University of Karachi

Department of Public Administration

Research Report
Topic: Consequence of Absenteism on Job
Satisfaction

Name: Muhammad Ahsan Hayee

Roll No: P1391028
MPA Morning

Submitted to:
Ms Areeba

Abstract

In today's world absenteeism is one of the major problems faced by

organizations across the globe. The paper starts with a literature survey
concerning absenteeism and job satisfaction. Most of the literature on
absenteeism suggests that absence from work is a complex issue influenced
by multiple causes, both of personal and of organizational nature. Job
satisfaction has also been identified as one of the factors affecting an
employees motivation to work attendance. The aim of the present study
was therefore to determine whether there is a relationship between job
satisfaction and absenteeism in organizations. Both variables were assessed
in a sample of 50 employees working in organizations. Results were
analyzed with correlations and multiple regressions. The finding of this
research lends strong support to the fact that there is a strong and
moderating relation between absenteeism.

Introduction
In recent years, there has been an rising interest regarding the
economics of absenteeism, spurred by a growing understanding that
the economic and social costs of the phenomenon are quite considerable.
Besides the cost implications, absenteeism is influenced by many factors
which make it even more complicated to quantify, qualify or rectify
(Tylczak, 1990). Some of these factors can be family obligations,
working conditions, occupational accidents, and distance to work (see
Rhodes and Steers 1990; Michie and Williams 2003; Ose, 2005). One of
the factors that have been cited by different researchers is the employees
level of job satisfaction in the workplace (e.g. Tylczak, 1990). Furthermore,
many studies have concentrated on the relationship between absenteeism
and job satisfaction in an attempt to discover ways to reduce absenteeism.
In particular, a number of researchers maintain that job dissatisfaction
represents the primary cause of absenteeism (e.g. George & Jones 2002). Job
satisfaction is generally defined as an employees attitude toward the
job and the job situation. Robbins et al. (2003) define job satisfaction as
the difference between the rewards employees receive and the reward they
believe they should receive. Hence, the higher this discrepancy, the lower
job satisfaction will be. An understanding of the relationship between job
satisfaction and other factors to absenteeism may provide important insight
for managers who must cope with the consequences of employee
absenteeism. Understanding these factors may help managers design
policies that provide positive work environments prompting employees to
have positive feelings about the work situation.
This study will investigate the relationship between absenteeism, job
satisfaction.

A review of the relevant literature and discussion of the

conceptual framework of the study including the hypotheses will be

examined, a discussion of the background and setting for the study.
Methodological information, including a discussion of data collection, variable
measurement, and statistical tools used to analyze the results. The findings
of the study are presented with conclusions and suggestions.

LITERATURE REVIEW
The term absenteeism refers to failure to report to work.

The

definition

itself tells the failure of the organization process if the employee fails
to follow the rules and standards of the organization. Absenteeism is a
type of unscheduled activity which threatens the organization to fall in
danger as it leads to the disruption of the daily process. Absenteeism
converts the organization into a deviant work place behavior. It makes the
employees to violate the norms of the organization leading to a disastrous
output. Such

effect

organization

leading

Literature

suggests

of
to

absenteeism

affects

decreased

selection

that absenteeism is

the

turnover

and training

a major

problem

of

the

cost.

in many

organisations, hence, the importance of focusing on this behavior within the

organization.
Furthermore, as a general phenomenon it does not discriminate against
individuals on the basis of sex, race and religion. Besides the cost
implications, absenteeism is influenced by dozens of interrelated factors
which make it even more difficult to quantify, qualify, or rectify (Tylczak ,
1990, p. 9). Various studies have attempted to examine the relationship
between absenteeism and job satisfaction as absence is commonly viewed
as one of the means of withdrawal from stressful work situations. Such
studies have generally investigated the proposition that workers who are less
satisfied with their job will be absent more than those who experience jobsatisfaction (Hackett & Guion, 1985: 340; Hackett, 1989: 235; I l g e n &
Hollenbeck, 1977: 148). Most absence research has concentrated on two
main themes:

The association of personal characteristics with absence and the

association of job satisfaction with absence. Job satisfaction and personal
characteristics (such as age and family size), have been found to be related
to absenteeism in some studies, but not related in others.
As cited by C. Swarnalatha and G. Sureshkrishna (2013) ,According to
Luthans (1990), research has generally revealed a consistent inverse
relationship between job satisfaction and absenteeism, i.e. when satisfaction
is high, absenteeism tends to be low and when satisfaction is low,
absenteeism tends to be high.

As cited by B.A Josias (2005), to many in the world of work,

absenteeism is one of those stubborn problems for which ..there is no
clear culprit and no easy cure (Rhodes & Steers, 1990, p. 1). Furthermore,
as a general phenomenon it does not discriminate against individuals on the
basis of sex, race and religion. According to C.SWARNALATHA and G.
SURESHKRISHNA (2013), research paper reveals absenteeism as a threat to
the organization and it leads to the dissatisfaction of the employees. An
understanding of relationship between job satisfaction and other factors to
absenteeism may provide important insight for managers who must cope
with the consequences of employee absenteeism.

Absenteeism:
As cited by B.A Josias (2005), Cascio (2003, p. 45) defines absenteeism as
any failure of an employee to report for or to remain at work as scheduled,
regardless of the reason. The author points out that the term as
scheduled carries significance in that it automatically excludes holidays
(annual leave), court cases, maternity leave and the like. This definition also
eliminates the problem of determining whether an absence is excusable or

not for example, in the case of verified illnesses. Cascio (2003, p. 45)
maintains that from a business perspective, the employee is absent and is
simply not available to perform his or her job; that absence will cost money.
As cited by B.A josias (2005) employees attendance is primarily determined by

two important variables: (1) an employees motivation to attend, and (2) an

employees ability to attend (Rhodes & Steers, 1990, p. 45). Absenteeism in
the workplace is receiving increasing attention and organizations are
taking a closer look at the costs of absenteeism as well as issues such
as employee loyalty and commitment, Duplessis, Visser & Fourie (2003)

Types of absenteeism:
As cited by B.A Josias (2005), Van der Merwe and Miller (1988) classify
absenteeism into three broad categories that help to understand the nature
of this phenomenon. They are:

Sickness absence

Sickness absence is a category where employees claim ill health as their

reason for absence. Requirements regarding medical/doctors certificates
vary and are determined by company policy.

Authorized absence/absence with permission

Absence with permission is where employees provide an excuse for their

absence whether that be for holidays, study leave, special leave and the like.

Normally such a request is included in the absence policy (Van der Merwe &
Miller, 1988, p. 11).

Unexcused absence/ absence without leave

All absences not falling into the two previous categories and where no reason
is given, or not accepted, are regarded as unexcused (Van Der Merwe &
Miller, 1988, p. 11).

Consequences of employee absenteeism

As cited by B. A. Josias that according to Goodman and Atkin (1984) as cited
by Winfield (1991), suggest that absenteeism can have both positive and
negative consequences for different groups. These groups include the
individuals themselves, their co-workers, the larger work group, the
organization and management, trade unions, the family and the society at
large.

Cost of absenteeism:
According to M. A. M. Clenney (1992), Research several significant costs
associated with absenteeism:
1. Overtime, extra hours for part-time employees, overstaffing.
2. Regular fringe benefits that must be paid when workers are absent.
3. Costs of maintaining and administering an absence control system.
4. Time spent by supervisors revising work schedules, counseling and
reprimanding workers, and checking on output of substitutes.
5. Reduced productivity and morale among co-workers.
6. Higher level of turnover, grievances and tardiness.

Summary
Absenteeism, a problem with no strong cause, is expensive for both the
organization and the individual. The conflicting and contradictory results of
preceding research are often attributed to the illdefined concept of
absenteeism

and

inadequate

measures.

Most

studies

focus

on

the

relationship between absenteeism and employee attitudes.

Job satisfaction
As cited by W. K. Baker the construct of job satisfaction is generally defined
as a positive emotional state that reflects an affective response to the job
situation (Locke, 1976). As cited by B. A. Josais (2005), job satisfaction is also
defined as a response towards various facets of ones job that is a person
can be relatively satisfied with one aspect of his or her job and dissatisfied
with other aspects (French, 1998; George & Jones, 2002; Kreitner & Kinicki,
2001).
Employee satisfaction is important to organizations success. Atchison (1999)
states that many
Organizations are spending much time on employee satisfaction initiatives in
an effort to reduce work stress, improve productivity, and help organization
to achieve their objective and get succeed. C. Swarnalatha and G.
Sureshkrishna (2013) states Managers must focus on job satisfaction of its
employees and avoid unsatisfied individuals leave organization, check
satisfied employees are in better health and have longer life expectancy and
other work related attitudes and behaviors among employees have to be
noted.

Why job satisfaction is important:

There are at least three reasons why managers must focus on the job
satisfaction of its employees:
1. Evidence suggests that unsatisfied individuals leave organisations.
2. Satisfied employees are in better health and have longer life expectancy.
Connolly and Myers (2003) further maintain that a lack of job satisfaction
has been associated with symptoms like anxiety, depression and poor
physical

and

psychological

health,

which

have

concomitant

consequences for absenteeism and commitment.

3. Job satisfaction in the workplace also affects individuals private lives
which in turn has an effect on absenteeism and other important work-related
attitudes and behavior.

Theoretical Approaches to Job Satisfaction

As mentioned by B. A. Josias (2005), over the years, researchers devised a
number of theoretical approaches to explaining job satisfaction. The theories
most frequently addressed in literature are presented below.

Discrepancy theory
According to Aamodt (2004), discrepancy theories postulate that job
satisfaction is determined by the discrepancy between what employees
want, value and expect and what the job actually provides. Employees will
therefore experience dissatisfaction if there is a discrepancy between what
they want and what the job offers. Theories that focus on employees needs
and values include Maslows hierarchy of needs theory, ERG theory, Twofactor theory and McClellands needs theory (Aamodt, 2004; Robbins et al.,
2003

Maslows needs hierarchy

Maslows (1954) theory, which is one of the best known theories, holds that
employees would be motivated by and satisfied with their jobs only if certain
needs are met (Aamodt, 2004). Maslow advances five major types of needs

which are hierarchical. This implies that lower-level needs must be satisfied
first before an individual will consider the next level of needs (Robbins,
1989). The five major needs are as follows:
1. Basic biological needs.
2. Safety needs.
3. Social needs.
4. Esteem needs.
5. Self-actualization needs.

ERG theory

Alderfer (1972) reworked Maslows needs theory and classified needs into
only three groups of core needs, namely, existence, relatedness and growth
(Robbins et al., 2003). The existence group is concerned with providing basic
needs and includes items that Maslows theory considered as biological and
safety needs (Robbins, 1989). The second group of needs relates to
maintaining important relationships and the growth needs refers to the
desire for personal development (Robbins, 1989; Robbins et al., 2003).

Factors influencing job satisfaction

Job satisfaction is a complex variable and is influenced by factors of the job
environment as well as dispositional characteristics of an individual. These
factors have been arranged according to two dimensions, namely, extrinsic
and intrinsic factors (Buitendach & De Witte, 2005).
The extrinsic factors include things like pay, promotion opportunities, coworkers, supervision and recognition. Intrinsic factors include personality,
education, intelligence and abilities, age and marital status (Mullins, 1999).
According to Spector (1997), these categories of factors often work together
to influence job satisfaction.

Extrinisic Factors
Extrinsic sources of job satisfaction are determined by conditions that are
beyond the
control of the employee (Atchison, 1999).

Pay
Pay refers to the amount of compensation received for a specific job (Robbins
et al., 2003). Luthans (1995, p. 127) notes that wagesand salaries are
recognised to be a significant, but complex, multidimensional predictor of job
satisfaction.

Job or work itself

According to Luthans (1995), the content of the work performed by
employees is a major predictor of job satisfaction. Not surprisingly, research
is fairly clear that employees, who find their work interesting, are more
satisfied and motivated than employees who do not enjoy their jobs (Gately,
1997 as cited by Aamodt, 2004, p. 326).

Promotional opportunities
Bajpai and Srivastava (2004) postulate that promotion provides employees
with opportunities for personal growth, more responsibilities and also
increased social status.

Supervision
Research indicates that people who enjoy working with their supervisors will
be more satisfied with their jobs (Aamodt, 2004). Furthermore, a study by
Bishop and Scott (1997) as cited by Aamodt (2004)found that satisfaction
with supervisors was related to organizational and team commitment, which

in turn resulted in higher productivity, lower turnover and a greater

willingness to help.

Co-workers
Another dimension which influences job satisfaction is the extent to which
co-workers are friendly, competent and supportive (Robbins et al., 2003).
Research indicates that employees who have supportive co-workers will be
more satisfied with their jobs (Aamodt, 2004; Robbins, 1989; 2005). This is
mainly because the work group normally serves as a source of support,
comfort, advice and assistance to the individual worker (Luthans, 1995, p.
127).

Fairness
One factor related to job satisfaction is the extent to which employees
perceive that they are being treated fairly (Aamodt, 2004). According to
Robbins (1989), employees seek for policies and systems that they perceive
to be fair as this will likely result in an increase in job satisfaction.

Intrinsic factors
Intrinsic sources of job satisfaction primarily come from within the individual
and are essentially longer lasting than the extrinsic sources (Atchison, 1999).

Person job fit

According to Spector (1997), some research has attempted to investigate the
interaction between job and person factors to see if certain types of people
respond differently to different types of jobs. This approach posits that there
will be job satisfaction when characteristics of the job are matched to the
characteristics of the person (Edwards, 1991 as cited by Spector, 1997).

Personality
Robbins (1989, p. 51) defines personality as the sum total of ways in which
an
individual reacts and interacts with others. Research indicates that some
people are
predisposed by virtue of their personality to bemore or less satisfied despite
the changes
to their working environment and other factors (Aamodt, 2004; Johns, 1996).

Consequences of job satisfaction

According to B. A. JOSIAS(2005), Satisfaction on the job influences many
other organizational variables. These include not only work variables such as
performance or turnover, but also personal or non-work variables such as
health and satisfaction with life.

Productivity: According to Robbins et al. (2003), managers interest in job

satisfaction tends to centre on its effect on employees performance and
productivity.

Life satisfaction: The relationship between life and job satisfaction is thus
reciprocal- being satisfied with a job is postulated to affect life satisfaction and
vice versa (Spector, 1997).

Organizational commitment and organizational citizenship

behavior: There is a strong correlation between job satisfaction and

organizational commitment. Higher commitment can, in turn, facilitate higher

productivity. Robbins (2005) states that job satisfaction is a major determinant
of OCB in that satisfied employees would more likely talk positively about the
organization and go beyond their normal call of duty

Withdrawal behaviors: Many theories purport that people who dislike

their jobs will avoid them. This is commonly referred to as withdrawal, which
refers to behaviors by which employees remove them from the workplace, either
temporarily or permanently (Saal & Knight, 1988).

Relationship

between

job

satisfaction

and absenteeism
Negative relationship
M. A. M. Clenney (1992), states some empirical studies have found a significant

negative relationship between overall job satisfaction and absenteeism (e.g.

Waters & Roach, 1971; Hrebiniak & Roteman, 1973; Muchinsky, 1977;
Oldham et al., 1986). Waters and Roach reported that frequency of absence
was significantly related to overall job satisfaction (Waters & Roach, 1971:
93). Hrebiniak and Roteman observed that job dissatisfaction correlated
significantly with the number of days absent from the job (Hrebiniak &
Roteman, 1973: 382).
Job satisfaction has also been identified as one of the factors affecting an
employees motivation to work attendance. There is no universal agreement
concerning the relationship between absenteeism and job satisfaction. Some
research has found no correlation between these two variables whereas
other studies indicate a weak relationship between these two variables. It
has also been suggested that absence and job satisfaction might be more

strongly related under some conditions. (S. A. Drakopoulos and A. Grimani,

2011)

Conceptual Framework

Job
Satisfact
ion

Absentee
ism

Methodology
Research design:
Research design provides the basic direction for carrying out a research
project so as to obtain answers to research questions (Cooper & Schindler,
2003).

Purpose of the study:

This is hypothesis testing study because it engage in explanation of nature of
certain relationship and it shows the independence of factor in a situation i.e.
job satisfaction depends on absenteeism.

Type of investigation:
This is a causal study because it shows the cause and effect relationship
between two variables.

Study setting:

In my research we do a field study because this study is conducted to

establish cause -aneffect relationship using the same natural environment in
which employee normally functions.

Unit of analysis:
In my study the unit of analysis is individual, we want to know the effect of
employee job satisfaction on absenteeism then for this we are interested in
individual employees in the organization in order to find out the result.

Time horizon:
The present study used a cross-sectional study asit provides the user with a
snapshot of business elements at a given point in time (Hair et al., 2003).
This type of study seemed appropriate as it can be used within a short space
of time and data can be summarized statistically.

Population:
The population for the present study consisted of employees of FMCGs sector in Rawalpindi and
Islamabad. The table below illustrates the detail of our total population
FMCG

No.of employees

ABC Company
XYZ Company
PQR Compnay
123 Company
910 Company
567 Company
MNA COmpany
MCR Company

700
1100
950
1200
890
670
1190
820

Sampling

According to Cooper and Schindler (2003, p. 179), the basic idea of

sampling is by selecting some elements in a population, we may draw
conclusions about the entire population.

Sampling design
The sampling design that was considered appropriate for the present study
was probability sampling. In probability sampling we use stratified sampling
method in which I divided my population into two strata one is male
employees and second one is female employees in order to find out the
results.

Instruments:
questionnaire was used as an instrument in order to find out the result
QUESTIONNAIRE OF ABSENTEEISM:
1. There is failure in reporting for the scheduled work in your
organization?
2. Scheduled work is regularly displayed by the employees?
3. Volition to the social obligation in seen within your organizations
employees?
4. The violation to the social obligation does exist in your organization?
5. Employees poor act of performing work is seldom?
6. Better performance of job is frequent?
7. Contract is breached between employees and employer when absence
is seen?
8. Employee and employer relation is strengthened when absenteeism is
controlled in each department of your organization?
9. When employees are socially under pressure then job work is missed?
10.
Despite of social stress, employees perform their task?
11.
Medical leaves of employees is frequent?
12.
Non adjustment with the work due to medical is at low level?
13.
Psychological issues make the work done?
14.
Psychologically disturbed employees make absence?
15.
Missing the job for the whole day or some part is not seen
mostly?
16.
The whole or partly day missed by the employees is very little?
17.
Lack of interest in the job is mostly expressed by employees?
18.
Full interest in the job is seldom seen by the employees?
19.
Is their Habitual failure to appear to perform the job?
20.
Employees act of withdrawing themselves from the job is
regular?
QUESTIONAIRE OF JOB SATISFACTION
1. People / employees within your organization like their jobs fully?
2. In your organization disliking their jobs is often?

3. Positive role of employees towards the task is mostly seen?

4. You feel that employees when perceive their jobs as negatively then
they are no more contended with their job?
5. Are your employees truthfully stable with the task in job?
6. Are your employees unstable with their job task?
7. New Employees are oriented by the organization
8. No positive orientation given to employees?
9. Organization creates the gratification within employees when
rewarded?
10.
Frustration occurs when the employees see that their rewards
are not being matched with their expectations?
11.
Employees are discouraged in performing their job mostly?
12.
Encouragement is given by the leaders of the organization?
13.
Sense of inspiration towards doing the job well and with
involvement is seen whenever checked?
14.
Inspired employees are in more in quantity?
15.
Personal feeling of achievement is adopted by the employees
within the organization?
16.
A negative internal attitude is created within the employees
regarding job task?
17.
Positive push is generated from within the employees to perform
the task is your task regularly?
18.
Strong feeling of predetermination in the job is seen in the
employees?
19.
Comforts provided by the job boost up the level of satisfaction?
20.
Attributes of the job doesnt fulfill the expectations of
employees?

Sample size:
In our study we take sample size as 50 i.e. we take the sample of 50
employees to find out the results. The below table explains about that how
we select our sample.
Companies

No. of
employees

No. of male
employees

No. of female
employees

Sample size

ABC
Company
XYZ Company
MCR
Company
910 Company

700
1100
820
890

520
850
520
600

180
250
300
290

10(6M, 4F)
20(14M, 6F)
10(6M, 4F)
10(6M, 4F)

Procedure:
The questionnaire was handed to the participants (employees) and after
completion; we collected the questionnaires from participants and thanked
them for their participation. Then to find out the result from these
questionnaires we used SPS software and find the regression and correlation
of our study.

Results
The demographics results indicates that the participants who filled our
questionnaire are 58% male and 42% female, 12% participants are the age
of 20-25, 52% participants are the age of 25-30, 26% participant are the age
30-35 and 10% participants are the age of 35 above. Further this results
show that the participants who filled our questionnaire out of them 56%
participants have experience of 0-5 years, 28% participants have experience
of 6-10 years , 8% participants have 11-15 years experience and the
employees who have experience of 16 and above years are 8%. 30%
participants belong to the public sector and remaining 70% participants
belong to the private sector. The participants who filled our questionnaire out
of them 2% are undergraduates, 16% are graduates and remaining 82% are
masters holder. 62% are such participants who have 0-5 years of experience
with current organization, 24% have 6-10 year experience, 6% have 11-15
years experience and remaining 8% have 16 and above years experience
with current organization. This result shows that 16% participants have
income of 15-25000, 40% have 26-35000, 26% have 36-45000 and 18%
have above 45000 incomes.
The correlation is .775 that shows a strong significant correlation between
variables i.e. there is a strong relation that job satisfaction has an impact on
absenteeism.
R square is .600 it means that 60% change is brought in dependent variable
i.e. absenteeism due to independent variable i.e. job satisfaction and beta
is .775 that also shows that te strong relationship between two variables.
In descriptive statistics the mean for absenteeism is 4.13 which shows that
for the question of absenteeism majority people answer is agree where as for
job satisfaction it is 4.o3 its again shows that majority response are agree.

Discussion
Limitations:
There are several limitations of this study. First, the work units studied here
were embedded within a four organization of Rawalpindi and Islamabad only;
therefore it may have only offered the cultural identity of that organization.
Performing a larger study encompassing more organizations would alleviate
this limitation and assist in making the results more generalize. Since the
data population for this study was city employees it has added to the variety
of organizations that have been surveyed. The relationships and patterns
found in our study may be different when absence is tracked for exempt
employees, in different industries, or in other geographic locations.
One aspect that cannot be overlooked is that the employees involved in this
study reported their own absenteeism rates. Lying on the questionnaire or
forgetting certain days that the employees were absent from work could
have played a role in the study. One never knows if it did or not without
access to names and their records at the organization. Confidentiality is
always an issue with any study that uses self-report.
Additionally, job satisfaction is very complex concepts because definitions of
satisfaction cannot be narrowed to certain variables listed by the researcher.
Attempting to define these would be difficult because each individual has
their own construct as to what satisfaction is to them. Therefore, finding
what satisfies employees can be considered to be a little subjective.

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