European robin

The European robin (Erithacus rubecula), known simply as the robin or robin redbreast in the British Isles
and Ireland is a small insectivorous passerine bird, specifically a chat, that was formerly classed as a member of the
thrush family (Turdidae), but is now considered to be an
Old World ycatcher. Around 12.514.0 cm (5.05.5 in)
in length, the male and female are similar in colouration,
with an orange breast and face lined with grey, brown upperparts and a whitish belly. It is found across Europe,
east to Western Siberia and south to North Africa; it is
sedentary in most of its range except the far north.

and the Ryukyu robins were moved to the resurrected

genus Larvivora leaving the European robin as the sole
member of Erithacus.[9] The phylogenetic analysis placed
Erithacus in the subfamily Erithacinae which otherwise
contained only African species, but its exact position with
respect to the other genera was not resolved.[8]
The distinctive orange breast of both sexes contributed to
the European robins original name of redbreast (orange
as the name of a colour was unknown in English until the
sixteenth century, by which time the fruit of that name
had been introduced). In the fteenth century, when it
became popular to give human names to familiar species,
the bird came to be known as robin redbreast, which
was eventually shortened to robin.[10] As a given name,
Robin was originally a diminutive of Robert. Other older
English names for the bird include ruddock and robinet.
In American literature of the late 19th century, this robin
was frequently called the English robin.[11] The Frisian
robyntsje or robynderke is similar to the English name,[12]
while Dutch roodborstje and French rouge-gorge both refer to the distinctively coloured front.[13]

The term robin is also applied to some birds in other

families with red or orange breasts. These include the
American robin (Turdus migratorius), which is a thrush,
and the Australasian robins of the family Petroicidae, the
relationships of which are unclear.

Taxonomy and systematics

The robin belongs to a group of mainly insectivorous

birds that have been variously assigned to the thrushes or
"ycatchers", depending on how these groups were perceived taxonomically. Eventually, the ycatcher-thrush
assemblage was re-analysed and the genus Erithacus assigned to a group of thrush-like true ycatchers, the tribe
Saxicolini, that also includes the common nightingale and
the Old World chats.[14]

1.1 Subspecies
A robin sitting on a fence

The European robin was described by Carl Linnaeus in

1758 in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae under
the binomial name Motacilla rubecula.[2] Its specic epithet rubecula is a diminutive derived from the Latin ruber
'red'.[3] The genus Erithacus was introduced by French
naturalist Georges Cuvier in 1800, giving the bird its current binomial name of E. rubecula.[4][5] The genus name
Erithacus is from Ancient Greek and refers to an unknown bird, now usually identied with the robin[6]
The genus previously included the Japanese robin and
the Ryukyu robin. These east Asian species were shown Adult in Toulouse, France.
in molecular phylogenetic studies to be more similar to
a group of other Asian species than to the European In its large continental Eurasian range, robins vary somerobin.[7][8] In a reorganisation of the genera, the Japanese what, but do not form discrete populations that might
1

DESCRIPTION

be considered subspecies.[15][16] Robin subspecies are

mainly distinguished by forming resident populations on
islands and in mountainous areas. The robin found in
Ireland, Britain and much of western Europe, Erithacus rubecula melophilus, occurs as a vagrant in adjacent regions. E. r. witherbyi from Northwestern Africa,
Corsica, and Sardinia closely resembles melophilus but
for a shorter wing length.[17] The northeasternmost birds,
large and fairly washed-out in colour are E. r. tataricus. In the southeast of its range, E. r. valens of the
Crimean Peninsula, E. r. caucasicus of the Caucasus and
N Transcaucasia, and E. r. hyrcanus southeastwards into
Iran are generally accepted as signicantly distinct.[17]

it they concluded that Gran Canarias robin diverged genetically from their European relatives as far back as 2.3
million years, while the Tenerife ones took half a million
years to make this leap, 1.8 million years ago. The reason would be a dierent colonization of the Canaries by
this bird, which arrived to the oldest island rst (Gran Canaria) and subsequently passed to the neighboring island
(Tenerife).[21]

1.1.1

Finally, the robins which can be found in Fuerteventura

are the European ones, which is not surprising as the
species does not breed either in this island or in the nearby
Lanzarote, they are wintering exemplaries or just passing
through during their long migrations between Africa and
Europe.[21]

A thorough comparison between marionae and superbus is pending to conrm that the rst one is eectively
a dierent subspecies. Initial results suggest that birds
from Gran Canaria have wings about 10% shorter than
those on Tenerife.[15] The west Canary Islands populaOn Madeira and the Azores, the local population has been tions are younger (Middle Pleistocene) and only begindescribed as E. r. microrhynchos, and although not dis- ning to diverge genetically. Robins from the western
tinct in morphology, its isolation seems to suggests the Canary Islands: El Hierro, La Palma and La Gomera (E.
subspecies is valid (but see below).
(r.) microrhynchus) are similar to the European (Erithacus rubecula).[17]
Canary Islands robin

1.2 Other robins

The larger American robin (Turdus migratorius) is named
for its similarity to the European robin, but the two birds
are not closely related. The similarity lies largely in
the orange chest patch in both species. This American species was incorrectly shown feathering its nest in
London in the lm Mary Poppins,[22] but it only occurs in
the UK as a very rare vagrant.[23]
Adult and juvenile exemplaries of Gran Canarias robin.

The most distinct birds are those of Gran Canaria (E. r.

marionae) and Tenerife (E. r. superbus), which may be
considered two distinct species or at least two dierent
subspecies. It is readily distinguished by a white eye-ring,
an intensely coloured breast, and a grey line that separates
the orange-red from the brown colouration. Its belly is
entirely white.[18]
Cytochrome b sequence data and vocalisations[19] indicate that the Gran Canaria/Tenerife robins are indeed
very distinct and probably derived from colonisation by
mainland birds some 2 million years ago.[20] In addition,
Gran Canaria and Tenerife birds are well distinct genetically between each other.
Christian Dietzen, Hans-Hinrich Witt and Michael Wink
published in 2003 in Avian Science a study called The
phylogeographic dierentiation of the European robin
Erithacus rubecula on the Canary Islands revealed by mitochondrial DNA sequence data and morphometrics: evidence for a new robin taxon on Gran Canaria?".[15] In

Some South and Middle American Turdus thrushes are

also named as robins such as the rufous-collared robin.
The Australian robin redbreast, more correctly the
scarlet robin (Petroica multicolor), is more closely related to the crows and jays than it is to the European
robin. It belongs to the family Petroicidae, commonly
called Australasian robins. The red-billed leiothrix
(Leiothrix lutea) is sometimes named Pekin robin by
aviculturalists. Another group of Old World Flycatchers,
this time from Africa and Asia, is the genus Copsychus; its
members are known as magpie-robins, one of which, the
Oriental magpie robin (C. saularis), is the national bird of
Bangladesh.[24]

2 Description
The adult European robin is 12.514.0 cm (5.05.5
in) long and weighs 1622 g (9/1613/16 oz), with a
wingspan of 2022 cm (89 in). The male and female
bear similar plumage; an orange breast and face (more
strongly coloured in the otherwise similar British sub-

Juvenile, Sussex

Gardeners friend looking out for food on the ground

species E. r. melophilus), lined by a bluish grey on the

sides of the neck and chest. The upperparts are brownish, or olive-tinged in British birds, and the belly whitish,
while the legs and feet are brown. The bill and eyes are
black. Juveniles are a spotted brown and white in colouration, with patches of orange gradually appearing.[25]

Distribution and habitat

The robin occurs in Eurasia east to Western Siberia, south

to Algeria and on the Atlantic islands as far west as the
Azores and Madeira. It is a vagrant in Iceland. In the
south east, it reaches the Caucasus range. Irish and British
robins are largely resident but a small minority, usually female, migrate to southern Europe during winter, a few as
far as Spain. Scandinavian and Russian robins migrate to
Britain and western Europe to escape the harsher winters.
These migrants can be recognised by the greyer tone of
the upper parts of their bodies and duller orange breast.
The European robin prefers spruce woods in northern Europe, contrasting with its preference for parks and gardens in Ireland and Britain.[26]
Attempts to introduce the European robin into Australia and New Zealand in the latter part of the 19th
century were unsuccessful. Birds were released around
Melbourne, Auckland, Christchurch, Wellington and
Dunedin by various local acclimatisation societies, with
none becoming established. There was a similar outcome
in North America as birds failed to establish after being
released in Long Island, New York in 1852, Oregon in
188992, and the Saanich Peninsula in British Columbia
in 190810.[27]

Behaviour and ecology

The robin is diurnal, although has been reported to be

active hunting insects on moonlit nights or near articial
light at night.[16] Well known to British and Irish gardeners, it is relatively unafraid of people and drawn to human activities involving the digging of soil, in order to

Feeding from a hand

look out for earthworms and other food freshly turned up.
Indeed, the robin is considered to be a gardeners friend
and for various folklore reasons the robin would never be
harmed. In continental Europe on the other hand, robins
were hunted and killed as with most other small birds, and
are more wary.[25] Robins also approach large wild animals, such as wild boar and other animals which disturb
the ground, to look for any food that might be brought
to the surface. In autumn and winter, robins will supplement their usual diet of terrestrial invertebrates, such
as spiders, worms and insects, with berries and fruit.[26]
They will also eat seed mixtures placed on bird-tables.[25]
Male robins are noted for their highly aggressive territorial behaviour. They will attack other males that stray into
their territories, and have been observed attacking other
small birds without apparent provocation. Such attacks
sometimes lead to fatalities, accounting for up to 10% of
adult robin deaths in some areas.[28]
Because of high mortality in the rst year of life, a robin
has an average life expectancy of 1.1 years; however, once
past its rst year it can expect to live longer and one robin
has been recorded as reaching 19 years of age.[29] A spell
of very low temperatures in winter may also result in signicant mortality.[30] This species is parasitised by the
moorhen ea, Dasypsyllus gallinulae.[31]

4.1

CULTURAL DEPICTIONS

Breeding

Nest with ve eggs

Singing near Doolin, Ireland

cially lighted during the night.[33] Under articial light,

nocturnal singing can be used by urban robins to actively
shunt daytime anthropogenic noise.[34] A variety of calls
are also made at any time of year, including a ticking note
indicating anxiety or mild alarm.
A single egg
Robins may choose a wide variety of sites for building a
nest, in fact anything which can oer some shelter, like
a depression or hole may be considered. As well as the
usual crevices, or sheltered banks, odder objects include
pieces of machinery, barbecues, bicycle handlebars, bristles on upturned brooms, discarded kettles, watering cans,
ower pots and even hats. The nest is composed of moss,
leaves and grass, with ner grass, hair and feathers for
lining. Two or three clutches of ve or six eggs are
laid throughout the breeding season, which commences
in March in Britain and Ireland. The eggs are a cream,
bu or white speckled or blotched with reddish-brown
colour, often more heavily so at the larger end.[32] When
juvenile birds y from the nests they are mottled brown
in colour all over. After two to three months out of the
nest, the juvenile bird grows some orange feathers under
its chin and over a similar period this patch gradually extends to complete the adult appearance.

4.2

Vocalisations

The robin produces a uting, warbling song during the

breeding season. Both the male and female sing during
the winter, when they hold separate territories, the song
then sounding more plaintive than the summer version.[25]
The female robin moves a short distance from the summer
nesting territory to a nearby area that is more suitable for
winter feeding. The male robin keeps the same territory
throughout the year. During the breeding season, male
robins usually initiate their morning song an hour before civil sunrise, and usually terminate their daily singing
around thirty minutes after sunset.[33] Nocturnal singing
can also occur, especially in urban areas that are arti-

4.3 Magnetoreception
The avian magnetic compass of the robin has
been extensively researched and uses Vision-Based
Magnetoreception, in which the robins ability to sense
the magnetic eld of the earth for navigation is aected
by the light entering the birds eye. The physical
mechanism of the robins magnetic sense is not fully
understood, but may involve quantum entanglement of
electron spins.[35]

5 Cultural depictions
The robin features prominently in British folklore, and
that of northwestern France, but much less so in other
parts of Europe.[36] It was held to be a storm-cloud bird
and sacred to Thor, the god of thunder, in Norse mythology.[37] Robins feature in the traditional childrens tale,
Babes in the Wood; the birds cover the dead bodies of the
children.[38]
More recently, the robin has become strongly associated
with Christmas, taking a starring role on many Christmas
cards since the mid 19th century.[38] The robin has appeared on many Christmas postage stamps. An old
British folk tale seeks to explain the robins distinctive
breast. Legend has it that when Jesus was dying on the
cross, the robin, then simply brown in colour, ew to
his side and sang into his ear in order to comfort him in
his pain. The blood from his wounds stained the robins
breast, and thereafter all robins got the mark of Christs
blood upon them.[37][39]
An alternative legend has it that its breast was scorched

International Union for Conservation of Nature.

trieved 24 February 2015.

Re-

[2] Linnaeus, Carolus (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria

naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum
characteribus, dierentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata. (in Latin). Holmiae. (Laurentii
Salvii). p. 188. M. grisea, gula pectoreque fulvis.
[3] Simpson, D.P. (1979). Cassells Latin Dictionary (5th
ed.). London, UK: Cassell Ltd. p. 883. ISBN 0-30452257-0.
[4] Mayr, Ernst; Paynter, Raymond A. Jr. (1964). Checklist of Birds of the World. Volume 10. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Museum of Comparative Zoology. p. 32.
[5] Cuvier, George (1800). Leons d'anatomie compare.
Volume 1 (in French). L'Institute National des Sciences
et des Arts. Table 2. (The year is given on the title page
as VIII in the French Republican Calendar)
[6] Jobling, James A. (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientic Bird Names. London, United Kingdom: Christopher
Helm. p. 149. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
[7] Seki, Shin-Ichi (2006).
The origin of the East
Asian Erithacus robin, Erithacus komadori, inferred
from cytochrome b sequence data.
Molecular
Phylogenetics and Evolution.
39 (3): 899905.
doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2006.01.028. PMID 16529957.
1880 Engraving

fetching water for souls in Purgatory.[38] The association

with Christmas, however, more probably arises from the
fact that postmen in Victorian Britain wore red jackets
and were nicknamed Robins"; the robin featured on the
Christmas card is an emblem of the postman delivering
the card.[40]

[8] Sangster, G.; Alstrm, P.; Forsmark, E.; Olsson, U.

(2010). Multi-locus phylogenetic analysis of Old World
chats and ycatchers reveals extensive paraphyly at family, subfamily and genus level (Aves: Muscicapidae)".
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 57 (1): 380392.
doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2010.07.008.
[9] Gill, Frank; Donsker, David, eds. (2016). Chats, Old
World ycatchers. World Bird List Version 6.2. International Ornithologists Union. Retrieved 20 May 2016.

In the 1960s, in a vote publicised by The Times, the robin

was adopted as the unocial national bird of the UK.[41] [10] Lack, D. (1950). Robin Redbreast. Oxford: Oxford,
Clarendon Press. p. 44.
In 2015, the robin was again voted Britains national bird
in a poll organised by birdwatcher David Lindo, taking [11] Sylvester, Charles H. (2006). Journeys Through Book34% of the nal vote.[42]
land. BiblioBazaar, LLC. p. 155. ISBN 1-4264-2117-6.
Several English and Welsh sports organisations are nicknamed The Robins. These include the professional [12] J. Simpson; E. Weiner, eds. (1989). Robin. Oxford
English Dictionary (2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
football clubs Bristol City, Crewe Alexandra, Swindon
ISBN 0-19-861186-2.
Town, Cheltenham Town (whose home colours are red)
and, traditionally, Wrexham FC, as well as the English [13] Holland, J. (1965). Bird Spotting. London, UK: Blandrugby league team Hull Kingston Rovers (whose home
ford. p. 225.
colours are white with a red band).[43] A small bird is an
unusual choice, although it is thought to symbolise agility [14] Monroe Jr. BL; Sibley CG (1993). A World Checklist of
Birds. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. p.
in darting around the eld.[44]
228. ISBN 0-300-05549-8.

References

[1] BirdLife International (2012). "Erithacus rubecula".

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2013.2.

[15] Dietzen, Christian; Witt, Hans-Hinrich; Wink, Michael

(2003). The phylogeographic dierentiation of the robin
Erithacus rubecula on the Canary Islands revealed by mitochondrial DNA sequence data and morphometrics: evidence for a new robin taxon on Gran Canaria?" (PDF).
Avian Science. 3 (2-3): 115131.

[16] Ptzold, R. (1995). Das Rotkehlchen Erithacus rubecula. Neue Brehm-Bcherei (in German). Magdeburg/Heidelberg: Westarp Wissenschaften/Spektrum.
ISBN 3-89432-423-6.
[17] Lack, D. (1946). The Taxonomy of the Robin, Erithacus
rubecula (Linnaeus)". Bulletin of the British Ornithologists
Club. 66: 5564.
[18] Cramp S, ed. (1988). Handbook of the Birds of Europe,
the Middle East and North Africa. The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume V. Tyrant Flycatchers to Thrushes.
Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-857508-4.
[19] Bergmann, H.H.; Schottler, B. (2001). Tenerife robin
Erithacus (rubecula) superbus a species of its own?".
Dutch Birding. 23: 140146.
[20] Although Dietzen et al. (2003) conclude that both Tenerife and Gran Canaria populations are independently derived from mainland populations and should constitute
two species or all be placed in E. rubecula as subspecies,
their data does not allow for a denite conclusion. The
alternative explanation that Tenerife was colonised by
already-distinct Gran Canaria robins has not been explored and the proposed model relies only on probabilistic
inference. Likewise, the seemingly exact molecular dating is doubtful as it assumes a molecular clock that may or
may not be correct, and of course the assumption that the
ancestor of all robins was similar in colouration to superbus and not the continental birds is, being inferred from
their model of colonisation, entirely conjectural.
[21] Csar-Javier Palacios, Hallazgo en Gran Canaria de una
especie de petirrojo nica en el mundo, Newspaper Canarias 7 (2006); accessed 24 February 2015.
[22] Mary Poppins (1964)". IMDb. Retrieved 21 January
2008.
[23] John Roberts,Village braced for invasion of twitchers as
rare visitor ies in, Yorkshire Post; accessed 24 February
2015.
[24] National Icons of Bangladesh. Bangla2000. Retrieved
5 August 2010.
[25] Hume R (2002). RSPB Birds of Britain and Europe. London: Dorling Kindersley. p. 263. ISBN 0-7513-1234-7.
[26] Jonsson, Lars (1976). Birds of Wood, Park and Garden. Middlesex, England: Penguin. p. 90. ISBN 0-14063002-3.

7 CITED TEXT

[31] Rothschild, Miriam; Clay, Theresa (1957). Fleas, Flukes

and Cuckoos. A study of bird parasites. New York:
Macmillan. p. 113.
[32] Evans, G. (1972). The Observers Book of Birds Eggs.
London, UK: Warne. p. 85. ISBN 0-7232-0060-2.
[33] Da Silva; Samplonius; Schlicht, Valcu; Gaston (2014).
Articial night lighting rather than trac noise aects
the daily timing of dawn and dusk singing in common European songbirds. Behavioral Ecology. 25 (5): 1037
1047. doi:10.1093/beheco/aru103.
[34] Fuller RA, Warren PH, Gaston KJ (2007). Daytime
noise predicts nocturnal singing in urban robins. Biology Letters. 3 (4): 36870. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2007.0134.
PMC 2390663 . PMID 17456449.
[35] Cryptochrome and Magnetic Sensing. Theoretical and
Computational Biophysics Group. Retrieved 24 February
2015.
[36] Ingersoll, p. 167
[37] Cooper, JC (1992). Symbolic and Mythological Animals.
London, UK: Aquarian Press. p. 194. ISBN 1-85538118-4.
[38] de Vries, Ad (1976). Dictionary of Symbols and Imagery.
Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company. pp.
38889. ISBN 0-7204-8021-3.
[39] Goodall, Simon. European robin (Erithacus rubecula)".
Greater Manchester Local Record Centre. Retrieved 24
February 2015. In Christian folklore the robin got its red
breast because it plucked a thorn from Jesus crown-ofthorns during His crucixion. A drop of Jesus blood fell
on to the bird and thereafter they had a red breast for
Christians the robin has long been associated with charity
and piety.
[40] BBC Science & Nature:Animals". bbc.co.uk. Retrieved
3 January 2008.
[41] Robin. BBC. Retrieved 24 September 2010.
[42] Robin wins vote for UKs national bird. The Guardian.
10 June 2015. Retrieved 13 June 2016.
[43] Hull Kingston Rovers RLFC. Hull Kingston Rovers: History. Ocial Website. Hull Kingston Rovers RLFC. Retrieved 22 February 2012.

[27] Long, John L. (1981). Introduced Birds of the World: The

worldwide history, distribution and inuence of birds introduced to new environments. Terrey Hills, Sydney: Reed.
p. 309. ISBN 0-589-50260-3.

[44] Morris, Desmond (1981). The Soccer Tribe. London, UK:

Jonathan Cape. p. 210. ISBN 0-224-01935-X.

[28] The RSPB-Robin:Territory". RSPB website. Retrieved

17 May 2008.

7 Cited text

[29] Euring: European Longevity Records. euring.org. Retrieved 1 June 2015.

[30] The RSPB-Robin:Threats". RSPB website. Retrieved 17
May 2008.

Ingersoll, Ernest (1923). Fire-birds: The Robin

and the Wren. Birds in legend, fable and folklore.
New York: Longmans, Green and co. Retrieved 8
August 2009.

Further reading
Lack, Andrew (2008). Redbreast: The Robin in
Life and Literature. SMH Books. ISBN 978-09553827-2-7.

External links
Erithacus rubecula in the Flickr: Field Guide Birds
of the World
Map of the distribution of the 3 Canarian Robin subspecies
ARKive: Robin (Erithacus rubecula) images and
movies. Retrieved 2006-NOV-30.
Birds of Britain: Robin. Retrieved 2006-NOV-30.
European Robin videos, photos & sounds on Internet Bird Collection.
RSPB: Robin (Erithacus rubecula). Retrieved 2006NOV-30.
Sonatura : Song of the European Robin
Sveriges Radio P2: Song of the European Robin
(Real Audio soundle)
Ageing and sexing (PDF; 2.9 MB) by Javier BlascoZumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
BBC Nature: Robin news, sounds and video clips
from BBC programmes past and present.

10

10
10.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

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Imagesincommons, Ku ve balk kolik, Nar blbl kolik, Hapsar, Qzd, Manudouz, Vorbee, FearMyFellonies and Anonymous: 166

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10.3

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