple program-
ming adapter fulfills all needs for programming the AVR-ALPHA. This
programming adapter can be linked to BASCOM-AVR as an external
programmer.
56
Figure 35 AVR-ALPHA Mini Module
2.7 Instead of "Hello World"

After the introduction of the basic programming procedure as well as
the BASCOM Options and Tools, a first and very simple program
example will describe the working with BASCOM.
Usually, programs of the "Hello World" class fulfill this exercise. But,
the example here is a program controlled by a timer interrupt which I
think is a more typical microcontroller program than "Hello World".
Due to the different hardware base of the 8051 and AVR family, the
timer example will be explained for both microcontroller families
separately.
2.7.1 AVR
Timer0 is an 8-bit timer with a 10-bit prescaler. The timer period can
be calculated using the following expression:
prescaler
T = 256 ⋅
f OSC
For a clock frequency of 4 MHz and a prescaler of 1024 a timer pe-
riod of 0.065536 s is obtained. That means the timer overflows each
0.065536 s and generates an interrupt.
57
In our program example the assigned interrupt service routine (ISR)
increments a byte variable and toggles an I/O pin. Listing 6 shows
the source text of program SIM_TIMER.BAS.
' SIM_TIMER.BAS for AVR
Dim A As Byte ' Temporary Variable
Ddrb = 255 ' PortB is output

Portb = 255 ' All outputs Hi
' Configure the timer to use the clock divided by 1024

Config Timer0 = Timer , Prescale = 1024
On Timer0 Timer0_isr ' Jump to Timer0 ISR
Enable Timer0 ' Enable the timer interrupt

Enable Interrupts ' Enable Global Interrupt
Do
' Do nothing
Loop
Timer0_isr: ' Interrupt Service Routine

Incr A ' Increment Variable A
Portb.0 = Not Portb.0 ' Toggle Portb.0
Return
Listing 6 Timer program for AVR (SIM_TIMER.BAS)
2.7.2 8051
Timer0 operates in Mode 2 as a 16-bit timer. The timer period can be
calculated using the following expression:
12
T = 65536 ⋅
f OSC
For a clock frequency of 11.059 MHz and a fixed prescaler of 12, a
timer period of 0.07111 s is obtained. That means the timer over-
flows each 71 ms and generates an interrupt.
In our program example the assigned interrupt service routine (ISR)
increments a byte variable and toggles an I/O pin. Listing 7 shows
the source text of program SIM_TIMER.BAS.
58
' SIM_TIMER.BAS for AT89C2051
Dim A As Byte ' Temporary Variable
P1 = 255 ' All outputs Hi
' Configure timer0 as 16-bit timer

Config Timer0 = Timer , Mode = 1
Start Timer0

Do
' Do nothing
Loop
Timer0_isr: ' Interrupt Service Routine

Incr A ' Increment Variable A
P1.0 = Not P1.0 ' Toggle P1.0
Return
Listing 7 Timer program for 8051 (SIM_TIMER.BAS)
2.7.3 Things in Common

When comparing Listing 6 with Listing 7, only a few differences can
be seen to exist; the major part does not differ from eachother.
At first, a variable A is declared as byte. The format (here byte) de-
fines the memory allocation to the variable.
The timer overflow interrupt toggles an I/O pin. For AVR we use Pin0
of PortB (PortB.0) and for 8051 Pin0 of Port1 (P1.0).
For the AVR, a data direction register initializes a pin as input or out-
put. Therefore, at least the pin toggled must be an output. To simplify
matters all pins of PortB are declared as outputs (DDRB = 255) and
set to Hi afterwards (PORTB = 255). For 8051, all Pins of Port1 are
set to Hi (P1 = 255) only.
The timer configurations of the microcontroller family differ from each
other; see the description in the previous two chapters.
Finally, the interrupts must be enabled. Enable Timer0 enables
the timer interrupt and Enable Interrupts enables the global
interrupts in the last initialization step.
59
Following this initialization the program enters its main loop
(Do..Loop) where nothing is to be done in this example.
The declaration of an interrupt service (ISR) routine in BASCOM is
performed in the same way as the declaration of a normal sub-
routine. The compiler replaces Return by the required Reti (Return
from Interrupt) and supports the Push and Pop of all registers.
Inside the ISR Timer0_isr variable A is incremented (Incr A) and
Pin0 of PortB (AVR) and Port1 (8051), respectively, will be toggled
afterwards. That means reading Pin0, inverting the value and writing
back (Portb.0 = Not Portb.0 and P1.0 = Not P1.0, re-
spectively).
Next, input this program or open it after downloading from our web
site. Compiling and debugging is explained for BASCOM-AVR only
but do not differ for BASCOM-8051.
Figure 36 shows the source text of program SIM_TIMER.BAS
opened in the BASCOM-AVR Editor.
60
Figure 36 Source text in BASCOM-AVR Editor
Before the first compilation the options must be set. The parameters
2
for the serial interfaces (I C, SPI and 1-wire) and LCD are not rele-
vant here and can be set as desired.
Before a complete compilation, it may help to check the syntax. Start
the syntax check from menu Program>Syntax Check or Ctrl+F7.
61
Figure 37 shows a syntax check with errors. By double-clicking the
error line the last "e" is seen to be missing in instruction Enable.
Figure 37 Result of syntax check
When the missing character is entered, the syntax check will show
no error anymore, and the compilation will be faultless as well. Start
the compilation from menu Program>Compile or F7.
As expected there is no error after compilation. Look for the result by
clicking Program>Show Result or Ctrl+W. Listing 8 shows the re-
port file SIM_TIMER.RPT generated for BASCOM-AVR.
62
Report : SIM_TIMER
Date : 10-31-1999
Time : 19:07:06
Compiler : BASCOM-AVR LIBRARY V 1.05, Standard Edition

Processor : 90S8515
SRAM : 200 hex
EEPROM : 200 hex
ROMSIZE : 2000 hex
ROMIMAGE : FA hex -> Will fit into ROM

BAUD : 9600 Baud
XTAL : 4000000 Hz
BAUD error : 0.16%
Stackstart : 25F hex

S-Stacksize : 20 hex
S-Stackstart : 240 hex
Framesize : 32 hex
Framestart : 20D hex
LCD DB7 : PORTB.7

LCD DB6 : PORTB.6
LCD DB5 : PORTB.5
LCD DB4 : PORTB.4
LCD E : PORTB.3
LCD RS : PORTB.2
LCD mode : 4 bit
---------------------------------------------------------------
Variable Type Address(hex) Address(dec)
---------------------------------------------------------------
COUNTER0 0032 50
TIMER0 0032 50
COUNTER1 Word 004C 76
TIMER1 Word 004C 76
CAPTURE1 Word 0044 68
COMPARE1A Word 004A 74
COMPARE1B Word 0048 72
PWM1A Word 004A 74
PWM1B Word 0048 72
ERR 0006 6
A Byte 0060 96
---------------------------------------------------------------
Warnings:
---------------------------------------------------------------
Listing 8 Report file for BASCOM-AVR (SIM_TIMER.RPT)
63
Listing 9 shows the report file generated for BASCOM-8051.
Compiler : BASCOM 8051 LIBRARY V 2.04

Processor : AT89C2051
Report : SIM_TIMER
Date : 12-27-2000
Time : 15:20:03
Baud Timer : 1
Baudrate : 0
Frequency : 11059200
ROM start : &H0
RAM start : &H0
LCD mode : 4-bit
StackStart : &H22
Used ROM : &HAD 173 (dec) > Ok
---------------------------------------------------------------
Variable Type Address(hex) Address(dec)
---------------------------------------------------------------
ERR Bit 0004 4
A Byte 0021 33
CONSTANTS
---------------------------------------------------------------
Constant Value
---------------------------------------------------------------
Listing 9 Report file SIM_TIMER.RPT for BASCOM-8051
2.7.4 Simulation
In the next step, the simulator can be started from menu
Program>Simulate or by pressing F2.
The simulator of the BASCOM IDE has been referred to already. So
let's use here the simulator of the AVR Studio for the BASCOM-AVR
example.
Caution: If you have to go deep into the compiled code, using the
AVR Studio has some advantages. When a functional simulation is
sufficient, using the internal simulator will be simpler.
Load the generated Obj-File from menu File>Open or press Ctrl+O.
Figure 38 shows the simulator with three open windows.
64
Figure 38 Simulation von SIM_TIMER.BAS in AVR Studio
The source text can be seen on the left side. We placed a break
point to the ISR. The top right window shows all bits of PortB. The
bottom right window shows a memory dump of data memory. These
windows can be opened from menu View>Peripheral>Port>PortB
or View>New Memory View.
Simulation can start when the AT90S8515 is selected in the simula-
tion option (Options>Simulation Options).
Start the simulation from menu Debug>Go or F5. The simulation
stops at the break point. All changes at Pin0 of PortB and in memory
location 60H are visible. The timer period in simulation depends on
the fastness of the PC used. With the author's PC a timer period of
about five seconds was achieved.
However, a simulation is not all in life. Therefore the program is burnt
into the microcontroller and the program checked in the target hard-
ware.
65
Evaluation board MCU00100 must be connected to COM1 of the PC
before starting the programmer from menu Program>Send to Chip
or F4. Figure 39 shows the user interface of the programmer.
The AT90S8515 used in evaluation board MCU00100 has already
Figure 39 BASCOM-AVR ICP910 Programmer
been identified already. The generated code is visible in FlashROM.

Load the program into the flash memory of AT90S8515 from menu
Chip>Autoprogram.
Immediately after Verify, the program starts and the LED connected
to Pin0 of PortB blinks at the programmed rate.
This first example should explain the fundamental project work with
BASCOM. It should be clear that planning the resources like the allo-
cation of I/O pins and so on is independent of the used programming
language or environment. This step must be finished before coding.
Later, any resulting collisions can be repaired at greater expenses
only.
66
2.8 BASCOM Help System
If you need help for any BASCOM instruction, place the cursor to the
respective key word and press function key F1. Figure 40 shows the
opening help window with explanations.
Figure 40 Press F1 for Help
Just as important as the explaining text are additional program ex-

amples which describe the use of instructions and/or functions.
Furthermore, the help system has a very comfortable index and
search system. Figure 41 shows a search for "interrupt" information
and resulting hints.
67
Figure 41 Search Function in the BASCOM Help System
68
3 Some BASCOM Internals
This chapter describes some BASCOM details which caused some
responses and queries in the past.
Caution: Since BASCOM has a very powerful help system, there is
no list of compiler directives and instructions in this book.
Please use the Help System first. A lot of newsgroup queries can be
answered this way.
3.1 Building new instructions

BASCOM's subroutine construct is a powerful means for generating
new instructions. A simple example will demonstrate it.
In the example we generate an instruction that toggles some pins of
port P1 of an 8051 microcontroller. The instruction shall have one
parameter - the toggle mask.
We define subroutine Toggle_p1(x) that reads, masks and writes
back port P1 (P1 = P1 Xor X). If this subroutine is declared at the
beginning of the program, there are two ways for calling it at a later
time.
Call Toggle_p1(mask) and Toggle_p1 mask are two equiva-
lent subroutine calls. The second kind of call is marked bold in the
program example. It looks like a new instruction.
Dim Mask As Byte , X As Byte

Mask = &B11000011 ' Toggle mask
' Declaration of instruction toggle_p1

Declare Sub Toggle_p1(x As Byte)
Do
Call Toggle_p1(mask) ' Subroutine call
Toggle_p1 Mask ' Usage of new instruction
Loop
End
' Defintion of subroutine

Sub Toggle_p1(x As Byte)
P1 = P1 Xor X
End Sub
69
We can go into the simulator and see the equality again.
In the single-step mode, we set port P1 to &HA5, for example, and
see P1 toggling from &HA5 to &H66 and vice versa.
P1 &HA5 1010 0101

Mask 1100 0011
P1 &H66 0110 0110
Figure 42 shows the simulator window with port P1 toggled.
Figure 42 Subroutine call in simulator of BASCOM-8051
There are minor differences between BASCOM-8051 and BASCOM-

AVR as regards the declaration of subroutines. The next chapter
70
describes in detail the parameter passing by reference or by value in
BASCOM-AVR only.
3.2 Parameters for Subroutines in BASCOM-AVR

A wrong parameter handling BYREF or BYVAL is a frequent reason
for errors in application programs. A simple example will give more
clarity.
In the next example, a mask function cutting the high nibble of a
value multiplied by four is defined.
Value A and mask B are parameters of a function to be defined. The
result is saved in variable Z. The binary representation of this task is
as follows:
A 10101010 for example

Shift A , Left , 2 10101000 2*A
B 00001111 mask
Z 00001000 result
The program reads as follows:
' Subroutine in BASCOM-AVR
Dim X As Byte , Y As Byte , Z As Byte
X = &B10101010
Y = &B00001111
Declare Function Mask (byval a As Byte , B As Byte) As Byte
Z = Mask(x , Y)
End
Function Mask (byval A As Byte , B As Byte) As Byte

Shift A , Left , 2
Mask = A And B
End Function
71
Running the program in the single-step mode reveals that variable x
is unchanged after access to the function. Figure 43 shows the un-
changed variable x after access to function mask().
Figure 43 Parameter passing BYVAL
When cutting keyword BYVAL, the default parameter passing BYREF

is active. In this case the variable changes from &HAA to &HA8 after
access to the function mask (Shift A , Left , 2); see Figure
44.
72
Figure 44 Parameter passing BYREF (default)
3.3 BASIC & Assembler

In some cases a direct effect on the code is needed. If a desired
function is not in the instruction set, it can be defined as a BASIC or
Assembler subroutine.
Of importance is that BASCOM supports the mixing of BASIC and
Assembler.
The compiler recognizes most assembler mnemonics automatically.
Exceptions are SWAP and, additionally, SUB and OUT for BASCOM-
AVR. These mnemonics are reserved words of BASIC and therefore
have a higher priority as the assembler mnemonics.
However, using prefix ! makes the compiler recognize that word as
assembler mnemonics, too.
Short examples for both microcontroller families demonstrate the use
of the assembler in a BASIC source file.
73
3.3.1 AVR
The assembler is based on the standard AVR mnemonics.
In the following program examples, the assembler instructions are
marked in bold.
Dim A As Byte ' Bytevariable

A = &H5A ' Initialize Variable
Loadadr A , X ' Load Address of A into X
Ld R1, X ' Load R1 with contents where

' X is pointing to
!SWAP R1 ' Swap nibbles
Byte variable A holds the value &H5A. Instruction Loadadr A , X

places the address of this variable into register X.
Register R1 is then loaded with the value of variable A and, finally,
the content of register R1 is swapped.
Without prefix ! before swap, the compiler would have recognized
swap as a BASIC instruction.
Another possibility is the use of the compiler directives $asm and
$asm end. Normal assembler mnemonics can be placed between
these two directives.

Loadadr A , X ' Load Address of A into X
$asm
Ld R1, X ' Load R1 with contents where
' X is pointing to
Swap R1 ' Swap nibbles
$end Asm
Run these examples in the simulator to see how such includes work.
It is a matter of taste what kind of notation one prefers. Functionally,
both examples are equivalent.
Take care when manipulating registers directly! BASCOM-AVR uses
some registers. R4/R5 serve as a pointer to the stack frame. R8/R9
74
serve as data pointer for the READ instruction. R6 contains a few bit
variables:
R6.0 Flag for integer-word conversion

R6.1 Temporary bit for bit swap
R6.2 Error bit (ERR)
R6.3 Show/Noshow bit of INPUT instruction
Caution: Do not change these registers in any assembler included.

Other registers will be used independence of the BASIC instruction
referred to.
3.3.2 8051
The assembler is based on the standard Intel mnemonics.
In the following program examples, the assembler instructions are
marked in bold.

Placeadres A , R0 ' Load R0 with address

' from variable A
MOV A,@R0 ' Load ACC with contents

' of variable A
!SWAP A ' Swap nibbles
Byte variable A holds the value &H5A. Instruction Placeadres A

, R0 places the address of this variable into register R0.
The accumulator is then loaded indirectly with the value of variable A
and, finally, the content of the accumulator is swapped.
Without prefix ! before swap, the compiler would have recognized
swap as a BASIC instruction.
Another possibility is the use of compiler directives $asm and $asm
end. Normal assembler mnemonics can be placed between these
two directives.
75
Placeadres A , R0 ' Load R0 with address

' from variable A
$asm
MOV A,@R0 ' Load ACC with contents
' of variable A
Swap A ' Swap nibbles
$end Asm
A third way simplifies access to the variable by a different notation.

$asm
MOV A,{A} ' Load ACC with contents
' of variable A
Swap A ' Swap nibbles
$end Asm
Run these examples in the simulator to see how such assembler

includes work.
It is a matter of taste what kind of notation one prefers. Functionally,
all three examples are equivalent.
Caution: Take care when directly manipulating registers! BASCOM-
8051 uses the registers ACC, B and SP. Do not change these regis-
ters in any assembler included.
76
4 Applications
This chapter describes the applications both microcontroller families
can be used for. It is the underlying hardware of the microcontroller
concerned that is responsible for any differences in the programs.
The program examples were first set up with BASCOM-AVR. Hints
for porting the AVR examples to 8051 are included. In some cases
we discuss the solutions which are dependent on the microcontroller
used. In other cases the differences are insignificant.
4.1 Programmable Logic

Logical devices query input lines (input pattern) and assign a defined
bit pattern to the output lines. The logical relations can be expressed
by way of a table. In the example the following relations are intended
to be implemented:
A7 A6 A5 A4 A3 A2 A1 A0 Q7 Q6 Q5 Q4 Q3 Q2 Q1 Q0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
x x x x x x 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
The logical devices should have eight inputs A7..A0 and eight out-
puts Q7..Q0. Each bit pattern at an input has a corresponding bit
pattern at an output.
For eight input lines we obtain 256 different bit patterns, and the table
would be very long.
In the table we use, there are only three different bit patterns at the
output. Therefore, the table poses no problem.
Interpreting the table, we find the following results:
• If A = &B11111110 then set Q = &B11110000.
• If A = &B11111101 then set Q = &B00001111.
• In all other cases set Q=&B11111111.
Shown in Fig. 43 is the whole circuit including clock generation and
reset circuitry for an application using an AVR microcontroller.
77
Figure 45 AT90S8515 as a logical device
The clock and reset components are always the same and will be
omitted in the next circuit diagrams. Supply voltage and ground are
normally not drawn, either.
The eight input lines A7..A0 go to PortD. PortB drives the eight output
lines. Keys on the evaluation board used are connected to PortD.
PortB is connected to LEDs with resistors in series.
Program LOGIC.BAS waits for a pulse (rising edge followed by a
falling edge) at input CLK and, thereafter reads the input lines at
78
PortD. In a case structure the bit pattern is evaluated and the result
forces the pins on PortB.
The BITWAIT instructions query Pin0 of PortA and block the pro-
gram until the mentioned pulse is detected.
The bit pattern of the input is saved in variable A. Variable Q contains
the bit pattern of the output.
The pins have an internal pull-up resistor, which is activated by set-
ting the port line. PORTD.x = 1 activates the pull-up resistor on the
respective I/O line. In this program example, the whole port will be
set (Listing 10).
' Logic with AT90S8515
Dim A As Byte , Q As Byte
Config Porta = Input

Porta = 255 ' Pull-up active
Config Portb = Output
Config Portd = Input

Portd = 255 ' Pull-up active
Do
bitwait Pina.0 , Set
bitwait Pina.0 , Reset
A = Pind
Select Case A
Case &B11111110 : Q = &B11110000
Case &B11111101 : Q = &B00001111
Case Else Q = &B11111111
End Select
Portb = Q
Loop
End
Listing 10 Logical device with AT90S8515 (LOGIC.BAS)
Input CLK triggers the data input of the input lines at PortD. So as to
get periodic queries of the input lines, a timer can be used for trig-
gering. The circuit remains unchanged. Input CLK has no function
now.
Timer applications will be discussed in the next chapter.
79
Listing 11 shows the timer controlled logic device. The complete I/O
handling is here accommodated in the interrupt handler.

' Configure the timer to use the clock divided by 1024


Do
Nop
Loop
End
Timer0_isr:
A = Pind
Select Case A
Case &B11111110 : Q = &B11110000
Case &B11111101 : Q = &B00001111
End Select
Portb = Q
Return
Listing 11 Timer controlled logic devices (LOGIC1.BAS)
When deciding to use an 8051 microcontroller a device with enough

I/O lines is required. The next program examples are based on the
AT89S8252. Listing 12 shows the slightly modified program. A com-
parison with Listing 10 shows modifications only for port I/O.
P1 is the input and P3 the output for the logical signals. P2.0 serves
as clock input here.
80
P1 = 255 ' Pull-up active

P2 = 255 ' P2.0 is CLK input
Do
Bitwait P2.0 , Set
Bitwait P2.0 , Reset
A = P1 ' Read P1
Select Case A
Case &B11111110 : Q = &B11110000
Case &B11111101 : Q = &B00001111
End Select
P3 = Q ' Write P3
Loop
End
Listing 12 Logical device with AT89S8252 (LOGIC.BAS)
4.2 Timer and Counter

As the timers/counters of the 8051 and AVR microcontrollers differ
from each other, the timers will be described separately.
Timer and counter denote different modes of the same hardware. To
simplify description, the term timer will be used in all general expla-
nations.
Caution: Please read the documentation of the manufacturer very
carefully. The correct setup of some registers is the key to a correct
implementation of the required functions. In case of a wrong setup
debugging can be very difficult.
4.2.1 AVR
The AVR microcontrollers have different internal timers. The 8-bit
timer has already been used for simple timer functions.
Since the 16-bit timer offers far more flexibility than the 8-bit timer, it
will be primarily dealt with here.
Caution: The pinout for the alternative functions such as clock in-
puts T0 and T1, differs for the various types of the AVR family.
All timer program examples given below refer to the AT90S8515.
81
4.2.1.1 Timer
Timer0 is an 8-bit timer and Timer1 a 16-bit timer. Each timer has a
10-bit prescaler. The maximum timer period can be calculated using
the following equation:
prescaler
T = 2N ⋅
f OSC
N = 8 for Timer0 and N = 16 for Timer1. The prescaler may have a
value of 1, 8, 64, 256 or 1024. The next tables show the resolution
and maximum timer period for Timer0 and Timer1 for a clock fre-
quency of 4 MHz.
Timing for Timer0 at 4 MHz

Prescaler 1 8 64 256 1024
max. Tim er Period in m s 0,064 0,512 4,096 16,384 65,536
Resolution in ms 0,00025 0,002 0,016 0,064 0,256
Timing for Timer1 at 4 MHz

Prescaler 1 8 64 256 1024
max. Tim er Period in s 0,016 0,131 1,049 4,194 16,777
Resolution in s 0,00025 0,002 0,016 0,064 0,256
The next example is a clock generator blinking an LED once per

second.
The maximum period for Timer1 with a prescaler of 64 is 1.049 sec-
onds. To get the period of one second exactly we have to shorten
this time by 49 ms. The Output Compare Mode of Timer1 can reduce
the timer period.
Derived from the equation above we find the following formula
f OSC
OutputCompare = ⋅ TSoll
prescaler
and with the known parameters we get an output compare value of
62500. This value must be saved in the Output Compare Register.
Listing 13 shows the configuration of Timer1 as timer with a pres-
caler of 64.
82
Dim New_time As Byte
Dim Temp As Byte
Dim Seconds As Byte
Dim Minutes As Byte
Dim Hours As Byte
Dim Key As Byte
Const True = 1
Const Reload = 62500

Ocr1ah = High(reload)
Ocr1al = Low(reload) ' Reload Timer1 for
' Period of 1 sec
Tccr1a = 0 ' Disconnect OC1A from T/C1
Set Tccr1b.3 ' Reset T/C1 after Compare

On Compare1a Timer1_isr ' Jump to Timer1 ISR
Enable Compare1a ' Enable the timer interrupt

Do
Key = Pind
If Key = &H7F Then
Seconds = 0
Minutes = 0
Hours = 0
End If
While New_time = True
If Seconds = 60 Then
Seconds = 0 : Incr Minutes
End If
If Minutes = 60 Then
Minutes = 0 : Incr Hours
End If
If Hours = 24 Then Hours = 0
Temp = Makebcd(seconds)
If Key = &HFE Then Temp = Makebcd(minutes)
If Key = &HFD Then Temp = Makebcd(hours)
Portb = Not Temp
New_time = Not True
Wend
Loop
End
83
Timer1_isr:
New_time = True
Incr Seconds
Return
Listing 13 Second-Timer with Timer1 (TIMER3.BAS)
Timer1 operates as an up-counter. When the timer count is equal to

the content of Output Compare RegisterA, a compare interrupt oc-
curs. To start a new timer period, bit CTC1 of control register
TCCR1B must be set.
To avoid unintentional changes in timer control registers TCCR1A
and/or TCCR1B, instruction CONFIG TIMER1... should be used at
program start before any other timer configurations.
From instruction
BASCOM-AVR generates the following assembler code:

LDI R24,0x00 ; 0x00 = 0b00000000 = 0
OUT 0x2F,R24
LDI R24,0x03 ; 0x03 = 0b00000011 = 3
OUT 0x2E,R24
Register TCCR1A is reset to &H00. Outputs OC1A and OC1B are

disconnected from Timer1. PWM is deactivated. Register TCC1B is
set to &H03 switching the prescaler 64.
The CTC1 bit in register TCCR1B must be set separately. Instruction
Set Tccr1b.3 can do the job without exerting any influence on
other bits in TCCR1B.
From instruction
Set Tccr1b.3
BASCOM-AVR generates the following assembler code:

IN R24,0x2E
ORI R24,0x08 ; 0x08 = 0b00001000 = 8
OUT 0x2E,R24
After enabling the compare interrupt, the program enters an endless

loop showing the time in the BCD format. Seconds, minutes or hours
can be displayed by striking the respective keys.
84
The Output Compare Function of Timer1 generates a compare inter-
rupt when the timer is equal to the compare value. The interrupt han-
dler sets flag New_time and increments variable Seconds. A reload
of Timer1 is not required because Timer1 is reset on compare event.
Timer0 is less comfortably equipped, and reloading must be imple-
mented in the software. The procedure is demonstrated with a 50 ms
timer.
At a clock of 4 MHz and a prescaler of 1024, it will take 195 cycles to
get a timer period of 50 ms.
Timer0 has the overflow interrupt available only. Timer0 must be
loaded with a value of 256 - 195 to get an overflow after 195 cycles.
Listing 14 shows the initialization of Timer0 and PortB and an end-
less loop as the main program.
On Timer0 overflow the instruction Load Timer0 , Reload re-
loads the timer. Calculation 256 - Reload is performed internally.
Const Reload = 195 ' Reload value for Period of 50 ms

Do
Nop
Loop
End
Timer0_isr:
' Reload Timer0 for Period of 50 ms
Load Timer0 , Reload
Portb.0 = Not Pinb.0 ' Toggle Portb.Pin0
Return
Listing 14 Clock generation using Timer0 (TIMER0.BAS)
Especially when manipulating the internal registers it is recom-

mended to inspect the initialized registers or the generated code with
the simulator.
85
As shown in the following assembler list, all internal registers and the
status register are saved on stack at the beginning of every interrupt
service routine (ISR). Only after this pushing will the activities of the
ISR start.
In the example, the first activity (marked gray) is loading register
TCNT0 with the value of 256-195 = &H3D.
Instruction Cycles TCNT0 (Prescaler=1)

PUSH R0 2 &H06
PUSH R1 2 &H08
PUSH R2 2 &H0A
PUSH R3 2 &H0C
PUSH R4 2 &H0E
PUSH R5 2 &H10
PUSH R6 2 &H12
PUSH R7 2 &H14
PUSH R8 2 &H16
PUSH R9 2 &H18
PUSH R10 2 &H1A
PUSH R11 2 &H1C
PUSH R16 2 &H1E
PUSH R17 2 &H20
PUSH R18 2 &H22
PUSH R19 2 &H24
PUSH R20 2 &H26
PUSH R21 2 &H28
PUSH R22 2 &H2A
PUSH R23 2 &H2C
PUSH R24 2 &H2E
PUSH R25 2 &H30
PUSH R26 2 &H32
PUSH R27 2 &H34
PUSH R28 2 &H36
PUSH R29 2 &H38
PUSH R30 2 &H3A
PUSH R31 2 &H3C
IN R24,0x3F 1 &H3E
PUSH R24 2 &H3F
LDI R24,0x3D 1 &H41
OUT 0x32,R24 1 &H42
IN R24,0x16 1 &H3D
...
The interrupt occurs after 195 cycles of Timer0. The first activity in
the ISR is carried out 66 cycles (&H42) later. Such deviations may be
unacceptable in some cases.
86
Caution: In case of low prescaler values, take into account the time
needed for register saving.
Listing 15 shows a simple way (marked in bold) of taking the addi-

tional cycles into consideration.
Const Reload = 195 ' Reload value for Period of 50 ms

Dim Counter As Byte

Do
Nop
Loop
End
Timer0_isr:
' Reload Timer0 for Period of 50 ms
Counter = Tcnt0 ' Read Timer0
Tcnt0 = Counter - Reload ' Reload Timer0
Portb.0 = Not Pinb.0 ' Toggle Portb.0
Return
Listing 15 Modified clock generation by Timer0 (TIMER0_1.BAS)
Before reloading Timer0, its content is read and the reload value can
be corrected before reloading Timer0. The assembler list shows the
changes following this program modification.
87
Instruction Cycles TCNT0 ( Prescaler=1)
PUSH R0 2 &H07
PUSH R1 2 &H09
PUSH R2 2 &H0B
PUSH R3 2 &H0D
PUSH R4 2 &H0F
PUSH R5 2 &H11
PUSH R6 2 &H13
PUSH R7 2 &H15
PUSH R8 2 &H17
PUSH R9 2 &H19
PUSH R10 2 &H1B
PUSH R11 2 &H1D
PUSH R16 2 &H1F
PUSH R17 2 &H21
PUSH R18 2 &H23
PUSH R19 2 &H25
PUSH R20 2 &H27
PUSH R21 2 &H29
PUSH R22 2 &H2B
PUSH R23 2 &H2D
PUSH R24 2 &H2F
PUSH R25 2 &H31
PUSH R26 2 &H33
PUSH R27 2 &H35
PUSH R28 2 &H37
PUSH R29 2 &H39
PUSH R30 2 &H3B
PUSH R31 2 &H3D
IN R24,0x3F 1 &H3F
PUSH R24 2 &H40
LDI R26,0x60 1 &H42
LDI R27,0x00 1 &H43
IN R24,0x32 1 &H44
ST X,R24 2 &H45
LDI R26,0x60 1 &H47
LDI R27,0x00 1 &H48
LD R16,X 2 &H49
LDI R20,0xC3 1 &H4B
SUB R16,R20 1 &H4C
OUT 0x32,R16 1 &H4D
IN R24,0x16 1 &H81
...
The timer period should be 195 cycles of Timer0 again. After 77 cy-
cles (= &H4D) the calculated value of 129 (= &H81) is reloaded. With
a prescaler of 1, Timer0 will overflow after 256 - 129 + 77 = 204
cycles.
88
The remaining difference to the expected value of 195 results from
the difference between reading and writing TCNT0 (&H4D-&H44). It
is nine cycles here and can be considered when necessary.
4.2.1.2 Counter
In the counter mode the timers/counters of the AVR microcontrollers
are able to count (external) events. For Timer0, Pin0 of PortB serves
as counter input T0. The leading or falling edge of the input signal
can trigger the counter. Register TCNT0 contains the number of
counted pulses.
A simple example demonstrates the counter mode of Timer0. What
is to be counted are pulse packages of 10 pulses each. The number
of received packages will be saved in a variable. Listing 16 shows the
resulting source.
Const Ticks = 10 ' Number of pulses in a package

Dim Count As Byte ' Counter
Config Timer0 = Counter , Edge = Falling

Load Timer0 , Ticks 'Overflow Interrupt after 10 cycles
Config Portb = Output ' PortB Output

Reset Ddrb.0 ' Portb0 Input for pulse counter

Do
Portb = Count * 2 ' Shift one bit left for display
Loop
End
Timer0_isr:
Load Timer0 , Ticks
Incr Count
Return
Listing 16 Pulse Counter with Timer0 (COUNTER0.BAS)
At the beginning of this program example, Timer0 is configured as

counting falling edges of the input signal. Register TCNT0 is loaded
so that an overflow interrupt occurs after 10 counted pulses.
89
The ISR manages reloading and increments variable Count.
In the endless loop, the variable counter is displayed by the LEDs
connected to PortB. As Pin0 serves as counter input T0, it is not
available for display. The result needs to be shifted one bit to the left,
and the rest of PortB is used for display only.
Compared with Timer0, Timer1 offers a lot more features in counter
mode as well.
Timer1 can count pulses from Pin1 of PortB (T1). If a capture pulse
is detected at Pin4 of PortD (ICP), then the register will be moved to
the Capture Register. Pulse edges and noise cancellation can be set
by means of instruction Config Timer1 = Counter ....
Listing 17 shows a simple program example intended to run in the
simulator. For printing reasons the first line is broken. The whole
instruction Config Timer1 = ... must be keyed in in one line.
Config Timer1 = Counter , Edge = Falling , Noice Cancel = 1 ,

Capture Edge = Rising
' Count Input is T1 (PB1)
' Capture Input is ICP (PD4)
Config Portb = Output ' Portb0 Output

Config Pinb.1 = Input ' PinB.1 Input for pulse counter
Portb = 255
Do
Portb = Icr1l * 4 ' Shift two bits left for display
Loop
End
Listing 17 Timer/Counter1 Input Capture (CAPTURE1.BAS)
Since Pin1 of PortB serves as counter input T1, it is not available for
display. We have to shift The result must be shifted two bits to the
left, and the rest of PortB is used for display only.
It is very important to know the exact result of a configuration like
Config Timer1 = Counter , Edge = Falling , Noise
Cancel = 1 , Capture Edge = Rising. Take the simulator
and inspect the phase of initialization in the single-step mode. Figure
46 shows the content of the Timer1 Register after initialization.
90
Figure 46 Initial State of TCCR1B in CAPTURE1.BAS
Instruction Config Timer1 = Counter , Edge = Falling ,

Noice Cancel = 1 , Capture Edge = Rising sets the fol-
lowing bits in register TCCR1B:
ICNC1 ICES1 CTC1 CSI2 CSI1 CSI0

1 1 0 1 1 0 TCCR1B
The Input Capture Noise Canceller samples pin ICP four times. De-
pending on the chosen capture edge, all four samples must be Hi or
Lo. Bit ICNC1 must be set (Noise Cancel = 1) to activate the
noise canceller. If bit ICNC1 is reset (Noise Cancel = 0), the
noise canceller is deactivated and a single edge will trigger.
The edge for triggering at pin ICP is defined by bit ICES1. If IECS1 is
set, the leading edge will trigger (Capture Edge = Rising). If
91
ICES1 is reset, the falling edge will trigger (Capture Edge = Fal-
ling).
Bit CTC1 defines the content of TCNT1 after Output Compare and
has already been mentioned.
The Clock Select1 bits CS1x define the prescaling source of Timer1.
CS12 CS11 CS10 Description

0 0 0 Stop Timer/Counter1
0 0 1 CK
0 1 0 CK/8
0 1 1 CK/64
1 0 0 CK/256
1 0 1 CK/1024
1 1 0 External Pin T1, falling edge
1 1 1 External Pin T1, leading edge
Parameter Edge = Falling is responsible for the setting of bits

CS1x in Figure 46.
4.2.1.3 Pulse Width Modulation

A pulse series can be controlled by pulse width modulation (PWM).
Figure 47 shows two pulse series of different pulse width or duty.
2/8
5/8
Figure 47 Pulse series of different duties
The upper pulse series has a duty of 2/8 which means that, in a pe-
riod of eight cycles, two cycles are Hi and the rest of the period is Lo.
The lower pulse series has a duty of 5/8.
If such a pulse series is used for driving an LED, the brightness of
this LED can be controlled by way of the duty.
Listing 18 shows an example with Timer0 as pulse width modulator.
The whole timer period is divided into a Hi and a Lo phase. The ISR
has two paths that will be passed through alternatively.
92
Const True = 1
Const False = 0
Dim Hi As Byte
Dim Lo As Byte
Dim A As Byte
Dim Phase As bit
Dim Pattern As Byte ' bit pattern for display
Pwm Alias Portb.0 ' Modulated Pin
' Rate 244 Hz at 4 MHz Clock


Lo = 128 ' Initial value for PWM

Phase = True
Do
A = Pind ' Ask for Key
Select Case A
Case &B11111110 : Lo = 0 ' Lo Time short
Case &B11111101 : Lo = 32
Case &B11111011 : Lo = 64
Case &B11110111 : Lo = 96
Case &B11101111 : Lo = 128
Case &B11011111 : Lo = 160
Case &B10111111 : Lo = 192
Case &B01111111 : Lo = 255 ' Lo Time long
End Select
Hi = 255 - Lo
Incr Pattern ' Change bit Pattern
Waitms 100 ' Wait 100 ms
Loop
End
Timer0_isr:
If Phase = True Then
Portb = &HFF ' LED off
Timer0 = Lo ' Reload Timer0
Phase = False
Else
Portb = Not Pattern ' LED on

93
Timer0 = Hi ' Reload Timer0
Phase = True
End If
Return
Listing 18 Brightness Control for LED by PWM (PWM0.BAS)
The following tasks are included in the endless loop of the program:
1. Query the key connected to PortD
2. Set Lo time according to the pressed key to reload Timer0
3. Calculate the corresponding Hi time for reloading Timer0
4. Manipulate the bit pattern for display on PortB
5. Include a waiting time
It is very easy to test this program with the evaluation board. After the
start of the program the Lo time is initialized to 128. The LEDs con-
nected to PortB display the changing bit patterns at a mean bright-
ness.
After pressing one of the keys connected to PortD the CASE con-
struct determines a new Lo time, and the brightness of the LED
changes. The blinking rate does not change because the Hi time will
always be adapted to the changed Lo time.
For PWM, Timer1 offers some more features. Timer1 should be
used if a certain precision is expected. In the PWM mode, Timer1
operates as up/down counter comparing TCNT1 with the Output
Compare registers OCR1A and OCR1B permanently. If TCNT1 is
equal to one of the registers OCR1A or OCR1B, then the actions
described next will start.
Digital-to-analog conversion based on PWM is here exemplified by
PWM with Timer1. See the register contents for a better under-
standing. Use the simulator to inspect the initialization process.
Listing 19 is a program example.
Pwma Alias Portd.5 ' Modulated Pins

Pwmb Alias Oc1b
Dim Temp1 As Word ' Used Variables

Dim Temp2 As Word
Config Portb = Output ' PortB is Output

Portb = 255 ' Switch LEDs off
94
Config Timer1 = Pwm , Pwm = 10 , Compare A Pwm = Clear Down ,
Compare B Pwm = Clear Up
Temp1 = &H0000 ' Configure Timer1 for PWM
Pwm1a = Temp1
Pwm1b = Temp1
Tccr1b = Tccr1b Or &H02 ' Prescaler = 8
Config Pind.0 = Input ' Configure PortD

Config Pind.5 = Output
Do
bitwait Pind.0 , Reset ' Wait for key pressed
bitwait Pind.0 , Set ' Wait for key unpressed
Temp1 = Temp1 + &H10 ' Increment Variable
Pwm1a = Temp1 ' Set PWM Registers
Pwm1b = Temp1
Temp2 = Temp1 / &H10 ' Reset 4 LSB and shift right
Temp2 = Not Temp2 ' Invert bit pattern
Portb = Low(temp2) ' Output bit pattern
Loop
End
Listing 19 Digital-to-Analog Conversion by PWM (PWM1.BAS)
Instruction Config Timer1 = Pwm , Pwm = 10 , Compare A

Pwm = Clear Down , Compare B Pwm = Clear Up manages
the setup of register TCCR1A completely. Figure 48 shows the con-
tents of register TCCR1A after configuration.
95
Figure 48 Initialization of TCCR1A
The bits in register TCCR1A are set as follows:
COM1A1 COM1A1 COM1B1 COM1B1 PWM11 PWM10

1 0 1 1 1 1 TCCR1A
Bits COM1A1 and COM1A0 define the response of output pin OC1A.
Bits COM1B1 and COM1B0 define it for OC1B. The x in the next
table is to be replaced by A or B.
COM1x1 COM1x0 Description

0 0 not connected
0 1 not connected
Cleared on compare match, up-counting
1 0 Set on compare match, down-counting
Cleared on compare match, down-counting
1 1 Set on compare match, up-counting
Bits PWM11 and PWM10 define the resolution of PWM to 8 bit, 9 bit
or 10 bit.
96
PWM11 PWM10 Description
0 0 PWM not activated
0 1 8-bit PWM
1 0 9-bit PWM
1 1 10-bit PWM
The resolution defines the counting range of the up/down-counter.

The counting range is always from 0 to TOP (see table). The fre-
quency depends on the counting range, too.
Resolution TOP PWM Frequency

8 bit &H00FF f T / C1 / 510
9 bit &H01FF f T / C1 / 1022
10 bit &H03FF f T / C1 / 2046
The following equation is used for calculating the PWM frequency:

f
f PWM = T / C1
N +1
2 −2
The clock frequency for Timer1 fT/C1 is defined by the prescaler and
will be set in register TCCR1B.
Figure 49 shows the content of register TCCR1B after running in-
struction Tccr1b = Tccr1b Or &H02 at the beginning of this pro-
gram example.
97
Figure 49 Initialization of TCCR1B
At a clock frequency of 4 MHz a prescaler of eight generates a PWM

frequency of about 245 Hz. Connecting a resistor and a capacitor as
low pass filter to output OC1A or OC1B is all that is needed to get a
simple digital-to-analog converter.
In practice, the low pass can be designed according to this formula:
(10..1000)
τ = R⋅C =
f PWM
If time constant τ is too high, the response time will also be high. On
the other hand, if time constant τ is too low, the filtering effect will be
poor.
Table 3 shows the output voltages measured across pins OC1A/
OC1B and ground for program example PWM1.BAS.
To simplify matters, no low pass filter was connected. Due to the
integrating measuring principle, the digital multimeter used for meas-
uring had s sufficient filtering capacity.
By pressing the key connected to Pin0 of PortD, the duty of the PWM
output can be changed. As there is no debouncing, the change is
sometimes greater than expected. The actual duty is displayed by
LEDs connected to PortB.
98
Word &H000 &H010 &H020 &H030 &H040 &H050 &H060 &H070
PortB &H00 &H01 &H02 &H03 &H04 &H05 &H06 &H07
OC1A .001 .078 .156 .234 .311 .389 .467 .544
OC1B 4.93 4.86 4.78 4.70 4.62 4.55 4.47 4.39
Word &H080 &H090 &H0A0 &H0B0 &H0C0 &H0D0 &H0E0 &H0F0
PortB &H08 &H09 &H0A &H0B &H0C &H0D &H0E &H0F
OC1A .622 .700 .777 .855 .932 1.01 1.08 1.15
OC1B 4.32 4.24 4.16 4.08 4.01 3.93 3.85 3.77
Word &H100 &H110 &H120 &H130 &H140 &H150 &H160 &H170
PortB &H10 &H11 &H12 &H13 &H14 &H15 &H16 &H17
OC1A 1.23 1.31 1.39 1.46 1.54 1.62 1.69 1.77
OC1B 3.70 3.62 3.54 3.47 3.39 3.31 3.23 3.16
OC1A 1.85 1.93 2.00 2.08 2.16 2.24 2.31 2.39
OC1B 3.08 3.00 2.93 2.85 2.77 2.69 2.61 2.54
Word &H200 &H210 &H220 &H230 &H240 &H250 &H260 &H270
PortB &H20 &H21 &H22 &H23 &H24 &H25 &H26 &H27
OC1A 2.47 2.54 2.62 2.70 2.78 2.85 2.93 3.01
OC1B 2.46 2.39 2.31 2.23 2.15 2.08 2.00 1.92
OC1A 3.08 3.16 3.24 3.32 3.39 3.47 3.55 3.63
OC1B 1.85 1.77 1.69 1.61 1.54 1.46 1.38 1.30
Word &H300 &H310 &H320 &H330 &H340 &H350 &H360 &H370
PortB &H30 &H31 &H32 &H33 &H34 &H35 &H36 &H37
OC1A 3.70 3.78 3.86 3.93 4.01 4.09 4.17 4.24
OC1B 1.23 1.15 1.07 1.007 .929 .851 .774 .696
OC1A 4.32 4.40 4.47 4.55 4.63 4.71 4.78 4.86
OC1B .618 .541 .463 .385 .308 .230 .152 .075
Table 3 Digital-to-Analog Conversion by PWM
Figure 50 shows the values of Table 3 in a clearly arranged graphic.
99
5,000
4,500
4,000
3,500
3,000
Voltage
OCR1A
2,500
OCR1B
2,000
1,500
1,000
0,500
0,000 $000
$030
$060
$090
$120
$150
$180
$210
$240
$270
$300
$330
$360
$390
$0F0
$3F0
$1B0
$1E0
$2A0
$0C0
$2D0
$3C0
Word
Figure 50 Digital-to-Analog Conversion by PWM
4.2.1.4 Pulse Length Capture

The timers can also be used for capturing the length of a pulse.
Figure 51 shows a pulse series with two different Lo phases, tp1 and
tp2.
tp1 tp2
Figure 51 Pulse series
In the simplest case, the timer is started with a falling edge and
stopped upon detection of the rising edge. The result in the timer
register reflects the measured time. Listing 20 shows program ex-
ample PULSIN.BAS which uses Timer0 for the time measurement.
Declare Function Lopulse() As Byte
Dim Value As Byte
Inputpin Alias Pind.0

Portb = &HFF ' all LEDs off

100
On Timer0 Overflow_isr Nosave
Enable Timer0
Enable Interrupts
Do
Value = Lopulse()
Portb = Value
Loop
End
Function Lopulse() As Byte

While Inputpin <> 0 : Wend ' wait for Hi-Lo on inputpin
Tcnt0 = 0 ' reset Timer0
Start Timer0
While Inputpin = 0 : Wend
Stop Timer0 ' stop Timer0 after 26 cycles minimum
Lopulse = Tcnt0
End Sub
' overflow isr stops timer0 and set tcnt0 to zero

Overflow_isr:
!push R24
Stop Timer0
Tcnt0 = 0
!pop R24
Return
Listing 20 Capturing a pulse length (PULSIN.BAS)
The key for capturing the pulse length is function Lopulse(). After
calling Lopulse() the program waits for a falling edge on Input-
pin. Inputpin is an alias for Pin0 of PortD (defined in the third
line).
After the detection of a falling edge register TCNT0 is reset and
Timer0 starts. Timer0 internally counts clock signals (prescaler = 1)
until it is stopped by a rising edge detected on Inputpin.
If the pulse is longer than the Timer0 period, a Timer0 Overflow Inter-
rupt occurs. The ISR stops Timer0 and returns to 0.
At a clock frequency of 4 MHz the resolution is (theoretically) 0.25 µs.
The run time from detecting the falling edge to detecting the rising
edge is 26 cycles, or minimum 6.5 µs. Therefore the capture range is
between 6.5 µs and 64 µs.
101
Using the assembler for edge detection will reduce the runtime.
Listing 21 shows the required changes. The changes are marked in
bold.
Declare Function Lopulse() As Byte
Dim Value As Byte
Const Inputpin = $10 , 0 ' Inputpin Alias Pind.0

Portb = &HFF ' all LEDs off
On Timer0 Overflow_isr Nosave
Enable Timer0
Enable Interrupts
Do
Value = Lopulse()
Portb = Value
Loop
End
Function Lopulse() As Byte

$asm
Hilo:
Sbic Inputpin ' wait for Hi-Lo on inputpin
Rjmp Hilo
$end Asm
Tcnt0 = 0 ' reset Timer0
Start Timer0
$asm
Lohi:
Sbis Inputpin ' wait for Hi-Lo on inputpin
Rjmp Lohi
$end Asm
Stop Timer0 ' stop Timer0 after 10 cycles minimum
Lopulse = Tcnt0
End Sub
102
' overflow isr stops timer0 and set tcnt0 to zero
Overflow_isr:
!push R24
Stop Timer0
Tcnt0 = 0
!pop R24
Return
Listing 21 Capturing a pulse length (PULSIN1.BAS)
The changed function needs ten cycles to detect a rising edge. The
minimum pulse length that can be captured is now 2.5 µs.
Capturing a pulse length without an internal timer is demonstrated in

Listing 22.
Declare Function Lopulse() As Word
Dim Value As Word

Dim Time As Word
Inputpin Alias Pind.0

Portb = &HFF
Do
Value = Lopulse()
Portb = Low(value)
Loop
End
Function Lopulse() As Word

While Inputpin <> 0 : Wend
Time = 0 ' reset Time
While Inputpin = 0
Incr Time
Wend
Lopulse = Time
End Sub
Listing 22 Capturing a pulse length (PULSIN2.BAS)
The value of variable Time is proportional to the pulse length. For an

exact time specification the cycles of the second while-wend loop are
responsible.
103
At a clock frequency of 4 MHz Inputpin is queried every 7.7 µs.
The longer sampling time is due to the data formats used for the
calculations (word for value and time). An overflow check was not
made here.
4.2.2 8051
Most 8051 derivatives have at least two 16-bit timers. These timers
are fairly complex circuits. Registers TMOD, TCON and IE control
the functionality of these timers.
The timer counts the internal clock divided by 12. The timer period
can be calculated according to the following equation:
12
T = 2N ⋅
f OSC
The timer can operate in four modes:
• Mode 0 : 13-bit timer (8-bit timer with 5-bit prescaler)
• Mode 1 : 16-bit timer.
• Mode 2 : 8-bit timer with auto-reload
• Mode 3 : 8-bit timer (see datasheet for details)
Typically working at a clock frequency of 12 MHz, the timer clock is 1
MHz. For Mode 1 and Mode 2 the following data are obtained:
Timer at 12 MHz clock frequency

Mode 2 1
Maximum Timer Period 256 µs 65.536 ms
Resolution 1 µs 1 µs
Figure 52 shows a block diagram of Timer0 / Timer1. For timer con-

figuration BASCOM-8051 has special instructions that set the re-
spective special function registers (SFR).
104
Figure 52 Block diagram of 8051 timer
To configure Timer0, the following bits have to be set/reset in the

TMOD and TCON SFRs. At the beginning it is good practice to verify
this setup in the simulator.
Config Timer0 = Counter 1 -> C/T

Config Timer0 = Timer 0 -> C/T
Config Gate = External 1 -> Gate
Config Gate = Internal 0 -> Gate
Config Mode = 0-3 00-11 -> M1, M0
Start Timer0 1 -> TR0
Stop Timer0 0 -> TR0
In Listing 23, Timer0 is initialized as timer in mode 2. The timer oper-

ates as a reloadable 8-bit timer with a period of 250 µs. When 250 µs
are exceeded, the timer overflows and interrupts the program.
Interrupt handler timer0_isr increments a counter variable. After
4000 timer interrupts, P3.5 is toggled and the same procedure starts
again.
If an INT0 interrupt occurs, the reload value for Timer0 is manipu-
lated, and the blinking rate changes.
105
In the main loop of the program, P1.7 is toggled every 100 ms to
demonstrate some activity of the main program.
This program can be run in the simulator. Reducing the value of
Ms_delay has a favorable effect in the simulation.
' Timer0 for 8051
Dim Ms_cntr As Integer

Dim Ms_delay As Integer
Dim Rl_value As Byte ' Reload value for Timer0
' Timer0 is a reloadable 8-bit Timer

Config Timer0 = Timer , Mode = 2
On Timer0 Timer0_isr
On Int0 Int0_isr
Main:
Rl_value = 250'Timer0 Overflow after 250us at 12 MHz
Ms_cntr = 0 'Init Ms_cntr
Ms_delay = 4000 'Delay of 4000 x 250us = 1000 ms
Gosub Init_io
Gosub Init_timer0
Enable Interrupts 'Global Interrupt Enable
Do
P1.7 = Not P1.7 'Do Anything Forever
Waitms 100
Loop
End
'------------------------------------------------------
' Interrupt Handler
'------------------------------------------------------
Timer0_isr: 'Handler for Timer0 Overflow
Incr Ms_cntr
If Ms_cntr = Ms_delay Then
Ms_cntr = 0
P3.5 = Not P3.5 'Toggle P3.5
End If
Return
Int0_isr:
Rl_value = Rl_value / 2 'Change Rl_value Value
Stop Timer0
Load Timer0 , Rl_value 'SetUp Timer0 with changed Rl_value
Start Timer0
P3.7 = Not P3.7 'Toggle P3.7
Return
'-------------------------------------------------------------
106
' Subroutines
'-------------------------------------------------------------
Init_io:
P3.7 = 1
P3.5 = 1
Set Tcon.0 'Falling edge triggers INT0
Enable Int0 'Enables INT0
Return
Init_timer0:
Load Timer0 , Rl_value 'Store Rl_value in Timer0
Enable Timer0 'Enable Timer0 Overflow Interrupt
Start Timer0 'Start Timer0
Return
Listing 23 Timer example (TIMER.BAS)
4.3 LED Control

LEDs or displays based on LEDs are widely used for simple display
functions. Their advantage is the excellent visibility. In most cases,
however, this advantage must be paid for with a high power con-
sumption.
4.3.1 Single LED

LEDs can be directly driven from the pins of AVR microcontrollers.
Due to the electrical specifications it is advantageous to connect the
LEDs as is shown in Figure 53.
The following equation is used to calculate the series resistances:
VCC − VLED − VOL

R=
I LED
According to the datasheet of the AT90S8515, the output voltage VOL
is 0.6 V maximum at a current of 20 mA.
If an LED is intended to be driven at a current of 10 mA, the series
resistance can be determined using the parameters VCC = 5V, VLED =
1,5 V and VOL = 0.3 V (R = 320 Ω).
However, if the resistors shown in Figure 53 are used the current
flowing through the LEDs will be lower.
107
Figure 53 Connecting LEDs to PortB
4.3.2 Seven-Segment Displays

Seven-segment displays can display the figures of our numbering
system and a couple of special characters.
There are many types of seven-segment displays from different
manufacturers. Basically, this type of display consists of a number of
LEDs with connected anodes or cathodes.
In our application example, the type SA03-11 display made by King-
bright is used. Figure 54 depicts such a display.
Figure 54 Seven-Segment Display SA03-11
Caution: To connect an LED display to the port of any micro-

controller, adhere to the connecting diagram of the display used.
108
Figure 55 shows the segment assignment and pin configuration of an
SA03-11 display.
Figure 55 Segment Assignment and Pin Configuration of SA03-11
To display alphanumeric data with such a seven-segment display, it

is necessary to define the control scheme.
As can be seen in Figure 55, the anodes of the individual LEDs are
interconnected. If a cathode resistor is connected to a microcontroller
pin, the LED can be switched on and off. Lo at the controlling pin
switches the LED on, and Hi switches it off.
Table 4 shows the segment control for characters 0 to 9 and A to F
as is required for displaying hexadecimal numbers.
109
Character Segments Output
g f e d c b a
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 &H40
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 &H79
2 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 &H24
3 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 &H30
4 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 &H19
5 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 &H12
6 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 &H02
7 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 &H78
8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 &H00
9 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 &H10
A 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 &H08
B 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 &H03
C 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 &H46
D 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 &H21
E 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 &H06
F 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 &H0E
Table 4 Segment Control
Chapter 0 lists the complete character set of a seven-segment dis-

play. This table permits a lot more characters to be defined. No more
than seven bits of the control byte are required for the complete
character set. The MSB can control the decimal point.
Listing 24 shows a program example that displays the characters 0 to
F on a seven-segment display continuously.
Config Porta = Output ' PortA Output

Porta = 255 ' all segments off
Dim I As Byte
Dim X(16) As Byte ' Array for controlling bit patterns
Restore Value_table
For I = 1 To 16 ' Read data in array

Read X(i)
Next
Do
For I = 1 To 16
Porta = X(i) ' Display character
Waitms 250 ' Wait .5 seconds
Waitms 250
Next
110
Loop
End
Value_table:
Data &H40 , &H79 , &H24 , &H30 , &H19 , &H12 , &H02 , &H78
Data &H00 , &H10 , &H08 , &H03 , &H46 , &H21 , &H06 , &H0E
Listing 24 Control of Seven-Segment-Display by AVR
(7SEGMENT.BAS)
The controlling bit patterns (see Table 4) are stored in the ROM in a
table named Value_table.
Upon program start, the ROM table is copied to array X which makes
access to the array (indexed variable) quite simple.
Characters 0 to F are displayed in an endless loop. The two instruc-
tions waitms 250 generate a waiting time of half a second. Two
wait instructions are needed because the argument has byte format
and is limited to 255!
With the exception of port I/O, program 7SEGMENT.BAS has no
AVR specific instructions. To port this program to 8051, all that is
required is to adapt the I/O related instructions. Listing 25 shows the
modified program for 8051 microcontrollers. The modifications are
marked in bold characters.
' Seven-segment control by AT89C2051

$sim ' comment for normal operation
P1 = 255
Dim I As Byte
Dim X(16) As Byte
Restore Value_table
For I = 1 To 16
Read X(i)
Next
Do
For I = 1 To 16
P1 = Not X(i) ' inverted for simulation only
Waitms 250
Waitms 250
Next
Loop
111
End
Value_table:
Data &H40 , &H79 , &H24 , &H30 , &H19 , &H12 , &H02 , &H78
Data &H00 , &H10 , &H08 , &H03 , &H46 , &H21 , &H06 , &H0E
Listing 25 Control of Seven-Segment-Display by 8051
(7SEGMENT.BAS)
In Listing 25 the output instruction was enhanced by the operator

not. The reason is the BASCOM-8051 simulator which was used for
program testing. Pressing the LCD button causes a display window
to appear that contains a seven-segment display, too. Figure 56
shows the open window. As the segments of this display are
switched on at Hi, the polarity had to be changed.
112
Figure 56 Seven-Segment Display in BASCOM-8051 Simulator
BASCOM-8051 offers the flexibility to assign the segments to any

available pin. Right-click the seven-segment display to edit the prop-
erties of this display. Figure 57 shows how to edit the digit properties.
113
Figure 57 Pin Assignment
4.3.3 Dot-Matrix Displays

In most cases, a dot-matrix display uses a 5 x 7 LED matrix for dis-
play purposes. As is common with LCDs, a lot more characters can
be displayed.
As an example, Figure 58 shows a dot-matrix TA07-11 made by
Kingbright.
Figure 58 Dot-Matrix Display TA07-11
To control such a dot-matrix display, the assignment of these 35

LEDs to the pins of the display must be known. Figure 59 shows the
internal circuit diagram of the TA07-11.
Column connections C1 to C5 link up the anodes of all LEDs in a
certain column. Row connections R1 to R7 do the same for all LEDs
in a certain row.
To switch a LED in the first column and third row, for example, line
C1 must be connected to VCC and line R3 via a series resistor to
GND.
114
Figure 59 Internal Circuit of Dot –Matrix Display TA07-11
As shown in Figure 59, five column lines and seven row lines are
needed to control all LEDs of a 5x7 dot-matrix display. Without extra
hardware, each further display needs five additional column lines.
If a dot-matrix display is to be used as a character display, define the
characters to be displayed first. Figure 60 shows a graphic character
as an example. Let us define these characters next.
! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! "
! ! ! " "
! ! " " "
! " " " "
" " " " "
Figure 60 Character to be defined
The LCD Designer, a tool included in BASCOM, can be used not only
for LCDs but for this purpose, too. Figure 61 shows the character to
be defined with the LCD Designer tool.
115
Figure 61 Design of a character
The LCD Designer generates the following instruction for this special
character:
Deflcdchar ?, 224, 224, 225, 227, 231, 239, 255, 224

' replace ? with number (0-7)
Of this instruction only the generated bit patterns are of interest here.
These bit patterns are saved in the memory with a DATA instruction
as follows:
Dotmatrix:
Data 224 , 224 , 225 , 227 , 231 , 239 , 255 , 224
These eight bytes describe the bit pattern of the pixel lines from top
to bottom. Only five bits of each byte are significant.
The dot-matrix display is driven column after column. Therefore we
need bit patterns for columns, not for rows as generated by the LCD
Designer. The required conversion can be performed by the micro-
controller during initialization.
Figure 62 shows the circuit for driving the dot-matrix display. For
more clarity, the circuitry for PortA and PortC is presented only.
116
Figure 62 Control Circuit for Dot-Matrix Display TA07-11
Listing 26 is a program example for the display of a character gener-

ated by the LCD Designer as described.
' Control of Dot-Matrix Display by AVR
Dim A(5) As Byte

Dim I As Byte , J As Byte
Dim X As Byte , Y As Byte
Config Porta = Output ' all rows Hi

Porta = &HFF
Config Portc = Output ' all columns Lo

Portc = 0
Restore Dotmatrix
For I = 0 To 7 ' convert rows to columns

Read Y ' read from table
Shift Y , Left , 3 ' shift 3 MSB
X=0
For J = 1 To 5
X = A(j)
If Y > &H7F Then ' test for MSB
Set X.i
117
Else
Reset X.i
End If
A(j) = X
Shift Y , Left
Next
Next
Do
For I = 0 To 4
X=0
Set X.i ' set accessed column Hi
Portc = X
J=I+ 1
Porta = Not A(j)
Next
Loop
End
Dotmatrix:
Data 224 , 224 , 225 , 227 , 231 , 239 , 255 , 224
Listing 26 Controlling a Dot-Matrix Display (DOTMATRIX2.BAS)
PortA serves as driver for the row lines. PortC drives the column
lines of the dot-matrix display. After initialization all LEDs of the dis-
play are switched off.
The conversion of the bit pattern from pixel rows to pixel columns
starts after resetting the data pointer to the first data byte of the bit
patterns. Because the three most significant bits of each pixel row
are not needed, they are cancelled by instruction
Shift Y , Left , 3. As shown in the next table, the remaining
five bits in each pixel row are inspected column by column. So the
pixel positions in variables A(1) to A(5) will be set or reset bit by bit
starting at the LSB.
224 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
224 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
225 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
227 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
231 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1
239 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
255 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
224 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
A(1) A(2) A(3) A(4) A(5)
118
At a clock frequency of 4 MHz the whole conversion process takes
about 2.2 ms. This time will not be noticed during initialization.
An endless loop drives the dot-matrix display by outputting the con-
verted bit pattern column after column.
For enhancing the display to several devices either more column
driver lines (five for each device) or extra hardware for multiplexing
are required.
4.4 LCD Control

LCDs are receiving advanced features for the display of information.
The number of low-priced LCDs offered on the market is immense.
Fortunately, the HD44780 LCD controller by Hitachi or compatible
devices are used in most cases for alphanumeric displays.
Basically, it is distinguished between two kinds of device control. In
the direct mode the pins of the microcontroller drive the lines of the
connected LCD directly. In the other case, some LCDs are equipped
2
with a standardized RS232 or I C interface. The number of required
interface lines decreases. For small microcontrollers, it is often the
latter aspect that is of importance.
4.4.1 Direct Control

The LCD controller type HD44780 provides the connected microcon-
troller with an 8-bit bus and a number of control lines. The pins of
such an LCD module have the following meanings:
Pin Designation Level Function

1 VSS GND GND
2 VDD +5 V Supply voltage
3 Vo 0 . . . +5 V Contrast control
L: Instruction register
4 RS H/L H: Data register
L: Read access
5 R/W H/L H: Write access
6 E H/L Enable
7 - 14 DB0 - DB7 H/L Data lines
119
There are two ways to connect a microcontroller in the direct mode.
See Figure 14 for configuring the connection mode.
If the microcontroller circuit works with an external memory or mem-
ory-mapped I/O, then a data bus exists and the LCD can be con-
nected in the bus mode. The SetUp of the STK200 evaluation board
has already been shown in Figure 14. Figure 63 depicts the connec-
tion of an LCD module with LCD controller HD44780 to the data bus
and the control lines of an AT90S8515 microcontroller.
Figure 63 LCD Connected to AT90S8515 in Bus Mode
The LCD controller type HD44780 has two internal 8-bit registers that
can be accessed from the connected microcontroller.
The instruction register (IR) saves the received commands (RS = 0).
The data register (DR) saves data (RS = 1) which are sent to the
Data Display RAM (DD RAM) or Character Generator RAM (CG
RAM). Address line A14 distinguishes between instructions and data.
120
Together with the Read/Write signals, address line A15 controls the
Enable line of the LCD module. A falling edge at the Enable input (E)
of the LCD controllers latches the data (D7-D0).
If there is no external bus the LCD can be connected in the pin mode
which means the SetUp must assign the pins of the LCD to the cor-
responding pins of the microcontroller.
The below table shows possible assignments:
LCD Pin Port

DB7 14 PORTB.7
DB6 13 PORTB.6
DB5 12 PORTB.5
DB4 11 PORTB.4
E 6 PORTB.3
RS 4 PORTB.2
RW 5 GND
Vss 1 GND
Vdd 2 +5 Volt
Vo 3 0-5 Volt
In this configuration PORTB.1 and PORTB.0 (and the other Ports not
used here) are available for other purposes.
After correct initialization in the LCD SetUp the LCD can be con-
trolled using comfortable LCD instructions. Listing 27 shows a simple
LCD control program for a first test.
121
' LCD Control by AVR and 8051
$sim ' for simulation only otherwise comment
Dim A As Byte
M1:
A = Waitkey()
If A = 27 Then Goto M2
Cls
Upperline
Lcd A
Lowerline
Lcd Hex(a) ' uncomment for AVR
' Lcdhex A ' uncomment for 8051
Print Chr(a)
Goto M1
M2:
End
Listing 27 LCD Control (LCD.BAS)
The program waits for a character to be sent. If the character sent is

ESC the program will end. Otherwise, the display (16 characters, 2
lines) shows the received character on both lines in different formats.
If one prefers to go inside BASCOM, then the internal routines can
be used, too. The following is an example for BASCOM-AVR.
$ASM
Ldi _temp1, 5 'load register R24 with value
Rcall _Lcd_control 'it is a control value
'to control the display
Ldi _temp1,65 'load register with new value (letter A)

Rcall _Write_lcd 'write it to the LCD-display
$END ASM
Subroutines _lcd_control and _write_lcd are written in as-

sembler and can be called from BASIC.
4.4.2 LCD with Serial Interface

LCDs with a serial interface offer a simplified connectivity. In the sim-
plest case two wires (TxD & GND) from the microcontroller to the
LCD are sufficient.
The comfortable LCD instruction cannot be used for this kind of LCD
control. Some knowledge of the LCD controller is required.
122
As the DD RAM of the HD44780 LCD controllers has 80 bytes, one
HD44780 LCD controller can control one LCD with four lines of max.
20 characters each.
Table 5 shows the LCD position and DD RAM address for a 4x16
LCD (LM041L etc.) as an example.
DD
RAM 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
1. Zeile 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 0A 0B 0C 0D 0E 0F
2. Zeile 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 4A 4B 4C 4D 4E 4F
3. Zeile 10 11 12 14 13 15 16 17 18 19 1A 1B 1C 1D 1E 1F
4. Zeile 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 5A 5B 5C 5D 5E 5F
Table 5 Display position and DD RAM address for LCD 4x16
As shown in Table 5, not all memory space is used for display in a

4x16 LCD. DD RAM not used for the display is available as external
RAM. The access to that external RAM requires a complete RS-232.
Table 6 shows an extract from the instruction set of an HD44780LCD
controller. Table 7 describes some designations in Table 6.
123
Instruction RS DB7 DB6 DB5 DB4 DB3 DB2 DB1 DB0 Description
Clear Display 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Clears display
and sets cursor
to home position
Cursor At 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 X Sets cursor to
Home home position
Set Entry Mode 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 I/D S Defines direction
of cursor and
shift movements
Display On/Off 0 0 0 0 0 1 D C B See explana-
tions of D, C,
and B
Cursor/Display 0 0 0 0 1 S/C R/L X X See explana-
Shift tions of S/C and
R/L
Function Set 0 0 0 1 DL N F X X See explana-
tions of DL, N,
and F
Set CG RAM 0 0 1 ACG Sets CG RAM
Addr address
Set DD RAM 0 1 ADD Sets DD RAM
Addr address
Data Write 1 Data Writes byte in
DD RAM or CG
RAM
Table 6 Coding of Instructions of LCD Controller HD44780
Name Description
After writing a character to RAM, the DD RAM or CG RAM address will be
I/D incremented (I/D = 1) or decremented (I/D = 0).
Moving the contents of display to the right (S = 1) or left (S = 0)
S Cursor position does not change (calculator).
D Display on (D = 1) or off (D = 0). Data in DD RAM remain unchanged.
C Cursor on (C = 1) or off (D = 0).
B Cursor blinking (B = 1) or not blinking (B = 0).
Moves the contents of display (S/C = 1) or the cursor (S/C = 0) by one posi-
S/C tion according to R/L.
R/L Moving to the right (R/L = 1) or left (R/L = 0) without changes in DD RAM.
DL Data bus 8 bit (DL = 1) or 4 bit (DL = 0).
N Number of display lines - one (N = 0) - several (N = 1).
F Font - 5 x 7 dots (F = 0) - 5 x 10 dots (F = 1).
X Don’t care.
Table 7 Explanation of instruction set of HD44780 LCD controllers
After this short description of the basics of LCD controller type

HD44780, the next program example can be interpreted.
124
Listing 28 shows a BASCOM-AVR program controlling an LCD via
RS-232. Due to the serial interface all commands for the LCD con-
troller must be sent by print instructions from the microcontroller.
This program example is based on a serial LCD from Scott Edwards
Electronics [http://www.seetron.com]. Scott's web site offers a lot of
information about all types of LCDs.
'--------------------------------------------------
' SW_UART.BAS for AVR
' Controlling a LCD with LCD Serial Backpack from
' SEETRON
' C. Kuehnel
' 1999-11-21
'--------------------------------------------------
Const Instr = 254
Const Clr = 1
Const Lcd_blank = 8
Const Lcd_restore = 12
Const Line1 = &H80

Const Line2 = &HC0
Const Line3 = &H94
Const Line4 = &HD4
Dim I As Byte

Portd = 255
Open "COMC.0:2400,8,N,1,inverted" For Output As #1
Print #1 , Chr(instr) ; Chr(clr);

Print #1 , Chr(instr) ; Chr(line1);
Print #1 , "BASCOM-AVR writes to";

Print #1 , "4 line/20 column LCD";

Print #1 , "via serial interface";

Print #1 , "from www.seetron.com";
Wait 5
125
While Pind.0 = 1
Print #1 , Chr(instr) ; Chr(lcd_blank);
Waitms 200 : Waitms 200
Print #1 , Chr(instr) ; Chr(lcd_restore);
Wait 1 : Waitms 250 : Waitms 250
Wend
Close #1
End
Listing 28 Control of a Serial LCD (SW_UART.BAS)
A number of constants are declared in the first part of the program.

PortD is initialized as input because the program looks for Pin0 of
PortD to run or end.
Before any display the serial interface must be initialized, too. No
complete serial interface is needed for this program example; the
transmit line (TxD) will do. Therefore, the UART software is good
enough for this purpose.
The asynchronous serial communication will be discussed in chapter
4.7. You may read this chapter to get first information, or accept the
initialization of the UART software with Open "COMC.0:2400,8,N,
1,inverted" For Output As #1 and the data output with
Print #1 , ... first. The data are output from Pin0 of PortC of
the microcontroller used at 2400 baud and with inverted polarity.
We have to distinguish between two types of data output:

In the first instruction, data byte instr announces a command

(RS=0). The command itself is the data byte line1 (DD RAM = 00)
which sets the data pointer to the first position in DD RAM.
The second instruction transfers data to be displayed to the DD

RAM, starting at the preselected location.
Before entering the while-wend loop all data are written to the LCD.
In the loop, the display is cleared and reactivated (Restore) periodi-
cally. Because the arguments for instructions Wait and Waitms are
limited to one byte, several wait instructions need to be added to
generate longer wait times.
In BASCOM-8051 it is different. The UART software only supports
the GET and PUT statements, and the PRINTBIN and INPUTBIN
126
statements to retrieve and send data. It is not possible to simply send
a string with print "abcdefg". COM1 and COM2 are hardware
ports that can be used with PRINT etc.
Listing 29 shows the LCD control program ported to BASCOM-8051.
Pin0 of Port1 serves as key input. The UART hardware sends the
data to the serially connected LCD.
'--------------------------------------------------
' Serial_LCD.BAS for 8051
' Controlling a LCD with LCD Serial Backpack from
' SEETRON
' C. Kuehnel
' 2001-01-01
'--------------------------------------------------
Const Command = 254
Const Clr = 1
Const Lcd_blank = 8
Const Lcd_restore = 12
Const Line1 = &H80

Const Line2 = &HC0
Const Line3 = &H94
Const Line4 = &HD4
Dim I As Byte
Dim Key As Bit
Open "COM1:2400,inverted" For Output As #1 ' RS232 inverted!
Print #1 , Chr(command) ; Chr(clr);

Print #1 , Chr(command) ; Chr(line1);

Print #1 , "4 line/20 column LCD";

Print #1 , "via serial interface";

Print #1 , "from www.seetron.com";
Wait 5
Do
Print #1 , Chr(command) ; Chr(lcd_blank);
127
Waitms 200 : Waitms 200
Print #1 , Chr(command) ; Chr(lcd_restore);
Wait 1 : Waitms 250 : Waitms 250
Key = P1.0
Loop Until Key = 0
Close #1
End
Listing 29 Control of a Serial LCD (SERIAL_LCD.BAS)
4.5 Connecting Keys and Keyboards

Keyboards for microcontrollers need not have the same features as
keyboards for PCs. Often simple keypads as shown in Figure 64 are
sufficient for input purposes.
This kind of keypad is available in two types:
• 1x12 single keys
• 3x4 key matrix
Figure 64 Keypad
If there are enough I/O lines available then the single key version can
be used. If not, three I/O lines can be saved when the key matrix is
used.
128
4.5.1 Single Keys
In the single key version (1x12) the keypad shown in Figure 64 has
the internal connections shown in Figure 65.
All keys of the keypad are wired up on one side and connected to
pin1. The other side of each key is connected to one of the pins 2 to
13.
Figure 65 Internal Wiring of Keypad 1x12
Figure 66 shows how to connect such a keypad to a microcontroller.

To simplify the diagram the keypad was reduced to four keys.
129
Figure 66 Reduced Keypad
The wired end (COMMON) of all keys is connected to GND. The

other side of each key is connected via pull-up resistors to the supply
voltage.
Most microcontrollers have internal pull-up resistors at their I/O ports.
These internal pull-up resistors can be used to reduce the number of
components on your board (initialize correctly!).
The next two lines of the code show the initialization of a port as input
with internal pull-ups for AVR microcontrollers.
Config Porta = Input ' Porta is input

Porta = 255 ' with internal pull-up
The first line initializes the data direction registers for input, and the
second line sets the data register to Hi to enable the pull-up resistors.
Pressing a key generates a falling edge at the respective I/O pin, and
the microcontroller can detect this event.
It is important to consider the bouncing of all kinds of mechanical
keys. Debouncing is no issue under BASCOM: debounce is a very
helpful instruction. Listing 30 shows the query of the reduced keypad
using the debounce instruction.
130
' Query a keypad by AVR
Const Keys = 4 ' Test for 4 keys only
Config Portb = Output ' Portb is output
Config Porta = Input ' Porta is input

Porta = 255 ' with internal pull-up
Config Portc = Input ' PortC is input
Portc = 255 ' with internal pull-up
Dim I As Byte
Dim Key As Byte ' Variable contains key number
Do
For I = 1 To Keys ' Query all keys
Key = I
Select Case Key
Case 1 : Debounce Pina.0 , 0 , Display_key , Sub
End Select
Next
Loop
End
Display_key:
Portb = Not Key ' Display key number by LED
Return
Listing 30 Query of a Keypad by AVR (KEY1.BAS)
Listing 31 shows the slightly modified program for an 8051 micro-

controller. The differences result from the differing port I/O only.
' Query a keypad by 8051
Const Keys = 4 ' Test for 4 keys only
Dim I As Byte
' Port1 is drives LEDs

P1 = 255 ' Switch LEDs off
' Port2 is input with internal pull-up
131
P2 = 255 ' needed for input
Do
For I = 1 To Keys ' Query all keys
Key = I
Select Case Key
Case 1 : Debounce P2.0 , 0 , Display_key , Sub
End Select
Next
Loop
End
Display_key:
P1 = Not Key ' Display key number by LED
Return
Listing 31 Query of a Keypad by 8051 (KEY1.BAS)
4.5.2 Matrix Keypad

If there is only a limited number of I/O lines available for the keypad,
a matrix keypad will be the better solution.
Figure 67 shows the changed internal wiring for the same keypad.
The single keys are wired up in the form of columns and rows, with
pins 1 to 3 connecting the columns and pins 4 to 7 the rows.
Pressing key "1" connects pin 1 and pin 7, for example.
132
Figure 67 Internal Wiring of a 3x4 Keypad
Figure 68 shows how to connect a matrix keypad to an AVR micro-

controller when internal pull-up resistors are used.
133
Figure 68 Connection of a Matrix Keypad
Pins PD4 to PD7 serve as inputs with internal pull-up resistors. Pins
PD0 to PD2 set the queried column line to Lo.
A query of a matrix keypad divides into several queries of key col-
umns. Listing 32 shows two interlocked loops to query this matrix
keypad for an AVR microcontroller.
' Query a matrix keypad by AVR
Ddra = &H0F ' PD7-PD4 Input; PD3-PD0 Output

Porta = &HFF ' with internal pull-up
Dim Column As Byte

Dim Row As Byte
Do ' Query all keys

For Column = 0 To 2
If Column = 0 Then Reset Porta.0
'If Column = 3 Then Reset Porta.3
For Row = 4 To 7
Select Case Row
134
Case 4 : Debounce Pina.7 , 0 , Calc_key , Sub
End Select
Next
Porta = &HFF
Next
Loop
End
Calc_key:
Select Case Row
Case 4 : Key = Column + 1
End Select
Portb = Not Key
Return
Listing 32 Matrix Keypad Query (KEY2.BAS)
In the inner loop For Row = 4 to 7 ... Next the keys of one
column will be queried. The column to be queried is activated in the
outer loop For Column = 0 To 2 ... Next by resetting the
respective I/O pin.
To query a 4x4 matrix (hex keypad, for example) the column query
must be changed to For Column = 0 To 3 ... Next.
Additionally, BASCOM-AVR has the function GETKBD() for querying
a 4x4 matrix keypad. See the BASCOM-AVR help for the required
details.
Instruction Config Kbd = Porta assigns any port of the AVR to
the matrix keypad. A keypad query now needs one function call only.
The next program lines show how easy it is to encode a keypad in-
put.
135
Config Kbd = Porta
Dim Value As Byte
Value = Getkbd()
Portb = not Value
4.5.3 PC-AT Keyboard

PC-AT keyboards are nowadays offered at low prices and can be
used in microcontroller applications which don't use the whole func-
tionality. Old PC-XT keyboards have a different functionality and
won't be dealt with here.
The PC-AT keyboard sends a scan code when a key is pressed or
released. The BIOS of the PC evaluates this scan code.
Pressing key "A", for example, causes the keyboard to send the scan
code &H1C (Make Code). If the key is kept pressed, the keyboard
will send this scan code again after a defined time. This procedure
repeats as long as that key is pressed, or another key is pressed.
After releasing the key, the keyboard sends the scan code &HF0
followed by &H1C (Break Code). The Break Code differs from the
Make Code by the leading byte &HF0.
As shown in Figure 69, each key has its own scan code. Whether the
Shift key needs to be pressed is determined by the PC BIOS. In the
same way the PC BIOS controls the LEDs in the keyboard when one
of the keys Num Lock, Caps Lock or Scroll Lock is pressed.
136
Figure 69 Scan Codes of a PC-AT Keyboard
It is, however, definitely wrong to think that the 101 keys of a PC-AT
keyboard generate 101 different scan codes in byte format.
Some keys are so-called Extended Keys. Their scan codes have a
leading &HE0. Pressing key Pause generates the following sequence
of scan codes: &HE1, &H14, &H77, &HE1, &HF0, &H14, &HF0,
&H77!
Since the microcontroller is not supported by a BIOS, the scan codes
must be decoded in the application program. BASCOM-AVR sup-
ports querying the PC-AT keyboard by function Getatkbd().
Before discussing the software, it is worthwhile to have a closer look
at the hardware interface between PC-AT keyboard and microcon-
troller.
Figure 70 shows the available connectors for a PC-AT keyboard (DIN
and PS/2 connector). As can be seen from pinout, the data exchange
is synchronous and serial. The data line is bidirectional. The clock is
always generated by the PC-AT keyboard.
Figure 71 shows the simple interfacing of a PC-AT keyboard to an
AT90S8515. Any pin can be chosen for this kind of interface.
137
1 - Data
1 - Clock 2 - n.c.
2 - Data 3 - GND
3 - n.c. 4-+5V
4 - GND 5 - Clock
5-+5V 6 - n.c.
Figure 70 DIN and PS/2 Connector of PC-AT Keyboard
Figure 71 Interface between PC-AT Keyboard and AVR
Function Getatkbd() is here used for querying the PC-AT key-

board. Listing 33 shows a simple program example for this purpose.
138
' Query a PC-AT keyboard by AVR
Config Keyboard = Pind.2 , Data = Pind.4 , Keydata = Keydata
Dim B As Byte
Print "hello"
Do
B = Getatkbd() 'get a byte and store it into
'byte variable
'When no real key is pressed the result is 0
'So test if the result was > 0
If B > 0 Then
Print B ; Chr(b)
End If
Loop
End
'This is the key translation table
Keydata:
'normal keys lower case
Data 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , &H5E , 0
Data 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 113 , 49 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 122 , 115 , 97 , 119 , 50 , 0
Data 0 , 99 , 120 , 100 , 101 , 52 , 51 , 0 , 0 , 32 , 118 , 102 , 116 , 114 , 53 , 0
Data 0 , 110 , 98 , 104 , 103 , 121 , 54 , 7 , 8 , 44 , 109 , 106 , 117 , 55 , 56 , 0
Data 0 , 44 , 107 , 105 , 111 , 48 , 57 , 0 , 0 , 46 , 45 , 108 , 48 , 112 , 43 , 0
Data 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 92 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 13 , 0 , 0 , 92 , 0 , 0
Data 0 , 60 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 8 , 0 , 0 , 49 , 0 , 52 , 55 , 0 , 0 , 0
Data 48 , 44 , 50 , 53 , 54 , 56 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 43 , 51 , 45 , 42 , 57 , 0 , 0
'shifted keys UPPER case

Data 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0
Data 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 81 , 33 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 90 , 83 , 65 , 87 , 34 , 0
Data 0 , 67 , 88 , 68 , 69 , 0 , 35 , 0 , 0 , 32 , 86 , 70 , 84 , 82 , 37 , 0
Data 0 , 78 , 66 , 72 , 71 , 89 , 38 , 0 , 0 , 76 , 77 , 74 , 85 , 47 , 40 , 0
Data 0 , 59 , 75 , 73 , 79 , 61 , 41 , 0 , 0 , 58 , 95 , 76 , 48 , 80 , 63 , 0
Data 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 96 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 13 , 94 , 0 , 42 , 0 , 0
Data 0 , 62 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 8 , 0 , 0 , 49 , 0 , 52 , 55 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0
Data 48 , 44 , 50 , 53 , 54 , 56 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 43 , 51 , 45 , 42 , 57 , 0 , 0
Listing 33 Query of a PC-AT Keyboard (ATKBD.BAS)
Before the PC-AT keyboard can be queried, the used pins must be
assigned and a table containing the scan codes must be prepared.
Pin2 of PortD receives the clock from the PC-AT keyboard while Pin4
serves as data line.
139
Function Getkbd() queries the PC-AT keyboard for data by analyz-
ing the bit stream received from the keyboard (Figure 72). This bit
stream contains the scan codes.
Figure 72 Bit Stream from Keyboard Controller
The connected microcontroller circuitry serves as power supply for

the PC-AT keyboard. Note the power consumption of the PC-AT
keyboard used. In case it is not known, measure the power supply
current of the PC-AT keyboard used to avoid a damaging of the
power supply.
4.6 Data Input by IR Remote Control

Most audio or video systems available today have IR remote controls
for user interaction. Widespread are remote controls manufactured
by SONY or Philips which operate with a standardized transmission
protocol (RC5).
The RC5 protocol consists of a 14-bit data word. The data word uses
the so-called Manchester coding, a bi-phase code. Figure 73 shows
an IR command according to RC5.
St1 St2 Ctrl S4 S3 S2 S1 S0 C5 C4 C3 C2 C1 C0
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1
Figure 73 RC5 Coded IR Command
The command begins with two start bits (St1, St2) which are always
set. The following bit (Ctrl) toggles for each command. Repeated
commands can be detected this way. The control bit is followed by
five system bits (S4-S0). The control bits contain the address of the
device to be controlled. Usually, TV sets have an address of 0, video
140
recorder an address of 5, etc. Six command bits (C5-C0) close the
sequence. There are 64 different commands available for each de-
vice.
Table 8 shows an extract from a list of devices and their RC5 ad-
dresses.
System Device
0 Video TV1
1 TV2
5 VCR1
6 VCR2
17 Audio Tuner
20 CD
21 Phono
18 Recorder1
Table 8 RC5 Device Address
In correspondence with these explanations, the command in Figure

73 sends command value &H35 to VCR1.
141
' Query an IR Remote Control by AVR
Const Tv = 0 ' TV address is 0
Config Rc5 = Pind.2 ' Configures PinD.2 as RC5 Input

Portd.2 = 1 ' Activates Pull-up
Enable Interrupts ' Getrc5 uses timer0 interrupt
Dim Address As Byte , Command As Byte
Do
Getrc5(address , Command) ' Query IR remote control
If Address = Tv Then ' Check for the TV address

Print Address ; " " ; Command
End If
Loop
End
Listing 34 Query of an IR Remote Control (RC5.BAS)
As shown in Listing 34, function GETRC5() handles the whole RC5

protocol.
What about the hardware? Siemens offers the IR receiver SFH506-
36 for this purpose. It is very simple to connect this receiver to a mi-
crocontroller. Figure 74 shows the connection of an IR receiver
SFH506 to an AVR. It is important that the internal pull-ups are acti-
vated.
In consideration of the different port situation between the 8051 and
the AVR, program RC5.BAS can be modified to suit BASCOM-AVR
without any problems.
142
Figure 74 SFH506 connected to AT90S8515
4.7 Asynchronous Serial Communication

For asynchronous serial communication, microcontrollers use an
internal UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter), or it
must be implemented in the software (emulation).
In BASCOM, the I/O instructions common in BASIC (input and print)
are redirected to the serial port. That means instruction Input
reads characters from and instruction Print sends characters to the
serial port.
A signal converter is required to connect a microcontroller to the
COM port of a PC. Well-known are MAX232 or compatible devices.
Figure 75 shows a MAX231 connected to the UART pins of an
AT90S8515. The MAX231 is equivalent to MAX232 but needs one
capacitor only.
143
Figure 75 RS-232 Level Conversion by MAX231
For communication, use the BASCOM-internal Terminal Emulator or

any other terminal program at the PC end. Program RS232MON,
which can be downloaded from authors' web site, can be used for
debugging at byte level.
BASIC instructions Input and Print are also available in
BASCOM. Listing 35 shows how to use them.
' Serial I/O by AVR and 8051
Dim A As Integer
Do
Input "Input Number: " , A
Print " Number was " ; A
Loop
End
Listing 35 Serial I/O (SERIAL1.BAS)
Variable A is declared as integer. Figure 76 shows the conversion of

that number to the range of integer numbers -32768 ... 32767.
144
Figure 76 Input of an Integer
Very important for character input without finishing Carriage Return

(CR) is instruction Inputbin. Listing 36 shows a simple program
example.
Dim A As Byte
Dim B As Word ' B is a reserved word for BASCOM-8051
Do
Inputbin A , B
Printbin A , B ' use Printbin A ; B for BASCOM-8051
Print
Loop
End
Listing 36 Character I/O (SERIAL2.BAS)
Variable A is declared as byte and variable B as word. Instruction

Inputbin waits for three characters (bytes) without a CR.
In BASCOM-8051, B is a reserved word. Therefore, the name of this
variable must be changed for BASCOM-8051. Moreover, the syntax
of instruction Printbin is different. See the remark in Listing 36.
145
After receiving three bytes, instruction Printbin sends these three
bytes back. The output by Printbin is completed by a CR/LF out-
put by instruction Print.
Related to this kind of input are the functions Inkey() and Wait-
key(). Waitkey() waits until a character is received, while
Inkey()reads one character from the input buffer. Both functions
store that character in a variable. If the input buffer is empty,
Inkey() hands over the value of 0. Listing 37 shows a program
example and Figure 77 the respective outputs in the terminal win-
dow.
Dim A As Byte
Do
A = Waitkey() ' waits for one character
Print Chr(a) ; " is ASCII " ; A
Loop Until A = 27
Do
A = Inkey() ' reads one character
Print Chr(a) ; " is ASCII " ; A
Waitms 100
Loop Until A = 27
End
Listing 37 Input by Waitkey() and Inkey() (SERIAL3.BAS)
Figure 77 Input by Waitkey() and Inkey()
146
The first loop containing function Waitkey()will be reached after
program start.
Upon pressing key A on the PC keyboard, the Terminal Emulator
sends character A to the connected microcontroller. Waitkey()
receives this character as expected. The procedure is repeated when
key 1 is pressed. The print instruction echoes the character and its
ASCII code to the Terminal Emulator each time this is done.
Pressing key ESC quits this first loop. The program progresses to the
second loop containing the function Inkey(). In this loop, function
Inkey() will return 0 as long as one character is received by the
serial port and written in the input buffer. In Figure 77, character x
was received before leaving the loop by pressing ESC again. A wait
time of 100 ms slows down the passing of the loop.
Beside serial communication with the internal UART of the micro-
controller used, there is the possibility of using an UART emulation.
Instructions OPEN and CLOSE serve to configure the communication
channels.
Instruction OPEN initializes the communication channel by assigning
a pin for input or output and selecting a baud rate.
These examples show the opening of a communication channel for
serial output:
' Open for AVR

Open "COMA.0:9600,8,N,1,INVERTED" For Output As #1
'Open for 8051

Open "COM3.0:9600,8,N,1,INVERTED" For Output As #1
For AVR, Pin0 of PortA is opened as serial output (transmitter) with

a baud rate of 9600 Baud, one stop bit and inverted polarity of the
RS-232 signal.
For 8051, Pin0 of Port3 was initialized with the same parameters.
Each communication channel that is open at any time must be
closed by instruction CLOSE before the end of the program.
In the next program example, two microcontrollers will be serially
connected.
147
Figure 78 shows the circuit diagram of those two linked microcon-
trollers. Used here are an AT90S8515 and a BASIC Stamp II (BS2).
For information on the BS2 see the Appendix.
Instead of a BS2, any microcontroller with a serial port, or a PC run-
ning a terminal program, can be used.
Figure 78 Coupling of AT90S8515 and BASIC Stamp II
The AVR microcontroller uses its internal UART for communication

with a terminal as usual. Pins PD0 and PD1 are connected to a
MAX232 for level conversion. This part of the circuit is not shown in
Figure 78.
In this program example, the second serial interface connected to the
BS2 is of importance. Pins PA0 and PA1 form the communication
channel for the UART software.
At the BS2 end, pins P9 and P10 serve as serial interface. Pin P8
drives an LED for signalization.
Listing 38 shows the program for the AVR microcontroller and Listing
39 that for the BS2.
If it is intended to replace the AVR by an 8051 derivative, remember
to make the required changes in the source code:
148
• B is a reserved word in BASCOM-8051; replace it by another term
for the name of the variable
• Modify the port designation
' SW UART by AVR
Dim A As Byte
Dim B As Byte
Open "COMA.0:2400,8,N,1,inverted" For Output As #1

Open "COMA.1:2400,8,N,1,inverted" For Input As #2
Do
Print "Input one character: ";
A = Waitkey()
Print Chr(a)
Print " Sent character = " ; Chr(a)
Printbin #1 , A
Inputbin #2 , B
Print " Received character = " ; Chr(b)
Print
Loop Until A = 27
Close #1
Close #2
End
Listing 38 AVR Software UART (SERIAL4.BAS)
After the configuration of the transmitter and receiver for serial com-
munication, the program will pass the loop as long as the ESC key is
pressed.
Function Waitkey() waits for a character from the terminal and sends
it - after some terminal outputs - to the connected BS2 (Printbin
#1 , A). Thereafter, the program waits for a character from BS2
(Inputbin #1 , A) and sends it to the terminal. Figure 79 shows
the dialog in the Terminal Emulator.
149
Figure 79 Dialog in Terminal Emulator
As expected, the character input to the terminal is sent to BS2. BS2

increments the received character and sends it back.
Listing 39 shows the small BS2 program. This short program is easy
to understand even without any BS2-specific knowledge.
LED con 8 ' Pin8 controls the LED

RxD con 9 ' Pin9 is receiver
TxD con 10 ' Pin10 is transmitter
baud con 396+$4000 ' 2400 Baud inverted polarity
char var byte
start:serin RxD, baud, [char] ' receive one character

low LED
pause 500 ' flash LED
high LED
char = char +1 ' increment received character
serout TxD, baud , [char]' send one character
goto start
end
Listing 39 BS2 Transceiver (SERIAL.BS2)
In an endless loop instruction serin RxD, baud, [char] waits

for a character to be received at Pin9. The LED connected to Pin8
150
flashes for 500 ms and the received character is incremented before
it is sent back by instruction serout TxD, baud, [char] via
Pin10.
By using software UARTs, the microcontrollers can be equipped with
several serial ports.
4.8 1-WIRE Interface

Dallas Semiconductors developed the 1-wire interface to reduce the
required wiring for networking peripheral components. For data ex-
change between different components only one wire is needed.
Figure 80 shows the bus master and one slave in a 1-wire network
communicating via one line with a pull-up resistor of 4.7 kΩ. The
communication occurs in a time-slice procedure hidden to the
BASCOM user. The BASCOM instructions guarantee the required
timing.
Figure 80 1-Wire Bus System
151
The following program examples elucidate
applications of the 1–Wire Digital Thermo-
meter DS1820 without any exception (Figure
81). This device offers a number of interest-
ing features; its selection is not purely coinci-
dental.
Figure 82 shows the functionality of the
DS1820 in a block diagram.
Figure 81 DS1820
Figure 82 DS1820 Block Diagram
A 64-bit ROM contains the family code (8-bit), a serial number (48-
bit) and a CRC byte (8-bit). The serial number makes each device
unique and therefore always identifiable.
An 8-bit procedure is applied for the CRC check in DS1820. The
polynom
CRC = x 8 + x 5 + x 4 + 1
is the base of this CRC check.
The DS1820 measures the ambient temperature in a range from -55
°C to +125 °C in increments of 0,5 °C. The temperature value has an
internal resolution of 9 bit; see the next table.
152
Temperature Binary value Hex Value
+ 125°C &B0000000011111010 &H00FA
+ 25°C &B0000000000110010 &H0032
+ 1/2°C &B0000000000000001 &H0001
+ 0°C &B0000000000000000 &H0000
– 1/2°C &B1111111111111111 &HFFFF
– 25°C &B1111111111001110 &HFFCE
– 55°C &B1111111110010010 &HFF92
To fully exploit the accuracy of the DS1820, the temperature is ex-

actly calculated as follows:
1. Read the temperature value and clear the LSB (TEMP_READ)
2. Read the internal counter (COUNT_REMAIN)
3. Read Counts/°C (COUNTS_PER_C)
4. Calculate the temperature value according to the next formula:
COUNT _ PER _ C − COUNT _ REMAIN

TEMPERATURE = TEMP _ READ − 0.25 +
COUNT _ PER _ C
An alarm flag is set when the measured temperature exceeds the

threshold TH (or TL).
As long as the alarm flag is set, the DS1820 responds to the Alarm
Search command. In a network with several DS1820 devices a sim-
ple query for a temperature alarm is enough, i.e. it is not necessary
to query each DS1820 separately.
A so-called scratchpad RAM supports the data exchange. The tem-
perature thresholds are saved in a non-volatile EEPROM. The next
table shows a memory map of the internal RAM in DS1820.
153
RAM Byte EEPROM
Temperature LSB 0
Temperature MSB 1
TH/User Byte 1 2 TH/User Byte 1
TH/User Byte 2 3 TH/User Byte 2
Reserved 4
Reserved 5
Count Remain 6
Count per °C 7
CRC 8
The following commands support communication in a network with

several DS1820 devices. For detailed information on the DS1820 see
the data sheet.
Refer to the program example for further details.
ROM COMMANDS
Reads the complete ROM
Read ROM
(possible for DS1820 only)
Addresses a DS1820 by means of the
Match ROM
64-bit ROM content
Skip addressing
Skip ROM
(possible for DS1820 only)
Search ROM Search for DS1820 in a network
Search for DS1820 in a network reporting
Alarm Search
an alarm
MEMORY COMMANDS
Convert Temperature Starts measuring temperature
Read Scratchpad Reads scratchpad memory
Stores the temperature threshold in the
Write Scratchpad
scratchpad memory
Copies the temperature threshold into the
Copy Scratchpad
EEPROM
Copies the temperature threshold back to
Recall EE
the scratchpad memory
Read Power Supply Queries the supply voltage
154
In the next example, a DS1820 is connected to Pin0 of PortA of an
AVR microcontroller. Note the pull-up resistor: without it a 1-wire
interface will not work!
Listing 40 shows how the connected DS1820 is identified by reading
the ROM. To modify this program for the 8051, all that needs to be
done is change the ports.
' DS1820 Control by AVR
Const Read_rom = &H33 ' DS1820 Commands

Const Skip_rom = &HCC
Const Convertt = &H44
Const Read_ram = &HBE
Const Write_ram = &H4E
Const Copy_ram = &H48
Const Recall_ee = &HB8
Const Read_power = &HB4
Const Slow = 255

Const Fast = 50
Dim I As Byte ' Index

Dim Rate As Byte ' Blink rate
Dim Crc As Byte ' DS1820 CRC
' Serial Number of DS1820 Device

Dim Serial_number(6) As Byte
Dim Family_code As Byte ' DS1820 Family Code = &H10

Portb = 255
Config 1wire = Porta.0 ' Config PortA.0 as 1wire pin
1wreset ' 1wire Reset

If Err = 1 Then ' On Error blink fast
Rate = Fast
Goto Blink
End If
1wwrite Read_rom ' Read ROM command
Family_code = 1wread() ' Read 8 Bytes ROM contents

For I = 1 To 6
Serial_number(i) = 1wread()
Next
Crc = 1wread()
155
Rate = Fast
Goto Blink
End If
' Display Family Code

Portb = Not Family_code : Wait 1
' Display 6-Byte Serial Number

For I = 1 To 6
Portb = Not Serial_number(i) : Wait 1
Next
Portb = Not Crc : Wait 1 ' Display CRC
Rate = Slow : Goto Blink ' On End blink slow

End
Blink: ' Portb.0 blinks on error

Do
Portb.0 = 1
Waitms Rate
Portb.0 = 0
Waitms Rate
Loop
Listing 40
Reading Family Code and Serial Number (1WIRE1.BAS)
New in Listing 40 are only the 1-wire instructions. At the beginning of

the program any 1-wire commands used are declared as constants.
Subroutine Blink serves as an indicator of the state of operation.
Variable Rate defines a different blinking rate of the connected LED.
A fast blinking LED indicates an error.
Pin0 of PortA is the I/O line for the 1-wire interface.
Instruction 1wreset resets the 1-wire bus. Variable Err indicates
whether the 1-wire bus reacts as expected or not. On error the pro-
gram branches to the blink routine.
The next instruction, 1wwrite Read_rom, informs the DS1820 that
its ROM will be read next. Since only one DS1820 is connected to
the 1-wire bus, it can be directly addressed.
For several DS1820 in a network the 64-bit address of the DS1820 to
be accessed must first be sent to the network.
The eight instructions 1wread() read the family code, serial number
and CRC from the connected DS1820.
156
A further bus reset closes the whole operation. If this bus reset is
done without any error occurring, all network operations were error-
less.
The program finishes by displaying the read data on PortB. Slow
blinking indicates an errorless end of the program.
The temperature measuring procedure is quite similar to the last
program example. Listing 41 shows the program source for AVR
microcontrollers.
Regarding the modification required to adjust to the BASCOM-8051,
the conditions are the same as those mentioned before.
' DS1820 Control by AVR
Const Read_rom = &H33 ' DS1820 Commands

Const Skip_rom = &HCC
Const Convertt = &H44
Const Read_ram = &HBE
Const Write_ram = &H4E
Const Copy_ram = &H48
Const Recall_ee = &HB8
Const Read_power = &HB4
Const Slow = 255

Const Fast = 50
Dim I As Byte ' Index

Dim Rate As Byte ' Blink rate
Dim Busy As Byte
Dim Scratch(9) As Byte ' Sceatchpad

Portb = 255 ' LEDs off
Config 1wire = Porta.0 ' Config PortA.0 as 1wire pin

Rate = Fast
Gosub Blink
End If
1wwrite Skip_rom ' Read ROM command

1wwrite Convertt ' Measure Temperature
Do
Busy = 1wread()
Loop Until Busy = &HFF ' Wait for end of conversion
157
Rate = Fast
Gosub Blink
End If
1wwrite Skip_rom ' Skip ROM command

1wwrite Read_ram ' Read Scratch command
For I = 1 To 9 ' Read 9 Bytes Scratch contents

Scratch(i) = 1wread()
Next

Rate = Fast
Gosub Blink
End If
' Display Temperature LSB

Portb = Not Scratch(1) : Wait 1
' Display Temperature MSB
Portb = Not Scratch(2) : Wait 1
Rate = Slow : Goto Blink ' On End blink slow

End
Blink: ' Portb.0 blinks on error

Do
Portb.0 = 1
Waitms Rate
Portb.0 = 0
Waitms Rate
Loop
Return
Listing 41 DS1820 Temperature Measurement (1WIRE2.BAS)
Basically, the temperature measurement program is quite similar to

the last program. Additionally, however, one array of nine bytes
serving as mirror for the scratchpad memory of theDS1820 is de-
clared.
Only one DS1820 is connected to the AVR microcontroller as
agreed. Therefore, after resetting the 1-wire bus, addressing can be
skipped and the temperature measurement can be started immedi-
ately.
The end of conversion is detected by the repeated reading of the
DS1820. The next instructions prepare the DS1820 for reading the
scratchpad RAM.
158
After reading the scratchpad RAM its content is saved in the declared
array byte by byte. The result of the temperature measurement is
written to PortB (LSByte first, MSByte second).
The error indication – a blinking LED – does not differ from that of the
last program example.
The DS1820 uses a simple 8-bit CRC check for data security. To
secure data transmission, the master has to check the received data
as well.
Listing 42 shows a program example operating an 8-bit CRC check.
The 256 values, or possible results, are saved in a table at the end of
the program. To avoid misunderstanding – what is spoken of here is
16 DATA instructions of 16 data bytes each.
' This procedure calculates the cumulative Dallas

' Semiconductor 1-Wire CRC of all bytes passed to it.
' The result accumulates in the global variable CRC.
Const Rate = 100 ' Blink rate
Dim Idx As Byte

Dim I As Byte , J As Byte
Dim Crc As Byte ' Global CRC
Dim X As Byte ' Input variable
Dim Z(8) As Byte ' Data bytes
Declare Sub Calc_crc(byval X As Byte)

Crc = 0 ' Reset CRC
Z(1) = &H02 ' Eight data bytes for CRC check

Z(2) = &H1C
Z(3) = &HB8
Z(4) = &H01
Z(5) = &H00
Z(6) = &H00
Z(7) = &H00
Z(8) = &HA2
159
For J = 1 To 8
X = Z(j) ' Initialize input variable
Call Calc_crc(x) ' Calculate CRC
Portb = Not Crc ' Display CRC
Wait 1 ' Wait a little bit, comment later
Next
Wait 1 ' Wait for end , comment later
Do ' On End blink slowly

Portb.0 = 1
Waitms Rate
Portb.0 = 0
Waitms Rate
Loop
End
sub Calc_crc(byval X As Byte)

Restore Crc_table
Idx = Crc Xor X
For I = 0 To Idx
Read Crc
Next
End Sub
Crc_table:
Data 0 , 94 , 188 , 226 , 97 , 63 , 221 , 131 , 194 , 156 , 126 , 32 , 163 , 253 , 31 , 65,
Data 157 , 195 , 33 , 127 , 252 , 162 , 64 , 30 , 95 , 1 , 227 , 189 , 62 , 96 , 130 , 220,
Data 35 , 125 , 159 , 193 , 66 , 28 , 254 , 160 , 225 , 191 , 93 , 3 , 128 , 222 , 60 , 98,
Data 190 , 224 , 2 , 92 , 223 , 129 , 99 , 61 , 124 , 34 , 192 , 158 , 29 , 67 , 161 , 255,
Data 70 , 24 , 250 , 164 , 39 , 121 , 155 , 197 , 132 , 218 , 56 , 102 , 229 , 187 , 89 , 7,
Data 219 , 133 , 103 , 57 , 186 , 228 , 6 , 88 , 25 , 71 , 165 , 251 , 120 , 38 , 196 , 154,
Data 101 , 59 , 217 , 135 , 4 , 90 , 184 , 230 , 167 , 249 , 27 , 69 , 198 , 152 , 122 , 36,
Data 248 , 166 , 68 , 26 , 153 , 199 , 37 , 123 , 58 , 100 , 134 , 216 , 91 , 5 , 231 , 185,
Data 140 , 210 , 48 , 110 , 237 , 179 , 81 , 15 , 78 , 16 , 242 , 172 , 47 , 113 , 147 , 205,
Data 17 , 79 , 173 , 243 , 112 , 46 , 204 , 146 , 211 , 141 , 111 , 49 , 178 , 236 , 14 , 80,
Data 175 , 241 , 19 , 77 , 206 , 144 , 114 , 44 , 109 , 51 , 209 , 143 , 12 , 82 , 176 , 238,
Data 50 , 108 , 142 , 208 , 83 , 13 , 239 , 177 , 240 , 174 , 76 , 18 , 145 , 207 , 45 , 115,
Data 202 , 148 , 118 , 40 , 171 , 245 , 23 , 73 , 8 , 86 , 180 , 234 , 105 , 55 , 213 , 139,
Data 87 , 9 , 235 , 181 , 54 , 104 , 138 , 212 , 149 , 203 , 41 , 119 , 244 , 170 , 72 , 22,
Data 233 , 183 , 85 , 11 , 136 , 214 , 52 , 106 , 43 , 117 , 151 , 201 , 74 , 20 , 246 , 168,
Data 116 , 42 , 200 , 150 , 21 , 75 , 169 , 247 , 182 , 232 , 10 , 84 , 215 , 137 , 107 , 53
Listing 42 Calculation of 8-bit CRC (1WIRE3.BAS)
For test purposes, array Z(8) contains eight bytes simulating eight
bytes received from the scratchpad memory. These eight bytes are
checked and the result is displayed at PortB byte by byte.
When this program is simulated, the following sequence is displayed
at PortB: &H43, &H50, &HE1, &H23, &H0B, &HEA, &H5D.
160
For a normal program execution, remember to comment or erase
instructions $sim, wait 1 and Portb = not CRC later.
Dallas Semiconductors offers more details on the 8-bit CRC check.
The Appendix refers to useful links.
4.9 SPI Interface

The SPI interface uses three lines for serial communication.
In addition to many memory devices compatible with SPI, all well-
known manufacturers offer analog-to-digital (ADC) and digital-to-
analog converters (DAC), RTC devices, and others.
As shown in Figure 83, the microcontroller sends the serial data via
its MOSI (Master Out Slave In) line to input SI of the peripheral de-
vice. The peripheral device sends its data via output SO to the MISO
(Master In Slave Out) line. The data exchange is clocked by SCK.
The microcontroller generates this clock signal.
Figure 83 SPI Interface
161
The Chip Select signals SS0 to SS3 activate the peripheral device to
be accessed.
Figure 84 shows the timing for data exchange between the micro-
controller and EEPROM NM25C04 via the SPI interface.
Figure 84 SPI Timing (NM25C04)
Some modifications are necessary as regards the edges of clock

SCK. Microcontrollers with internal hardware SPI allow this feature to
be configured. In all other cases the right timing of the SPI signals
needs to be programmed.
In Figure 83 the microcontroller controls NM25C04 EEPROMs via
SPI. SPI describes the data exchange at bit level as shown in Figure
84. The functions to be controlled via SPI depend on the peripheral
device used.
As to the configuration of the SPI, it is distinguished between soft-
ware implementation and the use of on-chip peripherals. Not all AVR
microcontrollers offer SPI on-chip. I am not aware of any 8051 de-
rivative with SPI on-chip. However, this does not matter because the
software SPI has the advantages that each pin can be assigned to
that kind of digital I/O.
For reasons of a better flexibility, software implementation will be
made use of in the next program examples. Listing 43 shows the
output of one byte to the SPI.
The AVR microcontroller was used in all of these examples; if the
I/O ports used are modified, however, the programs will also work
with BASCOM-8051.
162
PortA is used for the SPI lines. Write instruction Config Spi =
... in one line!
' AVR SPI
Dim X As Byte
X = &HAA
Config Spi = Soft , Din = Porta.0 , Dout = Porta.1 , Ss = Porta.2 ,

Clock = Porta.3
Spiinit
Spiout X , 1
nop
End
Listing 43 SPI Byte Output (SPI.BAS)
Program SPI.BAS shows the declaration of a byte variable X and the

initialization of this variable using a value of &HAA.
After the configuration and initialization of the SPI interface, instruc-
tion Spiout X, 1 sends the data byte X. The following nop was
included for setting a break point during simulation.
The SPI interface works like an 8-bit shift register. The byte to be
sent is saved in a register and will be shifted bit-by-bit to pin MOSI
(master-out slave-in). The free positions are filled with bits received
from pin MISO (master-in slave-out). After eight clocks the whole
byte is sent and the register contains the complete byte received.
To send and receive bytes at the same time, function Spimove()
should be used according to Listing 44. This function is available for
BASCOM-AVR only.
If the same function is desired to be used for BASCOM-8051, it will
be best to program it in BASIC.
163
' SPIMOVE by AVR
Dim A As Byte
A = &HAA
Config Spi = Soft , Din = Porta.0 , Dout = Porta.1 , Ss = Porta.2 ,

Clock = Porta.3
Spiinit
A = Spimove(a)
nop
End
Listing 44 SPI Read and Write at the Same Time (SPI1.BAS)
The AVR microcontrollers have on-chip SPI. If this internal peripheral

is intended to be used, the fixed pin allocation must be taken into
account. Figure 85 shows the settings in menu Options>Compiler>
I2C, SPI, 1WIRE. Line Config Spi = ... is not needed in the
program source.
Figure 85 Configuration of On-Chip SPI
Listing 45 shows the source for data exchange via SPI using the on-
chip peripheral. It seems there is nothing changed.
If the resulting assembler code in the AVR Studio is inspected, great
differences will be found in the length of the assembler code.
164
Dim X As Byte
X = &HAA
Spiinit
Spiout X , 1
nop
End
Listing 45 Data Exchange via On-Chip SPI (SPI4.BAS)
The SPI Control Register organizes the whole SPI data exchange.
AVR Studio can show the initialization by instruction Spiinit in
detail. Figure 86 shows the initialization of the SPI Control Registers
after running instruction Spiinit.
Figure 86 Initialization of the SPI Control Register
For the initialization in the BASCOM-AVR simulator, see the IO reg-

ister contents as shown in Figure 87.
165
Figure 87
Initialization of the SPI Control Register
The SPI Control Register bits are set as follows:
SPIE SPE DORD MSTR CPOL CPHA SPR1 SPR0

0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 SPCR
Setting bit SPE connects the SPI pins internally to the predefined
pins of PortB. The AVR microcontroller operates as master
(MSTR=1) as long as no other bus member forces the AVR to slave
via SS line.
Bits CPOL and CPHA define the polarity and phase of the SPI clock.
Figure 88 shows the conditions in dependence of the initialization.
Bits SPR1 and SPR0 define the SPI clock rate. Here the clock is
CK/4. The evaluation board uses a clock frequency of 4 MHz and the
SPI clock is 1 MHz. As always data packages are sent, the net data
rate of 1 Mbit/s is not reached.
166
SCK (CPOL=0)
SCK (CPOL=1)
MOSI (from Master) 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
MISO (from Slave) * 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
/SS (to Slave)
Figure 88 SPI Data Exchange with CPHA=1
Initialization by instruction Spiinit can be changed any time by

direct manipulation of the SPI Control Register.
4.10 I2C Bus

2
The I C Bus was developed for data exchange between different
devices like EEPROMs, RAMs, AD- and DA-converters, RTCs and
microcontrollers in a network environment.
2
Figure 89 shows the connections required in a typical I C bus net-
work. Lines SDA and SCL, connected via pull-up resistors to the
2
supply voltage VCC, connect all members of the network. An I C bus
network can connect different masters to different slaves (multi-
2
master system). The I C protocol is responsible for addressing the
individual nodes.
167
VCC
SDA
SCL
Master Slave Master Slave

... ...
(Transceiver) (Receiver) (Transceiver) (Receiver)
2
Figure 89 I C Bus Network
The resulting peripheral functions are device-specific. In addition to

many EEPROMs and RAMs from different manufacturers, there are
2
many specialized I C bus devices:
• I/O expander devices
• LCD and LED driver devices
• video controller
• PAL/NTSC TV processors
• TV and VTR stereo/dual sound processors with integrated filters
• Hi-Fi stereo audio processor interface for color decoder
• YUV/RGB switches
• programmable modulators for negative-video modulation and FM
sound
• satellite sound receiver
• programmable RF modulators
• BTSC stereo/SAP decoder and audio processor
• 1.3 and 2.5 GHz bi-directional synthesizer
• 1.4 GHz multimedia synthesizer
2
Before we deal with the first I C bus program example, I would like to
explain some frequently used terms.
168
Term Explanation
WORD 8 data bits
PAGE 16 consecutive memory locations
PAGE BLOCK 2048 bits organized in 16 pages
2
any I C device controlling data exchange (a micro-
MASTER
controller, for example)
2
SLAVE controlled I C device
2 2
I C device sending data to the I C bus (master or
TRANSMITTER
slave)
2 2
I C device receiving data from I C bus (master or
RECEIVER
slave)
2
TRANSCEIVER I C device containing transmitter and receiver
2 2
In the I C bus program example, one I C bus EEPROM is connected
to two I/O pins of the AVR microcontroller. Due to the required read
and write operations, memory devices are well suited for describing
2
of I C bus operations.
2
The slave address of each I C bus device contains the Device Type
Identifier. The used EEPROM of the NM24Cxx family has the follow-
ing slave address. The Device Type Identifier is here &B1010.
1 0 1 0 A2 A1 A0 R//W
A further part of the slave address is the device address. To define a

device address, address pins A2, A1 and A0 must be connected to
VCC or GND. The next table shows the active address pins of the
NM24Cxx family.
Device A2 A1 A0 Memory
NM24C02 addr addr addr 2K
NM24C04 addr addr x 4K
NM24C08 addr x x 8K
NM24C16 x x x 16 K
169
2
As shown in the table, one I C network can address max. 16 Kbit
(16384 bits) of memory. It does not matter whether one NM24C16 or
eight NM24C02 or other configurations are used.
For addressing an EEPROM, there are two different addressing lev-
els:
1. Hardware configuration by pins A2, A1 and A0 (Device Address
Pins) with pull-up or pull-down resistors. All unused pins (marked
with x in the table) must be connected to GND.
2. Software addressing of the used memory segment (Page Block)
within the memory of the used device.
For addressing the memory in EEPROM the respective command
must provide the following information:
[DEVICE TYPE]
[DEVICE ADDRESS]
[PAGE BLOCK ADDRESS]
[BYTE ADDRESS]
In the program example, the EEPROM NM24C16 is used. Because
of its 16 Kbit memory there is no hardware configuration possible.
Pins A2, A1 and A0 must be connected to GND.
Bits A2, A1 and A0 of the slave address point to an internal memory
segment (PAGE BLOCK). The LSB of the slave address defines
writing (Hi) or reading (Lo).
Byte Write (write one byte to any memory location) and Random
Read (read one byte from any memory location) are two basic func-
2
tions for data exchange via the I C bus. To make access to the
memory in an EEPROM more effective, there are further possibilities
for access like Page Write, Current Address Read and Sequential
Read.
The program example focuses on the basic functions. Using the
knowledge acquired, it should be no problem to complete the special
functions. Figure 90 shows the bit sequences for the Byte Write and
Random Read operations.
170
Byte Write S A A A P
Slave Address W ord Address Data Byte
Random Read S A A S A P
Slave Address W ord Address Slave Address Data Byte
Figure 90 Byte Write and Random Read Operations
Every command begins with a start condition (S). The start condition
2
is defined by a falling edge on SDA during SCL = Hi. Each I C bus
device permanently detects the levels on the SDA and SCL lines to
find a valid start condition. If no valid start condition is found, no de-
vices will answer.
The first byte after a start condition is the slave address showing a
write access to the addressed memory segment. The transmitting
2
device releases the I C bus after eight transmitted bits. During the
ninth clock the receiver forces line SDA to Lo to ACKnowledge (A)
the eight bits received. This acknowledge mechanism is a software
agreement for a successful data exchange.
The second byte sent addresses the memory location inside the
addressed memory segment for a following read or write operation.
The last transmitted bits are followed by the acknowledge check.
In a Byte Write operation the data byte is sent as the third byte. The
last transmitted bits are again followed by the acknowledge check.
In a Random Read operation following the check for acknowledge, a
new start condition must be sent. The first byte after this new start
condition is a slave address and an indicated read access to the
memory location addressed before. After the last bits have been
sent, the check for acknowledge is carried out again to read the ad-
dressed EEPROM cell.
2
During a read access the I C bus slave sends eight data bits and
then checks the acknowledge from the master. If acknowledge is
detected and no stop condition is sent from the master, the slave will
send further data. If acknowledge is not detected, the slave will stop
sending data and waits for a stop condition to return to standby.
Each data exchange ends with a stop condition (P). The stop condi-
tion is defined by a rising edge on line SDA during SCL = Hi. The
171
stop condition additionally switches the EEPROMs of the NM24Cxx
family to the current saving standby mode.
Listing 46 shows the program example for writing and reading the
EEPROM NM24Cxx reflecting the bit sequences shown in Figure 90.
' I2C for AVR
Const Device_id = &HA ' Device ID for NM24Cxx

Const Page_addr =1 ' used Page
Const Word_addr =0 ' used memory location
Const Ee_data = &HA5 ' used data byte
Dim Slave_wa As Byte ' Slave Write Address

Dim Slave_ra As Byte ' Slave Read Address
Dim Temp As Byte
Config Scl = Porta.0 ' PortA.0 is SCL

Config Sda = Porta.1 ' Porta.1 is SDA

Slave_wa = Device_id ' Calculation of Slave Address

Shift Slave_wa , Left , 4
Temp = Page_addr
Shift Temp , Left
Slave_wa = Slave_wa Or Temp

Slave_ra = Slave_wa Or 1
I2cstart ' I2C Write Sequence

I2cwbyte Slave_wa
I2cwbyte Word_addr
I2cwbyte Ee_data
I2cstop
Waitms 10 ' Wait for end of program cycle
I2cstart ' I2C Read Sequence

I2cwbyte Slave_wa
I2cwbyte Word_addr
I2cstart
I2cwbyte Slave_ra
I2crbyte Temp , Nack
I2cstop
Portb = Temp ' Display read EEPROM data
End
172
2
Listing 46 Access to I C EEPROM NM24C16 by AVR (IIC.BAS)
To simplify the procedure, some parameters were defined as con-

stants:
• Device Identifier for all EEPROMs of the NM24Cxx family
device_id = &HA
• Memory access to page 1 address 0 by page_addr = 1 and
word_addr = 0 (random)
• Data byte for writing ee_data = $A5 (random)
To change the address and/or data byte, only the respective con-
stants are to be changed.
2
Pins PortA.0 and PortA.1 serve as I C bus lines SCL and SDA.
PortB serves as output. Driving the connected LEDs (of the evalua-
tion board) it displays the data byte read back from EEPROM.
Thereafter, the addresses Slave_wa (slave write address) and
Slave_ra (slave read address) are calculated.
2
As in Figure 90, the single I C bus instructions will follow. Since
BASCOM-AVR hides the details of implementation, the programming
of these sequences poses no problem.
The last instruction before end of program writes the data byte read
back from EEPROm to PortB. If the program works properly, bit pat-
tern &HA5 will appear at PortB.
2
BASCOM-AVR takes care of the right I C bus timing for all possible
clock frequencies.
4.11 Scalable Network Protocol S.N.A.P

For the networking of computers and microcontrollers, numerous
protocols are known and in use today. These protocols guarantee an
errorless communication between different network nodes. To im-
plement such network protocols, resources are often required which
are not available for small microcontrollers.
Therefore a simple but scalable network protocol ready for imple-
mentation in existing microcontroller applications is desirable.
High Tech Horizon, a Swedish company [http://www.hth.com], devel-
oped for their powerline modems PLM-24 such a simple network for
173
protocols which is suitable for both small microcontrollers and larger
systems.
The scalable network protocol S.N.A.P. (Scalable Node Address
Protocol) is the result of this development.
4.11.1 S.N.A.P. Features

S.N.A.P. has many features which are listed and explained below:
• Easy to learn, use and implement.
• Free and open network protocol.
• Free development tools available.
• Scaleable binary protocol with small overhead.
• Requires minimal MCU resources to implement.
• Up to 16.7 million node addresses.
• Up to 24 protocol specific flags.
• Optional ACK/NAK request.
• Optional command mode.
• 8 different error detecting methods (Checksum, CRC, FEC etc.).
• Can be used in master/slave and/or peer-to-peer.
• Supports broadcast messages.
• Media independent (power line, RF, TP, IR etc.).
• Works with simplex, half, full duplex links.
• Header is scalable from 3-12 bytes.
• User specified number of preamble bytes (0-n).
• Works in synchronous and asynchronous communication.
• Works with HTH's free PLM-24 < > TCP/IP Gateway software.
Don't be afraid of this extensive list. It is typical of a scalable solution
to take precautions for larger systems in the general approach. For
implementation in a small system, a minimum approach is absolutely
sufficiently.
174
4.11.2 Description of S.N.A.P. Protocol
Communication between network nodes is in the form of data pack-
ages. These data packages can have different lengths. The total
length will be determined by the number of address and data bytes,
the error detection method and some specific bytes.
The Header Definition Bytes, HDB2 and HDB1, determine the
structure of the data package (telegram) and its length. Each tele-
gram can have an uncertain number of preamble bytes before the
synchronization byte. The preamble byte must differ from the syn-
chronization byte.
The following example shows a small S.N.A.P. package with CRC16
error detection:
PRE ... SYNC HDB2 HDB1 DAB1 SAB1 DB1 CRC2 CRC1
It means:
Name Description
PRE Preamble
SYNC Synchronization
HDB2 Header Definition Byte 2
HDB1 Header Definition Byte 1
DAB1 Receiver address
SAB1 Transmitter address
DB1 Data byte
CRC2 Most significant byte of CRC16
CRC1 Least significant byte of CRC16
Without the optional preamble bytes the whole data package is eight
bytes long. The bytes are right positioned with its LSB (least signifi-
cant bit; bit7...bit0).
4.11.2.1 Synchronization Byte (SYNC)

Byte SYNC is predefined and marks the beginning of each data
package.
175
bit 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 HEX DEC
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 54 84
4.11.2.2 Header Definition Bytes (HDB2 and HDB1)

Following byte SYNC are the Header Definition Bytes HDB2 and
HDB1 which determine the structure of the telegram.
bit 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
HDB2 DAB SAB PFB ACK
HDB1 CMD EDM NDB
The bits in HDB2 and HDB1 have the following meaning:
Name Description
DAB Number of bytes for destination address
SAB Number of bytes for source address
PFB Number of bytes for protocol specific flags
ACK ACK/NAK bits
CMD Command bit
EDM Error detection method
NDB Number of data bytes
The following conditions apply to Header Definition Byte HDB2:
176
DAB Definition
0 0 Destination address 0 Byte
SAB Definition
0 0 Source address 0 Byte
PF Definition
0 0 Protocol specific flags 0 Byte
The flag bytes are reserved for the time being, but not defined yet.
They are planned for further enhancements of the S.N.A.P. protocol.
ACK Definition
0 0 No acknowledge
0 1 Transmitter requests for acknowledge
1 0 Receiver sends back ACK
1 1 Receiver sends back NAK
The following conditions apply to Header Definition Byte HDB1:
CMD Definition
0 No command mode
1 Command mode (DB1 contains command)
A network node in the command mode offers more flexibility. If the

command bit is set (CMD=1) then the data byte DB1 contains a
177
command. Different commands are possible due to the byte format
256.
It is dependent on the error detection method how safely a communi-
cation link works. The 16-bit CRC is a preferred method in this area.
EDM Definition
0 0 0 No error detection
0 0 1 Repeat three times
0 1 0 8-bit check sum
0 1 1 8-bit CRC-CCITT
1 1 0 Error correction
1 1 1 Spec. error detection
178
NDM Definition
0 0 0 0 0 Byte
0 0 0 1 1 Byte
0 0 1 0 2 Byte
0 0 1 1 3 Byte
0 1 0 0 4 Byte
0 1 0 1 5 Byte
0 1 1 0 6 Byte
0 1 1 1 7 Byte
1 0 0 0 8 Byte
1 0 0 1 16 Byte
1 0 1 0 32 Byte
1 0 1 1 64 Byte
1 1 0 0 128 Byte
1 1 0 1 256 Byte
1 1 1 0 512 Byte
1 1 1 1 Spec. number
4.11.3 S.N.A.P. Monitor

A simple program example serves to explain the implementation and
use of the S.N.A.P. protocol for data exchange in a master/slave
system by means of a S.N.A.P. monitor.
To simplify this example, acknowledge and error detection shall be
excluded for the time being. The telegram looks as follows and is
described by the comment lines at the beginning of the program.
SYNC HDB2 HDB1 DAB1 SAB1 DB1
The addresses are reduced to one byte. Only one byte will be trans-
ferred. Header Definition Bytes HDB2 and HDB1 contain the follow-
ing values:
The program waits for a telegram to be sent, and analyzes it as

shown in Figure 91.
179
bit 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 HEX DEC
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 50 80
HDB1 CMD EDM NDB

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 00 01
After the start of the program it will wait for a

SYNC byte.
_Start
If a SYNC byte was detected, the program

reads five data bytes as defined in the Header
Definition bytes, and evaluates these bytes.
SYNC ? It depends on the evaluation of the Header
N
Definition bytes whether the telegrams can be
Y
understood or not.
Read next 5
If the telegram can be evaluated, then the
Bytes program checks the receiver address.
Only if all information is correct, the program
reads from byte SADR the address of the
transmitter and from byte DB1 the respective
HDB2 ?
data byte. Both data will be displayed on LCD
N
Y in the example.
Listing 47 shows the details of the S.N.A.P.
HDB1 ?
application. The area of the associated func-
N
Y tion is specially marked.
Addr ?
N
Y
Display
SAD & DB1
on LCD
Figure 91
Program structure
SNAP-MON
180
' -----[ Title ]-------------------------------------------
'
' File....: SNAP-MON.BAS
' Purpose.: SNAP Monitor with 16 x 1 LCD
' Author..: Claus Kuehnel (based on SNAP-024.BAS from HTH)
' Version.: 1.00
' MCU.....: AT90S8515
' Started.. 991211
' Updated.:
'
' -----[ Program Description ]-----------------------------
'
' This program shows how to implement the S.N.A.P protocol
' in BASCOM and is an simple example to receive data from
' another node and display it on the LCD.
' This example uses no error detection method.
'
' If the node is addressed by another node (PC or another
' MCU) it shows what node sent the packet and the value of
' DB1 in hexadecimal on the LCD. In the example below node
' with address &H05 is sending &HEF in the data byte.
'
' 16x1 LCD display
' +------------------+
' | FROM:05 DATA:EF |
' +------------------+
'
' The packet structure is defined in the received packets
' first two bytes (HDB2 and HDB1). The following packet
' structure is used.
'
' DD=01 - 1 Byte destination address
' SS=01 - 1 Byte source address
' PP=00 - No protocol specific flags
' AA=00 - Acknowledge is required
' C=0 - Command mode not supported
' EEE=000 - No error detection
' NNNN=0001 - 1 Byte data
'
'
' -----[ Aliases ]----------------------------------------
'
Spkr Alias Portb.1 ' Speaker output pin
'
' -----[ Constants ]---------------------------------------
'
Const Sync = &B01010100 ' Synchronisation byte
Const Hdb2_ = &B01010000 ' 1-Byte Addr., No Flags, No ACK
Const Hdb1_ = &B00000001 ' No Error Detection, 1 Data Byte
Const Myaddress = &H04 ' Address for this node (1-255)
' -----[ Variables ]---------------------------------------

'
Dim Temp1 As Byte ' Temporary Variable
Dim Hdb2 As Byte ' Header Definition Byte 2
Dim Db1 As Byte ' Packet data
Dim Sab1 As Byte ' What node sent this packet
181
Dim Dab1 As Byte ' What node should have this paket
' -----[ Initialization ]----------------------------------

' Configure LCD display
Config Lcd = 16 * 1
Cls ' Clear the LCD display

Cursor Off Noblink ' Hide cursor
'------[ Program ]-----------------------------------------

'
_start:
Temp1 = Waitkey() ' Wait for data on serialport
' If received data is a SYNC byte read next five bytes

' from master, if not return to start
If Temp1 <> Sync Then
Goto _start
Else
' Get packet in binary mode
Inputbin Hdb2 , Hdb1 , Dab1 , Sab1 , Db1
' Packet header check routine

'
' Check HDB2 to see if MCU are capable to use the
' packet structure, if not goto Start
If Hdb2 <> Hdb2_ Then Goto _start
' Check HDB1 to see if MCu are capable to use the

' Address check routine

'
' Check if this is the node addressed,
' if not goto Start
If Dab1 <> Myaddress Then Goto _start
' Associated function (place it between +++ lines)

' ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Cls
Lcd "FROM:"
Lcd Hex(sab1)
Lcd " "
Lcd "DATA:"
Lcd Hex(db1)
' Beep to alert new message
Sound Spkr , 10000 , 10 'BEEP
' ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
182
' Done, go back to Start and wait for a new packet
Goto _start
End If
End
Listing 47 AVR S.N.A.P. Monitor (SNAP-MON.BAS)
To modify the program for BASCOM-8051, the port line for the
speaker (Spkr Alias Portb.1 to Spkr Alias P3.1, for ex-
ample) and the display instructions lcd hex(var) to lcdhex var
need to be changed.
4.11.4 Digital I/O

In the next program example, a network node converts serially re-
ceived data to digital I/O.
For an errorless data exchange the 16-bit-CRC serves the detection
of transmission errors. ACK or NAK reports the result of data trans-
mission back to the transmitter.
If the transmission was not correct, the transmitter can repeat the
transmission of that data package.
The following telegram structure shall be used in the example:
SYNC HDB2 HDB1 DAB1 SAB1 DB2 DB1 CRC2 CRC1
Here, too, the addresses are reduced to one byte each. Two data
bytes, DB2 and DB1, and two CRC bytes, CRC2 and CRC1, will be
transmitted.
Header Definition Bytes HDB2 and HDB1 contain the following val-
ues:
183
bit 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 HEX DEC
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 51 81
HDB1 CMD EDM NDB

0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 42 66
Listing 48 shows the program that waits for receiving a telegram and
evaluates it according to Figure 92.
184
_Start
After the start of the program

it will wait for receiving a SYNC
byte.
SYNC ?
N
When a SYNC byte is de-
Y tected, the program reads
eight data bytes as defined in
Read next
the Header Definition bytes,
8 Bytes and evaluates these bytes.
The evaluation of the Header
Definition bytes is the same
HDB2 ? as in the last program exam-
N ple.
Y
If the destination address was

HDB1 ?
correct, the 16-bit CRC of all
N
Y
received bytes will be calcu-
lated.
Addr ? If the CRC is correct, the ac-
N
Y knowledge bits in HDB2 are
set to 10B and the associated
Check CRC
function will be executed.
for all
received bytes
In Listing 48 the area of the
associated function is marked.
N
In our example the bits of data
CRC ok? byte DB1 are written to PortB
and displayed by the con-
Y
nected LEDs.
Set ACK Bits Set NAK Bits
A wrong CRC indicates a
transmission error. In this
Execute
Associated
case the program sets the
Function acknowledge bits to 11B and
the associated function will
not be executed.
Calculate Thereafter, the node sends a
CRC
telegram of the same struc-
ture to the sender. The sender
Send can evaluate this response
Back
now.
Figure 92
Program Structure SNAP-IO.BS2
185
' -----[ Title ]-------------------------------------------
'
' File......: SNAP-IO.BAS
' Purpose...: Turns LEDs on and off
' Author....: Christer Johansson
' Version...: 1.01
' Started...: 980503
' Updated...: 980918
' Modified..: 991229 by Claus Kuehnel
'
' -----[ Program Description ]-----------------------------
'
' This program shows how to implement the S.N.A.P protocol
' in BASCOM-AVR and is an simple example to turn LEDs ON or
' OFF.
' This example uses 16-bit CRC-CCITT as error detection
' method which gives secure data transfer.
'
' The packet structure is defined in the received packets
' first two bytes (HDB2 and HDB1). The following packet
' structure is used.
'
' DD=01 - 1 Byte destination address
' SS=01 - 1 Byte source address
' PP=00 - No protocol specific flags
' AA=01 - Acknowledge is required
' D=0 - No Command Mode
' EEE=100 - 16-bit CRC-CCITT
' NNNN=0010 - 2 Byte data
'
' Overview of header definition bytes (HDB2 and HDB1)
'
' HDB2 HDB1
' +-----------------+-----------------+
'|DDSSPPAA|DEEENNNN|
' +-----------------+-----------------+
'
'
' -----[ Constants ]---------------------------------------
'
Const Preamble_ = &B01010101 ' Preamble byte
Const Sync_ = &B01010100 ' Synchronisation byte
Const Crcpoly = &H1021 ' CRC-CCITT
Const Hdb2_ = &H51
Const Hdb1_ = &H42
Const Myaddress = 123 ' Address for this node (1-255)
' -----[ Variables ]---------------------------------------

'
Dim Preamble As Byte ' Preamble byte
Dim Sync As Byte ' Sync byte
Dim Crc As Word ' CRC Word
Dim Dab1 As Byte ' What node should have this paket
Dim Sab1 As Byte ' What node sent this packet
Dim Db1 As Byte ' Packet Data Byte 1
Dim Db2 As Byte ' Packet Data Byte 2
Dim Crc2 As Byte ' Packet CRC Hi_Byte
Dim Crc1 As Byte ' Packet CRC Lo_Byte
186
Dim Tmpw1 As Word
Dim Tmpw2 As Word
' -----[ Initialization ]----------------------------------

'
Portb = &HFF
Preamble = Preamble_
Sync = Sync_
Db1 = 0 ' Clear Data variable

Db2 = 0
'------[ Program ]-----------------------------------------

'
_start:
Temp1 = Waitkey() ' Wait for data on serialport
' If received data is a SYNC byte read next eight bytes
' from master, if not return to start
If Temp1 <> Sync Then
Goto _start
Else
' Get packet in binary mode
Inputbin Hdb2 , Hdb1 , Dab1 , Sab1 , Db2 , Db1 , Crc2 , Crc1
' Packet header check routine

'
' Check HDB2 to see if MCU are capable to use the
' Check HDB1 to see if MCu are capable to use the

' Address check routine

'
' Check if this is the node addressed,
' if not goto Start
If Dab1 <> Myaddress Then Goto _start
' Check CRC for all the received bytes

Gosub Check_crc
' Check if there was any CRC errors, if so send NAK

If Crc <> 0 Then Goto Nak
' No CRC errors in packet so check what to do.
187
'
' Associated Function (place it between +++ lines)
'++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Portb = Db1
'++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
'
Ack_:
' Send ACK (i.e tell master that packet was OK)
' Set ACKs bit in HDB2 (xxxxxx10)
Hdb2 = Hdb2 Or &B00000010
Hdb2 = Hdb2 And &B11111110
Goto Send
Nak:
' Send NAK (i.e tell master that packet was bad)
' Set ACK bits in HDB2 (xxxxxx11)
Hdb2 = Hdb2 Or &B00000011
Goto Send
Send:
' Swap SAB1 <-> DAB1 address bytes
Temp2 = Sab1
Sab1 = Dab1
Dab1 = Temp2
' Clear CRC variable

Crc = 0
' Put HDB2 in variable Tmp_Byte1

Temp1 = Hdb2
' Calculate CRC
Gosub Calc_crc
' Put HDB1 in variable Tmp_Byte1

Temp1 = Hdb1
' Calculate CRC
Gosub Calc_crc
' Put DAB1 in variable Tmp_Byte1

Temp1 = Dab1
' Calculate CRC
Gosub Calc_crc
' Put SAB1 in variable Tmp_Byte1

Temp1 = Sab1
' Calculate CRC
Gosub Calc_crc
' Put Data in variable Tmp_Byte1

Temp1 = Db2
' Calculate CRC
Gosub Calc_crc
' Put Data in variable Tmp_Byte1

Temp1 = Db1
' Calculate CRC
Gosub Calc_crc
' Move calculated Hi_CRC value to outgoing packet

Crc2 = High(crc)
' Move calculated Lo_CRC value to outgoing packet
188
Crc1 = Low(crc)
' Send packet to master,

' including the preamble and SYNC byte
Print Chr(preamble) ; chr(sync) ;
Print Chr(hdb2) ; Chr(hdb1) ;
Print chr(dab1) ; chr(sab1) ;
Print chr(db2) ; chr(db1) ;
Print chr(crc2) ; chr(crc1) ;
' Give AVR time to shift out all bits

' before setting to Rx
Waitms 50
' Done, go back to Start and wait for a new packet

Goto _start
End If
' -----[ Subroutines ]-------------------------------------

'
'Soubroutine for checking all received bytes in packet
Check_crc:
Crc = 0
Temp1 = Hdb2
Gosub Calc_crc
Temp1 = Hdb1
Gosub Calc_crc
Temp1 = Dab1
Gosub Calc_crc
Temp1 = Sab1
Gosub Calc_crc
Temp1 = Db2
Gosub Calc_crc
Temp1 = Db1
Gosub Calc_crc
Temp1 = Crc2
Gosub Calc_crc
Temp1 = Crc1
Gosub Calc_crc
Return
189
' Subroutine for calculating CRC value in variable Tmp_Byte1
Calc_crc:
Tmpw1 = Temp1 * 256
Crc = Tmpw1 Xor Crc
For Temp2 = 0 To 7
If Crc.15 = 0 Then Goto Shift_only
Tmpw2 = Crc * 2
Crc = Tmpw2 Xor Crcpoly
Goto Nxt
Shift_only:
Crc = Crc * 2
Nxt:
Next
Return
' -----[ End ]---------------------------------------------
Listing 48 AVR S.N.A.P. I/O Node (SNAP-IO.BAS)
To modify the program for BASCOM-8051, the configuration line for

PortB must be erased and the port must be changed (Portb to P3,
for example).
For communication with such a network node, High Tech Horizon
offers some free tools [http://www.hth.com/snap/].
Program SnapLab running on a PC generates telegrams and sends
these to the network nodes. SnapLab receives the responses from
the network and analyzes them.
For our simple example this means that a PC and S.N.A.P. I/O node
are connected via RS-232. A real network (with more than two
nodes) would use RS-485 or a power line modem from HTH, for
example.
The first step is to set the communication parameters in SnapLab.
Figure 93 shows the settings.
190
Figure 93 Configuration of the Serial Interface
After this first step, the telegrams can be built up. Figure 94 shows
the respective window.
191
Figure 94 SnapLab - Transmit and Receive
The structure of the telegram is determined in the Send frame. In

accordance with the program SNAP-IO.BAS the destination address
for the S.N.A.P. I/O node is set to 123. The PC gets address 2.
A data package contains two data bytes initialized with 170 here. The
16-bit CRC is used for the detection of transmission errors. ACK or
NAK report the result of data exchange to the transmitter.
There are two windows in the Receive frame. In the enter, all tele-
grams are listed with a time stamp. On top only the telegrams dedi-
cated to the PC are listed.
These listings reveal, for example, that one telegram with DB1 = DB2
= &H170 was sent from PC to node 2 at 19:14:59. The response at
192
19:50:00 shows that the telegram was received without any error.
Using the evaluation board for this test, the LEDs connected to PortB
will show the related bit pattern &HAA.
The old DOS program RS232MON can be used to go deeper into the
bits [http://www.ckuehnel.ch/download.htm]. Next, let's have a short
look at the byte level.
The following telegram must be prepared to send the two data bytes
&HAA and &H55 to the network node:
SYNC HDB2 HDB1 DAD SAD DB2 DB1 CRC2 CRC1

84 81 66 123 1 170 85 243 96
&H54 &H51 &H42 &H7B &H01 &HAA &H55 &HF3 &H60
For the input of the data bytes to be sent to the network node, the
number pad of the PC keyboard should be used.
For the input of data byte 84 for example, strike 0-8-4 keeping the Alt
key pressed. The character will be sent when the Alt key is released.
After the start of program RS232MON and the configuration of the
serial port, the telegram can be inputted as described. Figure 95
shows the input and the response from the network node. The byte
sequences appear very cryptic.
193
Figure 95 S.N.A.P. Telegram in RS232MON
A short look at the receive window (F3) shows that the telegram was
transmitted without any errors (Figure 96).
194
Figure 96 Hexdump of a Received S.N.A.P. Telegram
Due to the acknowledge bits (10) the Header Definition Byte HDB2 of
the response is 82 (=&H52). The data bytes are unchanged. Source
and destination addresses are swapped and the 16-bit CRC is
changed.

84 82 66 1 123 170 85 8 151
&H54 &H52 &H42 &H01 &H7B &HAA &H55 &H08 &H97
To simulate a transmission error, a wrong byte shall be typed for

CRC1 in contrast to Figure 95, i.e. 97 instead of the correct value of
96 (Figure 97).
195
Figure 97 Wrong CRC Byte in S.N.A.P. Telegram
The CRC check in the network node detects the error and sets the
acknowledge bits to 11B. As Figure 98 shows, byte HDB2 in the re-
sponse is 83 (= &H53) as a result.

84 83 66 1 123 170 85 77 55
&H54 &H53 &H42 &H01 &H7B &HAA &H55 &H4D &H37
196
Figure 98 Hexdump of a Received S.N.A.P. Telegram
4.12 CANDIP - Interface to CAN

The German company Bosch developed the "Controller Area Net-
work" (CAN) for the networking of system components in cars. CAN
is based on an international standard (ISO 11898). Several semicon-
ductor manufacturers offer CAN controllers and CAN bus drivers.
CAN connects devices featuring equal rights (control devices, sen-
sors, and actors) with a serial bus. In the simplest case, this bus is
made up of two wires.
In CAN data transmissions, an identifier known in the whole network
characterizes the contents of a message (revolutions or temperature
of an engine, for example). There is no addressing of any network
node. Besides the characterization of the message contents the
identifier determines the priority of the message. The priority is re-
sponsible for bus allocation, which is important when several nodes
will access the bus.
If a message is to be sent from the CPU of any network node to one
or several network nodes, then the data to be sent and the associ-
ated identifiers are transferred, together with a request for transmis-
sion, to the connected CAN controller. This done, the CPU part is
finished.
197
The generation and transmission of the resulting message is the task
of the CAN controller. When the CAN controller gets access to the
bus, all other network nodes are receivers of this message.
As soon as the message is received, an acceptance check is per-
formed: the identifier is read, and it is determined whether the data
are relevant to this node or not. If so they will be processed, if not
they will be ignored.
The contents-related addressing guarantees a high system and con-
figuration flexibility. It is very easy to add new network nodes to an
existing CAN network.
The CAN protocol supports two formats of message frames which,
essentially, differ in the length of the identifier (ID) only.
The identifier length is 11 bits in the standard format and 29 bits in
the enhanced format. The whole message frame for CAN data
transmission comprises seven fields. Figure 99 shows a CAN stan-
dard frame.
Figure 99 CAN Standard Frame
A standard format message begins with the start bit - Start of Frame
(SOF). The Arbitration Field following it contains the identifier (ID)
and the Remote Transmission Request bit (RTR). This bit marks the
frame as Data Frame or Remote Frame without any data.
The Control Field contains the Identifier Extension bit (IDE) that dis-
tinguishes between standard and enhanced format, a reserved bit for
further enhancements and the Data Length Code (DLC) specifying
the number of data bytes in the frame.
As defined by the DLC, the Data Field can have a length of 0 to 8
bytes.
The CRC Field contains a 15-bit CRC for error detection. The Ac-
knowledge Field (ACK) comprises the ACK slot (one recessive bit).
The bit in that ACK slot is sent recessive and will be overwritten
dominant from all nodes that receive the message correctly (positive
198
acknowledge). This acknowledge is independent of the result of the
acceptance check.
The End of Frame marks the end of a message. Intermission is the
minimum number of bit times between two consecutive messages. If
there is no further bus access the bus will be idle.
These basics should explain the context and can be consolidated in
the relevant CAN literature.
Based on the AT90S8515, the Swedish company LAWICEL
[http://www.candip.com] developed the microcontroller module
CANDIP/AVR. CANDIP/AVR contains all components required to
build an interface to the CAN bus. Figure 100 shows the
CANDIP/AVR module.
Figure 100 CANDIP/AVR Microcontroller Module
The CANDIP/AVR microcontroller module has the following features:

• Standard 28 pin DIP board with 0.1" pins (use a standard DIP28
carrier).
• Needs a 5V DC/30mA power source only.
• Atmel AVR type AT90S8515 normally working at 3.6864MHz.
• 8k user FLASH, 512 bytes user RAM and 512 bytes user
EEPROM.
199
• Up to 13 digital I/O points on DIP28 board, each capable of sink-
ing 20 mA as output.
• SPI port for expansion.
• One interrupt line available for user functions (INT1).
• SJA1000 CAN controller working at 16MHz, supporting CAN2.0B.
• 82C250 High Speed CAN transceiver 1Mbit (ISO-11898).
• CAN controller can be interrupt driven (INT0).
• MAX202 RS-232 transceiver which together with the AVR can
send/receive up to 115 kbit/s.
• MAX825M reset circuit, the normal RESET and inverted RESET
is via external pins.
• No interpreted software, it is programmed with compilers.
• Possibilities to implement higher level protocols such as
CANopen, DeviceNet etc.
Figure 101 shows the block diagram of the CANDIP/AVR module
with external components.
200
Figure 101
Block Diagram of CANDIP/AVR Module with External Components
Optional components can be used in dependence on the planned

application. The CANDIP/AVR module supports In-System-
Programming (ISP) via the SPI Port, and the STK200 Programmer
from Atmel/Kanda.
For fast and comfortable debugging of CAN applications LAWICEL
offers the Activity Board (ACB1) for CANDIP/AVR. Figure 102 shows
this Activity Board for CANDIP/AVR.
201
Figure 102 CANDIP/AVR Activity Board
On the basis of the introduced hardware, a first CAN application can

now be developed.
With a minimum of two Activity Boards a CAN network can be cre-
ated by connecting the two CAN bus lines CAN_Hi and CAN_Lo.
Figure 103 shows the circuitry of our sample network with external
components of both CANDIP/AVR network nodes.
202
Figure 103 CANDIP/AVR Network
The node identification (NodeId) is set by jumpers at PinD3 to PinD5

and is queried after program start.
PortB serves for I/O. Two keys are connected to PinB2 and PinB3.
Pressing any key changes the bit pattern at PinB2 and PinB3 and the
program generates a CAN message to inform the network about the
new state of inputs PinB2 and PinB3.
The other network node receives this CAN message and displays the
bit pattern by means of the LEDs connected to PinB0 and PinB1.
Listing 49 shows the program for each node of our sample network.
The three subroutines Initsja, Transmitcanio and Checkcan
are important to the CAN bus management.
' CAN example by BASCOM-AVR
' Purpose: General Test routines

' for SJA1000 on the CANDIP/AVR in BasicCAN mode
'
' Chip: AT90S8515 running at 3.6864MHz
'
' Version: 1.0.0, 25:th of February 2000
'
' Author: Lars Wictorsson
' LAWICEL / SWEDEN
' http://www.lawicel.com [email protected]
'
' Remarks:
' This code sample is provided as is and demonstrates
' simple distributed I/O by CAN.
' The CANDIP is reading two push buttons and sends their
' current status as CAN frames when they are changed.
' The NodeId used is read from the CANDIP Activity board
203
' jumpers (PD3-PD5) when started.
' When button PB2 and/or PB3 is pushed/released their
' status is sent on the CANbus based on the NodeId read
' from startup.
' The other node is "listening" for this ID and will
' display the status on the LED's PB0 and PB1 and vice
' versa.
' This demonstrates the Multi Master functionality of CAN.
' This program is tested with BASCOM-AVR version 1.0.0.8.
'
' Test Setup:
' Use 2 CANDIP/AVR's and 2 Activity boards.
' On one Activity board, set PD3-PD5 open (NodeID=0).
' On the other, set PD3 closed, PD4-PD5 open (NodeID=1).
' Set PB0-PB1 as output and PB2-PB3 as input.
'
' Important:
' The MakeInt function in BASCOM is wrong in version
' 1.0.0.8 and will be fixed later, this means you need to
' swap the msb and lsb (the help file in BASCOM shows it
' correct but compiler is wrong, this is a known bug of
' BASCOM).
'
' History: 2000-02-25 1.0.0 Created
'
' CANDIP: See CANDIP at http://www.lawicel.com/CANDIP
'
$crystal = 3686400
$baud = 57600
' SJA1000 CAN contoller is located at &H4000

Const Can_base = &H4000
' Some SJA1000 registers in BasicCAN mode

Const Can_ctrl = &H4000
Const Can_cmd = &H4001
Const Can_status = &H4002
Const Can_int = &H4003
Const Can_ac = &H4004
Const Can_am = &H4005
Const Can_tmg_0 = &H4006
Const Can_tmg_1 = &H4007
Const Can_ocr = &H4008
Const Can_test = &H4009
Const Can_tx_id = &H400A
Const Can_tx_len = &H400B
Const Can_tx_buf0 = &H400C
Const Can_tx_buf1 = &H400D
Const Can_tx_buf2 = &H400E
Const Can_tx_buf3 = &H400F
Const Can_tx_buf4 = &H4010
Const Can_rx_id = &H4014
Const Can_rx_len = &H4015
Const Can_rx_buf0 = &H4016
204
Const Can_rx_buf4 = &H401A
Const Can_rx_buf5 = &H401B
Const Can_rx_buf6 = &H401C
Const Can_rx_buf7 = &H401D
Const Can_clkdiv = &H401F
' Some key values
Const Own_id = 0
' Our CAN-ID
Const Acceptmask = &HFF
' Our accept mask
' Some useful bitmasks
Const Resreq = 1
' Reset Request
Const Rbs = 1
' Receive Buffer Status
Const Rrb = 4
' Release Receive Buffer
Const Txreq = 1
' Transmit Request
Const Tba = 4
' Transmit Buffer Access
Declare Sub Initsja

Declare Sub Transmitcanio( b as byte)
Declare Sub Checkcan
Dim Always As Byte

Dim Nodeid As Byte
Dim Inpb As Byte
Dim Inpbold As Byte
Always = 1
Inpb = &H0C
' Default button status
Inpbold = &H0C
Mcucr = &HC0
' Enable External Memory Access With Wait - state
Ddrb = &H03
' Set PB0+PB1 as output and PB2+PB3 as input with pull-up
Portb = &H0F
' and turn off LED's
Ddrd = &H00
' Set PD3+PD4+PD5 as inputs with pull-up
Portd = &H38
Nodeid = Pind
' Read Jumper inputs on Port D and save as Node ID.
Rotate Nodeid , Right , 3
Nodeid = Nodeid And &H07
Nodeid = 7 - Nodeid
' Invert, how to make it better in BASCOM?
205
Initsja
While Always = 1
Inpb = Pinb And &H0C
' Read inputs PB2 & PB3
If Inpb <> Inpbold Then

' Are they different from last check?
Transmitcanio Inpb
' If so, send new state of buttons
Inpbold = Inpb
' and save this state
End If
Checkcan
Wend
End
Sub Initsja
' Initiate CAN controller 125kbit
Local B As Byte
B = Inp(can_ctrl)
B = B And Resreq
While B = 0
out can_ctrl,resreq
B = Inp(can_ctrl)
B = B And Resreq
Wend
out Can_ac, Own_id
out Can_am, Acceptmask
out Can_tmg_0,3
out Can_tmg_1,&H1C
out Can_ocr,&HDE
out Can_clkdiv,7
out Can_ctrl,&H5E
out Can_cmd,&H0C
End Sub
Sub Transmitcanio( b as byte)

Local Id As Word
Local Tmp1 As Word
Local Ln As Byte
Local Tmp2 As Byte
Do
' Loop until transmit buffer is empty
Tmp1 = Inp(can_status)
Tmp1 = Tmp1 And Tba
Loop Until Tmp1 = Tba
Id = &H500 + Nodeid
' Create ID based on NodeId
Ln = 1
Tmp1 = Id
Rotate Tmp1 , Right , 3
Tmp2 = Low(tmp1)
out Can_tx_id, Tmp2
Tmp1 = Id And &H07
Rotate Tmp1 , Left , 5
Tmp1 = Tmp1 + Ln
Tmp2 = Low(tmp1)
206
out Can_tx_len, Tmp2
out Can_tx_buf0, b
out Can_cmd, Txreq
End Sub
Sub Checkcan
Local Id As Word
Local Tmp1 As Word
Local Ln As Byte
Local Tmp2 As Byte
Tmp2 = Inp(can_status)
Tmp2 = Tmp2 And Rbs
If Tmp2 = Rbs Then

Tmp2 = Inp(can_rx_id)
Id = Makeint(0 , Tmp2)
Rotate Id , Left , 3
Tmp1 = Inp(can_rx_len)
Tmp1 = Tmp1 And &H07
Id = Id + Tmp1
Tmp2 = Inp(can_rx_len)
Ln = Tmp2 And &H0F
Tmp2 = Inp(can_rx_buf0)
If Nodeid = 0 Then
If Id = &H501 Then
Portb = &H0C + Tmp2
End If
Elseif Nodeid = 1 Then
If Id = &H500 Then
Portb = &H0C + Tmp2
End If
End If
out can_cmd, rrb
' Release receive buffer
End If
End Sub
Listing 49 CAN Test Program (CANDIPIO.BAS)
Before initializing the CAN controller SJA1000 (Philips) it must be put

to the Reset Mode. Thereafter, the initial values can be written to the
Control Segment. The data transfer rate is here set to 125 kbit/sec.
By evaluating the identifier of the CAN messages received, the Ac-
ceptance Filter decides which CAN messages will be saved in the
receive buffer (RXFIFO). In the initialization, the Acceptance Filter is
transparent. All received CAN messages are saved in RXFIFO.
To change the initialization, it is absolutely necessary to consult data
sheet "SJA1000 Stand-alone CAN Controller"
[http://www.semiconductors.philips.com].
207
Subroutine Transmitcanio sends the CAN message to the net-
work. After the subroutine call, the routine waits until the Transmit
Buffer Status signalizes a free buffer. When the Transmit Buffer is
free, the CPU can write a prepared message to the buffer.
Preparing the CAN message means defining identifier, data length,
and data bytes. According to Figure 103 the identifiers are &H500
and &H501. The data length is one byte for the input state of the two
input lines.
These definitions are followed by the output of identifier, data length,
data byte, and a Transmission Request. The Transmission Request
requests the CAN controller to send this CAN message.
All received CAN messages that have passed the Acceptance Filter
are written to the Receive Buffer. Subroutine Checkcan checks the
Receive Buffer for CAN messages and processes them, if neces-
sary. The subroutine reads identifier, data length, and data byte from
the Receive Buffer.
If the received CAN messages came from the respectively other
node, the transmitted input state is displayed by the connected LEDs.
After the received CAN message has been processed, the Receive
Buffer is released again.
On the basis of the described program example CANDIPIO.BAS,
further CAN applications can be developed using BASCOM-AVR.
A lot of supporting hardware is now available if an 8051 derivative is
preferred to be used for the CAN application. There are 8051 deriva-
tives with integrated CAN controllers or modules comparable with
CANDIP/AVR.
Based on Infineon's C505CA, LAWICEL is offering the CANDIP/505.
Features of the CANDIP/505 microcontroller module:
• Standard 28 pin DIP board with 0.1" pins (use a standard DIP28
carrier).
• 4 layer board for good EMI performance.
• Needs a 5V DC/30mA power source only (plus 70mA for CAN
transceiver).
• Infineon type C505CA working at 16MHz.
• 64k bytes user FLASH, 1k bytes user XRAM and 128 bytes user
EEPROM.
• ADC with 10bit resolution / 4 channels.
208
• Software controller SPI port for expansion.
• On chip full CAN-Controller (CAN 2.0B).
• 82C250 High Speed CAN transceiver 1Mbit (ISO-11898).
• MAX202 RS-232 transceiver.
• MAX825M Reset circuit.
• No interpreted software, it is programmed with compilers.
• Possibilities to implement higher level protocols such as
CANopen, DeviceNet, etc.
• PC-Bootloader for program download in Flash-EPROM via the
CAN interface.
• Demo software for the individual hardware components.
For fast and comfortable debugging of CAN applications, LAWICEL
offers the Activity Board (ACB2) for CANDIP/505.
4.13 Random Numbers

Random numbers are numbers which are not created as a result of a
functional context (formula or function, for example); their values are
purely coincidental.
From a physical point of view noise sources generate a signal more
or less randomly. After digital-to-analog conversion such a signal can
serve as a random number.
In most cases pseudo-random number generators are used. They
operate according to defined rules but the results are random.
Program RANDOM.BAS is a simple pseudo-random number gen-
erator later used for test purposes. Listing 50 shows the source of
program RANDOM.BAS.
209
Dim Value As Integer
Dim Seed As Integer
Declare Function Random(byval Z As Integer) As Integer
Seed = 1234 ' or other initialization value

' from RTC for example
Value = Random(1000) ' calculates a pseudo random
' numer between 0 and 1000
End
Function Random(byval Z As Integer) As Integer

Local X As Integer
Local Y As Long
X = Seed * 259
X=X+3
Seed = X And &H7FFF
Y = Seed * Z
Y = Y / &H7FFF
Y=Y+1
Random = Y
End Function
Listing 50 Generation of random numbers (RANDOM.BAS)
Function random()is the core of program RANDOM.BAS. The pa-

rameter of that function defines the range of the random number to
be generated. Function call Value = Random(1000) will generate
a random number between 0 and 1000.
If the program is restarted, the same sequence of random numbers
will be generated. For test purposes this is a preferred feature, but
not so for applications.
In playing dice it would not be very thrilling if the numbers could be
predicted.
Variable Seed defines the random number sequence and must be
initialized before the first call of function random(). Normally, Seed
is initialized with the same value after each program start, and the
same sequence of numbers will be generated.
If Seed is initialized with a random number, another sequence of
random numbers will be generated after each program start. Using a
connected real-time clock for initialization of variable Seed is one
solution to avoid that always the same sequence of numbers occurs.
For test purposes random numbers can be sent via a serial port to
the microcontroller. A terminal program can send a data file contain-
210
ing random numbers to the microcontroller that can use these num-
ber as measuring results, for example.
A good source of random numbers is the URL
http://www.random.org/ nform.html. The number of random numbers
as well as the minimum and maximum values can be defined in an
input form. Figure 104 shows such a (completed) input form.
Figure 104 Input Form for Random Number Generation
In the example, 100 random numbers between 0 and 255 shall be

generated in one column. Figure 105 shows the result of the re-
quested operation. Figure 106 shows the generated random num-
bers in a graphic presentation.
211
Figure 105 Requested Random Numbers
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
15
22
29
36
43
50
57
64
71
78
85
92
99
1
Figure 106 Graphic Presentation of Requested Random Numbers
212
To save the generated random numbers for later use, the contents of
the browser window are saved as text file. The proposal in the
browser was RANDNUM.TXT and is used without any changes.
Important is the saving as text file, because the alternative HTML file
contains a lot of information not used here.
A terminal program can send this text file to the microcontroller now.
A simple program was installed for test purposes (Listing 51). The
program will be ported to BASCOM-8051 when PortB is changed to
P3, for example, and line Config Portb ... is erased.
' GETRANDOM.BAS by BASCOM-AVR
Dim Value As Byte

Dim Str_input As String * 4

Portb = &HFF
Do
Input Str_input Noecho
Value = Val(str_input)
Portb = Not Value
Loop
End
Listing 51 Test Program GETRANDOM.BAS
Input string Str_input is read from the serial port in an endless

loop. After conversion to a numeric value, the LEDs connected to
PortB will display the respective value. Each random number saved
in RANDNUM.TXT has max. three digits and is supplemented by a
carriage return CR (&H0D).
Due to parameter Noecho in instruction Input Str_input
Noecho, GETRANDOM.BAS sends no characters back to the termi-
nal.
Normally, other things are done with random numbers. In the pro-
gram example, the generation and provision of random numbers was
important first and foremost. The next paragraph will demonstrate
the use of random numbers for the test of an algorithm.
213
4.14 Moving Average
The calculation of the moving averageis a basic function of many
measuring instruments.
Each measured value has a variation range. In an audio signal such
a variation can be heard as noise. The calculation of a moving aver-
age is one means to reduce, or suppress, noise in any signal.
Figure 107 shows the principle of calculating a moving average.
Figure 107 Calculating the Moving Average
Sampled data (measured values) will be shifted through a shift reg-

ister. In Figure 107 the actual sample is saved in the extreme left
position of the shift register after all saved data have been shifted
one position to the right. The extreme right position of this shift reg-
ister – it contains the oldest value – is overwritten in every shift op-
eration.
A shift register of length n can save the last n sampled data. These
last n samples can be used for the calculation of an average (mean
value). To calculate the average, add up all values and divide by n.
This procedure is to be repeated with every new sample.
In the next program example MEAN.BAS. a sampled measured
value, is replaced by a random number. In this way, the simulator
can be used to test the whole procedure. Listing 52 shows the source
of this program example.
214
' MEAN.BAS by BASCOM-AVR
Dim Mean As Byte

Dim Mean_temp As Integer
Dim Lenght As Word
Dim Index As Byte
Dim Temp As Byte
Dim Value As Integer

Dim Seed As Integer
Declare Function Random(byval Z As Integer) As Integer
Lenght = 5
Dim Buffer(lenght) As Byte

Portb = &HFF
Seed = 1234 ' or other initialization value

' from RTC for example
For Index = 1 To Lenght
Buffer(index) = 0
Next
Do
Index = Lenght - 1
Do
Temp = Buffer(index)
Incr Index
Buffer(index) = Temp
Decr Index
Decr Index
Loop Until Index = 0
Value = Random(&Hff) ' calculates a pseudo random

Buffer(1) = Low(value) ' number between 0 and 255
' and write it to buffer
Mean_temp = 0 ' calculate mean value
For Index = 1 To Lenght
Mean_temp = Mean_temp + Buffer(index)
Next
Mean_temp = Mean_temp \ Lenght
Mean = Low(mean_temp)
Portb = Not Mean ' display mean value

Print Value ; " " ; Mean
Waitms 20
Loop
End
215
Function Random(byval Z As Integer) As Integer
Local X As Integer
Local Y As Long
X = Seed * 259
X=X+3
Seed = X And &H7FFF
Y = Seed * Z
Y = Y / &H7FFF
Y=Y+1
Random = Y
End Function
Listing 52 Moving Average (MEAN.BAS)
The random number generator introduced in program RANDOM.BAS

generates the values emulating the sampled data.
Figure 108 shows the sequence of random numbers and the moving
average over five positions.
300
200
100
0
106
121
136
151
166
181
196
211
16
31
46
61
76
91
1
Figure 108 Moving Average over Five Positions
A better smoothing of the measured noise data is obtained with more

considered positions. Figure 109 shows the same sequence of ran-
dom numbers and the moving average over 16 positions.
216
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
106
121
136
151
166
181
196
211
1
16
31
46
61
76
91
Figure 109 Moving average over 16 positions
Better smoothing gives a more even curve but must be paid for with
a delay.
Choosing the length of the shift register as power of 2 (2, 4, 8 etc.)
allows the awkward division operation to be replaced by a simple
shift operation.
For a shift register length of 16, the division by 16 can be replaced by
a shift by 4:
'Mean_temp = Mean_temp \ Length

Shift Mean_temp , Right , 4
Such an adaptation reduces the run time of a program considerably.

While the division in the above example takes 72.25 µs, the shift
operation will already be finished after 19.75 µs.
217
218
5 Appendix
5.1 Decimal-Hex-ASCII Converter

The following Decimal-Hex-ASCII Table supports the conversion of
the different data formats.
DEC HEX ASCII Key DEC HEX ASCII Key
0 0x00 NUL Ctrl @ 64 0x40 @

1 0x01 SOH Ctrl A 65 0x41 A
2 0x02 STX Ctrl B 66 0x42 B
3 0x03 ETX Ctrl C 67 0x43 C
4 0x04 EOT Ctrl D 68 0x44 D
5 0x05 ENQ Ctrl E 69 0x45 E
6 0x06 ACK Ctrl F 70 0x46 F
7 0x07 BEL Ctrl G 71 0x47 G
8 0x08 BS Ctrl H 72 0x48 H
9 0x09 HT Ctrl I 73 0x49 I
10 0x0A LF Ctrl J 74 0x4A J
11 0x0B VT Ctrl K 75 0x4B K
12 0x0C FF Ctrl L 76 0x4C L
13 0x0D CR Ctrl M 77 0x4D M
14 0x0E SO Ctrl N 78 0x4E N
15 0x0F SI Ctrl O 79 0x4F O
16 0x10 DLE Ctrl P 80 0x50 P
17 0x11 DC1 Ctrl Q 81 0x51 Q
18 0x12 DC2 Ctrl R 82 0x52 R
19 0x13 DC3 Ctrl S 83 0x53 S
20 0x14 DC4 Ctrl T 84 0x54 T
21 0x15 NAK Ctrl U 85 0x55 U
22 0x16 SYN Ctrl V 86 0x56 V
23 0x17 ETB Ctrl W 87 0x57 W
24 0x18 CAN Ctrl X 88 0x58 X
25 0x19 EM Ctrl Y 89 0x59 Y
26 0x1A SUB Ctrl Z 90 0x5A Z
27 0x1B ESC Ctrl [ 91 0x5B [
28 0x1C FS Ctrl \ 92 0x5C \
29 0x1D GS Ctrl ] 93 0x5D ]
30 0x1E RS Ctrl ^ 94 0x5E ^
31 0x1F US Ctrl _ 95 0x5F _
32 0x20 SP 96 0x60 '
33 0x21 ! 97 0x61 a
34 0x22 " 98 0x62 b
35 0x23 # 99 0x63 c
219
36 0x24 $ 100 0x64 d
37 0x25 % 101 0x65 e
38 0x26 & 102 0x66 f
39 0x27 ' 103 0x67 g
40 0x28 ( 104 0x68 h
41 0x29 ) 105 0x69 i
42 0x2A * 106 0x6A j
43 0x2B + 107 0x6B k
44 0x2C , 108 0x6C l
45 0x2D - 109 0x6D m
46 0x2E . 110 0x6E n
47 0x2F / 111 0x6F o
48 0x30 0 112 0x70 p
49 0x31 1 113 0x71 q
50 0x32 2 114 0x72 r
51 0x33 3 115 0x73 s
52 0x34 4 116 0x74 t
53 0x35 5 117 0x75 u
54 0x36 6 118 0x76 v
55 0x37 7 119 0x77 w
56 0x38 8 120 0x78 x
57 0x39 9 121 0x79 y
58 0x3A : 122 0x7A z
59 0x3B ; 123 0x7B {
60 0x3C < 124 0x7C |
61 0x3D = 125 0x7D }
62 0x3E > 126 0x7E ~
63 0x3F ? 127 0x7F DEL DEL
5.2 DT006 Circuit Diagram

The DT006 board will program the 8, 20, and 28 pin DIP chips on
board. There are sockets for all three chips.
You will need a DB-25-male to DB-25 female cable with at least pins
2, 4, 5, 11, and 25 (GND) connected straight through between the
DB-25 male and the DB-25 female. Standard DB-25 male to female
extension cables that have all 25 wires connected straight through,
are fine for this job.
The whole DT006 circuitry is shown on the next page.
220
221
5.3 Characters in Seven-Segment Display
222
5.4 BASIC Stamp II
The BASIC Stamp II (BS2) is a microcontroller programmable in
BASIC. Based on Microchip's PIC16C57 and equipped with Paral-
lax's PBASIC2 Firmware, a microcontroller is obtained that executes
BASIC tokens saved in an EEPROM. The whole infrastructure is
available in a 24pin DIL module. Figure 110 shows the BS2 Module.
Figure 110 BS2 Module
In addition to the BS2 Chip programmed with PBASIC firmware, the

2
BS2 Module contains an I C EEPROM, a reset device and a voltage
regulator.
Parallax offers a complete PC development environment for down-
load [http://www.parallaxinc.com].
A program prepared for BS2 can be downloaded from PC to BS2 via
a serial link. After reset, the program will run on BS2.
See Parallax's or the author's website [http://www.ckuehnel.ch] for
further information on the BASIC Stamp.
223
5.5 Literature
[1] EDN's 25th Annual Microprocessor/Microcontroller Directory

EDN Access, September 24, 1998
http://www.ednmag.com/reg/1998/092498/8_8051.htm
[2] C8051Fxxx Mixed-Signal Microcontroller Family Datasheets

Cygnal Integrated Products, Inc
http://www.cygnal.com/view.asp?page=datasheets
[3] Turley, J.:

Atmel AVR brings RISC to 8-bit World.
Microprocessor Report, Vol. 11, H. 9, Sunnyvale/CA 1997.
[4] Kühnel, C.:

AVR RISC Microcontroller Handbook.
Newnes: Boston, Oxford, Johannesburg, Melbourne, New
Delhi, Singapore, 1998
[5] AVR313: Interfacing the PC AT Keyboard.

Atmel Application Note
[6] Kühnel, C.; Zahnert, K.:

BASIC Stamp. 2.Edition
Newnes: Boston, Oxford, Johannesburg, Melbourne, New
Delhi, Singapore, 2000
224
5.6 Links
Author's Web Site - Distribution of BASCOM in D, CH and A

http://www.ckuehnel.ch
MCS Electronics' Website - Developer of BASCOM
http://www.mcselec.com
BASCOM Forum
http://ch.onelist.com/community/BASCOM
Equinox Technologies
Programmers and Evaluation Modules for 8051 and AVR
http://www.equinox-tech.com
Dontronics
The World's Largest Range of Atmel/AVR & PICmicro HW and SW
Free Basic Compiler and Programmer
http://www.dontronics.com/runavr.html
The Little "rAVeR!" AVR & Basic Kit
http://www.dontronics.com/dt006.html
Practical Tips on Serial Communication

http://www.seetron.com/ser_an1.htm
TM
DS1820 1–Wire Digital Thermometer
DS1820 Data Sheet
http://www.dalsemi.com/DocControl/PDFs/1820.pdf
MicroLAN Design Guide
Description of 1-Wire Networks from Dallas Semiconductors
http://www.dalsemi.com/TechBriefs/tb1.html
Understanding and Using Cyclic Redundancy Checks with
TM
Dallas Semiconductor iButton Products
Description of CRC Checks for 1-Wire Components
http://www.dalsemi.com/DocControl/PDFs/app27.pdf
DECODING IR REMOTE CONTROLS
Decoding the RC5 Commands includes a sample program for 8052 in
assembler.
http://www.ee.washington.edu/eeca/text/ir_decode.txt
The RC5 code, Philips
Description of RC5 Commands
http://kwik.ele.tue.nl/pvdb/rc/philips.html
225
S.N.A.P - Scaleable Node Address Protocol
Description of S.N.A.P. including some sample programs and possibil-
ity of download
http://www.hth.com/snap/
CANDIP - How easy and inexpensive can CAN be?
LAWICEL's Web Site with description of the CANDIP device
http://www.candip.com
SJA1000 Stand-alone CAN Controller
Philips' web site for download of CAN controller data sheet
http://www.semiconductors.philips.com
226
6 Index
$EXTERNAL............................ 47 AVR ICP910 Programmer .......50

$LIB ......................................... 47 AVR ISP Programmer..............36
16-Bit Timer/Counter ............... 81 AVR microcontroller.................11
1-Wire.................................... 151 AVR Studio ........................30; 64
1-Wire Bus System ............... 151 BASCOM demos .....................23
1-Wire Network...................... 151 BASCOM-AVR Demo Files......24
1WIRE1.BAS AVR ................ 156 BASCOM-AVR Options ...........28
1WIRE2.BAS AVR ................ 158 BASIC Compiler.......................23
1WIRE3.BAS......................... 160 BASIC Stamp.................148; 223
3x4 Keypad............................ 133 Block diagram 8051.................10
4-Bit Mode ............................... 32 Block diagram AT90S8515 ......14
5 x 7 LED matrix .................... 114 Block diagram C8051F0000 ....11
7SEGMENT.BAS 8051.......... 112 Block diagram of 8051 timer..105
8051 Assembler ...................... 75 Block Diagram of CANDIP/AVR
Module ...............................201
8-Bit Mode ............................... 32
BlockMove Routine..................47
Acceptance Filter................... 207
BS2 ................................148; 223
Acknowledge ......................... 171
BS2 Module ...........................223
Alphanumeric LCD .................. 42
Building new instructions .........69
Analog Comparator ................. 16
Bus Master.............................151
Applications ............................. 77
BYREF.....................................71
Architecture ............................. 12
Byte Write Operation .............171
Associated Function .............. 180
BYVAL .....................................71
Asynchronous serial
communication ............ 16; 143 Calculation of 8-bit CRC ........160
AT90S8515 ............................. 13 CAN .......................................197
AT90S8515 as a logical device78 CAN Controller SJA1000 .......207
ATKBD.BAS AVR .................. 139 CAN Standard Frame ............198
AutoUpdate ............................. 25 CANDIP Activity Board ..201; 209
AVR Assembler ....................... 74
227
CANDIP/AVR Microcontroller Debugging .............9; 27; 60; 209
Module............................... 199
Decimal-Hex-ASCII-Converter219
CANDIP/AVR Network........... 203
Device Type Identifier ............169
CANDIPIO.BAS AVR............. 207
Differences between AVR and
CAPTURE1.BAS ..................... 90 8051.....................................59
Capturing a pulse length ....... 103 Digital Thermometer ..............152
Character Generator RAM..... 120 Digital-to-analog conversion ....94
Checkcan ...................... 203; 208 Digital-to-Analog Conversion by
PWM ....................................99
Chip>Autoprogram................ 66
Dot-matrix Display .................114
CK.LIB ..................................... 48
DOTMATRIX.BAS AVR .........118
Clock Generator ...................... 82
Download.........................23; 144
Clock Select Bits ..................... 92
DPTR .........................................9
Commercial version........... 23; 25
DS1820..................................152
Compare Interrupt ................... 84
DS1820 Block Diagram .........152
Compiler Directives ................. 69
Duty .........................................92
Configuration of On-Chip SPI 164
Error messages .......................25
Connecting LEDs .................. 108
Evaluation board MCU00100...50
Connection of a Matrix Keypad134
Extended Keys.......................137
Connectors for PC-AT keyboard137
Family Code...........................152
Controller Area Network ........ 197
FBPRG Programmer ...............51
Controlling an LCD .................. 32
File>New .................................27
Counter Mode.......................... 89
File>Open .........................27; 64
COUNTER0.BAS..................... 89
Frame ......................................28
CPHA..................................... 166
Getatkbd()..............................137
CPOL..................................... 166
GETKBD()..............................135
CRC16 Error Detection.......... 175
GETRANDOM.BAS................213
CRC-Byte .............................. 152
GETRC5() ..............................142
Customer-specific characters.. 42
Global Interrupt Enable/Disable15
Data Direction Register ........... 16
Graphic BMP Converter...........37
Data Display RAM ................. 120
Harvard architecture ................12
Data-pointer............................... 9
HD 44780.................................42
Debug>Go .............................. 65
Header Definition Bytes .175; 176
228
Hello World.............................. 57 LCD.BAS .........................38; 122
Help System ............................ 67 LCD1.BAS ...............................44
I/O Ports .................................. 16 LCDs with a serial interface ...122
2
I C Bus Network .................... 168 LED........................................107
2
I C-Bus .................................. 167 Library......................................46
2
I C-Bus EEPROM.................. 169 Library Manager.................37; 46
ICP910 Programmer ............... 66 Link to external programmer....53
IIC.BAS AVR ......................... 173 Local variable ..........................28
Initsja ..................................... 203 LOGIC.BAS 8252 ....................81
Inkey() ................................... 146 LOGIC.BAS AVR .....................79
Input Capture........................... 16 LOGIC1.BAS AVR ...................80
Input Capture Noise Canceler . 91 Logical devices ........................77
Input Form for Random Number Low Pass .................................98
Generation......................... 211
Manual .....................................23
Installation ............................... 23
Matrix Keypad ........................132
Instruction set .......................... 17
MAX232 .................................143
Internal resources.................... 13
MCS.LIB ..................................46
Interrupt module ...................... 15
MEAN.BAS ............................216
Interrupt vector ........................ 15
Memory maps AT90S8515 ......15
Interrupt vector table ............... 15
Microcontroller Project ...............9
IR Receiver SFH506-36 ........ 142
Micro-Pro 51 ............................52
IR remote control................... 140
MISO......................................161
KEY1.BAS 8051 .................... 132
Mixing of BASIC and Assembler73
KEY1.BAS AVR..................... 131
MOSI......................................161
KEY2.BAS AVR..................... 135
Moving Average.....................214
Keyboards ............................. 128
Multi-Master System ..............167
Keypad 1x12.......................... 129
Networking.............................173
Keypads ................................ 128
NM25C04...............................162
LCD Controller HD44780119; 123
On-Chip RAM ............................9
LCD Designer............ 37; 42; 115
Options>
LCD in bus mode................... 120 Compiler>Communication 30
LCD SetUp .............................. 33
229
Options>Communication...... 33 Pulse-Width-Modulation ..........16
Options>Communications.... 41 PULSIN.BAS..........................101
Options>Compiler>Chip ....... 28 PULSIN1.BAS........................103
Options>Compiler>I2C, SPI, PULSIN2.BAS........................103
1WIRE ......................... 31; 164
PWM ..................................16; 92
Options>Compiler>LCD........ 32
PWM0.BAS..............................94
Options>Compiler>Output ... 29 PWM1.BAS..............................95
Options>Environment ........... 34 Random Numbers..................209
Options>Programmer............ 36 Random Read Operation.......171
Options>Programmer>Other 52 RANDOM.BAS.......................210
Options>Simulation Options 65 RC5........................................140
Options>Simulator ................ 35 RC5 Device Address .............141
Output Compare ...................... 16 RC5.BAS AVR .......................142
Output Compare Function ....... 85 Report file ................................63
Output Compare Mode ............ 82 Reportfile .................................64
Parameter handling ................. 71 RS-232 Level Conversion......144
Parameter passing BYREF ..... 73 Runtime measurement ............49
Parameter passing BYVAL...... 72 RXFIFO..................................207
PC-AT Keyboard Interface .... 138 S.N.A.P. .................................174
PC-AT keyboards .................. 136 S.N.A.P. Monitor ....................179
Peripherals ...................... 3; 9; 11 SC..........................................167
Pin configuration AT90S8515.. 17 Scalable Network...................174
Prescaler ................................. 16 Scan Codes of a PC-AT
Program RS232MON ............ 193 Keyboard ...........................137
Program SnapLab ................. 190 Scratchpad RAM........9; 153; 158
Program>Compile ................. 62 SDA .......................................167
Program>Send to Chip.......... 66 Segment Control....................110
Program>Show Result .......... 62 Serial Peripheral Interface .......16
Program>Simulate........... 38; 64 SERIAL.BAS............................41
Program>Syntax Check ........ 61 SERIAL.BS2 ..........................150
Programming mode................. 17 SERIAL1.BAS ........................144
Programming with AVR ICP91050 SERIAL2.BAS ........................145

SERIAL3.BAS ........................146
230
SERIAL4.BAS AVR ............... 149 SW_UART.BAS AVR.............126
Seven-Segment Display in Telegram................................175
BASCOM-8051 Simulator.. 113
Terminal Emulator .............37; 40
Seven-segment displays ....... 108
Terminal Emulators..................34
SIM_TIMER.BAS ..................... 59
TEST_LIB.BAS ........................49
SIM_TIMER.BAS for 8051....... 59
Timer Period ................57; 58; 82
SIM_TIMER.BAS for AVR ....... 58
TIMER.BAS 8051...................107
SIM_TIMER.RPT for 8051....... 64
Timer/Counter....................16; 81
SIM_TIMER.RPT for AVR ....... 63
Timer0......................................82
Slave ..................................... 151
TIMER0.BAS............................85
Smoothing ............................. 216
TIMER0_1.BAS........................87
SNAP-IO.BAS........................ 190
Timer1......................................82
SNAP-MON.BAS ................... 183
TIMER3.BAS............................84
Software UART...................... 147
Tools>LCD Designer .............42
SPI Clock Rate ...................... 166
Tools>Terminal emulator ......41
SPI Control Register.............. 165
Transmitcanio ........................203
SPI Interface.......................... 161
UART ...............................16; 143
SPI Timing............................. 162
Up-counter ...............................84
SPI.BAS AVR ........................ 163
Update of BASCOM-AVR ........26
SPI1.BAS AVR ...................... 164
View>New Memory View .......65
SPI4.BAS AVR ...................... 165
View>Peripheral>Port>PortB 65
Stack size ................................ 28
Waitkey() ...............................146
Subroutine Construct............... 69
Watchdog Timer ......................16
SW_UART.BAS 8051............ 128
X051 Demo Module .................54
231
232
233
Other books by Claus Kuhnel:
Introduction to PIC microcontroller operation.

Applications for designers and hobbyists.
Integrated hardware and software coverage.
ISBN: 0-7506-7245-5
Softcover
Measurements: 6 x 9.25 In.
Pages: 305 pp
Publication Date: July 21, 2000
Price: $29.95
This book introduces microcontroller theory using the Parallax BASIC
Stamp I, II, and IIsx. The BASIC Stamp microcontroller is based on Micro-
chip's PIC hardware with some modifications and is very approachable for
beginning users. Once the basic theory is established, BASIC Stamp, 2nd
Ed. walks the reader through applications suitable for designers as well as
the home hobbyist. These applications can be used as is or as a basis for
further modifications to suit specific design needs. BASIC Stamp, 2nd Ed.
thoroughly explains the hardware base of the BASIC Stamp microcontroller
including internal architecture, the peripheral functions, as well as provid-
ing the technical data sheets for each kind of chip. The authors also ex-
plain the BASIC Stamp development systems including DOS and Win-
dows-based tools in tremendous detail. As an added feature, BASIC
Stamp, 2nd Ed. includes full instructions for using PBASIC programming
and formatting. The book provides many specific applications for micro-
controller use, complete with programming instructions, including: single
instructions, multiple instructions, interfacing directions, and more complex
applications such as motion detection, light measurement, and home
automation.
234
Practical guide for advanced hobbyists or de-
sign professionals.
Development tools and code available on the
Web.
ISBN: 0-7506-9963-9
Paperback
Measurements: 6 x 9.25 In.
Pages: 256pp
Publication Date: May 07, 1998
Price: $36.95
The AVR RISC Microcontroller Handbook is a comprehensive guide to
designing with Atmel's new controller family, which is designed to offer high
speed and low power consumption at a lower cost. The main text is divided
into three sections: hardware, which covers all internal peripherals; soft-
ware, which covers programming and the instruction set; and tools, which
explains using Atmel's Assembler and Simulator (available on the Web) as
well as IAR's C compiler.
Introduction to PIC microcontroller operation.
Applications for designers and hobbyists.
Integrated hardware and software coverage.
ISBN: 0-7506-9891-8
Paperback
Measurements: 6.25 x 9.25 In.
Pages: 208pp
Publication Date: February 19, 1997
Price: $34.95
BASIC Stamp introduces microcontroller theory using the Parallax BASIC
Stamp I and II. The BASIC Stamp microcontroller is based on Microchip's
PIC hardware with some modifications, and is very approachable for be-
ginning users. The book covers both the hardware and software ends of
the chip's operation. Once the basic theory is established, the majority of
BASIC Stamp walks you through applications suitable for designers as well
as the home hobbyist. These applications can be used as is, or as a basis
for further modifications to suit your needs.
235
236

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1.1 8051 Family

Figure 1 Block diagram 8051

Figure 2 Block diagram C8051F0000

1.2 AVR Family

The internal resources of the AVR microcontrollers will be considered

The AVR microcontrollers make use of a Harvard structure with

Table 2 Instruction Set of AVR microcontrollers

These introducing remarks on the AVR microcontrollers cannot of

2.1 BASCOM Demos

Figure 6 BASCOM-AVR Demo Files

As is common for most demo programs, some restrictions must be

2.2 BASCOM Commercial Versions

2.3 Update of BASCOM Commercial Versions

Figure 8 Update of BASCOM-AVR

If your installation is up-to-date then there is no need for an update.

2.4 BASCOM Projects

2.4.1 Working on Projects

2.4.2 BASCOM Options

The compiler generates many files selectable by Options> Com-

To simplify matters, all files on the left side should be selected.

In addition to serial communication according to RS232, BASCOM

From menu Options>Compiler>LCD an LCD can be connected to

AT90Sxxxx A15 A14 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0

4-bit Mode E RS db7 db6 db5 db4 - - - -

For BASCOM-8051 and BASCOM-AVR it is possible to assign any

The editor features can be adapted as preferred. Figure 16 shows

In BASCOM-AVR you can choose the internal simulator or AVR Stu-

The last important step is the selection of a programmer via menu

2.5 BASCOM Tools

Clicking Program>Simulate or F2 starts the Simulator and the

Figure 20 BASCOM-AVR Simulator

2.5.2 Terminal Emulator

Do A = Inkey() 'get value from serial port

If A > 0 Then 'we got something

To start the Terminal Emulator, click Tools>Terminal emulator or

Figure 21 BASCOM-AVR Terminal Emulator

If a character is sent to the target hardware by typing this character in

2.5.3 LCD Designer

Figure 24 Instruction generated by the LCD designer

A small program (Listing 3) supports the test of these user-specific

At the beginning of the program there are three character definitions

Figure 26 BASCOM-8051 LIB Manager

Figure 27 shows routines of the library MCS.LIB for BASCOM-AVR.

The libraries will be searched when a used routine is declared with

Const Bl = 40 ' Defines a block length

Dim Blocklength As Byte

Dim Block1(bl) As Byte ' Two blocks of 40 bytes each

Dim I As Byte ' Index variable

$lib "CK.LIB" ' Use _blockmove from CK.LIB

For I = 1 To Bl ' Initialize Block1

For I = 1 To 40 ' clear Block1

For I = 1 To 40 ' copy Block2 to Block1 back

' Blockmove is the entry for _blockmove assembler routine

At the beginning of the program two memory blocks of a length of 40

2.5.5 Programming Devices

Figure 28 Programming with AVR ICP910

If there is no evaluation board or programmer available, one of the