VITA 1511GB A Guide To Complete Denture Prosthetics PS EN V00 PDF

A Guide to Complete Denture Prosthetics
VITA shade taking
VITA shade communication
VITA shade reproduction
VITA shade control
Date of issue 11.11
VITA shade, VITA made.
Foreword
The aim of this Complete Denture Prosthetics Guide is to inform on the development
and implementation of the fundamental principles for the fabrication of complete
dentures.
In this manual the reader will find suggestions concerning clnical cases which present
in daily practice. Its many features include an introduction to the anatomy of the
human masticatory system, explanations of its functions and problems encountered
on the path to achieving well functioning complete dentures.
The majority of complete denture cases which present in everyday practice can be
addressed with the aid of knowledge contained in this instruction manual. Of course
a central recommendation is that there be as close as possible collaboration between
dentist and dental technician, both with each other and with the patient.
This provides the optimum circumstances for an accurate and seamless flow of
information. It follows also that to invest the time required to learn and absorb
the patients dental history as well as follow the procedural chain in the fabrication
procedure will always bring the best possible results.
Complete dentures are restorations which demand a high degree of knowledge and
skill from their creators. Each working step must yield the maximum result, the sum
of which means an increased quality of life for the patient.
In regard to the choice of occlusal concept is to be used, is a question best answered
by the dentist and dental technician working together as a team.
It is essential to take into account the patient specific parameters in the decision
making process as there is no single answer to the question:
Which is the best occlusal concept ?
It is inappropriate to think in absolute terms as there are numerous concepts which
can be used and which will work.
A successful restoration is distinguished as follows.
Correct determination and achievement of centric relation,
A positive attitude and willingness on the part of the patient to accept the dentures.
This means involving the patient in the procedural chain.
Positional stability of the dentures (functional periphery).
Cheek contact with the posterior teeth.
Correct positioning of the teeth in regard to stability of the dentures.
Correct mounting of the models on the articulator.
Accurate remounting of the finished dentures on the articulator.
If these requirements are fulfilled the result will be very close to the optimum.
Given the subsequent selection of an occlusal concept appropriate to the particular
case, there is little room for error. If however the centric relation has been incorrectly
determined, even the best occlusal concept will not put this right !
If the denture base will not seal due to some discrepancy in the peripheral seal, in
all probability this will lead to pressure spots and other problems. The same applies
when the second lower molar and its antagonist are set up into the ascending mandibular ramus and cause the lower denture to slide forward. (called proglissement.)
Painful pressure areas in the lingoanterior area are the result.
In the case of occlusal interference at the second molar, short term relief is often
attempted by selectively grinding in the affected area. While this brings instant relief
for the patient, it does not remedy the cause but merely defers the problem.
Why is it that so many dentures ultimately function in situations, which on close
examination, do not appear to satisfy even the minimum requirements in the
published literature and indicated by the theories ?
The majority of patients in time will learn to accept or tolerate such dentures.
The neuromuscular system is capable of learning and eventually finds ways to cope
with the difficulties. In many cases commercially available denture adhesives play
a more than significant role.
How else to explain that in Germany alone, more than 60 tonnes of denture adhesives
are sold and used annually. This is indeed food for thought and shows the need for
improvement in the teaching and the techniques applied in full denture construction.
It also emphasises the great importance of thoroughly completing each step in the
procedural chain from primary impression to issue of the dentures.
Finally, in this age of computer aided dental technology a high standard of manual
skill is in more demand than ever
Urban Christen DD RCS
Foreword
Table of Contents
Foreword
The fabrication of complete denture prosthesis
10
History
12
1 Anatomy
1.1 The anterior teeth
1.2 The posterior teeth
1.3 The maxilla
1.4 The mandible
1.5 The temporomandibular joint
1.6 The tongue
1.7 The musculature
1.8 Arch atrophy
17
19
2 Anatomical terms of location (directional terms)

2.1 The directional terms
2.2 Angle's bite classification
2.3 Types of bite
2.3.1 Normal occlusion
2.3.2 Edge-to-edge bite
2.3.3 Crossbite
2.3.4 Scissor bite
2.4 The teeth of human dentition
2.4.1 Anterior teeth
2.4.2 Posterior teeth
2.5 Classification of cusps
2.5.1 Working cusps
2.5.2 Shearing (non-working) cusps
2.6 FDI tooth notation system
2.6.1 Zsigmondy system of tooth notation
2.6.2 Haderup system of tooth notation
2.7 Planes and lines of reference
2.7.1 Frankfort horizontal plane
2.7.2 Camper's line
2.7.3 Occlusal plane
2.7.4 Simon's orbital plane
2.7.5 Median plane
25
27
28
29
20
21
22
23
30
31
32
33
2.8 Curves of Occlusion

2.8.1 Curve of Spee
2.8.2 Curve of Wilson
2.8.3 Curve of Monson
3 The complete denture prosthesis according to qualitative considerations
35
4 Patients Dental / Medical History
41
5 Preparatory working steps

5.1 Individual impression trays
5.1.1 Extension
5.1.2 The impression tray handle
5.2 Bite registration blocks
5.3 Model fabrication
5.4 Mounting on the articulator
5.5 The vertical dimension
45
47
6 Articulators and articulation theories

6.1 Classification of articulators according to their construction
6.1.1 Arcon articulators
6.1.2 Non-arcon articulators
6.2 Classification of articulators according to the type of movement that can be made
6.2.1 Average value articulators
6.2.2 Semi-adjustable articulators
6.2.3 Fully adjustable articulators
6.3 The movements of the mandible
6.3.1 Protrusion
6.3.2 Laterotrusion
6.3.3 Laterotrusion side
6.3.4 Mediotrusion
6.3.5 Mediotrusion side
6.3.6 Retrusion
6.3.7 Retraction
6.3.8 Laterotraction (lateral retraction)
6.3.9 Bennett angle
6.3.9.1 Bennett movement
6.4 The Bonwill triangle
55
57
7 Model analysis
61
48
51
52
58
59
Table of Contents
8 Tooth selection
8.1 Tooth selection based on patient's offspring
8.2 Tooth selection according to nose width (Lee)
8.3 Selection of anterior tooth positioning according to Gerber
8.4 Selection of anterior tooth moulds according to Gysi
8.5 Tooth selection according to physiognomy (Williams)
8.6 Tooth selection according to constitution types (Kretschmer)
8.7 Tooth selection according to the anatomical model
67
69
70
75
77
Statics and chewing stability

9.1 When can a denture be said to have stability?
9.2 What happens with an unstable denture?
9.3 Vectors of force what are they?
9.4 The interplay of forces
71
72
73
10 Anterior teeth
10.1 Position of the anterior teeth
10.1.1 Tooth length
10.2 Setting up the anterior teeth
10.2.1 Standard setup methods
10.2.2 Individual setup methods
10.2.3 Overbite overjet (overbite sagittal overbite)
10.3 Phonetics
10.3.1 Problems and appropriate solutions
10.3.2 Generally accepted principles
81
83
11 Aesthetics
93
12 Setup and function

12.1 Setup concepts generally accepted principles
12.1.1 Lingualised occlusion
12.1.2 Anterior-canine guidance with ABC contacts
12.1.3 Setup according to generally accepted principles
with buccal contacts
12.2 Important characteristics
12.2.1 Cheek contact
12.2.2 Different bite types
12.2.3 Normal bite (normal occlusion)
12.2.4 Crossbite
12.2.5 Edge-to-edge bite
12.3 Vertical dimension / occlusal height
97
99
84
85
87
88
105
106
111
112
13 The denture base

13.1 Gingival shaping / contouring
13.1.1 How to reproduce naturally appearing gingiva?
13.2 Peripheral (access) for unhindered functioning of ligaments
13.3 Designing the denture periphery / waxing the body of the prosthesis as a whole
13.3.1 How is the denture margin correctly designed?
13.3.2 Extension
13.3.3 Which factors enable adhesion?
13.3.4 Reducing the strain on the palatal torus
13.3.5 The peripheral seal function "all or nothing"
13.3.6 Foreign body dimension, as small as possible, as large
as necessary replacing lost natural substance
13.3.7 Chimpanzee effect designing the labial extension in the upper
13.3.8 Reversible facelift effect
13.4 Palatal rugae
14 Denture processing
14.1 Denture processing systems
14.1.1 Injection systems
14.1.2 Packing systems
14.1.3 Pouring systems
14.1.4 Heat-curing polymer self-curing polymer
14.1.5 Improving adhesion / preparation of the denture teeth
14.2 Denture processing
14.2.1 Relieving the cast to accommodate the palatal vibrating line post dam
14.2.2 How and where should the cast be relieved?
14.2.3 Plasted-stone separators
14.3 Grinding to adjust the occlusion
14.3.1 What is the correct way to adjust the occlusion?
14.3.2 Which contact points are actually necessary?
14.3.3 Which movements must be free from interferences?
14.4 Finishing and polishing
14.5 Seating the pentures
14.6 Remounting
14.7 Instructions for care
115
117
121
122
123
124
127
129
131
132
133
134
136
136
Literature references
139
Glossary
140
Imprint
149
Table of Contents
The fabrication of complete dentures (schematic procedural diagram)

Anatomical impression
Anatomical models
Functional impression tray
Dentist
Upper model
Pouring the impression

and completing the anatomical
models
Functional impression
Fabrication of the functional

impression tray made of self
curing acrylic
Functional models
Bite rims
Dentist
Upper (UJ)
Marking the functional

bonders on the
functional impression
Trim model up
to the marking
Fabrication of the bite rims on

the functional models
Mimetic movement
(muscle trimming)
Bite recording
Mounting on the articulator
Dentist
Occlusal
height
10
The manufacture of a complete dentures (schematic procedural diagram)
Tooth selection
Setup of the teeth
Dentist
A: in the posterior area
B: in the anterior area
Male
Female
According to sex, type, jaw shape and colour
Waxing
Investing
Packing and pressing
Completed wax up invested

Boil out Separator
Applications
Try-in by dentist
Polymerisation
Time
Finishing
Final check
Temperature
Polishing
issue of the dentures

Dentist
11
History
The subject of restoring human dentition has
long been of interest to man. Commonly in the
past and for various reasons, people lost their
teeth while still quite young. Probably vitamin
deficiency played a significant role.
Those from the upper echelons of some societies even had crude prostheses fabricated for
themselves. These were mainly for cosmetic
reasons and not suitable as functional dental
prostheses.
As can be seen from the following photographs,

aesthetics was considered important in the early
In Etruscan times a broken natural tooth was

attached to adjacent natural teeth by means of
a gold band in order form a bridge and close
the gap.
In Roman times loose teeth were secured by
splinting them to adjacent teeth with gold
wire.
Fig. 1: Female maxilla

From: Raudales Malpaso Dam, Chiapas/Mexico
stages of human development. In many cultures

it was customary for people to alter and re
shape their teeth by re shaping them in various
ways. Also, decorative features such as gemstones were fixed to the labial of anteriors as
depicted.
Fig. 3: A denture carved from ivory.
Fig. 2: Male maxilla preclassical period,

From: Tepalcates/Mexico
12
Fig. 4: Carved ivory denture showing the separation

of teeth likely accomplished with the aid of a small
fret saw
History
Fig. 5: The fitting surface contouring and finishing

required a high degree of skill.
Fig. 6: A full upper denture in vulcanised rubber with

porcelain teeth,
Of all the old dentures in museums around

the world, probably the most famous is that
made for George Washington. In 1789 at the
age of 57 he became the first President of the
United States with just one remaining natural
tooth in his head ! His subsequently fabricated
dental prosthesis was made of ivory, human
and hippopotamus teeth. It served to address
a cosmetic purpose.
The use of such materials continued to be
used for cosmetic tooth replacement until
about the end of the eighteenth century.
The pioneering work began in 1924 when Vita

Zahnfabrik was founded by the industrialist
Heinrich Rauter and Dr Carl Hiltebrandt, a dentist. It was located in the city of Essen in the
north of Germany. Amongst the earliest goals
of the enterprise was to significantly improve
Around the turn of the nineteenth century,

Nicolas Dubois de Chemant, (1753 1824) a
Parisian dentist, developed the first dental
prosthetic appliance from porcelain powder.
This was a significant step towards the development of the modern denture.
Gradually the techniques developed and refined and led to the introduction of single fired
porcelain teeth which could be set up and
finally attached to vulcanised rubber denture
base material. Vulcanised rubber was difficult
to work with, it gave off a pungent odor in processing and was not particularly aesthetic.
However, it ushered in the era where fully
functional dentures could be made.
Fig. 7: A vulcanised rubber denture from about 1920.

The porcelain teeth were retained with gold coated
metal pins.
the aesthetic appearance of artificial porcelain teeth as they were less than lifelike at
that time. Vita developed the famous Vita
layering scheme which revolutionised the
aesthetics and manufacture of porcelain teeth
at the time.
Dr Carl Hiltebrandt was not only a pioneer in
aesthetics but also the first to recognise that
mandibular guidance is purely neuromuscular
13
Fig. 8: Posterior teeth fused to platinum pins from

around 1870
Fig. 9: Dr Carl Hiltebrandt
and not tooth guided as was the accepted philosophy. He certainly can be mentioned in the
same breath as a luminary like Prof Dr Gysi
and others.
according to hue, made shade determination easier.
In addition and resulting from his observations of

intact natural dentition, no tooth guided excursions occur at all. Hiltebrandt also noted that the
individual patient carries out small regulatory control movements and if the teeth contact their antagonists at all during mastication, they do so without force. Dr Hiltebrandt practised prosthetics
according to the law of form and function. ie:
form adapts to functional disturbance.
Hiltebrandt was no stranger to the setting of anterior teeth according to the requirements of aesthetic and phonetic principles. In this regard he was
avant garde and many years ahead of his time.
In the fields of both prosthetics and ceramics, new
worldwide standards were set by Vita.
In 1929 Vita reported for the first time that by closely studying the natural, they had identified the
24 most frequently occurring tooth shades. It was
then decided to arrange them in groups according
to their Hue in a Vita tooth shade sample guide.
Until this time shade taking had been based on
the single parameter of lightness. With the addition of a second parameter, grouping shades also
14
Vitas shade sample guide was rapidly accepted

and became a standard in dentistry and dental
technology. As early as the 1930s, atmospheric
firing of Vita porcelain for producing jacket crowns
was taught in a programme of Vita professional
training courses which were attended by dentists
and technicians.
In the same period research into the field of tooth
colours and various materials resulted in the discovery/development of the Lumin Effect. This was
also applied and used to further improve the aesthetic appearance of porcelain denture teeth particularly under natural and artificial light conditions.
Fig. 10:
Porcelain denture teeth traditionally and prior to

Hiltebrandt were made of quite opaque, monochromatic porcelain and had a quite different
History
appearance under incandescent light and daylight.

(Vita museum / Luminoscope Re: Mr H Rauter)
The Vita production method required at least two
layers of porcelain, enamel and dentine, in order
to achieve a natural shade effect.
The VITA LUMIN shade concept of the 1930s
formed the basis for the VITAPAN classical
shade guide which was vacuum fired and introduced in 1956. It remains in use today.
In the 1940s the company moved from Essen to
its present location of Bad Sackingen in the far
south of Germany close by the Swiss border. A
decade on, the Vita Lumin Vacuum Teeth and
Vita Lumin Ceramic were developed. With the
introduction of the Lumin Vacuum Shade Guide,
the Vita A1 D4 shades were increasingly
accepted and became entrenched worldwide
from the 1970s onwards.
In the early 1960s Vita introduced the first
European developed, porcelain fused to metal
system, VMK (Vita Metall Keramik). Around the
same period came the introduction of Vitadur, a
porcelain jacket crown material with increased
strength characteristics (due to the inclusion of
Alumina Oxide particles). These developments
were decisive in improving the quality and
range of individual restorations.
Initially the Lumin Vacuum shade guide was
used only for ceramics and porcelain tooth
selection. However in 1983 Vita succeeded in
integrating acrylic resin and acrylic teeth into
this one shade system. With the introduction of
the Vitapan system, it then became possible to
determine and reproduce tooth shades with
both materials using the one shade guide.
The next milestone was the introduction if the
VITA SYSTEM 3D-MASTER in 1998, which is not
based solely on the observation of tooth shades.

For the first time in the history of tooth shade
determination, Dr Neil Hall from Sydney
Australia succeeded in identifying and defining
the precise three dimensional colour space
occupied by normal human dentition from the
young to the elderly. This made possible the
development of the 3D MASTER shades which
in addition to observation of the natural, are
firmly grounded in colour science (Physics).
The VITA Tooth guide 3D MASTER is the corresponding shade selection instrument. With the
introduction of the VITA Linear guide 3DMASTER in 2008, the shade selection procedure was simplified even further.
With this new level of quality, tooth shade
determination is no longer left to chance it is
a systematic procedure which when understood
and followed with use of the corresponding
materials, produces accurate and reliable shade
reproduction.
Decades of experience and expertise in tooth
shade determination were further augmented
with the introduction of the digital shade
measuring device, the VITA EASYSHADE. Its
successor, VITA Easyshade COMPACT, offers
the user a cordless, mobile shade measuring
unit and which records up to 25 different
measurements.
Acrylic denture base resins were developed
during the second world war. Due to their eminently suitable physical properties they have
replaced all other previously used materials. In
their modern formulations they are still the
material of choice today.
15
Notes
16
History
Anatomy
Anatomical terms of location (directional terms)
The complete denture prosthesis according
to qualitative considerations
Patients Dental / Medical History
Preparatory working steps
Articulators and articulation theories
Model analysis
1 Anatomy
1.1 The anterior teeth
1.3 The maxilla
Human dentition consists of twelve anterior

teeth (incisors), six lower and six upper. The
function of the anterior teeth is to bite off food.
These teeth are relatively sharp, and are situated in the anterior.
The upper (maxilla) is a craniofacial bone. It

forms the floor of the eye sockets (orbits), the
floor and the side wall of the nasal cavity
(cavum nasi) as well as a part of the palate,
and hence the roof of the oral cavity (cavum
oris proprium).
2
3
4
5
6
Fig. 1:
1.2 The posterior teeth
The posterior teeth are also referred to as

chewing teeth or back teeth. These are categorised into large and small posterior teeth,
termed respectively molars and premolars. The
large molars, or back teeth, are the largest
teeth of human dentition. The premolars, i.e.
Fig. 2:
the more frontal chewing teeth or small back

teeth, are situated in front of the molars in the
permanent human dentition.
9
10
11
12
Fig. 3: Topographical details of the interior of the maxilla

1 Frontal process of the maxilla (processus frontalis)
2 Anterior lacrimal crest (crista lacrimalis anterior)
3 Infraorbital canal (canalis infraorbitalis)
4 Infraorbital groove (or sulcus) (sulucus infraorbitalis)
5 Anterior nasal spine (spina nasalis anterior)
6 Infraorbital foramen (foramen infraorbitale)
7 Zygomatic process (processus zygomaticus)
8 Canine fossa (fossa canina)
9 Alveolar foramina (foramina alevolaria)
10 Infrazygomatic crest (crista infrazygomatica)
11 Alveolar juga (juga alveolaria)
12 Maxillary tubers (tuber maxillae)
The maxilla also contains the maxillary sinus

cavity.
19
1.4 The mandible

The mandible consists of the horseshoe-shaped
body of the lower arch (mandibular corpus), and
the upwardly sloping mandibular ramus (ramus
mandibulae) on either side. On these upward
sloping rami, a coronoid process is situated at
the temporal muscle insertion. Likewise situated

on both sides of the rising mandibular rami is the
condylar process with the mandibular head
(caput mandibulae).
1
2
3
5
6
7
8
9
10
Fig. 4: Labial view of the mandible.

1 Mandibular head (caput mandibulae)
2 Mandibular collum (collum mandibulae)
3 Coronoid process (processus coronoideus)
4 Mandibular oblique line (linea obliqua mandibulae)
5 Alveolar limbus (limbus alveolaris)
20
6
7
8
9
10
Tuberosities of the masseter (tuberositates massetericae)

Alveolar juga (juga alveolaria)
Mental foramen (foramen mentale)
Mental tubercle (tuberculum mentale)
Mental trigonum (trigonum mentale)
Anatomy
1.5 The temporomandibular joint

The temporomandibular joint is situated directly in
front of the outer ear canal (external auditory meatus). A distinction is made between the osseous
and the fibrous part of the joint. This is a rotating
and sliding joint, which conveys the movement of
the mandible in relation to the maxilla. The articu-
culum articulare). With its posterior, downwards

slanted surface, the articular tubercle takes on the
guidance of the mandibular condyle during the
opening movement, and thus determines the condylar path.
The articular surfaces are coated with fibrocartilage. The articular disc (discus articularis) is located between the joint surfaces as a pressure distributor consisting of the same substance. It divides the articular capsule into an upper and lower
joint compartment. The articular cavity contains
the viscous, joint-lubricating (synovial) fluid, and
is enveloped by the articular capsule (synovial
membrane); definition from Hoffmann-Axthelm's
"Lexikon der Zahnmedizin" (a standard dictionary
of dental practice in Germany).
1.6 The tongue

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Fig. 5: Detailed view of the temporomandibular joint.
1 Mandibular fossa (fossa mandibulae)
2 Articular tubercle (tuberculum articulare)
3 Articular disc (discus articularis)
4 Articular capsule (capsula articularis)
5 Condyle / mandibular head (condylus / caput mandibulae)
6 Retroarticular process / tympanic tubercle
(processus retroarticulare / tuberculum tympanicum)
7 Mandibular collum (collum mandibulae)
lating surfaces consist of the mandibular fossa

(fossa mandibularis) and the mandibular head
(caput mandibulae), which is located on the condylar process (processus condylaris) of the mandible.
The mandibular fossa is situated directly in the
squamous part of the temporal bone (squama temporalis) and contains the articular tubercule (tuber-
The tongue is a mucous membrane-enveloped,

highly mobile muscular organ, on which taste and
tactile nerves are located. It is an important organ
for food uptake during the process of mastication,
for sucking and for the swallowing movements.
The tongue has great importance also for the
speech function, which is described in more
detail in the section on phonetics (Section 10.3).
The oral cavity is almost completely filled out by the
tongue (take care when designing the denture base!).
The lingual frenulum is situated on the underside
of the tongue. This is subject to a great deal of
movement by the chewing, swallowing and
speech functions.
For this reason, the frenulum must not be confined by a peripheral margin, and sufficient free
space must be left in the corresponding areas.
21
1.7 The musculature

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Fig. 6: Differentiated structure of the dorsum of the tongue.
1 Epiglottis
2 Tongue root (radix linguae)
3 Palatal tonsils (tonsilla palatina)
4 Lingual tonsils (tonsilla lingualis)
5 Lingual foramen caecum (foramen caecum linguae)
6 Terminal sulcus (sulcus terminalus)
7 Vallate papilla (papilla vallatae)
8 Lingual dorsum (dorsum linguae)
9 Lingual margin (margo linguae)
10 Medial lingual sulcus (sulcus medianus linguae)
11 Lingual apex (apex linguae)
In addition to the nerve ends responsible for the

sense of, also different types of papillae by
means of which the four different taste characteristics (sweet, sour, salty and bitter) can all
be perceived, are located on the underside of the
tongue.
22
In the section entitled "Musculature" (section

1.7), explanation is given only for the most elementary muscles involved in the opening and
closing of the mouth and the wearing of complete dentures; further information can be found in
the corresponding literature.
Mouth-closing muscles
The important muscles with regard to the
movement of the mandible can be classified
into the mouth-closing and mouth-opening
muscles.
The masseter muscle is a strong jaw-closing
muscle in the main direction of its fibres. By
means of its slanted fibres, it supports protrusion and mediotrusion movements.
Due to its wide, fan like structure, the temporal muscle can operate in different directions
of force. The main directions are upwards, dorsally and somewhat anteriorally.
Mouth-closing and mouth-opening muscles
The medial pterygoid muscle, due to its identical direction of operation, pulls in the same
direction as the masseter muscle. This can
support both mediotrusion and protrusion
movements.
The lateral pterygoid muscle has two heads of
muscle. During a closing movement, the upper
head is active. The shortening of the lower
head causes the protrusion and / or laterotrusive movement of the mandible.
Anatomy
cheek, it serves to empty the vestibular area of

the mouth.
The orbicularis oris muscle is the mouth-closing
sphincter muscle that encircles the mouth.
1.8 Bone and arch atrophy

3
In both the upper and the lower arch, the bone

atrophies following the extraction of teeth.
The upper arch atrophies centripetally
(inwardly), the lower centrifugally (outwardly).
This not seldom leads to problems of denture
stability, which can be overcome by consistent
implementation of the concept chosen for the
particular case.
Fig. 7: Musculature pertaining to the mandibular movements.

1 Temporal muscle (musculus temporalis)
2 Lateral pterygoid muscle (musculus pterygoideus lateralis)
3 Medial pterygoid muscle (musculus pterygoideus medialis)
4 Masseter muscle (musculus masseter)
The mylohyoid muscle is involved in the opening

of the mouth, firmly holds the hyoid bone, and is
responsible for raising the floor of the mouth
during the act of swallowing. During this time,
the tongue is able to seal off the oral cavity
against the palate.
The geniohyoid muscle is also involved in the process of opening the mouth. It furthermore lifts
and holds the hyoid bone in position.
U
OK
upper
L
UK
Muscles of the floor of the mouth

The muscles of the floor of the mouth comprise
the mylohyoid and geniohyoid muscles.
lower
Fig. 8: Diagram showing the course of arch atrophy.
Cheek musculature / mouth-closing muscles

The buccinator muscle is certainly an important muscle with regard to a dental prosthesis.
Through the application of pressure to the
23
Notes
24
Anatomy
Anatomy
Articulation and articulation theories
Model analysis
2 Anatomical terms of location (directional terms)

2.1 The directional terms
anterior
apical
= front, towards the front, forwards

= on, towards the apex (root tip),
towards the root
approximal
= on, towards the contact
surface, towards the
approximal (interdental) space
basal, basally
= on, towards the (denture) base
buccal, buccally = on, towards the cheek,
cheekwards
cervical, cervically = on, towards the cervix
(tooth neck), towards the cervix
coronal, coronally = on, towards the tooth crown
distal, distally
= away from the centre of the
dental arch, away from
the centre (towards the back
of the dental arch)
dorsal, dorsally = towards the back
facial, facially
= towards the face
frontal, frontally = towards the forehead
gingival, gingivally = towards the gingiva
incisal, incisally = towards the incisal edge
labial, labially
= towards the lip
facial or labial
buccal
bul
vesti
lingual/oral
buccal
buccal
mesial
facial or labial
ar
Lower jaw
lar
tibu
ves
palatal
and oral
= towards the side,

at/on the side
lingual, lingually = towards the tongue
mastical
= towards the masticatory
(occlusal) surface
marginal, marginally = towards the margin
mesial, mesially = towards the centre of the
dental arch, towards the centre
occlusal, occlusally = refers to the masticatory
surfaces of the posteriors
oral, orally
= towards the mouth, within
the dental arch
palatal, palatally = towards the palate
posterior, posteriorly = towards the back,
backwards
sagittal, sagittally = from the front towards
the back in the direction of the
sagittal suture (connective
tissue joint
transversal, transversally = running across
vestibular, vestibularly = towards the vestibule,
outside the dental arch
central, centrally = situated in the centre
buccal
Upper jaw
lateral, laterally
approximal
distal
Fig. 1: Directional terms in the upper arch.
Fig. 2: Directional terms in the lower arch.
27
2.2 Angle's bite classification

(Angle Classes)
Bite classification according to Angle is based
on the mesiodistal positional relationship of
the first molars.
According to this classification, anomalies
with a neutral bite are also in Class I.
Fig. 3: Angle class II/1 occlusion.
Anomalies with a distal bite belong to Class II

(this has two subtypes: Class II Division 1 for
cases with protruded upper anteriors, and
Class II Division 2 for cases with retruded
upper anteriors or deep bite).
Angle Class II/1 occlusion (syndrome: distal bite)

Distal occlusion with protruded upper anteriors,
mostly featuring mandibular retrusion with a narrow maxilla, a high palate, a deep bite and an
enlarged sagittal (horizontal) overbite.
All other anomalies belong to Angle Class III.

This classification has some disadvantages,
although it is the most frequently used and
most widespread method of bite classification.
Angle Class II/2 occlusion

(syndrome: covering bite)
Distal occlusion with steeply sloping upper anteriors (the lateral incisors often overlap the central
incisors from an anterior), perspective mostly
featuring a retruded mandibular position with a
wide, box-shaped maxilla and a deep bite.
Angle Class I occlusion

(Normal occlusion or neutral occlusion)
The distobuccal cusp of the first lower molar is
situated in the central fossa of the first upper
molar.
Fig. 4: Angle class II/2 occlusion.
Fig. 2: Angle class I occlusion.
Angle Class III occlusion (mesial occlusion)

The first lower molar is positioned too far
mesially in relation to the first upper molar.
Angle Class II occlusion

(distal occlusion)
The first lower molar is positioned too far distally in relation to the first upper molar.
28
2.3.2 Edge-to-edge-bite
When the cusps of the mandibular teeth bite
onto those of the maxillary teeth, this is referred to as an edge-to-edge bite (fig. 7).
vestibular
buccal
Fig. 5: Angle class III occlusion.
Angle Class III occlusion (syndrome: progenia)

Mesial occlusion with an inverted anterior overbite (often with protruded upper anteriors and
retruded lower anteriors by way of compensation);
mostly accompanied by a crossbite in the posterior area, a large chin and a shallow mentolabial
fold.
lingual
Fig. 7: Edge-to-edge bite
2.3.1 Normal occlusion
2.3.3 Crossbite
When the buccal cusps of the lower posteriors
protrude vestibularly beyond those of the upper
jaw, this is said to be a crossbite (fig. 8).
vestibular
buccal
vestibular
buccal
2.3 Types of bite
lingual
lingual
Fig. 6: Normal occlusion.
Fig. 8: Crossbite.
When the palatal cusps (working cusp) of the

maxillary teeth bite into the fossae of the
mandibular teeth, this is said to be in "normal
occlusion" (fig. 6).
29
2.3.4 Scissor bite

When the palatal cusps of the upper jaw extend
beyond the buccal cusps of the lower jaw vestibularly, this is referred to as a scissor bite (fig. 9).
lingual
buccal
vestibular
2.4.2 Posterior teeth

First premolars (4) = the first posterior
teeth (4)
Second premolars (5) = the second posterior
teeth (5)
First molars (6)
= the first chewing teeth (6)
Second molars (7) = the second chewing
teeth (7)
Third molars (8)
= the third chewing teeth (8)
(also referred to as wisdom teeth).
2.5 Classification of cusps
Fig. 9: Scissors bite.
2.5.1 Working cusps

The working cusps in the upper are the palatal
cusps, and in the lower the buccal cusps.
These are also called shearing, centric or supporting cusps.
2.4 Human dentition
2 1
2.5.2 Shearing (non-working) cusps

The shearing cusps in the upper are the buccal
cusps, and in the lower, the lingual cusps. They are
responsible for the shearing of food. The shearing
cusps are also referred to as balancing cusps or
non-working cusps.
Fig. 10: The names of the teeth.
2.4.1 Anterior teeth

Central incisors (centrals) (1) = the middle
incisor (cutting)
teeth (1)
Lateral incisors (laterals) (2) = the lateral incisor
(cutting) teeth (2)
Canines (3)
= the canine teeth
(corner teeth) (3)
(also called cuspids or eye teeth).
30
2.6 FDI tooth notation system

The following two-digit system (FDI tooth notation) for the classification of the individual teeth
has become established internationally. The first
digit denotes the corresponding quadrant, 1 4 in
permanent, or 5 8 in deciduous dentition (upper
right = 1, upper left = 2, lower left = 3, lower right
= 4), and the second digit is the number referring
to the position of each tooth in the respective
quadrant (cf. fig. 10):
Upper right
Upper left
18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
Lower left
Lower right
Lower left
Fig. 14: If only one quadrant is affected, only the angle
representing the corresponding quadrant is depicted.
Fig. 11: FDI tooth notation.
2.6.1 Zsigmondy system of tooth notation

The system suggested by Zsigmondy, in which
every tooth is numbered consecutively from the
central incisor (1) to the third molar (8), is based
on the Zsigmondy cross to record quadrants of
tooth positions. The respective teeth are entered in the corresponding quadrants, with the
following result:
Upper right
Upper left
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Lower right
Lower left
Fig. 12: Zsigmondy tooth notation.
Note:
The left-hand side of the patient is the righthand side from the dentist's point of view. The
right-hand side of the patient is the left-hand
side from the dentist's point of view.
The diagrams of the respective tooth nomenclature systems are based on the dentist's point of
view.
2.6.2 Haderup system of tooth notation
The tooth notation according to Haderup describes the teeth in the upper with a plus sign
(+) on the mesial side, i.e. the upper left canine, for instance, would be +3, and the upper
right canine 3+.
In the lower a minus sign (-) is used instead of
a plus sign on the mesial side. This means that
-4 denotes the first lower left premolar, and 4
the first lower right premolar.
236
542
Lower right
345
Lower left
Fig. 13: Notation according to a Zsigmondy cross.
When referring to deciduous teeth, a zero (0)

is placed in front of the digit referring to the
tooth.
31
2.7 Planes and lines of reference

Definitions
2.7.1 Frankfort horizontal plane (1):
A craniometrical reference plane established by
the lowest point on the margin of the right or
left bony orbit and the highest point in the margin of the left or right auditory meatus.
2.7.2 Camper's line (2):
An imagined plane through both tragus points
and the spina nasalis anterior (anterior nasal
spine). This runs parallel to the occlusal plane
and forms an angle of 15 20 to the Frankfort
horizontal plane.
2.7.3 Occlusal plane (3):
This is represented by the following three
points on the dentulous anch:
the contact point of the incisal edges of the

lower central incisors (incisal point),
the tips of the distobuccal cusps of the
second lower molars.
This is mostly situated at the height of the lip
closure line.
2.7.4 Simon's orbital plane (4):

Plane running through the orbit at right angles
to the Frankfort horizontal plane; is used for
determining sagittal variations.
2.7.5 Median plane:
Divides the body into left and right halves.
1 Frankfort horizontal plane

2 Camper's plane
3 Occlusal plane
4 Simon's orbitals
1
2
3
4
Fig. 15: Planes and lines of reference relating to the human skull.
32
2.8 Curves of occlusion

2.8.1 Curve of Spee
(sagittal compensation curve)
The curve of Spree has an arch-shaped progression in the sagittal direction (sagittal
occlusion or compensation curve).
The imagined centre of the circle is situated in
the orbit. The radius is approx. 7 cm, and
under ideal conditions touches the anterior
surface of the condyle. This system is used in
complete denture prosthetics under the
assumption that 1. The condyle is situated on
the same circular path as the posteriors, and
2. The posteriors remain in constant contact
during protrusive movement.
Fig. 17: Curve of Wilson.
2.8.3 Curve of Monson

The curve of Monson is based on the curve of
Spee in the sagittal direction and the curve of
Wilson in the transversal direction. This gives
rise to a 3-dimensional spherical curvature
(sphere of Monson), a spherical surface on
which the posterior teeth are arranged.
Fig. 16: Curve of Spee.
2.8.2 Curve of Wilson

(transversal compensation curve)
The curve of Wilson is represented by a line
connecting the cusps of the lower posteriors in
the transversal direction. Its progression is
determined by the fact that the lingual cusps
are situated at a lower height than the buccal
cusps.
33
Notes
34
Anatomy
Antatomical terms of location (directional terms)
Model analysis
3 The complete denture prosthesis according to qualitative considerations

There are numerous ways of fabricating complete dentures. In order to achieve the best
solution for the patient that corresponds to the
maximum result obtainable in both aesthetic
and functional terms, there must be no deviation or error in the entire procedural chain.
Objectively speaking, these boundaries are
fluid. This means that the patient will, in all
probability, also manage perfectly well with
75% (or maybe less, depending on the case) of
the target 100%. How could it otherwise be
explained that all over the world, complete
dentures are in use, and even "function", although they do not even come close to the different setup concepts represented, or to the
corresponding assumptions on which they are
based? This insight, however, must not lead to
less care being exercised in the dental laboratory, but rather provide the motivation to
achieve a result that comes somewhat closer
to the ideal 100%. In practice, however, 100%
has already been achieved when the criteria
listed below are fulfilled and the patient is
happy with his or her dentures.
The patient should have unlimited ability to

comminute food.
A well-comminuted/well-masticated food
bolus represents the first and most essential stage of the digestion process.
Complete dentures should enhance the phonetic function.
Both the teeth setup and the design of the
gingival area should be age-related, and
suited to each individual patient.
The patient should regain his or her original
quality of life to the greatest extent.
The complete dentures should, if possible,
match the physiognomy of the patient.
The design should facilitate easy acceptance of the dentures in the mouth as a
foreign body.
The dentures should by hygienic and easy to

keep clean.
The patient's dentures should boost his or her
self-confidence.
Consequently, it is impossible to fabricate complete dentures that fulfil the above mentioned
criteria using unsatisfactory materials. The
same applies to each working step in the procedural chain, independently of whether these
steps are carried out by the dentist or the dental technician. Each step makes a contribution
to the success or failure of the end result. This is
why collaboration, partnership and the clear and
seamless exchange of information between
dentist and dental technician are prerequisites
for successful treatment. To a great extent, the
relative importance of complete denture prosthetics is not sufficiently appreciated. Complete dentures require a particularly high
degree of professional skill on the part of dentist and dental technician alike. The patient
history serves as a guideline for the key aspects
of treatment. Careful implementation is decisive for the peripheral fit of the finished dentures. Denture wearers who present for treatment with several poorly fitting dentures are a
notable indication of existing problems. So
what is stopping us from acting on this evidence?
The correct functional design of the individual
impression trays is essential for a successful
restoration. The correct determination of the
centric relation is a further essential criterion.
Without the correct centric position, the will
result be among other things, in unstable dentures.
37
Each case requires careful analysis; this determines the setup concept most appropriate to the
case. For more details, please refer to section
12.1 "Setup concepts".
An essential factor is the alignment of the wax
bite rims with reference to Camper's plane, and
the indication of the position and length of the
anterior teeth. In addition to this, the midline,
the smile line and possibly the canine line (centre of the canines) must also be marked on the
model. The vestibular expansion for cheek contact can be formed with wax.
38
This gives the technician, in addition to the

functional impression, all the necessary information in order to obtain faultless dentures.
The implementation of this information by the
dental technician is essential. In this respect
nothing should be left to chance, as it is not possible to later rectify such omissions.
The quality of the restoration is a result of the
consistent implementation of every individual
working step.
The complete denture prosthesis according to qualitative considerations
Notes
39
Notes
40
The complete denture prosthesis according to qualitative considerations
Anatomy
Model analysis
4 Patients Dental / Medical History

Which criteria are important
for the dental technician?
With regard to the patient input, it is worth investing more time in this than is generally the
case. A great deal of important information is
revealed by patients themselves; the attentive
dental practitioner takes note of this. It is often
the little things that can make the difference
between success and failure. When the patient
complains, for example, that his old dentures
hampered him in some way or another, this can
be taken into account and improved accordingly in the making of the new denture. In this
way, one thing leads to another. What matters
is that the patient is able to "experience" or
feel this progress.
The information communicated by the dentist
to the dental technician should include the following:
Surname and first name of patient
Date of birth
Length of anterior teeth, measured with the
papillameter (ideally before fabricating the
wax rims)
Lip length, measured with the papillameter
(ideal before fabricating the wax rims)
Current position of the central incisors in
relation to the incisal papilla (e.g. too far

towards anterior? Too far towards posterior?)
Width of the nasal wings (determination of

anterior width according to Lee)
Appropriate tooth characteristics
Tooth shade
Contour of the nasal base line
Skeletal jaw situation
Information on phonetics (e.g. difficulty in
pronouncing the "s" sound, etc.)
Statements/information given by patient
Additional information on the patient
Further comments
Description of patient's general state of
health
If, for instance, a patient has muscular hyperactivity, it is essential to take this into account
in the prosthetic planning of the occlusion concept and the posterior tooth selection with
regard to the occlusal design.
The better the collaboration between patient,
technician and dentist, the more satisfactory the
end result will be for the patient. And in turn,
successful teamwork motivates all involved.
43
Notes
44
Anamnesis
Anatomy
Model analysis
5 Preparatory work steps

5.1 Custom made impression trays
Impressions taken with custom made trays
serve to fine tune the primary impressions
taken using stock impression trays. During the
secondary impression taking, it is important to
reproduce as precise an impression of the
patients tissues as is possible. Care must be
taken in regard to registration of the various
muscle ligaments and maintaining as uniform
thickness of impression material as possible.
The customised tray must extend only to those
parts of the mucosa which provide osseous
support.
The aim of the functional impression is to maximize the rest area of the denture base taking
the musculature functions into consideration. It
is also essential to obtain retentive suction between the denture base and mucosal tissue.
This is achieved by means of cohesive and
adhesive forces acting within a peripherally
sealed border. In order to maintain this suction
effect during speech and masticatory function,
it is necessary to have a well muscle trimmed
periphery to provide the necessary seal. Prior to
secondary impression taking the denture
bearing tissue must be in a recovered state,
ie: the previous denture must not have been
worn for at least 24 hours.
Prior to making custom impression trays on the
primary models, the dental technician should
be informed concerning the viscosity and / or,
flowability of the impression material to be
used, so that he can provide relief in particular
areas of the model or a spacer if considered
necessary.
sity may require a spacer between the tray and

model on which they are made.
Most important is that the tray be rigid and not
at all flexible.
Note:
Be careful with impression tray materials that
may be dimensionally unstable and not sufficiently rigid !
5.1.1 Expanse
The expanse of customised trays should be
smaller than the future denture bearing area.
Sufficient clearance for muscle trimming must
be left around the lip, cheek and tongue tendons.
The borders of the tray are trimmed so as not to
extend quite as far as the final periphery of the
finished denture.
In the post dam area the tray should extend 2 mm
beyond the subsequent finish line of the denture.
The borders of custom trays should have a uniform thickness of about 2 mm.
Fig. 1: Upper and lower custom trays on primary models
Materials with low viscosity require an accurately fitting tray and materials with a high visco-
47
5.1.2 Impression tray handle

Impression tray handles must provide lip support during impression taking but must not
hinder lip and tongue function.
Handles must be designed symmetrically and
serve as a locating guide for the dentist to correctly position the tray in the mouth. The handle
muscle trimming is progressively carried out

until the entire periphery is completed. Finally
the impression material is added to the tray
and the final impression is obtained. This final
periphery must be maintained throughout the
remaining denture construction procedures as
it provides the seal for the suction which is
essential for retention of the denture.
5.2 Bite registration rims (bite blocks)

Bite blocks are necessary for the dentist to establish the upper and lower centric relationship.
Preferably they should be made of an acrylic
base with attached wax rims. The wax should be
of a firm consistency.
Fig. 2: Oral view of impression tray handle.
It is also possible to use a wax instead of an

acrylic base but this is recommend against as a
rigid, well fitting base of acrylic provides much
greater stability and also significantly more control for this most important procedure.
Fig. 3: Labial view of impression tray handle.
must be grippable so that the impression can

be easily removed from the patients mouth.
The lip and cheek tendons are exposed in such
a way that they are not distorted by the
impression tray (see Fig. 5 + Fig. 6).
During the secondary impression taking procedure the periphery of the tray is lined with a
thermoplastic reversible but rigid material
(Compound / greenstick). This facilitates the
muscle trimming procedure and is the first
stage in establishing the peripheral seal. This
48
The peripheral border is most important. It must

not be over extended nor have any sharp edges.
The wax bite rim should be positioned on the
centre of the alveola ridge. The occlusal plane
runs parallel with the upper alveola ridge. The
same progression is limited in the lower by the
upper third of the retromolar triangles.
In both upper and lower anterior areas both bite
blocks can be bulked out by the dentist to obtain
the desired degree of lip support.
The height of the individual bite rims measured from the mucolabial fold is reduced to
obtain a measurement of, 20 22 mm for the
upper and 18 20 mm for the lower.
Fig. 4: Labial view of upper and lower bite blocks.
Fig. 5: Upper base plate.
Research has demonstrated that these are the

upper limits. Dentists generally prefer to remove rather than have to add wax.
The most important points are as follows:
The anterior regions of bite rims are not

bulky and allow for maximum tongue space.
The design of the bite block periphery must

accommodate the functional muscles.
Tendons and muscle attachments must be
exposed.
The labial and buccal extensions should

correspond with that of the finished dentures. The width of the wax rims should be
about 6 mm in the bicuspid areas and about
8 mm in the molar areas.
The wax rims should be positioned on the

centre of the alveola ridge. An exception can
be made in the upper anterior region where
the wax rim is positioned to accommodate
aesthetic considerations. The bite rim can
be more towards the anterior to provide lip
support corresponding with the anterior
tooth set up.
Fig. 6: Lower base plate.
Fig. 7: Buccal view of upper and lower bite blocks.
Fig. 8: Upper bite block.
The incisal edge of the upper centrals should

be situated aprox 7 mm anterior of the incisal papilla (See fig 8).
49
All such information is required by the dental

technician and can be recorded by means of a
plaster or silicone key. This enables continuous
checking during the setup as to whether cheek
contact according to the wax bite record is correct or otherwise.
Fig. 9: Lower base plate with wax bite rim.
The height of the upper wax rim should be

approx 20 22 mm measured from the
mucolabial fold in the area of the lip tendon,
to the upper limit of the wax rim.
The height of the lower wax rim should be
approx 18 mm measured from the
mucolabial fold, in the area of the lip
tendon, to the upper limit of the wax rim.
The distal height of the upper and lower can
be adjusted by softening of the bite rim with
a rim former.
The distal height should correspond with the
upper third of the retromolar triangle.
The flattened wax surface of the upper and

lower bite rims should fit neatly together.
The total height of the bite blocks should not

exceed 40 mm.
Final countouring of the bite rims is usually

carried out by the dentist in the patients
mouth.
Dentist markings on the bite registration

block.
Midline, middle of face
This line is not necessarily identical to the
upper and lower lip tendons or the midline of
the model.
Canine line
This determines the width of the upper anteriors, also where the tips of the canines are to
be positioned. Also, their positioning can be
determined on the basis of the corners of the
mouth or a vertical extension of the outer nasal
wings.
Smile line
This is decisive for the length of the upper
anteriors. The tooth necks should normally be
above this line.
Occlusal plane
It follows the upper edge of the lower wax bite
rim. ie: between the lower incisal edges in the
anterior area and the distobuccal cusps of the
lower second molar. It intersects the midline
which is the fix point for the incisal pin, and
runs parallel with Campers line.
The dentist aligns the occlusal plane to the

pupil line and Camper's plane using the bite
fork. He also builds up the buccal area with
wax until optimum cheek contact is reached.
50
Smile line
Occlusal plane
Canine line
Midline
Fig. 10: Dentists markings on the models and bite rims.
Fig. 12: Lower stone model.
5.3 Model fabrication
The functional periphery area shows:
For full denture secondary models we use a

class 1V hard stone. In a case with severe
undercuts in the alveola ridge, a class 111 hard
stone can be used. Regardless, it is essential
that the functional periphery area of the
models remain intact.
For this purpose we attach a strip of adhesive
wax to protect the peripheral area.
Fig. 11: Upper stone model.
In order to maintain the stones physical properties, it must be mixed under vacuum in the
prescribed water powder ratio. The pouring of
the model must be bubble free.
In the upper:
The mucolabial fold
The alveolar ridge with the areas of the
maxillary tuberosities and palate
The transition from hard to soft palate and
(post dam area)
The lip and cheek tendons
Lower:
The alveolar ridge with the areas of the
retromolar triangle
The mucolabial fold and sublingual areas
The muscle and tendon insertions
of the tongue and cheek musculature
The lip and cheek tendons
When manufacturing the functional models, it
is essential to ensure that the functional margins remain completely intact. This is because
the functional margins form the valve borders
(marginal seal) of the area in which a suction
effect between the denture basis and the oral
mucosa is created.
51
5.4 Mounting of models in the articulator

Correct determination of the centric relationship of the upper and lower arch is essential for
the functional success of complete dentures.
It is the method for the three dimensional
determination of the positional relationship of
upper and lower arches. It is achieved by
means of the bite blocks and the resulting bite
records.
For this purpose, the condylar joints should be
in their cranial and not their laterally shifted
positions in the articulator fossae.
A distinction is made between:
1. The relationship of the lower to the
upper (maxillomandibular relationship)
This refers to the definition of the transversal and sagittal relationship.
The vertical dimension ( occlusal height) is
generally 2 5 mm less than the interocclusal distance between the upper and lower.
The transversal and sagittal relationship is
determined with the aid of a gothic arch or
by manual bite taking.
used to represent the Campers line and

Bonwill triangle for the purpose of mounting
of the models. For this purpose the dentist
must first intraorally align the wax bite rims
to the Campers line.
5.5 The vertical dimension

The vertical dimension is determined chairside
by the dentist. Any modification to this dimension can have significant consequences. If in
any doubt however, it is preferable to reduce the
vertical dimension rather than increase it.
The vertical dimension naturally has a great

influence on the function and the Freway Space
of the prostheses.
A patient with Angle Class 2/Division II occlusion will certainly require more Freway Space
than a patient with Angle Class 1. In figures, the
approximate values for the speaking distance
(e.g. for the pronunciation of "s" sounds) is as
follows:
Overbite: 2 3 mm
Edge-to-edge bite: 1 mm
Cover-bite: 4 mm
2. Position with reference to a cranial

plane
Correct determination of the upper and
lower arch relationship is essential for the
mounting of the models on the articulator
with reference to a cranial plane. The cranial orientation of both upper and lower
models is transferred to the articulator by
means of a face bow. If a face bow reading
has not been taken, an elastic band can be
52
Notes
53
Notes
54
Anatomy
to qualitative criteria
Model analysis
6 Articulators and articulation theories

In order to produce complete dentures, it is
necessary to have a device which simulates the
opening and closing movements of the mouth,
the lateral and protrusion movements as well as
the retrusion movements. A device which carries
out such movements is described as a chewing
simulator, or, an articulator.
6.1 Classification of articulators

according to their design
6.1.1 Arcon articulators
An arcon articulator is a mechanical device
which imitates the natural temporomandibular
joint.
The condylar casings are situated similarly to
the TMJ on the upper part of the articu-lator,
and the condyles are attached firmly to the
lower part of the articulator. The advantage of
this type of articulator is the unidirectional
movement, as with natural chewing apparatus.
Examples: Denar, MarkII, New Simplex,
Panadent, Protar, Quick-Perfekt, SAM, Stuart
etc.
6.1.2 Non-arcon articulators
In contrast to the arcon articulator, the condylar
casings are situated on the lower part of the articulator and the condyles on the upper part. All
movement sequences are made in the opposite
direction to the natural temporomandibular joint.
Examples: Atomic, Atraumatik, Candulor
Articulator, Dentatus, Condylator, Mastikator,
Rational.
6.2 Classification of articulators

according to the type of movement
that can be made
6.2.1 Average value articulators
These articulators correspond to Bonwill's triangle, and the inclination of the condylar path
is taken to be a fixed value. Masticatory movements can therefore only be carried out on an
average value basis.
Average value inclination of condylar path: 34
Average value Bennett angle: 15
6.2.2 Semi-adjustable articulators

These allow different values to be set such as
the inclination of the condylar path, the
Bennett angle and in some articulators, the
intercondylar distance.
6.2.3 Fully adjustable articulators
These articulators reproduce individual values
obtained using an extraoral or an intraoral registration procedure.
The aim of articulation theory is to interpret
the existing anatomical conditions of the edentulous patient with the physical and mechanical conditions of the dynamic chewing system
in such a way that feasible solutions for the
practical fabrication of complete dentures can
be developed.
Literature on the subject offers various examples with explanation's as well as practical
working instructions.
57
6.3 The various movements of the

mandible are defined as follows
6.3.1 Protrusion
Symmetrical Anterior movement of the lower
jaw out of the position of maximum intercuspation towards anterior.
6.3.2 Laterotrusion (working movement)
The mandible moves sideways (laterally) out of
the position of maximum intercuspation.
6.3.3 Laterotrusion side (working side)
Moves away from the centre during lateral
movements.
6.3.4 Mediotrusion (balancing movement)
The mandible moves out of the position of
maximum intercuspation towards the centre.
6.3.5 Mediotrusion side (balancing side)
The side of the mandible which is moved
towards the centre during lateral movements.
6.3.6 Retrusion
The mandible is moved backwards and
downwards (posteriorly and down) out of maximum intercuspation.
6.3.7 Retraction
Movement of the mandible out of the protrusion position back into maximum intercuspation.
6.3.8 Laterotraction (lateral retraction)
Movement of the mandible out of laterotrusion
into maximum intercuspation.
6.3.9 Bennett angle
The Bennett angle is formed by the condylar
path of the mediotrusion side (fig. 1, from M1
58
to M2) and a line parallel to the median plane

during lateral movement. It varies between 10
and 20. Average value 15.
6.3.9.1 Bennett movement
The lateral and spatial shifting of the laterotrusion condyle in an outward direction. During
lateral movement: fig. 1, from L1 to L2.
The mediotrusion condyle accordingly moves
more towards the centre. The lateral movement of the working condyle normally varies
between 0.6 mm and 1.5 mm (Lundeen et al.
1978, Wirth 1996).
Diagrams show that the working condyle is not
only moved in the lateral direction; its movement can also include a superiorly, inferiorly,
anteriorly or posteriorly directed component.
The condyle can here carry out movements in
the following directions:
superior = sideways (laterally) and upwards
(laterosurtrusion)
inferior = sideways (laterally) and
downwards (laterodetrusion)
anterior = sideways (laterally) and forwards
(lateroprotrusion)
posterior = sideways (laterally) and backwards
(lateroretrusion).
In the absence of further information from the

dentist, the average value for dentulous
patients is taken to be 15 and for edentulous
patients 20.
The size of the movement has an influence on
the Bennett angle.
L1
L2
M1
M2
Fig. 1
6.4 The Bonwill triangle

The Bonwill triangle is represented by an equilateral triangle that runs from the mandibular
central incisal point to the centre of the right
and left condyles (fig. 2).
Fig. 2
Mounting the models in the articulator

Preparation: Locating grooves are made in the
base of maxillary and mandibular models with
a plaster cutter, so they can be remounted after
the dentures are completed. There are many
different systems which available for this purpose.
The ideal is to use a Split Cast, which enables
even the most minor deviations to be recognised
after completion of the denture, and to rectify
or correct these accordingly.
If a face bow is not used for mounting, the
model pairs can be placed according to average values in the Bonwill triangle.
Fig. 4: An elastic band is used to form the boundary of the

Bonwill triangle. This corresponds to the occlusal plane.
This requires an elastic band and an incisal pin

(fig. 4).
Fig. 3: Boundary of the Bonwill triangle.
The intercondylar distance is consequently equal to

the distance from the condyle to the centre of the
lower central incisors (incisal point). The length of
one side of the triangle is approximately 10.5 cm
(fig. 3).
59
Notes
60
Anatomy
to qualitative criteria
Model analysis
7 Model analysis
The purpose of model analysis is to assess the
prosthetic situation.
No human being is symmetrical. This means
that the goal cannot be to achieve maximum
symmetry in the model analysis markings.
Instead, each side must be assessed independently of the other and marked or characterised
by means of the lines sketched on the model.
These lines serve as a guideline for the subsequent wax setup of the denture teeth.
From the point of view of statics however,
functional stability is not automatically guaranteed in the resulting setup. These lines
represent a guideline. Every complete denture
must be checked intraorally for chewing stability by the dentist.
The dentist's markings on the model show
the centre of the alveolar ridge, transferred
to the margin of the model with the aid of a
set square,
the progression of the alveolar ridge with
the aid of a pair of compasses on the model
base,
the retromolar triangle on the mandibular
4
model.
7
1
2
4
2
3
1
Fig. 2: Lower jaw
1 Retromolar triangle (trigonum retromolare)
2 Centre of alveolar ridge, front
3 Centre of alveolar ridge, lateral
4 Midline of model
5 Border line (setup limit) for the distal sides of the last molars
The deepest point in the posterior area is also marked
on the model base.
If the height of the occlusal plane is not given,

this can be calculated as an average value by
measuring the distance between the deepest
point of the mucolabial fold in the upper and
lower jaw, and halving this value.
The final setup line is determined by determining the alveolar ridge markings and transferring these to the outer margin of the model at
the front and back. These form the outer limit
of the static field.
Furthermore, the following values which the
dentist indicated on the bite template are
transferred to the models: midline, canine line.
5
6
Fig.1: Upper jaw
1 Incisal papilla (papilla incisiva)
2 Large palatal ridge
3 Centre of alveolar ridge
4 Midline of model
5 Maxillary cusp (tuber maxillaris)
6 Palatal vibrating line
7 Canine point
63
Border line (setup limit) for the

Stopp-Linie
distal
sides of the last molars
2
3
Tiefster point
Punkt==Position of
Deepest
largestder
chewing
unit,
the
grten
Position
(i.e.
pair of molar antagonists).
Kaueinheit
5
Fig. 3:
1 Centre of alveolar ridge of upper jaw
2 Interalveolar line (alveolar ridge connecting line)
3 Occlusal plane
4 Maximum innermost setup limit for lower teeth
5 Centre of alveolar ridge of the upper
If the inclination of the interalveolar line to the

horizontal plane (4) is over 80, a neutral bite
should be set up; if it is under 80, a cross-bite
should be set up (Gysi).
64
Fig. 4:
Behind the border line for the distal sides of the

last molars begins the steep upward slope of
the mandibular ramus. No more teeth should be
set up here, as this would result in the prosthesis slipping forwards (proglissement).
Constant forward sliding of the mandibular
prosthesis would result in age-related mandibular protrusion. In the case of flat alveolar ridges,
the setup of the teeth ends at the mesial of the
retromolar triangle.
Model analysis
Notes
65
Notes
66
Model analysis
Tooth selection
Functional stability
Anterior teeth
Aesthetics
Setup and function
Facts on the denture base
Denture finishing
8 Tooth selection
Fig. 1: Mother and daughter.
Fig. 2: Father and son.
8.1 Tooth selection based on patient's

offspring
male patient with his son who has his/her own

natural teeth, this is an excellent opportunity to
determine the tooth shape for the parent.
Patients often comment on the fact that their
teeth used to look just like this or that.
Tooth selection based on the teeth of the

patient's descendants or children has often proven helpful. If, for example, a female patient
comes to the practice with her daughter, or a
69
8.2 Selection of anterior teeth width

according to Lee
8.3
Selection of anterior tooth

positioning according to Gerber
When selecting teeth according to Lee, the distance between the nasal wings is measured.
This generally corresponds to the distance
from the midline of one canine to the midline
of the other canine.
The contour of the nasal base line serves as a

guideline.
Fig. 3: Definition according to Lee.
Fig. 4:
Fig. 5:
Fig. 6:
70
Tooth selection
8.4
Selection of anterior tooth moulds

according to Gysi
8.5 Tooth selection according to

physiognomy (Williams)
The tooth shape results in facial harmony.
For many dental practitioners, the selection of the

tooth mould according to Williams is an established method for determining the tooth mould corresponding to the shape of the patient's face or
type. In addition to this, the classification accord-
Fig. 7:
Fig. 10:
Fig. 8:
Fig. 11:
Fig. 9:
Fig. 12:
ing to the four different types of facial shape is

more or less an international standard. This classification, however and likewise the classification according to Kretchsmer originates more
from the early days of dental prosthetics.
71
8.6 Tooth selection according

to constitution types (Kretschmer)
The three constitutional types athletic, leptosome and pyknic form the basis for tooth
selection according to Kretschmer.
Fig. 13: Pyknic type oval tooth shape
Fig. 14: Leptosome type triangular tooth shape
Fig. 15: Athletic type angular, almost square tooth shape
72
Tooth selection
8.7 Tooth selection according

to the anatomical model
When no tooth selection information is available from the dentist, the maxillary alveolar
ridge can also be taken as a basis for selecting
the anterior tooth shape.
Oval alveolar ridge
oval anterior tooth shape
Pointed alveolar ridge
Square alveolar ridge
triangular tooth shape
square anterior tooth shape
Fig. 16:
73
Notes
74
Tooth selection
Tooth selection
Anterior teeth
Aesthetics
Setup and function
Denture finishing
9 Functional stability
9.1 When can a denture be said to be
stable?
When functional forces are applied to the denture in the mouth and the denture remains unmoved by tilting or displacement it can be said to be
stable. ie: positionally stable under masticatory
forces.
which may be in action during masticatory

function. In order to overcome such problems it
is necessary to understand what occurs when
a denture tooth is ground in the pursuit of
elimating such a problem and what consequences may follow.
9.4 The interplay of forces

9.2 What happens with an unstable denture.
An incorrectly designed denture will be unstable
when:
The denture teeth are incorrectly positioned.

Due care has not been taken in regard to
THE EXTENT OF THE DENTURE BASE the
extent of its borders and design of its periphery.
In order not to be helpless in overcoming these

forces the following should be kept in mind.
All vectors of force acting on a denture should
cancel each other out. ie: the sum of all vectors
of force acting on a denture should be zero.
I as far as possible all vectors of force must
meet the alveola ridge at right angles.
The functional requirements of providing sufficient clearance for lip and muscle tendons are
deficient.
Such shortcomings lead to lifting and displacement of the denture from the alveola ridge
during speech or other functions. They will also
cause the development of pressure spots on
the mucosa.
Fig. 1: Vectors of force meet the alveolar ridge at right angles.
In this way the various forces acting on the

mandibular denture help to centre the denture
squarely on the alveola ridge.
9.3 Vectors of force what are they?

The multidirectional forces which act on
functioning denture and teeth are referred to
as vectors of force.
A vector of force represents the characteristics
of a force. In Fig 1, forces are indicated by
arrows which also indicates a range of forces
77
It is for this reason that the second molar is

sometimes omitted from a set up as it would
otherwise have to be positioned on the steep
slope of the mandibular ramus. This would be
contrary to the vectors of force principles described and not in harmony with the alveola
ridge. If set, the second molar would cause
functional displacement of the denture.
Fig. 3: Proglissement caused by the force acting on the denture.
If the setup ends at the distal of the first

molar, the remaining gap is built up in denture
base acrylic towards the retromolar pad. It is
definitely out of occlusion and slopes away
lingually and buccaly towards the periphery of
the denture. This configuration prevents food
accumulation.
Fig. 2: Incorrect positioning of the second molar.
In this way the denture is prevented from being

pushed down and forward on a sloping plane.
78
Notes
79
Notes
80
Tooth selection
Anterior teeth
Aesthetics
Setup and function
Denture finishing
10
10 Anterior teeth
10.1 Positioning of the anterior teeth
It can generally be assumed that in a normal
occlusal situation the upper anteriors are
situated at a distance of about 7 mm anteriorally of the incisal papilla (Fig 1).
With a close bite the distance is about 6 mm
and a protrusive bite about 9 mm.
The length of the upper anteriors corresponds to the distance between the lip
closure line and the smile line.
The line connecting the tips of both upper

Canines runs through the centre of the incisal Papilla (CPC Line).
7mm
Fig. 1:
Fig. 2: CPC line (canine, papilla, canine).
The anterior teeth are positioned according to

anatomical, functional, aesthetic, and phonetic
requirements.
10.1.1 Tooth length

The incisal edge of the maxillary central incisors
should be aprox., 0.5 1.00 mm longer than the
lower edge of the upper lip, when the upper lip
is passive (for men, 1.0 mm longer and for
women, 2.0 mm longer).
The following points should be heeded:
The denture teeth should be incorporated in

the wax rim in such a way that they continue
the contour of the wax rim.
Both mesial interdental surfaces of the

upper central incisors and the mesial interdental surfaces of the lower central incisors
should correspond to the midline markings
on the model (Refer to diagram in section
5.2.)
The midlines of the upper canines correspond to the position of the canine line markings on the model ( Refer to diagram in section 5.2.)
These values concerning anterior tooth length are

approximate and serve as a starting point. If followed, they will often deliver satisfactory results.
83
10.2 Setting the anterior teeth.

10.2.1 Standard setup methods
The anterior teeth, as explained following, can
be set according to a standardised method.
This is intended only as a guideline which can
and should be modified to suit the individual
patient case.
Upper
The incisal edge of both upper central
incisors are situated +/- 1 mm above the
occlusal plane.
The incisal edge of each lateral incisors is
situated +/- 0.5 mm above the occlusal
plane.
The incisal edged of each incisor runs
approximately parallel with the occlusal
plane.
The tips of both canines are positioned
approximately at the level of the occlusal
plane.
The tips of both canines are situated at an
approximate distance of 10 mm from the
end of the first pair of palatal ridges (Fig 3).
The incisal edge of each lower lateral incisor runs approximately parallel with the
occlusal plane.
The tips of both canines are positioned
slightly above the occlusal plane.
The labial surfaces of the upper anteriors support the upper and lower lips (Fig 4).
Fig. 4:
A standard positioning of the upper anteriors is

achieved as follows (Fig 5 / labial view).
The central incisors are straight and upright.

The lateral incisors are inclined cervically
and slightly laterally.
The canines are more upright with the neck
slightly towards the labial.
approx.
10 mm
ca. 10 mm
Fig. 3:
Lower
The incisal edge of each lower central incisor corresponds precisely to the contour of
the occlusal plane.
84
Fig. 5:
The central incisors and canines are parallel

to the pupil line and correspond to the positive smile line in the arch.
Anterior teeth
A standard lower anterior set up viewed from

the labial perspective is as follows (Fig 6).
The central incisors are straight and upright.

The lateral incisors are slightly mesially
inclined.
The canines are also mesially inclined and
the distal facet inclined in the direction of
the molars.
Fig. 6:
the tooth in relation to the alveola ridge and

will generally produce an aesthetic set up. The
lower canines have a slightly inward tilted
position. It would be a disadvantage both
functionally and aesthetically if the tips of the
canines were positioned too far labially or the
necks, too far towards the alveola ridge.
10.2.2 Individualised setups
Individualisation of the setup is best carried out at
the try in. If for example the patients mid line is
off centre, the setup can be adjusted at the try in
stage to avoid a lopsided appearance. Incisal incisal edges can be harmonised with the nasal base
line and individual teeth can be slightly rotated on
their axis. These modifications to the set up can
also be done in the absence of the patient but
they are best completed and finalised at the try in
stage with the agreement of the patient.
Approximal inclinations:
All anterior teeth are positioned with the
body of the tooth on the centre of the
alveola ridge.
The central incisor is labially inclined.
The lateral incisor is upright.
The canine is lingually inclined.
Fig. 7: Inclination of the central incisor, lateral incisor and canine.
At this point and as a general rule of thumb,

the expression of, on at, -outside of
applies to the central and lateral incisors and
canine. It concerns the position of the neck of
85
Examples of individual anterior setups
Fig. 8.1: VITA MFT T46 the teeth are rotated slightly
Fig. 8.2: ... and from an incisal viewpoint.
around their vertical axes, a labial view.
Fig. 9.1: VITA MFT S47 the pronounced anterior
Fig. 9.2: ... and the incisal view shows this very nicely
positioning of the central incisors. The labial view ...
note the slightly retruded lateral incisors.
86
Anterior teeth
Fig. 10.1: VITA MFT T46 typical for class II/2,
Fig. 10.2: The incisal view is a good example
pronounced incisal retrusion.
the butterfly position of the central incisors in combination

with the typical positioning of the lateral incisors.
Fig. 11.1: VITA MFT R42 not too conspicuous in the
Fig. 11.2: ... the slightly retruded central incisors and more
labial view ...
conspicuously protruding lateral incisors.
87
Fig. 12.1: VITA MFT L37 individual anterior positioning in
Fig. 12.2: ... most clearly visible in the "broken arch" form.
the lower is a good aesthetic solution ...
Setups of this type are refined with correspondingly

abraded facets caused by protrusive movements.
Fig. 13.1: VITA MFT L34 Example of a moderately
Fig. 13.2: A rather even contour despite slight tooth
individualised setup.
rotation around the vertical axis.
88
Anterior teeth
10.2.3 Overbite overjet

Overbite sagittal (horizontal) overbite
An overbite is a vertical anterior overbite. This
can have a dimension of up to 2 mm aprox. The
term overbite, refers to the sagittal anterior
overbite, horizontally of up to 2 mm aprox. As a
general rule it is assumed that overbite equals
overjet (Fig 14).
Overjet
B
Recouvrement
Overbite
VB
Surplomb
Fig. 14:
This usually has a dimension of 1 mm which

means that the overbite and overjet should correspond precisely if balancing of the mandibular movements is intended.
10.3 Phonetics
10.3.1Problems and the appropriate solutions
To enable a complete denture patient to speak
properly, consideration should be given to setting up in phonetic balance.
In order to be able to begin with the restoration of lost dentition, it is necessary to be
aware of the function of the various oral segments (ie: tongue, palate, lips etc and their
respective functions).
In this respect, nature itself shows the way. In

nature, we can observe how the oral cavity is
divided into sections in order to ensure faultless phonetics.
We also recognize the interconnection of dentition with speech and phonetic function.
These develop during growth of the primary
dentition and continue during development of
the permanent dentition.
Once this speech / phonetic function has been
learned during development, it is stored in the
brain and will remain for life.
If the denture teeth are wrongly positioned, the
patient will likely be able to reach only an
approximation of their original speech pattern.
However, every complete denture wearer develops phonetic tricks in order to overcome shortcomings and speak reasonably well.
If by comparison with the previously described
example, the teeth are correctly positioned,
the patient; even after wearing a denture with
poor phonetics for 20 years, will regain phonetic function and revert to their original speech
pattern.
How can this be achieved and how to correctly
position the teeth in the first place ?
It is necessary to explore the patients, stored
phonetic speech pattern and set the teeth
phonetically (so to speak).
89
10.3.2 Generally accepted principles.

The oral cavity forms a resonating cavity which,
depending on the position and orientation of the
tongue, the teeth, the various muscles involved
and the lips, convert an air stream into phonetic
sound. The same occurs when a musician playing
a trumpet or trombone, reduces the volume of the
resonance chamber in order to produce higher
notes or enlarges it to produce lower notes. The
smaller the aperture through which the air passes
the more the air stream accelerates and the larger the aperture, the slower the flow of the airstream.
The phonetic articulation is limited to two
basic types.
Fricative consonants.
ie: produce a rubbing sound.
Fricatives are consonants produced by forcing air through a restricted opening.
eg: the letters f and v are formed by the
lower lip against the upper incisors.
Explosive consonants.
The respiratory stream is interrupted at one of
the four places of formation and immediately
released.
There are two categories of explosives.
Unvoiced explosives such as p, t, k.
Voiced explosives such as b, d, g.
Beginning with the Fricatives. These are called
labio dental consonants such as f, v and w.
The tongue plays a passive role in the formation of these sounds. They are formed by the
anterior incisors contacting the lower lip at the
wet dry line.
In order to form these sounds, the upper incisors must be in the correct position.
90
To form the s fricative, the tongue touches

the posterior teeth and part of the upper anteriors. The tongue does not contact the middle
of the upper anterior as this channel remains
open for the air stream. The tip of the tongue is
generally in contact with the lower anteriors
when forming the s sound.
Fig. 15: Contact areas of the tongue when pronouncing

the "s" sound.
In order to form these sounds, the lower incisors must be correctly positioned.
If they are situated too far lingually, the s
sound will be distorted and become similar to
the th sound of the English language. If the
lower anteriors are positioned too far labially,
the s sound will bear more resemblance to
the sh sound.
In order to produce the sh fricatives, the
tongue is supported in the palatal, dental and
alveola directions.
The tongue presses against the palate and in
this way controls the air stream.
In order to form these sounds, the patient
requires tongue support from the oral structures in the palatal area.
Anterior teeth
Fig. 16: Contact areas of the tongue when pronouncing

the "sh" sound.
Failing this, the patient can only improvise

these sounds with difficulty by shifting the
location of articulation posteriorally. The result
will then be an approximation, similar to the
Scottish pronounciation of the word, loch.
Explosive consonants p, t, k, b, d, g are formed
when the air stream is sealed off anteriorally by
the tongue, lips, or other parts of the mouth and
then rapidly released.
The correct positioning of the upper incisors is
essential for the formation of the consonants t
and d and in the case of consonants k and g,
the positioning of the posteriors and corresponding palatal support is important.
Consonants b and p are formed purely labially.
Description of facial / oral positions and
movements in formation of consonants m, b
and p.
What can we see?
When pronouncing m, complete lip
closure can be observed.
In the case of b, the lips are released
slightly.
With P, the lips move apart rapidly and the
cheeks swell slightly.
The chin does not move when m, is

pronounced.
The chin moves slightly downwards when b
is pronounced.
The chin shows a sudden downwards
movement when p is formed.
What we cannot see

The teeth have only a slight inter-occlusal
separation (freeway space).
The tip of the tongue lies on the lower
incisors.
The underside of the tongue lies flat as
during the formation of the "a" sound.
Classification according to place
of articulation:
Labial (Latin: labium = lip)
p, b, m, f, v, ph, w, pf
The lips form a more rounded-elongated
aperture.
Dental (Latin: dens = tooth):
sh, t, d, tz, s, z, n
The upper incisors articulate against the
inner edge of the lower lip. The tip of the
tongue articulates against the inner edge of
the upper incisors.
Palatal (Latin: palatum = palate)
n, l, "ch" as in "chew"
The Palatal consonants result when the tip
of the tongue articulates against the anterior palate.
Velar (Latin: velum = sail):
k, g, ng, nk, q, ch, j, or ch as in the
Scottish pronounciation of loch.
The place of articulation is between the
posterior portion of the tongue and the soft
palate.
91
Notes
92
Anterior teeth
Tooth selection
Anterior teeth
Aesthetics
Setup and function
Denture finishing
11
11 Aesthetics
How do we define aesthetics? Aesthetics are
often associated with beauty.
Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.
The word, aesthetic, can also be described as
being pleasing to the eye, an impression is
perceived by the eye and conveyed to the
brain.
A varying play of light colour and form can give
varying emphasis to a motif and highlight certain details.
Aesthetics in nature does not mean symmetry
and regularity, but a harmonious mix of irregularity and asymmetry.
When speaking of aesthetics it is inappropriate to speak of aesthetics being correct or
incorrect as aesthetic concepts are very flexible. Generally a dental restoration can be described as having a natural appearance or is
close to natural. If for example we produce a
dental restoration or a crown which closely
resembles the natural, we say it has an aesthetic appearance.
To this purpose, it is essential to look closely

and observe the effects evident in different
surfaces. For example the texture of a surface
such as gingival tissue or that of a tooth which
causes reflected light to diffuse under varying
lighting conditions.
Of course shape, value and colour are also
important.
A crown which differs very slightly in colour
from the ideal but which has excellent shape,
texture and value will be significantly less of a
disturbance to the oral harmony of the patient
than a shade perfect crown that has an inappropriate shape and texture or value.
Regarding complete dentures, not only tooth
form and positioning are important aesthetically, but the gingiva also must appear as a reproduction of the natural gingiva.
95
Notes
96
Aesthetics
Tooth selection
Anterior teeth
Aesthetics
Setup and function
Denture finishing
12
12 Setup and function

12 .1 Setup concepts
Generally accepted principles.
When setting up posterior teeth stability of the
denture is a major goal applicable to all denture prosthetics. This should be kept in mind
when addressing and overcoming the range of
clinical difficulties encountered daily in denture construction.
Regardless of which concept is to be used, correctly determined centric relation is an essential and fundamental base from which to begin
the work. The only possible exception may be
when using teeth with zero degree cusps.
It makes no sense to try to conform to a single
theoretical concept at any price without being
aware of the practical consequences. This
means that the suitability of a particular concept must be determined for each particular
case.
Three concepts are described in the following
and which can be utilized in virtually all cases
The buccal cusps are out of contact. The lower

posteriors are set up according to the alveolar
ridge and curve of Spee in order to obtain denture stability. Their occlusal surfaces appear
horizontally aligned from a labial perspective.
The upper and lower posteriors are brought
into contact in such a way that they articulate
anatomically and functionally. Note: there is
always a free space left between the upper
and lower buccal cusps.
VITA MFT teeth are generally set up in a tooth
to tooth relationship. Should it be necessary
for some reason to set the teeth in a tooth - to
two teeth relationship this is quite acceptable.
Advantages of lingualised occlusion.

The aim of lingualised occlusion is to stabilise
the dentures while providing maximum space
for the tongue.
The occlusal forces transferred to the oral
mucosa and the underlying bone substance are
thereby minimised.
12.1.1 Lingualised occlusion

VITA MFT
This generally reduces the strain on the denture bearing area and can be an essential ingredient in the survival of implant cases.
The principle of lingualised setup.

In lingualised occlusion the lingual working
cusps of the upper posterior teeth occlude into
the central fossae of the lower posteriors.
99
Fig. 1:
Fig. 2:
Fig. 3:
Procedure:
1. Setup beginning with the first upper
molar
Please note: with lingualised occlusion, the
lower posteriors are set up vertically, i.e. are not
lingually inclined (fig. 1). The dominant mesiolingual cusp of the first upper molar bites into
100
the fossa of the first lower molar (fig. 2). The

distolingual cusp comes into contact with the
distal marginal ridge of the first lower molar.
The second upper premolar is then brought into
contact with its antagonist. The palatal cusp of
the latter should come into contact with the
fossa of the second lower premolar (fig. 3).
Setup and function
Fig. 4:
Fig. 5:
Fig. 6:
The palatal cusp of the first upper premolar

should now bite into the fossa area of the first
lower premolar (fig. 4). Finally, the second
upper molar is set up. The palatal cusps grip
into the fossa area of the second lower molar
(fig. 5).
The buccal cusps of all upper posteriors are

situated slightly higher than, and out of contact with the buccal portions of their antagonists (fig. 6).
101
Fig. 7:
Fig. 8:
Fig. 9:
2. Setup beginning with the first upper

premolar
Please note that in lingualised occlusion, the
lower posteriors are first set up horizontally,
i.e. not lingually inclined (fig. 7). The lingual
cusp of the first upper premolar should now
102
bite into the fossa area of the first lower premolar (fig. 8). The second upper premolar is
then brought into contact with its antagonist.
The lingual cusp of the latter should grip into
the fossa of the second lower premolar only
(fig. 9).
Setup and function
Fig. 10:
Fig. 11:
Fig. 12:
The dominant palatal cusp of the first upper

molar bites into the fossa of the first lower
molar. The distolingual cusp meets the distal
marginal ridge of the first lower molar (fig. 10).
Finally the second upper molar is set up.
The lingual cusps bite into the fossa area of

the second lower molar (fig. 11). The buccal
cusps of all upper posteriors are always situated slightly higher, and out of contact with the
buccal portions of the antagonists (fig. 12).
103
Contact points
The red dots mark the centric contacts. Except
in special cases, no occlusal grinding should be
carried out before transferring the wax setup
to acrylic resin.
Due to the functional design of their occlusal

surfaces, VITA MFT posteriors require only a
minimal amount of occlusal adjustment in excursion movements. Where necessary, the excursion movements can be carried out according to
the following diagram.
Fig. 13: Lingualised setup centric contacts.
Fig. 14: The pattern of excursion movements.
Before removing the acrylic resin denture from

the model, the articulation and occlusion can
be perfected by grinding where necessary in
the areas of the lower fossae and the cuspal
ridges.
Centric relation
Protrusion
Laterotrusion / working side
Mediotrusion / balancing side
104
Setup and function
12.1.2 Anterior-canine guidance

with ABC contacts
Dr Karl Hiltebrandt, one of the founders of Vita
in the early 1920s, was somewhat of a visionary and some say, ahead of his time. Dr
Hiltebrandt concluded that a normal bite is
driven by neuromuscular guidance rather than
tooth guided movement as was thought to be
the case at the time.
When constructing full dentures for edentulous
patients the clinician is presented with a series
of problems which must be overcome if stable,
comfortable and functional dentures are to
result.
Two of the most common problems to overcome are divergent atrophy of both maxilla and
mandible and the fact that the lower denture
sits partially on a sloping incline (see section
1.8 / Bone / arch atrophy).
This situation is not as nature intended and the
reason the patient is in need of a replacement. All the various forces acting on the dentures, particularly those occurring during
masticatory movements, must be balanced out
against one another.
This does not mean grinding the occlusion in
order to obtain excursion movements but, as it
were, entry lanes, with corresponding canine
guidance which culminate in group guidance.
The dentures can therefore be returned to
centric position from every dislocated position
simply by clenching the teeth together.
Contacts with the opposing teeth (antagonist

contacts) are generally classified into three
types of positional relationships:
"A" contacts:
Buccal cusps upper and lower contacts. The
shearing (non working) cusps of the upper teeth
are in contact with the working cusps of the
lower teeth (Fig 15).
"B" contacts:
Lower buccal cusps contact with lingual cusps
of the upper. The working cusps of upper and
lower are in contact (Fig 15).
"C" contacts:
Upper and lower lingual cusp contacts. The
working cusps of the uppers and the shearing
(non working) cusps of the lowers are in contact. As a rule,either A and B, or C and B contacts are sufficient. They provide stable occlusal and axial loading of the teeth.
A, B and C contacts can be present at the same
time and this is fine. What is important is their
uniform distribution.
Upper
OK
A
B
C
Lower
UK
Fig. 15:
Necessary posterior antagonist contacts

to achieve occlusal stability.
105
Upper
OK
Lower
UK
A
B
C
Fig. 16:
Fig. 17: Individual distribution of the ABC contacts.
In order to stabilise both the mandibular and

the maxillary dentures, an A contact and a B
contact, or a B contact and a C contact are
required (see fig. 16).
106
Setup and function
12.1.3 Setup according to generally accepted

principles with buccal contacts
After the anterior teeth have been set up

taking the sagittal overbite (overjet) into
account as described in chapter 10.2, the
posterior teeth can be set in position.
The following applies to the setup of all

lower posteriors:
They are generally positioned on the centre
of the alveolar ridge.
The central fissures should be in a straight
line which runs between the tips of the
canines and the centre of the retromolar triangle.
The buccal cusps are situated on the tangent of the Bonwill circle, which reaches
from the buccal limit of the first premolar to
the buccal limit of the retromolar triangle.
The lingual cusp tips are situated on
Pound's line.
The posteriors lingually inclined => tooth
inclination increasingly towards the distal.
(axial inclination of tooth crown
towards the lingual in relation to axial inclination of tooth root, a characteristic of
mandibular teeth).
The following applies to setting of the upper
posteriors:
If possible, they are positioned on the centre
of the alveolar ridge.
The central fissures are situated on an elliptical connection line between the tips of the
canines and the tubera maxillae.
Viewed from in front, less and less of the
buccal surface can be seen from the first premolar to the second molar; this gives rise to
the "buccal corridor".
They are buccally inclined.

The first lower premolar is set up.
The buccal cusp tips touch the occlusal plane.
The second premolar is set. It is situated
approx. 1 1.5 mm below the occlusal plane.
The first lower molar must be set up in the
area of the lowest point of the alveolar ridge.
Taking into account the sagittal and transversal compensation curves.
The buccal cusp tips are approx. 2 mm below
the occlusal plane, rising towards the distal.
If there is no danger of proglissement (lower
denture forward displacement), the second
lower molar can also be set up. Otherwise the
sagittal progression of the curve in the area of
the first molar should be compensated, i.e.
distally raised.
The first upper molar is brought into optimum
intercuspation. Subsequently the second
upper premolar and then the first upper premolar are inserted into the available space.
If, as previously described, it is possible to
set the second lower molar, the upper antagonists can then be added, and brought into
intercuspation.
In the lower, the distobuccal cusps of the second molars touch the occlusal plane. If space
is limited, premolars can be substituted instead. What is important ultimately is that no
more teeth are not beyond the setup limit, i.e.
no teeth are set up into the steep upward slope
of the mandibular ramus otherwise there is a
risk of proglissement (lower denture forward
displacement)!
In order to achieve a balanced occlusion, proceed as described in chapter 14.3.3.
107
Fig. 17: Mesal view of setup.
Fig. 18: Lingual view of setup.
Fig. 19: Mesal view of setup.
108
Setup and function
Fig. 21: Buccal view of second upper premolar and first upper molar.
Fig. 22: Lingual view of first and second upper premolar and first molar ...
Fig. 23: ... and the buccal view.
109
Fig. 25: Buccal view of setup.
Fig. 26: Setup with buccal contacts according to generally

accepted principles.
110
Setup and function
12.2 Important characteristics

12.2.1 Cheek contact
What is the purpose of cheek contact, and why
is it so important?
In order to have the patient feel that their dentures are stable and comfortable it is necessary that the posterior teeth have contact with
the cheeks.
It is also of key importance that the posteriors
are positioned correctly on bone supported
mucosa, preferably on the alveola ridge. (This
is not always possible.) What remains important however is, osseous support of the mucosa.
The dentist should build out the wax flanges,
until cheek contact is achieved. This assists in
stabilising the wax up to some degree by
having cheek contact on both left and right
sides. It also contributes to centric stability.
12.2.2 Different types of bite

In order to produce functionally stable dentures, the skeletal and dental parameters of each
case must be considered. Such information
must be accounted for in the planning and
implementation of complete dentures.
For example,an unfavourable progression of
bone atrophy makes it more difficult to produce
a denture that is positionally stable under
masticatory pressure.
By selecting the appropriate type of bite, denture stability problems caused by difficult skeletal
conditions or unfavourable progression of bone
atrophy can be overcome.
12.2.3 Normal bite
Whenever possible teeth should be set up in a
normal bite, but not at any price!
If unfavourable interalveolar conditions presents, a cross bite or edge to edge bite is used,
particularly in regard to partial dentures.
Additionally, during mastication, the food bolus

is automatically maintained on the posterior
occlusal table until it is ready to be conveyed
further. Without cheek contact the denture is
less stable and the food bolus will accumulate
between the cheek and denture which subsequently requires removal with the tongue or
the finger.
The importance and function of cheek contact
is commonly underestimated.
111
12.2.4 Crossbite
As already described in section 7 on model
analysis, when the inter alveola connection
line has an angle of less than 80 degrees, the
teeth are set in a cross bite in order to avoid or
minimise problems of instability.
To this purpose the maxillary buccal cusps (ie;
the shearing non working cusps) become working cusps which bite into the fossa of the
lower posteriors. As a rule, the first premolar is
set in neutral occlusion, then the second premolar is set in an edge to edge bite. (to this
purpose the cusps must be ground) This is
followed by the first or second molar which is
set in a cross bite position.
12.2.5 Edge to edte bite
An edge to edge bite is normally not used in
the posterior of a set up. An exception can be
a transitional tooth such as a second premolar in a cross bite, which has been ground into
an edge to edge bite relationship (refer section
12. 2. 3).
12.3 Vertical dimension /occlusal height

Determination of the vertical dimension is not
a simple matter.
When the vertical dimension has not been
determined correctly the patients dentures
may cause a clackety clacking sound when
speaking. This is usually more pronounced with
ceramic teeth than with acrylic teeth. The ceramic however is not the cause of the sound but
rather an incorrectly set vertical dimension. In
years past, instead of correcting the vertical
dimension the ceramic teeth were sometimes
replaced with acrylic teeth. This resulted in a
lower volume of the sound but did not eliminate the cause. It was commonly thought by the
general public that crockery teeth as they
were known were the cause of the problem !
On the other hand, if the vertical dimension is
insufficient, the effect will be less pronounced
but the aesthetics will be poor.
It is essential the vertical dimension be correct.
It is also possible to achieve an edge to edge

bite with posteriors that have a flat occlusal
table and without a definite centric position.
This is not recommended however as the patient
may experience a tendency towards cheek
biting. In this circumstance a cross bite or a
normal bite is usually possible.
Partial dentures can also present an exception
to this but, depending on the particular situation a suitable compromise can be found.
Edge to edge bite relationships are most commonly found in the anterior region.
112
Setup and function
Notes
113
Notes
114
Setup and function
Tooth selection
Funtional stability
Anterior teeth
Aesthetics
Setup and function
Denture finishing
13
13 Facts on the denture base

13.1 Gingival contouring
How is natural gingival structured and how
should it be reproduced? Natural gingival consists of marginal gingiva and gingival papillae.
It can also be observed that this very thin gingival tissue is opaque and as a consequence, the
underlying tooth neck / root is not visible.
There is no clear cut boundary between the

marginal gingiva and the attached gingival but
a gradual transition between the two. The marginal gingival covers the osseous alveola process, is keratinised and has a pitted orange
peel texture (surface stippling).
It is for this reason we use and recommend

opaque acrylic for dentures where we want the
best possible aesthetic result. It is our opinion
that transparent acrylics are aesthetically unsuitable for use as denture base material. A key
area of gingival contouring is the design of the
interdental papillae. The papillae should have the
form of a droplet (see Fig 1) and be oriented towards the approximal. The papillae always finishes well short of the incisal edge and occlusal
surface.
The mucogingival junction forms the transition

between the attached gingival and the alveola
mucosa. This is distinguishable and easily
recognised, as the gingival mucosa is darker
and thinner than the attached gingival.
13.1.1 How can naturally appearing
gingival be reproduced?
An appropriate expression might be that less is
more. Exaggerated carving and over contouring
in the gingival margin area is painstakingly difficult to trim and also can be difficult for the
patient to keep clean.
Fig. 2
Fig. 1: Prosthesis ideally modelled in wax.
Fig. 3
If we observe natural healthy gingiva, it can be

observed that the transition from tooth to gingiva
occurs at a very flat angle precisely in the vicinity of the gingival margin.
The simplest and best way to reproduce naturally appearing gingival is with pink sheet wax
sheet and the use of wax carving instruments
(Figs 2 and 3).
117
The transition of the gingival to the teeth

should be flat. ie: must taper at a flat angle.
Excessively pronounced contouring such as
gingival neoplasms, periodontal pockets etc.
are seldom attractive to a patient, they can be
difficult to keep clean and are best avoided.
Ultimately, moderate contouring has a number
of advantages:
It has a natural appearance, simpler to produce, easier to polish, and easier for the patient
to keep clean.
Fig. 5
After the wax has slightly cooled any wax on

the teeth at the gingival margin is removed
with a suitably shaped instrument.
After the wax up and wax contouring are completed a brush flame is used carefully to
smooth the surface of the wax.
Fig. 4: Wax up ready for investing and processing is

completed.
118
FIg. 6
Fig. 8: Smoothing the wax with alcohol flame.
The edge created as a result of exposing the cervical area is bevelled, the angle as previously
described should be flat.
After removing wax carving residue, the contours can be smoothed and rounded off using a
soft and not so hot flame of an alcohol torch. A
clean methodical way of working is essential.
Fig. 7
Fig. 9
These steps enable a good basic gingival structure to be achieved by simple means.
Next the tooth/gingival transition is defined

and any excess wax on the teeth removed (fig. 9).
119
Fig. 10
Fig. 12
An essential part of a good, naturally appearing

gingival reproduction is the papillae.
As can be seen in the above photograph, the tip
of the papillae is removed and shortened using
an arrow headed instrument (fig. 10).
The remaining tip of the papillae and the small

amount of wax carving are slightly rounded so that
there are no angles and the wax gingiva appears
to flow interdentally. Finally, the interdental gingiva can be smoothed very carefully using a soft
flame such as that of an alcohol torch (Care must
be taken, not to apply the flame to the teeth).
Fig. 11
Fig. 13
The dental technician next decides on the

degree of wax contouring in order to obtain a
naturally appearing gingiva (fig. 11).
In a situation where the patient has a big smile

and shows a lot of gum when they laugh,
thoughtful contouring of the lip tendon area can
serve to enhance the natural appearance of the
gingiva (Superior labial frenulum) (fig. 13).
120
13.3 Determining the borders of the denture.

13.3.1 How is the border / periphery of the
denture determined.
This is determined by the limits of the functional impression and is of key importance for the
completed dentures.
Fig. 14: The wax up ready for try in.
13.2 Passage ways for unhindered

functioning of the ligaments.
In order to ensure retention of complete dentures, the muscle /ligaments in the sulcus which
have been carefully recorded in the functional
impression must have unhindered freedom of
movement. If not sufficiently accommodated in
the periphery of the denture, they will inhibit
achievement of the suction required for retention of the denture. Also, if the periphery of the
denture is on top of the sulcus ligament it will
cause displacement of the denture in function
and cause irritation to the ligament and painful
pressure areas.
The correct design and execution in acrylic of
these functional passage ways is an essential
factor which directly affects stability of the
denture and avoidance of pressure spots.
These passage- ways must be correctly dealt
with from the functional impression onwards.
This means that they must not be trimmed with
burs but only lightly refined using a sandpaper
mandrel in preparation for polishing. No further activity in regard to these areas is necessary until they are lightly polished, otherwise
the peripheral seal and retentive suction may
be jeopardised.
The thickness of the periphery must not be altered or randomly reduced, it should retain the
exact dimensions determined by the dentist
when taking the functional muscle trimmed
impression. Only in this way can the outer peripheral seal be obtained.
The periphery of the denture must reach both
the attached and mobile mucosa circumferentially around the denture. Optimum adhesion
requires the denture base to extend into the
mobile mucosal areas which does not move
during functional activity. Between the inner
peripheral sea and the mobile mucosa there is
an inner seal. Between the outer edge of the
functional border and the mobile mucosa which
rests on top of this, there is an outer seal on the
suction area.
With many dentures a frequent short coming is
the design of the post dam. For further details
refer to the chapter 14.2.1 Insertion of the
post dam.
Another important area that requires attention
is that of the tuberosity cheek pouch. This is
often waxed too thinly with the result that the
outer peripheral seal is lost. It must be precisely waxed so that it has the correct peripheral
thickness and will not interfer with the coronoid
process in extreme lateral movement (coronoid
process / where the temporal muscle begins).
121
ie: to the distal of the tubera (tuberosity), the

periphery must reach the area of mobile mucosa which lies between the tuberosity and the
pterygoid hamulus.
The lower denture periphery thickness should
not exceed 2 mm in the area of the mylohyod
line. At this point there is no permanent outer
seal, only an inner seal.
The periphery extends aprox 2mm below the
mylohyd crest (crista mylohoyoidea). The border
of the linguo-anterior area remains as given by
the functional impression.
13.3.2 Peripheral sealing mobile mucosa
This runs circumferentially around both upper
and lower denture bearing area.
The expanse of the upper comprises the maxillary tubers in the dorsal direction, reaching
into the soft tissue area between the
tubera and the pterygoid hamulus, and from
here in the vestibular direction corresponding to the functional impression reaching to
the tubera of the other side.
In the area of the palatal vibrating line, the
expansion continues into the area which just
begins to vibrate during the formation of the
"a" sound.
In the lower the retromolar tubers must be
correctly incorporated. The expansion of the
dorsal limit of the prosthesis extends into the
area of the mobile mucosa slightly distally of
the tubercula retromolaria.
In the vestibular area the expanse is determined by the functional impression. This must
122
be kept intact in order not to compromise or

lose the suction effect.
In the sublingual area this runs in the dorsal
direction, after the transition from the attached
to the mobile mucosa in front of the carunculae, i.e. approx. 2 mm below the mylohyoid
crest along to the tubera retromoleria.
13.3.3 What factors enable good adhesion?
The secret of good adhesion of complete dentures lies in the body of the prosthesis being
positioned congruently on the mucosa, the correct expanse of the denture base and the perfect design of the prosthesis margins with the
suction area sealed off internally (inner valve
margin) and externally (outer valve margin) in
conjunction with a faultless occlusion.
13.3.4 Reducing the strain on
the palatal torus
Reducing the strain on the palatal torus by means
of tin foil, etc., is a rather controversial matter.
The general rule applies that, in order to reduce the strain on the palatal torus, material
must not simply be removed from the denture
base in a freehand manner, and with a more or
less arbitrarily determined limit.
Reducing the strain in this manner counteracts
the salivary (adhesion) film necessary for the
retention of the maxillary prosthesis, since the
denture base is no longer seated congruently
on the gingiva.
The strain on the palatine torus must be reduced only by partial adjustments made by the
dentist. This should only be done, however
when a hypomochlion occurs on the torus.
13.3.5 The sealing function of the denture

periphery all or nothing
In both the upper and lower dentures the entire circumferential periphery provides a seal
similar to that of a suction pad.
A general distinction is made between an inner
and outer peripheral seal. Some areas on the
denture such as the palate post dam / finish
line have no permanent outer peripheral seal.
Nor does the mylohyoid line in the linguo-anterior region.
In these areas which have only the permanent
inner peripheral seal and no permanent outer
seal, the expression all or nothing can be
applied. In other words, if the seal fails in one
place the retentive suction effect is lost for
the entire denture. This is in contrast to other
areas in which both an inner and outer seal
exists. If for whatever reason the inner seal
does not function, the denture will still be
retained because of the retention provided by
the outer seal. This means that in extreme
cases there are two sealing functions which
work together alternately. This also means
that in the case of an incorrectly designed post
dam / palatal finish line there will be no retention at all.
13.3.6 Foreign body in the mouth sensation.

as small as possible as large as
necessary
Periodically there is a tendency towards flimsy
design of full dentures. This is understandable
as a patient who is new to dentures may feel
they have more than a mouthful! Such dentures are often found by patients to be somewhat
unstable with problems conveying the mastica-
ted food bolus from the anterior to the posterior

region (food bolus remaining in vestibular
areas/see section 12.2.1, Cheek contact).
It is no doubt correct as well as logical to
design immediate dentures with as graceful
dimensions as possible. Immediately after
tooth extraction, resorption of the alveola ridge
has not occurred and any increase in dimension
is too much. In such circumstances the patient
is sure to comment in regard to the sensation of
having a foreign body in the mouth.
After resorption of the alveola ridge, the reduced volume must be restored by means of additional denture base acrylic etc in order to permit normal food uptake and mastication. It is
also necessary for the restoration of phonetics.
This results in dentures which have a somewhat
awkward appearance when compared with
those purposely given a more graceful design.
The patient will come to appreciate and manage better with the more robust dentures.
When it comes to restoring lost tissue, the
dimensions of that tissue must be accommodated in the design of the dentures.
13.3.7 Designing the upper labial acrylic

flange.
It can sometimes be observed that a person
wearing an upper full denture appears to have a
puffed out area immediately below the nose and
extending from canine to canine. This gives a
chimpanzee like appearance.
This is caused by an excessively thick border
area of the denture and / or, over bulking of the
anterior flange of the denture.
123
In regard to bone atrophy it must be noted that

the bone immediately beneath the nose undergoes virtually no loss of dimension. If, however
a thick denture border is added to this zero
shrinkage area it makes it appear as if the
patient is blowing air under the upper lip. This
is obviously detrimental to the aesthetics.
13.3.8 Face lifting effect
This refers to the bulking out of the denture
base to restore the facial contour which may
have lost its support due to atrophy of the
maxilla.
Experience however shows that patients who

are well informed about the purpose of rougae
usually become accustomed to the palatal
design within days.
Palatal rougae is conducive to phonetic function. It is also helpful for turning over food and
may even contribute to an improved sense of
taste. This is because the tongue encounters a
surface that provides friction and the papillae
on the tongue is stimulated by the contact
with the rougae and enveloped in flavouring
substances. This effect is less pronounced
with a smooth palate.
This bulking out of the denture base contour is

best done at the try in. Care must be taken not
to subject the lip to excessive pressure from
bulking out of the wax up.
The corrected contouring is subsequently
transposed to denture base acrylic.
13.4 Palatal rougae

The subject of palatal rougae is some what
controversial. It has occurred on occasion that
for whatever reason, rougae incorporated in a
denture palate has had to be removed and the
palate trimmed and polished to a smooth
finish. Not an experience one would wish to
repeat.
Fig. 15: Palatal rougae.
A patient who has worn a denture with a

smooth palate for an extended period will probably find it more difficult to become accustomed to palatal rougae. Even more so if the
patient is insufficiently informed of its purpose.
124
It is not uncommon for palatal rugae to be

incorporated in an upper denture for aesthetic,and functional reasons.
Excellent, prefabricated, reusable and flexible
rougae patterns are commercially available and
which can be incorporated into a denture wax
up. These patterns are reproduced in the palate of the denture base acrylic. Care when polishing must be exercised when polishing to
maintain the reproduced rougae pattern.
Fig. 16: Indistinguishable from the natural.
125
Notes
126
Tooth selection
Anterior teeth
Aesthetics
Setup and function
Denture processing
14
14 Denture processing
14.1 Denture processing systems
Differences of opinion exist in regard to denture
processing systems. It is up to the individual to
choose a preferred method of working. The following describes some of the advantages and
disadvantages of the various procedures.
14.1.1 Injection systems
Injection systems with different equipment for
using both self curing or heat curing polymers
have yielded good results and enjoy a high
degree of popularity. An advantage of closed
injection systems is that the bite is not raised
which enables fabrication of dentures with a
high degree of occlusal accuracy.
14.1.2 Packing systems
Packing systems using flasks and presses and
using both heat curing and self curing polymers
are widely used and when correctly used, deliver good results.
In order not to raise the bite, a certain amount
of practice / experience in handling flasks and
hydraulic presses is required.
14.1.3 Pouring systems.
Acrylic pouring systems which use self curing
acrylics are inclined to increased shrinkage of
the material due to their greater fluid content.
Generally it can be said that the more fluid, the
greater the shrinkage.
There is also the possibility that when using
pour systems liquid will be unable to escape
from the mould resulting in incomplete filling
of the mould.
The time intended to be gained by using a pour

technique may well be a mirage if work must
be repeated resulting from sensitivities in the
use of this system. With pour systems the residual monomer content in the acrylic is highest.
It is unrealistic to describe pour systems as
being capable of delivering high quality
results.
14.1.4 Heat Curing Acrylic versus
Self Curing Acrylic
Heat Curing Acrylics (thermo-polymers) have
superior long term characteristics compared
with Self Curing Acrylics:
They have a lower content of residual monomer;
are more dense; are more dimensionally stable;
they are easily polished to a high lustre and
maintain the lustre indefinitely. To achieve reliable and consistent bonding between the denture base acrylic and the teeth, the following
procedure is recommended.
14.1.5 Improving adhesion / preparation
of the denture teeth.
Bonding agent for acrylic teeth and denture base.
With so many brands of denture acrylic available it is difficult for the Dental Technician to
determine as to the quality of the bond between the particular teeth and the selected
denture base acrylic. With correct use of VITACOLL combined with good packing associated
and processing procedures, good bonding is
assured.
129
1. The base of each tooth should be roughened

using a shallow groove cutting bur (No 108),
A coarse toothed steel or carbide bur may
also be suitable. Any type of retention holes
or dove tails are strongly recommended
against. During the flask packing and pressing procedure, air can be trapped in such
retention holes impairing the bond. Dove
tails serve only to weaken the body of each
tooth and increase the likelihood of fracture
including at low levels of loading (Fig 1).
2. The teeth must be free of wax residue and
plaster separator. It is also preferable that
the mould / flask be cool rather than hot.
VITACOLL is recommended for use with Heat
Curing acrylics and mandatory when using
Self Curing acrylics. VITACOLL acts on the
clean cut surface of the denture teeth and
modifies the chemistry of the surface to
accommodate the chemistry of the denture
base acrylic. A strong chemical bond results.
Some denture base materials are available
which cannot otherwise form a bond with
modern high quality acrylic denture teeth.
Further procedural instructions.

When contouring, carving and refining the gingival wax up of dentures, one must be careful
when using a flame to smooth the finally contoured gum areas. A flame in contact with the
teeth will scorch the high points of the teeth and
cause whitish discolouration which may not be
immediately evident (Points of cusps/ridges/incisal edges). During processing of the denture
base these scorched areas which are microscopically porous, absorb moisture emanating from
the plaster mould. In a short amount of time in
the mouth they will discolour and can be seen
clearly. When smoothing with a brush flame, the
flame should be small and soft and care must be
taken that the more prominent areas on the
teeth are not scorched by the flame.
Incorrect!
Fig. 1: Loading of the body of the tooth.
THE PROCEDURE
VITACOLL is applied to the roughened base of
each tooth with a small brush. It must be allowed to stand to take effect for a minimum of 5
minutes. If after 5 minutes the surface appears
dry and not shiny-wet, VITACOLL should again
be applied.
After another 5 minutes has elapsed, packing
of the denture base acrylic can begin. Packing
of the denture base acrylic should begin within
10 minutes of the end of this 5 minute holding
time. If not, the bond enhancing effect of the
VITACOLL may be lost.
130
14.2
Denture Processing
14.2.1 Inserting the Post Dam.

(Distal Palate Vibrating / Finish line)
The scraping of the upper model across the
distal of the palate to provide a post dam and
denture finish line is essential for obtaining
retentive suction of the denture.
If not done correctly the retention of the denture is put at risk and will have to be corrected.
Denture processing
Full upper dentures are commonly over or

under extended in this area and / or, improperly dammed. The palatal finish line should be
placed in the mucosal area which begins to
vibrate when forming the sound of the letter
a.
14.2.2 How and where should the distal
palate of the model be trimmed?
The dental care provider should mark the finish
line and palatal post dam area on the model for
the technician or, personally prepare the model
with both finish line and post dam.
A fairly standard example follows:
10mm
10 mm
0.5 mm
0,5mm
10 mm
10mm
model
ausla tapering
possible surface on the acrylic after the processing is completed (as follows).
Immerse the model or flask halves in hot
water for a few minutes. Remove from the
water and remove remaining water with compressed air.
Generously apply the plaster / stone separator
with a brush and massage it onto the plaster /
stone for 50 60 seconds. Excess is then
removed by rinsing with a fine jet of warm
water. Next the models / flask halves are placed in a sealed container where they remain
for 15 or 20 minutes. After removal, packing of
the acrylic can begin.
This procedure results in the subsequently
packed and processed acrylic having a dense
and glass like surface.
Using this method it is also possible to delay
packing of the acrylic for some time, without
having the separator becoming too dry.
t=1.0 mm
t=1,0mm
t=0.5 mm
t=0,5mm
t=1.0 mm
t=1,0mm
t=0.5 mm
t=0,5mm
t=0,5mm
t=0.5 mm
model
abge with clear
boundary
Fig. 2
The green dotted line indicates the extremity of

the palatal reduction from the red dotted, palatal finish line. The depth of palatal reduction of
the model at the red finish line is usually 0.5 1.0 mm and tapers anteriorally to the greenline.
14.2.3 Plaster / stone separators
(cold mould seal)
In order to prevent adhesion of acrylic and plaster / stone during polymerization procedures,
alginate based plaster separator liquid is
used (cold mould seal). It is important to use
these separators correctly to obtain the best
On the other hand, if separator is applied to

dry un-warmed models, it does not penetrate
and dries out very quickly. This allows moisture to escape from the model / mould during
polymerisation and diffuse into the acrylic.
This results in whitish areas on the surface of
the acrylic which indicates a reaction has
taken place between the moisture and acrylic.
There is not much sense in repeatedly applying separator to attempt to prevent such a problem. Better to apply separator just once, but
correctly, as indicated.
131
14.3 Occlusal Contact Adjustment

The ideal point at which to adjust the occlusion
is after the dentures have been transferred from
wax to acrylic. Regardless of the preferred set
up method, a balanced centric occlusion is
essential. The dentist must decide which concept is appropriate for the particular case.
1. If a patients dentures are constructed accordingly to the mandibular neuromuscular guidance philosophy of Dr Karl Hiltebrandt, as
opposed to tooth guided movement, the resulting centric support will be sufficient.
2. If a fully balanced occlusion is the goal,
occlusal adjustments are made as follows.
Adjusting the occlusion

The palatal cusps of the upper posteriors 4, 5, 6,
and possibly 7 should have homogeneous contact
in the fossae of the lower posteriors. Likewise,
the lower posteriors 4, 5, 6 and possibly 7 should
have good contact with their antagonists. The
supporting cusps must not be shortened, but
should be adjusted to fit into the fossa of the antagonist.
14.3.2 Which contact points are actually
necessary?
Different contact points will be required, depending on which occlusal concept is selected for
the patient in question. If the concept of lingualised occlusion is used, the following contacts are required in the centric position:
14.3.1 What is the correct method to follow

when adjusting the occlusion of full
dentures?
Occlusal adjustment of full dentures by bilateral balancing.
Prerequisites:
Correctly set teeth with interdigitation of the
cusps and fissures.
Taking into account the sagittal and if appropriate, the transverse compensating curve.
Sagittal overbite (overbite overjet) as a
rule by 1 2 mm.
Basic rules:
The palatal cusps of the maxillary teeth 4, 5,
6 and possibly 7, and the buccal cusps of the
mandibular teeth 4, 5, 6 and possibly 7 secure
the occlusion. They must always be conserved when determining the occlusion.
When adjusting the occlusion of the anteriors, cosmetic factors should also be taken
into consideration.
132
Fig. 3: Lingualised occlusion.
Denture processing
If the teeth have been set up according to the

concept of canine guidance with ABC contacts,
possible combinations of contact points are
depicted in the following diagram. These are
positioned individually, but usually in pairs. As
already described in section 12.12 the A and B or
B and C contacts, and sometimes also A and B
and C contacts, which will provide stability.
Occlusal adjustment to facilitate excursive

movement as per generally accepted principles.
As a rule, the occlusion supporting cusps of the
posterior, 4 ,5, and 6 must not be ground in any
way during occlusal adjustment procedures.
They must be preserved in all circumstances.
Laterotrusion
In Laterotrusion on the working side contacts
should be created both frontally and between
the buccal cusps of the posteriors. For cosmetic
reasons, anterior grinding in laterotrusion
should be carried out, if possible, only on the
lowers. Posterior occlusal adjustments are
made only to non occlusion supporting cusps.
Prior to this, the occlusion supporting occlusal
contacts should be marked as they must be
preserved in all circumstances.
Mediotrusion
In mediotrusion on the balancing side, antagonist contacts are required on at least two
posterior teeth between the upper lingual cusp
and the lower buccal cusp.
Fig. 4: ABC contacts this concept does not have the aim
of balancing.
14.3.3 Which movements must be free

from occlusal interference ?
If at the outset we do not wish to work according to the described principles and grind the
occlusion to enable excurson movements, or, if
another approach is necessitated by the particular case, we can proceed as follows.
Fig. 5: When adjusting the occlusion, the red arrows indicate

the occlusion supporting cusps which must not be ground.
133
Fig. 6: In this case it is necessary to grind the fossa

of the antagonist. As indicated.
Protrusive adjustment:
Bennett angle set at zero
In protrusion, when the upper and lower incisors are edge to edge, bilateral occlusal support is required distally in the posterior area.
removed as required with trimming burs after

processing of the denture acrylic are very inefficient as they require a great deal of both time
and experience. The time is far better spent
with careful wax contouring, wax carving and
preserving this with thoughtful use of the
various wax / plaster separators available. If
the various working steps are diligently carried
out, the denture finishing and polishing time
and work is minimised and results in a quality
finish for the dentures. After removal of the
processed dentures from the flask/ mould is
the trimming of the acrylic flash.
Do not trim or remove any of the bulk of the
denture border / periphery as this is a reproduction of the muscle trimmed, functional
Fig. 7: Optimally balanced posteriors.
Fig. 8: Remove only the acrylic flash.
14.4 Finishing and Polishing
impression which was painstakingly obtained

by the Dentist. These borders are important as
they contribute towards the seal of the dentures with the tissue which is necessary for
retention of the dentures. Additional trimming
will diminish or even eliminate the retention.
A high quality polish is a must in order to provide comfort and hygiene for the patient.
Light curing glaze varnish is no substitute for a
sparkling polish The working steps towards
achieving a good polish are simplified and
shortened by careful waxing, wax contouring
and carving, investing and the correct use of
acrylic / plaster separators both alginate based
and silicone. Theories regarding the addition of
bulked out gum areas which can be carved or
134
The palatal finish line and post dam areas are

normally clearly visible on the processed denture. The acrylic flash in this area is first removed and the finish line trimmed.
Denture processing
The thickness of the post dam / finish line area

of the denture palate can be reduced to a feasible minimum in order to maximise comfort for
the patient and avoid nausea.
With a sandpaper mandrel and a suitably fine
grade of sandpaper, the lightly trimmed surface of the exposed periphery and reduced post
dam / finish line areas can be refined.
Further surface refining can also be accomplished with the use of rubber polishers before
finally using pumice.
In regard to the use of abrasives in refining the
cut of a surface to be polished, the basic rule is
to work from a larger coarser grain progressively towards a finer smaller grain size. This
will always give the best possible surface
finish and ultimately the best polish.
When beginning the refinement of the denture
surface start with the relatively coarse grain
abrasive and use on all necessary surfaces of
the denture before moving on to a finer grain
abrasive. Chopping and changing from coarse
to fine and fine to coarse is time consuming
and will compromise the surface finish. It
makes sense to develop a systematic
approach to denture finishing in order to acquire the necessary experience and obtain consistent results.
Particular areas of some dentures are not very
accessible to the large polishing brushes mops
or felt cones normally used on a polishing
lathe. These include the areas immediately
around the teeth and very high palates. Such
inaccessible areas are best polished at the
work bench with the use of small handpiece
mounted polishing implements. (brushes, mops
and felt cones.)
The gingival area of a denture wax up requires

special attention as the finishing of the junction of teeth and denture base material must
be accomplished without damaging the acrylic
teeth. Picking around the gingival with a sharp
instrument in order to remove any pink acrylic
flash will inevitably cause damage to the surface of the teeth. This whole procedure can be
avoided with the use of a silicone protection
layer which is applied to the carefully waxed
and carved gingival area immediately prior to
the pouring of the second (top) half of the
denture flask during the investing procedure
(VitafolH). Use of such products greatly
simplify the gingival finishing / polishing procedures and eliminate completely, the otherwise inevitable damage to the surface of the
teeth while finishing. Final pumice polishing of
such a well finished area is minimised and the
danger of over polishing of fine contouring and
characterization, eliminated.
A sparkling glaze like surface can be obtained
with polishing mops using a good high shine
polishing paste the selection of which is one of
personal preference. There are many such
polishing materials available and a discussion
of the pros and cons of each would probably
yield sufficient material for a separate publication on the subject.
For those who may be accustomed to working
procedures and sequences different from those
described, it will likely take time and some
effort to change their ways! If however they
choose to do so, they will be rewarded with
increased productivity and above all the high
quality of their work will be obvious to their
Dentist clients, patients and most importantly,
themselves.
135
14.5 Seating and issue of the dentures.
14.7 Instructions for care
In the entire sequence of the various working

steps, the seating and issue of the dentures is
undoubtably the most important moment for all
involved. Checking the retentitiveness of the
dentures, their functional stability and their aesthetics are the penultimate steps in this procedural chain.
Caring for dentures.
14.6 Remounting the dentures.
Using toothpaste and hard bristle toothbrushes are not recommended.

Dish washing liquid and a SOFT brush are
excellent for the purpose.
Any tartar can be removed by immersion in
vinegar.
The occasional immersion in water with a
denture cleansing tablet is also helpful.
Patient aftercare is an integral part of treatment. Remounting of the dentures after a short
time in the mouth is essential and should be
done after the dentures have been worn for
about 24 hours.
For this purpose, newly fabricated models and
a new bite are used to remount the dentures on
the articulator. It is important that the bite recording medium not be perforated as this would
produce an un-physiological bite relationship
with possible pathological consequences. It is
also most important that the remounting not be
done on the used models. Polymerisation will
have caused volumetric change and if used for
remounting would subject the dentures to
harmful stresses.
For the purpose of model remounting, the use
of split cast models or mounting plates are
useful along with the indispensible use of articulation Shimstock foil
This particular step should be carried out with
much care in order to obtain the optimum occlusal comfort for the patient. If not done with
care it would seem so to speak that the cake is
being delivered without the icing.
136
Denture processing
Notes
137
Notes
138
Literature references
Carl Hiltebrandt, Die Arbeitsphysiologie des menschlichen Kauorganes
Hofmann-Axthelm, Lexikon der Zahnmedizin
Hohmann-Hielscher, Lehrbuch der Zahntechnik, Quintessenz Verlag 2001
Stuck /Horn Zahnaufstellung in der Totalprothetik
Parsche E., Funktionslehre/Biomechanik Graz 2006
Grndler, H. /Stttgen, U., Die Totalprothese, Verlag Neuer Merkur GmbH 1995
Linke u.a., 2001
Tschirch, 1966
139
Glossary
A
adequate
appropriate, fulfilling requirements
adhesion
the state of adhering to; sticking to
anamnesis
the recording of the patient's history
anatomy
the science and teaching of the structure

of the human, animal or plant body
anomaly
a congenital or subsequent development

irregularity of an organ
antagonist
opposing tooth
anterior
front
apical
at, on, towards the apex (root tip)
approximal
at, on, towards the adjacent

(mesial or distal) tooth
articulator
apparatus for simulating

the jaw movements (chewing simulator)
aesthetics
the nature, expression and appreciation

(sensory perception) of beauty; used informally
today to refer to an attractive appearance
atrophy
the wasting or loss of tissue
B
basal
at, on, towards the base
bolus
mass of food formed in the mouth

after thorough chewing (food bolus)
buccal
at, on, towards the cheek
140
Glossary
C
canines
corner teeth, eye teeth (plural cuspids)
carunculae salivariae
(salivary caruncles)
small eminences on the efferent ducts

of the salivary glands on both sides of the
tongue tendon on the transition to the
floor of the oral cavity
central
forming the midpoint, med. also used

pertaining to the central nervous system
cervical
at, on, towards the tooth cervix/neck
cohesion
holding together; also referred to as

the "force that holds together"
condyle
articular head
coronal
towards the crown, pertaining to the crown
crista mylohyoidea
(mylohyoid crest)
soft, osseous ridge, also called linea

mylohyoidea (mylohyoid line): area of the
mylohyoid muscle attachment on the
inside of the lower jaw
D
dentition
the natural teeth in the dental arch;

tooth eruption
diffusion
the process of becoming mixed through

or widely spread (until particles are evenly
distributed)
distal
away from the centre
divergent, diverging
deviant, moving apart
dorsal
at, on, towards the back
141
E
eugnathic
normal, corresponding to the rule
excursion movement
every movement of the mandible out

of the centric position on any side
explosives
stop consonants (phonetic term)
extraction
removal, e.g. of a tooth
F
facial
at, on, towards the face
fissures
gap, crack, pit with regard to the occlusion

(occlusal valleys)
food bolus
food mass which has been processed by chewing
fricatives
fricative consonants, i.e. which make

"rubbing" sounds (phonetic term)
frontal
at, on, towards the front or the forehead
freeway space
the interocclusal distance between
G
gingival mucosa
alveolar mucous membrane
gingival
H
hamulus pterygoideus
(pterygoid hamulus)
hygiene
142
on, towards the oral mucosa,

relating to the oral mucosa
hook-shaped process forming the inferior

extremity of each medial pterygoid plate
of the sphenoid bone
the theory or practice of the prevention
of infectious diseases
Glossary
hypomochlion
I
immediate prosthesis
pivotal point of a lever which makes

a decisive contribution to the leverage
immediate denture, prosthesis generally

seated directly after extraction of teeth
incisal, incisally
pertaining to the incisal edges; at, on,

towards the incisal edges
incisors
incisor teeth
inferior
lower
interalveolar line
also interalveolar connection line; is the

imaginary connecting line between the centre
of the alveolar ridge of the upper jaw and
the centre of the alveolar ridge of the lower
jaw in the posterior area
intercuspation
interdigitation of the upper teeth

with the lower teeth
J
jaw atrophy
loss or wasting of the jaw / bone
L
labial, labially
pertaining to the lip; at, on, towards the lip
lateral, laterally
at, on, towards the side, pertaining to the side
lateroretraction
movement of the lower jaw out of the lateral

position back into the position of maximum
intercuspation
laterotrusion
lateral movement of the mandible out

of the position of maximum intercuspation
143
laterotrusion condyle
condyle of the side which moves away

from the centre during lateral (sidewards)
movements (working condyle)
laterotrusion side
segments of the mandible which move away

from the centre during lateral movements
ligament (pl.: ligaments;

Lat ligamentum, pl. ligamenti)
elastic, fibrous chord of connective tissue
linea mylohyoidea (mylohyoid line)
soft, osseous ridge, also crista mylohyoidea,

giving attachment to the mylohyoid muscle
on the inner surface of the mandible
lingual
towards the tongue, pertaining to the tongue
M
mandible
lower jaw
marginal
belonging to the margin,

situated at the margin
mastical
oriented towards the occlusal surface
maxilla
upper jaw
mediotrusion
lateral movement in the non-working side

towards the centre
mediotrusion condyle
condyle of the mediotrusion side (balancing

condyle), which moves towards the centre
during the lateral movement (swinging condyle)
mediotrusion side
segments of the lower jaw which move

towards the centre during a lateral movement
mentolabial fold
fold of the mouth running from the corner

of the mouth in the direction of the chin
144
Glossary
mesial, mesially
towards the centre, pertaining to the centre
molars
large posterior teeth
morphology
theory of the structure and shape of organisms
mucoginival boundary
clearly defined boundary between

the attached gingiva and the mobile oral
mucosa (gingival mucosa)
musculus temporalis (temporal muscle)
temple muscle
O
occlusal, occlusally
at, on, towards the occlusal surface
occlusal plane
plane in space, on which the teeth

of the upper and lower jaw meet
occlusion concept
interpretation of the way in which

the rows of teeth of the upper and lower
correspond to one another
opaque
cloudy, impenetrable by light,

not transparent or translucent
oral
pertaining to the mouth
P
palatal, palatally
at, on, towards the palate
palatal vibrating line
the transition from the soft to the hard palate
papilla incisiva (incisal papilla)
the interdental papilla of the incisal teeth
papilla
round protuberance
145
pharynx
mucosally enveloped connective tissue-like

muscular tube which runs from the outer
surface of the base of the skull to the entrance
to the laryngeal inlet
phonetics
branch of linguistics comprising the study

of the sounds of human speech; analyses the
physical properties relating to speech sounds
physiognomy
external appearance of a person,

especially characteristic facial features
posterior
the back / behind
premolars
small posterior teeth
pressure area
raised point on a prosthesis

which causes gingival irritation
processus coronoideus
(coronoid process)
front process on the rising mandibular rami,

on which the temporal muscle begins
proglissement
forward displacement of a mandibular prosthesis due to the effect of occlusal forces
prognathism, mandibular (progenia)
protrusion of the mandible (inverted anterior

overbite)
prognathism, maxillary
protrusion of the maxilla (protrusion

of the body of the upper jaw as a whole)
protrusion
to push forwards; forwards movement
pupil line
an imagined straight, horizontal line running

through the centres of the pupils of both eyes
Q
quadrant
146
quarter-circle, one of four parts into which

a plane /a structure is divided by two real or
imaginary lines that intersect each other
at right angles
Glossary
R
remounting
remedying the occlusion on the articulator
resorption
absorption, dissolution (also of bones atrophy)
retraction
shrinkage, shortening, recession
retromolar
behind the molars
retrusion
to force backwards; backwards movement
rim-former
instrument for forming wax bite rims

(to reduce and shape the vertical height)
rugae palatinae (palatal rugae)
palatal ridges, folds
S
sagittal
in the direction of the sagittal suture

(connective tissue joint along the midline,
between the two parietal bones of the skull)
skeletal
pertaining to the skeleton
statics
theory of the conditions under which

balance occurs (stability)
stippling
creating an orange-peel like texture /structure,

especially in the area of artificial gingiva
sublingual
beneath the tongue
superior
upper
T
Texture
torus palatines (palatal torus)
quality, structure or composition

of elements in the dental world, often
used for the surface quality
bony growth on the palate
147
transversal
running across
trigonum retromolare
(retromolar triangle)
triangular, osseous area posterior

to the last lower molar
tuber maxillaris (maxillary tuber)
ridge or eminence on the surface

behind the upper jawbone
tubera, tubers
plural of tuber
tuber-cheek pouch
area between the tuber and the cheek

including the mucolabial fold
V
valve border (marginal seal)
functional margin which seals

the suction area of a prosthesis
in the area of the mucolabial fold
vector of force
direction of force
vestibular
towards the vestibule of the mouth
W
working condyle
148
the condyle of the laterotrusion

side /working side; (resting condyle);
see also laterotrusion condyle
Imprint
Author:
Urban Christen
Co-Author:
Eva Kerschensteiner
Title:
A Guide to Complete Denture Prosthetics
Art. No. 027 XXX
ISBN:
Copyright by Christen/Kerschensteiner
XXXX 1, 72336 XXXX
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or any other procedures) without written consent from the authors, neither may it
be reproduced, processed, replicated or distributed by electronic means; this applies
also to its use for teaching and training purposes.
All information contained in this instruction manual was compiled to the best
knowledge of the authors, and the content checked with due care. This, however, does
not constitute an absolute guarantee against errors. For this reason, the information
featured in this product is not subject to any obligation or guarantee of any nature.
Furthermore, neither the authors nor VITA Zahnfabrik H. Rauter GmbH & Co. KG
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149
With the unique VITA SYSTEM 3D MASTER all natural

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Date of issue of these instructions for use: 11.11

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A Guide to Complete Denture Prosthetics

VITA shade taking

VITA shade communication

VITA shade reproduction

VITA shade control

Date of issue 11.11

VITA shade, VITA made.

Urban Christen DD RCS

The fabrication of complete denture prosthesis

2 Anatomical terms of location (directional terms)

2.8 Curves of Occlusion

4 Patients Dental / Medical History

5 Preparatory working steps

6 Articulators and articulation theories

Statics and chewing stability

12 Setup and function

13 The denture base

The fabrication of complete dentures (schematic procedural diagram)

Functional impression tray

Pouring the impression

Fabrication of the functional

Marking the functional

Fabrication of the bite rims on

Mounting on the articulator

The manufacture of a complete dentures (schematic procedural diagram)

Setup of the teeth

Packing and pressing

Completed wax up invested

issue of the dentures

As can be seen from the following photographs,

In Etruscan times a broken natural tooth was

Fig. 1: Female maxilla

stages of human development. In many cultures

Fig. 2: Male maxilla preclassical period,

Fig. 4: Carved ivory denture showing the separation

Fig. 5: The fitting surface contouring and finishing

Fig. 6: A full upper denture in vulcanised rubber with

Of all the old dentures in museums around

The pioneering work began in 1924 when Vita

Around the turn of the nineteenth century,

Fig. 7: A vulcanised rubber denture from about 1920.

Fig. 8: Posterior teeth fused to platinum pins from

Fig. 9: Dr Carl Hiltebrandt

according to hue, made shade determination easier.

In addition and resulting from his observations of

Vitas shade sample guide was rapidly accepted

Porcelain denture teeth traditionally and prior to

appearance under incandescent light and daylight.

based solely on the observation of tooth shades.

VITA shade, VITA made.

1.3 The maxilla

Human dentition consists of twelve anterior

The upper (maxilla) is a craniofacial bone. It

1.2 The posterior teeth

The posterior teeth are also referred to as

the more frontal chewing teeth or small back

Fig. 3: Topographical details of the interior of the maxilla

The maxilla also contains the maxillary sinus

1.4 The mandible