Energy and Buildings, 18 (1992) 11-23

11

Comfort, climate analysis and building design guidelines

B a r u c h Givoni
Graduate School of Architecture and Urban Planning, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 00024 (USA)

(Received December 19, 1990; accepted May 28, 1991; revised paper received July 8, 1991)

Abstract
The paper discusses issues of thermal comfort standards, including the ASHRAE comfort zone, techniques
of graphical climate data analysis, as well as the uses of building bioclimatic charts in the formulation
of building design guidelines, especially for hot climates. The problematics of applying the Olgyay
bioclimatic charts and the ASHRAE comfort standards for unconditioned buildings, especially in developing
hot countries, are discussed. Revised building bioclimatic charts are described for the first time in this
paper. The boundaries of applicability of various building design strategies and passive cooling systems
in different climates are discussed. These strategies are based on the expected indoor temperatures
achievable with the different strategies and include daytime "comfort" ventilation, the utilization of the
structural mass for thermal storage in conjunction with nocturnal ventilation, and direct and indirect
evaporative cooling.

1. Comfort, climate analysis and bioclimatic

charts
Climate data analysis, aimed at formulating building design guidelines, often involves p r e s e n t a t i o n
of the annual p a t t e r n s of the main climatic f a c t o r s
affecting h u m a n c o m f o r t and the t h e r m a l p e r f o r m a n c e o f buildings in various forms, such as graphical
m o n t h l y p a t t e r n s of the local t e m p e r a t u r e s , humidity,
wind speed, cloudiness, etc., as well as bioclimatic
charts [1, 2].
Bioclimatic charts facilitate the analysis o f the
climatic characteristics of a given location f r o m the
v i e w p o i n t of h u m a n c o m f o r t , as t h e y p r e s e n t o n a
p s y c h r o m e t r i c chart the c o n c u r r e n t c o m b i n a t i o n o f
t e m p e r a t u r e and humidity at any given time. T h e y
can also specify building design guidelines to maximize i n d o o r c o m f o r t conditions w h e n the building's
interior is n o t m e c h a n i c a l l y conditioned. All s u c h
charts are s t r u c t u r e d around, a n d r e f e r to, the
"comfort zone".
The " c o m f o r t z o n e " is defined as the r a n g e o f
climatic conditions within w h i c h the majority o f
p e r s o n s would n o t feel t h e r m a l discomfort, e i t h e r
of h e a t o r o f cold.
1.1. E x i s t i n g c o m f o r t s t a n d a r d s : the A S H R A E
comfort zone

The ASHRAE c o m f o r t zone [3] is d r a w n on a

c o n v e n t i o n a l p s y c h r o m e t r i c chart. It specifies

0378-7788/92/$5.00

b o u n d a r i e s o f air t e m p e r a t u r e and humidity, for

s e d e n t a r y people, within which t h e m e c h a n i c a l
s y s t e m has to maintain the i n d o o r climate. It was
c o n s t r u c t e d mainly for use in air-conditioned office
buildings b u t is also u s e d in evaluating the i n d o o r
climate in residential buildings. This c o m f o r t z o n e
is also used e x t e n s i v e l y as the basis for s t r u c t u r i n g
bioclimatic charts.
The ASHRAE c o m f o r t z o n e e x t e n d s b e t w e e n two
fixed levels o f v a p o r c o n t e n t , n a m e l y 4 and 12 g /
kg. Different t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e s are given in the
latest version for the s u m m e r , w h e n the buildings
are cooled, and for the winter, w h e n the buildings
are heated, to take into a c c o u n t c h a n g e s in " s e a s o n a l
clothing h a b i t s " and to e n h a n c e e n e r g y c o n s e r v a t i o n .
T h e u p p e r t e m p e r a t u r e limit slightly d e c r e a s e s linearly with h i g h e r humidity ( b e t w e e n the a b o v e humidity b o u n d a r i e s ) and i n c r e a s e s with h i g h e r air
speed.
F o r still air conditions (0.15 m / s in w i n t e r a n d
0.25 m / s in s u m m e r ) the ASHRAE u p p e r limit o f
a c c e p t a b l e t e m p e r a t u r e in s u m m e r e x t e n d s f r o m
26 C at m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t o f 12 g / k g to 27 C at
4 g/kg. The c o m p l e t e b o u n d a r i e s o f the c o m f o r t
zones, for s u m m e r a n d for winter, are as m a r k e d
in Fig. 15 in the c h a p t e r o n c o m f o r t in the 1985
ASHRAE F u n d a m e n t a l s H a n d b o o k [3].
With higher air s p e e d s the u p p e r t e m p e r a t u r e
limit is elevated b y 1 C f o r an increase o f 0 . 2 7 5

1992- Elsevier Sequoia. All rights reserved

12

m/s, up to a temperature of 28 C at an air speed

days are c o m m o n in unconditioned buildings. The

indoor air speed in cross-ventilated buildings is
often around 2 m/s. Persons living in unconditioned,
naturally ventilated buildings usually accept such
a wider range of temperatures and of air speeds
as a normal one (see Section 5.1.).
This difference between the acceptable indoor
conditions in air-conditioned and in non-conditioned
buildings should also be reflected in the charts
specifying boundaries of acceptable indoor climate
for unconditioned buildings and in the boundaries
of applicability of various building design strategies
and "passive" cooling systems.

of 0.8 m/s, which is the highest indoor ai~ speed

allowed. The acceptable u p p e r humidity limit is not
affected at all by the higher air speed in the ASHRAE
Standard.

2. C o m m e n t s on t h e applicability o f t h e
ASHRAE comfort zone
Some problems exist, in the opinion of the author,
when these co mf o r t standards are used to evaluate
the conditions in unconditioned buildings. One issue
concerns the boundaries of acceptable climatic conditions in buildings which are not air-conditioned.
Another problem concerns the application of the
ASHRAE humidity and air-speed limits in hot humid
locations, taking into account the actual acclimatization and comfort expectations of the inhabitants
in such places and the role of higher air speeds in
enhancing comfort at high humidity.

2.2. Use of existing comfort standards in hot

climates
It is reasonable to assume that people in developing hot countries, living mostly in unconditioned
buildings, are acclimatized to, and would tolerate,
higher t e m p e r a t u r e a n d / o r humidity [ 4 - 6 ]. The problem associated with the application of the ASHRAE
comfort standards in hot humid places can be
illustrated by plotting on a psychrometric chart the
climatic conditions of a not-so-severe warm humid
town (Colima, Mexico) t oget her with the ASHRAE
comfort zone, as in Fig. 1.
It can be seen from lines 6 - 1 0 in Fig. 1 that
from June through October (the rainy season in
Colima) even the minimum temperatures would be
considered by the ASHRAE com fort zone as un-

2.1. Acceptable conditions in buildings without

air-conditioning
Indoor climate in unconditioned buildings responds to the variations in out door climate and the
inhabitants usually experience a wider diurnal climatic range than in air-conditioned buildings. For
example, indoor te m pe r at ur e s ranging from 20 C
in the morning to 26 C in the afternoon on summer

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13

comfortable, suggesting that air-conditioning is

needed continuously, day and night, throughout the
stmuner. While visiting the University of Colima and
talking with Faculty members it was mentioned that
almost all of the residential buildings in the city
are not conditioned and that the late hours of the
nights and the early mornings are experienced as
comfortable, both outdoors and indoors, or even
as chilly, apparently reflecting their acclimatization
to the local climate.
Research on the effect of acclimatization and
standard of living on comfort sensations and expectations in residential buildings in hot developing
countries is limited, although some studies can be
mentioned [4, 6-8]. These studies suggest that there
is a real rise in the temperature that people consider
acceptable as the local average annual temperature
of the place is higher. Humphreys [4], in summarizing previous studies on comfort in different
countries, has derived a formula correlating the
"neutral" temperatures observed in the different
studies (Tn) with the mean air temperature of the
location during the experimental period of each
study (T,0:

Tn = 2.6 + 0.831 T,~ (C)

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NO studies are known to the author which deal

with the relationship between acclimatization to hot
humid climate and the subjective response to high
humidity, especially the discomfort from wetness
of the skin.
In addition to the humidity issue, the subject of
acceptable indoor air speed in unconditioned buildings deserves special attention. A higher air speed
is the most c o m m o n " r e m e d y " to high temperature,
and especially to high humidity. The ASHRAE limit
of 0.8 m / s seems therefore to be far too restrictive
when dealing with providing comfort in unconditioned residential buildings in countries with hot
summers.
The effects of acclimatization and comfort expectations should be taken into account especially
when comfort diagrams, and buildings design guidelines, are constructed for, and applied in, w a r m /
hot developing countries.

3. T h e b i o c l i m a t i c charts o f Olgyay
Olgyay [2 ] was the first to develop a bioclimatic
diagram, the "Bio-Climatic Chart" (Fig. 2(a)). The
chart has relative humidity as the abscissa and
temperature as the ordinate. Comfort ranges for
still air conditions, for summer and for winter, are
plotted on the chart. The temperatures below the

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(a) B i o c ] ~ a t i c

lower limit of the comfort range are defined as

"underheated" conditions and above it as "overheated" conditions. The ability to extend the summer
comfort range to higher temperatures and humidities
with increasing wind speeds, and the ability to lower
the air temperature by water evaporation, are also
plotted on the chart. For underheated conditions,
the chart specifies the amount of desirable longwave

14
radiation from interior surfaces to elevate the m ean
radiant temperature of the environment. Average
diurnal " l o o p s " of temperature and humidity conditions for each month, in any given location, can
be plotted on the Bio-Climatic Chart, thus providing
a "diagnosis" of the extension of underheated,
comfortable and overheated conditions in that place.
Another comfort chart which was developed by
Olgyay is the "Timetable of Climatic Needs" (Fig.
2(b)). In this chart the abscissa marks the months
of the year and the ordinate marks the hours of
the day. The sunrise and sunset hours for each
month are also plotted on this chart. For any given
location the overheated, comfortable, and underheated periods, as determined from the plots of the
annual climatic conditions on the Bio-Climatic Chart,
can be marked on the Timetable of Climatic Needs.
For the underheated periods the amount of longwave
radiation which can restore the feeling of comfort
can be transferred from the Bio-Climatic Chart onto
the Timetable of Climatic Needs. For the overheated
period, the months and hours when shading is n e e d e d
or when wind is needed to restore comfort, can
also be plotted (Figs. 2(a) and 2(b) -- for Phoenix,
Arizona, adapted from ref. 2).
The Bio-Climatic Chart and the Table of Climatic
Needs are strictly applicable only to out door conditions. However, Olgyay has made the c o m m e n t
that in his experience indoor t em pe r at ur e s are very
close to the outdoor level. Therefore he has suggested that these charts could be used also as
guidelines, e.g., for the advisability of ventilation.
This can be a reasonable approximation in lightweight buildings in humid regions like the Eastern
USA, where Olgyay has lived and where residential
buildings are usually ventilated naturally during the
summer through open, although usually screened,
windows.
However, as was pointed out by Givoni [1], the
indoor temperature in unconditioned buildings, especially in high-mass buildings in hot arid regions,
can be very different from the o u t d o o r ambient
conditions. The indoor daytime m axi m um temperature can be significantly lower (by up to about
7 - 8 K) than the out door maximum, especially if
the building is ventilated during the night hours.
At night the indoor temperature is usually higher
than that outdoors [9l. Guidelines based on the
o u t d o o r conditions may not be the right ones when
the actual indoor t em pe r at ur e is considered.
The following discussion illustrates the likelihood
of inappropriate guidelines which can result from
the use of Olgyay's Table of Climatic Needs in hot
arid regions. In a region with maximum t e m p e r a t u r e
of about 35 C, low humidity and minimum tern-

perature of about 17 C (typical of many arid

regions), the guidelines derived from the Bio-Climatic Chart and the Table of Climatic Needs would
be to ventilate the building during the daytime.
During the late hours of the night these charts
suggest that radiant heating (and closed windows
to minimize ventilation) would be desirable because
the outdoor temperature during the night is below
the lower limit of the comfort zone specified in the
charts (21 C).
In reality, under the above climatic conditions,
in a high-mass building well-designed for an arid
region, the indoor temperature during the time of
the outdoor maximum may only be about 27 C
[1, 10], namely within the surmner comfort zone
in arid regions for persons acclimatized to hot
climate. The indoor night temperatures may be about
22 C, so that no extra heating would be required.
Ventilation during the daytime, as is suggested by
the Olgyay's charts [2], would elevate the indoor
temperature and result in heat storage within the
building's mass. This stored heat will be released
back into the indoor space during the evening and
night hours, when the wind usually subsides, increasing the likelihood of thermal discomfort.
A better alternative to daytime ventilation in this
climate would be to close the building during the
daytime and the ventilate it only during the night
hours (when the Bio-Climatic Charts actually would
suggest the need for heating), thus insuring indoor
temperatures comfortable both day and night.
Alternative bioclimatic charts, delineating the possibilities of providing indoor thermal comfort by
architectural means and utilization of "natural" energies, are described in the following.

4. T h e b u i l d i n g b i o c l i m a t i c c h a r t s
The building bioclimatic chart (BBCC) was developed by Givoni [1] to address the problems
associated with the Olgyay's charts discussed above.
It is based on the indoor t e m p e r a t u r e in buildings
(expected on the basis of experience or calculations)
instead of on the out door temperatures. It was later
expanded by Milne and Givoni [5]. Recent research
has provided more information and a better scientific
basis for demarcation of the climatic conditions
under which different design strategies for summer
comfort can be applied. This information, including
the quantitative arguments on which the suggested
new boundaries of the various design strategies are
based, is presented for the first time in this paper.

15

4.1. Effects of acclimatization and standard of

living
The boundaries of the comfort zone and the
different design strategies for insuring indoor comfort, demarcated on the BBCC charts, are based on
the expected indoor temperatures in buildings without mechanical air-conditioning, properly designed for the location where they are built. The
original boundaries of comfort in the BBCC [11]
were based on research conducted in the USA,
Europe and Israel. It can be assumed that the upper
limits of accepted temperature and humidity would
be higher for persons living in developing countries
and acclimatized to hot humid conditions. Extension
of these limits for application in hot developing
countries is suggested in the present version of the
charts, taking into account data obtained in studies
conducted in hot countries [4-6, 8].

These cooling options include:

daytime ventilation;
high mass, with or without nocturnal ventilation;
-- direct evaporative cooling;
-- indirect evaporation cooling (by roof ponds).
Detailed discussion of the physical processes,
design details and expected performance of the
various natural cooling systems is presented elsewhere [ 10[.
-

4.3. Acceptable conditions under still air

Figure 3 shows the boundaries of the range of
acceptable conditions for still air, suggested by the
author, as demarcated in the BBCC. Different boundaries are marked for temperate climate (developed
countries) and for hot climate (developing countries).
The temperature boundaries at low and medium
humidities are independent of the humidity level
because in this range of humidity it does not affect
the comfort of sedentary persons with ordinary
clothing. At higher humidities the effects of temperature and humidity are interrelated and the upper
temperature limit decreases with higher humidity.
The suggested temperature ranges of acceptable
conditions in still air, for people living in developed
countries, are 18-25 C in winter and 20-27 C in
summer. The upper temperature limits are applicable
at low humidity levels, below a vapor content of

4.2. Graphical demarcation of design

strategies
Graphically, the BBCC differs from the Olgyay's
chart as it is drawn on a conventional psychrometric
chart, like the ASHRAE chart. Partial charts present
separately the climatic boundaries for applicability
of different passive cooling options applicable in
different climates. The BBCC suggests boundaries
of the climatic conditions within which various
building design strategies and natural cooling systems can provide indoor comfort.

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Fig. 3. B o u n d a r i e s o f t h e c o m f o ~ z o n e for ~ i l l a i r c o n d i ~ o n s for s u m m e r a n d for w i n t e r , for t e m p e r a t e c l i m a t e a n d f o r h o t

c~mate.

16
10 and 12 g/kg, for people living in developed and
in hot developing countries, respectively. At higher
humidities the upper temperature limit decreases
progressively. The upper limit of humidity, in terms
of absolute humidity, is 15 g/kg.
For people living in hot developing countries, the
author suggests elevations of 2 C in the upper
temperature limit and 2 g/kg in the upper vapor
content, taking into account the acclimatization
resulting from living in unconditioned buildings in
a hot climate.

is felt as too warm, is by daytime ventilation: providing comfort through higher indoor air speeds.
The tlow of outdoor air through a building extends
the upper limits of acceptable temperature and
humidity. However, when a building is cross-ventilated during daytime, the temperature of the indoor
air and surfaces follow closely the ambient temperature. Therefore there is a point in applying
daytime ventilation only when indoor comfort can
be experienced at the outdoor temperature, with
acceptable indoor air speed.
Figure 4 shows the boundaries of the outdoor
temperature and humidity within indoor comfort
can be provided by natural ventilation during the
day and with indoor air speed about 2 m/s (a very
light breeze). The basis for these boundaries is
discussed in Section 5.1.
Building design guidelines for comfort ventilation
are discussed in several books and articles, for
example, refs. 1, 10. 12.

4.4. Providing comfort by ventilation

There are two ways in which ventilation can
improve comfort. One is by a direct effect, providing
a higher indoor air speed by opening the windows
to let the wind in, thus enhancing the cooling
sensation of the inhabitants. This strategy is termed
comfort ventilation. The other way in an indirect
one: to ventilate the building only at night and thus
cool the interior mass of the building. During the
following day the cooled mass reduces the rate of
indoor temperature rise. This strategy is termed
nocturnal convective cooling. From the building
design viewpoint these two options call for different
details.
A detailed discussion of these two cooling strategies is presented in ref. 10 [7].

4.5. Comfort strategy of nocturnal convective

cooling
Nocturnal convective cooling refers to t h e case
when a high-mass building is ventilated only during
the evening and night hours and the openings are
closed during the daytime. In this way the structural
mass of the building is cooled by convection during
the night and is able to absorb the heat penetrating
into the building during the day with only a small
elevation of the indoor temperature. Under these

4.5. Enhanced comfort by d a y t i m e ventilation

The simplest strategy for improving comfort when
the indoor temperature, under still air conditions,

RELATIVE HUMIDI~Y %
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17

The temperature limit is reduced with higher humidity, reflecting the corresponding decrease of the
outdoor range with higher humidity [1]. Increasing
the indoor air speed by internal fans (not by
ventilation) can extend the indoor comfort range,
without elevating the indoor temperature. A simple
procedure for estimating the expected indoor maximum and minimum temperatures in high-mass
buildings, either closed all the time or ventilated
during the evening and night hours, is presented
in Section 5.2. Figure 6 contains a tabulated numerical example of the application of this procedure.
Convective cooling is applicable mainly in arid
and desert regions where the maximum temperature
is below about 36 C. In desert regions with daytime
temperatures above 36 C, night ventilation alone
would not maintain the indoor daytime temperature
at an acceptable level and other passive cooling
systems should be applied during the hot hours,
such as evaporative cooling (as discussed below)
or compression or absorption air-conditioning. But
even in this case the application of nocturnal convective cooling can significantly reduce the length

conditions it is possible to lower the average indoor

daytime temperatures below the outdoor average,
as is demonstrated in Fig. 5 [10].

4.6.1. Climatic applicability of nocturnal

convective cooling
The potential for lowering the indoor daytime
temperature below the outdoor level is proportional
to the outdoor diurnal temperature range [9]. The
outdoor range, in turn, increases as the humidity
is lower [1 ]. Significant reduction of the indoor
daytime temperature below the outdoor maximum
can be obtained only in high-mass buildings with
effective solar control. For a high-mass, well-insulated and shaded building, closed during the daytime and ventilated only during the night, a drop
of the indoor maximum below the outdoor maximum
of about 4 5 - 5 5 % of the outdoor range is possible.
At night the indoor temperatures are higher than
outdoors.
Figure 6 shows the climatic boundaries, in terms
of the outdoor m a x i m u m daily temperatures, under
which nocturnal convective cooling is applicable.

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18
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=~
ql~l
I~1~ 5
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15
20
25
30
55
DRY BULB TEMPERATUREC

I~1N

I~l

40

]~1
45

50

o
55

Fig. 6. Boundaries of climatic conditions under which nocturnal convective cooling can maintain acceptable daytime temperatures.

of the periods and duration of the time when the

additional cooling systems will be needed.
As a general principle it can be estimated that
in arid and desert regions, with a s um m e r diurnal
t e m p er atu r e range of 1 5 - 2 0 K, the expected reduction of the indoor maximum temperature can
be about 6 - 8 K below the outdoor maximum. On
very hot days, which usually have a larger diurnal
range, the drop of the indoor temperature, during
the time of the o u t d o o r maximum, may be up to
about 10 K.

4.7. E v a p o r a t i v e cooling
The energy co n s um e d in the process of water
evaporation can be utilized in two different ways
to cool buildings. One way is by direct evaporative
cooling of the o u t d o o r air, which then is introduced
into the building. The t em pe r at ur e of the air is
lowered and its water vapor content is elevated,
following a constant w et bulb temperature (WBT).
The second way is an indirect one: for instance,
the ro o f of the building can be cooled evaporatively
by having a shaded p o n d over the roof, and the
ceiling then acts as a passive, very effective, cooling
element for the space below.

4. 7.1. Direct evaporative cooling

Direct evaporative cooling of air can be done
either by mechanical systems (Swamp Coolers or
Desert Coolers) or by passive means, such as the
cooling tower of Cunningham and T hom ps on [13].

In direct evaporative cooling, the air temperature

is reduced by about 7 0 - 8 0 % of the WBT depression,
namely the difference between the DBT and the
WBT. Therefore the climatic criterion for the applicability of evaporative cooling is the ambient
WBT and a large WBT depression, a characteristic
of a hot-dry climate.
Direct evaporative cooling involves high rates of
outdoor air flow, because of the high humidity of
the cooled air. As a result of the high airflow rate,
the indoor air and surfaces' temperatures are governed mainly by the t em perat ure of the cooled air.
Typical indoor average air temperatures in a wellinsulated building are only about 1-2 C above the
t em perat ure of the air exiting from the evaporative
cooler.
For example, Cunningham and T hom pson [13]
have measured the t em perat ures of the air exiting
from a passive evaporative tower and the indoor
air t e m p e r a t u r e of a lightweight building cooled by
this system. With m axi m um out door air t em per a tu re
of 40.5 C and a WBT of 21.3 C, and with (calculated
by the author [14]) about 30 air changes per hour,
the t em perat ure of the air exiting from the tower
was 23.8 C and the average indoor air temperature
was 24.6 C. In high-mass buildings, having a smaller
t em perat ure swing and a larger time lag, the indoor
t em perat ure during the hottest hours would be even
closer to the cooled air temperature.
Taking into a c c o u n t the opposite effects on comfort of the higher indoor humidity and the higher

19

panel for the space under it. Thus, the indoor air
and radiant temperatures can be lowered without
elevating the indoor humidity level. With a pond
over a conductive roof the heat exchange between
the cooled ceiling and the indoor space below is
maximized, enabling satisfactory cooling even with
a small difference of about 2-3 K between the
indoor air and the ceiling temperatures [9, 10].
In arid regions the diurnal range of the WBT in
summer is about 5-6 K. As the pond's water and
the ceiling's temperatures of a conductive roof follow
the average diurnal WBT, they are often below the
maximum WBT. As the indoor humidity is not
elevated by indirect evaporative cooling and indoor
air speed can be augmented by internal fans, it is
possible to apply roof pond cooling in places where
the maximum WBT is higher, by about 2 C, than
the applicability limits for direct evaporative cooling,
namely, in developed countries, a WBT of 24 C
and DBT of 44 C. In the case of cooling by roof
ponds, the suggested upper temperature (DBT) limit
for acclimatized people in developing countries is
the same as those for the developed countries. The
reason is that a higher heat gain through less
insulated walls can be assumed in the developing
countries, counteracting the effect of acclimatization. Consequently, the climatic applicability limits
for hot developing countries, as marked in Fig. 7,
are also a maximum WBT of 24 C and a maximum
DBT of 44 C.

air speeds associated with direct evaporative cooling,

it is suggested that direct evaporative cooling is
advisable, in developed countries, only where and
when the WBT maximum in summer is about 22
C and the DBT maximum is about 42 C. Under
these conditions the temperature of the air exiting
from the evaporative system would be about 2 6 - 2 7
C and the average indoor air temperature would
be about 2 7 - 2 9 C. In hot-dry developing countries,
taking into account acclimatization, the suggested
limits are 24 C (WBT) and 44 C (DBT). These
boundaries are demarcated in Fig. 7.

4.7.2. Indirect evaporative cooling by roof

ponds
Evaporative cooling can also be passive and indirect, for example by providing a shaded water
pond over an uninsulated roof. The roof should
be, of course, insulated during the winter. Details
about possible design solutions for the insulation
of roof ponds are given in ref. 10. A mathematical
model for calculating the indoor temperatures of
a building cooled by a roof pond is presented in
ref. 9.
The pond's water temperature follows closely the
ambient average WBT, with some elevation and
swing which depends on the depth of the water in
the pond. The ceiling, cooled by heat conduction
to the water, acts as a radiant/convective cooling

RLLA~I'v'E HUM'DITY %
g0~ 80~ 70~, 60~ 50~
40~
J0~

FCn r,r, ,~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F(

.50

' 25

20

15

10

10

10

15

20

25

30

Z55

40

4b

b0

55

DRY BULB TEMPERATURE ~

F i g . 7. B o u n d a ~ e s

of climatic conditions

under

which

direct and indirect (by roof ponds)

evaporative

cooling are appficable.

20
RELATIVE HUMIDfrf ~
~g ~ l " / ~ ~ ~l~
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30

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20
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BULB ~ M P E ~ R E

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~

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~i

, i

45

[~

55

Fig. 8. Different design strategies and boundaries of passive solar heating and the natural cooling systems suggested for developed
countries.

4.8. The comph~te f o r m s of the building

bioclimatic charts
F i g u r e 8 s h o w s the different design s t r a t e g i e s a n d
b o u n d a r i e s of the p a s s i v e c o o l i n g a p p r o a c h e s , sugg e s t e d f o r d e v e l o p e d countries. F i g u r e 9 s h o w s t h e
same data for hot developing countries. These
F i g u r e s s h o w also the climatic c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r
w h i c h m o r e t h a n o n e s t r a t e g y c a n b e applied.

5. S u p p o r t i n g d a t a and r e a s o n i n g
This S e c t i o n p r o v i d e s additional a r g u m e n t s a n d
quantitative information for the suggested bounda r i e s o f the c o m f o r t z o n e a n d f o r t h e n o c t u r n a l
ventilation a n d e v a p o r a t i v e c o o l i n g strategies, as
w e r e d e m a r c a t e d o n t h e BBCCs.

5.1. The comfort zone: extension of the comfort

zone w i t h higher air speeds
T h e c r i t e r i o n f o r defining a n " a c c e p t a b l e " air
s p e e d is different in r e s i d e n t i a l b u i l d i n g s a n d in
office buildings. T h e ASHRAE Guide [3] specifies
a n u p p e r limit o f 0.8 m / s f o r i n d o o r air s p e e d ,
p r e s u m a b l y to p r e v e n t p a p e r s flying a r o u n d , a n d /
o r feeling o f cold draft f r o m t h e c o o l e d air flowing
o u t of t h e v e n t i l a t i o n s y s t e m ' s diffusers. In naturally
v e n t i l a t e d residential buildings, on the o t h e r hand,

t h e a i r - s p e e d limit c a n b e b a s e d on its effect on

c o m f o r t which, o f c o u r s e , d e p e n d s o n t h e t e m p e r ature.
T h e n e w effective t e m p e r a t u r e c h a r t [3] s h o w s
a shift o f t h e u p p e r limit of c o m f o r t s e n s a t i o n , f r o m
27 to 29.7 C, w h e n the air s p e e d is i n c r e a s e d f r o m
0.1 to 1.5 m / s . In a s t u d y of W u [15], a t e m p e r a t u r e
o f 90 F (32.2 C) with W B T o f 69 F (10.5 C)
w a s c o n s i d e r e d c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h an air s p e e d of
1.5 m / s . T a n a b e [6] h a s studied t h e c o m f o r t rea c t i o n s of J a p a n e s e s u b j e c t s to v a r i o u s air s p e e d s ,
u p t o 1.6 m / s a n d a t t e m p e r a t u r e s f r o m 27 C up
to 31 C with a relative h u m i d i t y o f 50%. The
preferred air s p e e d at 31 C w a s 1.6 m / s . T a n a b e
also cites a s t u d y o f M c I n t y r e [ 16], in w h i c h the
s u b j e c t s w e r e allowed to r e g u l a t e the s p e e d of
o v e r h e a d ceiling fans: the s u b j e c t s i n c r e a s e d the
air s p e e d u p to 2 m / s at a t e m p e r a t u r e of 30 C.
In a c o m p r e h e n s i v e p h y s i o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h [ 11 ], the
effect o f air s p e e d s on c o m f o r t a n d g e n e r a l feeling
o f p l e a s a n t n e s s w a s m o n i t o r e d , u p to a s p e e d o f
4 m / s . At a n air t e m p e r a t u r e of 30 C a n d air s p e e d
of 2 m/s, the subjects were comfortable, without
n o t i c i n g e x c e s s i v e wind.
It is t h e r e f o r e s u g g e s t e d t h a t with a n i n d o o r air
s p e e d o f 2 m / s , the c o m f o r t z o n e c o u l d b e e x t e n d e d
to a b o u t 30 C in the d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s . F o r
p e o p l e a c c l i m a t i z e d to t h e h o t climate in developing
countries, the s u g g e s t e d u p p e r t e m p e r a t u r e limit

21

RELAT~/E HUMIDITY
~1~ 7~ ~ , ~
~lt
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~0

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~5 ~Z

~0 N
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0

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20
25
30
35
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE ~

40

45

50

55

Fig. 9. Different design strategies and boundaries of passive solar heating and the natural cooling systems suggested for hot
developing countries.

with an air speed of 2 m / s would be higher, at 32

C.

5.2. Nocturnal convective cooling

A building can maintain daytime temperatures
lower than the outdoor level only when it has
sufficient thermal mass and thermal resistance, and
is protected from absorbed and penetrating solar
radiation. In such a building the diurnal temperature
swing is very small, and the daytime temperature
is lower, in comparison with the outdoor conditions.
The climatic potential for lowering the indoor temperature exists mainly in regions with a large diurnal
temperature range in the summer season.
In reviewing the distribution of temperature ranges
of many regions in the world, Givoni [1] found a
quantitative relationship between the vapor pressure
(vp) and the diurnal ranges ( T ~ , ~ characterizing
the different regions, namely:
T~

(K) = 26 - 0.83 X (vp) (mmHG)

(2)

Thus, for instance, in a very dry desert with a

summer vapor pressure of about 7-8 mmHg, the
expected diurnal temperature range would be about
20 K, and in arid regions with a vapor pressure of
about 12 mmHg the expected range would be about
16 K, while in a humid region with vapor pressure
of 22 mmHg the expected range would be only
about 8 K. It should be noted, however, that this

is only a statistical relationship and in any given

location the actual temperature range should be
taken into account.
The indoor temperature swing in a high-mass,
well-insulated building with minimum heating by
solar radiation, is about 10-20% of the outdoor
temperature range. As was measured in experimental
studies at the Technion in Haifa [1] and at the
Institute for Desert Research in Sede Boqer, Israel
[9], the indoor average temperature in such build. ings, when closed day and night, would be about
1-2 C above the outdoor average (average of
maximum and minimum), due to some solar radiation absorption and internal heat generation.
Thus, assuming indoor average temperature elevation of 1.5 C:
Tavg(in) = 1.5 + Tav~(Out)

(3)

Therefore, for an indoor swing, T~_~, of 15% of

the outdoor range it is possible to estimate the
indoor maximum and minimum temperatures,
Tm=(in) and Tm~(in), of buildings closed day and
night, by the following formulae:
Tm=(in) = Tavg(in) + 1.5 + 0.075 T~-~

(4)

Tm~(in) = Tav~(in) + 1.5 - 0.075 X T ~

(5)

Ventilating a high-mass, well-insulated building

during the night (nocturnal convective cooling)

22
lowers both the indoor nighttime and the following
daytime temperatures. From the comfort viewpoint
the reduction of the indoor maximum temperature
by the nocturnal ventilation (its residual effect) is
the more important factor.
It was demonstrated in an extensive study at the
Institute for Desert Research in Israel [10], exemplified in Fig. 5, that the indoor m i n i m u m temperature of a high-mass building, T,,~(vent), can
be lowered by night ventilation, below the level of
an unventilated building, Tmi,~(no-vent), by about
one half of the difference between the minimum
t e m p er atu r e of the unventilated building and the
o u t d o o r minimum, Ta(min). Thus:
T,~i,(vent) = Tmln(no-vent) - 0.5
[Train(no-vent) - Ta(min) ]

(6)

The drop of the indoor m a x i m u m of a nocturnally

ventilated building, Tm~x(vent), below the maximum
o f an unventilated building, T,,a~(no-vent), is smaller:
about one half of the drop in the minimum temperature. Thus:
Tm~(vent) = T,,ax(no-vent) - 0.25
[Tm~(no-vent) - Ta(max) ]

(7)

These procedures for estimating the indoor minimum and maximum t e m per a t ur es of buildings
cooled by nocturnal ventilation are applicable to
medium-to-high mass buildings, with light external
color and protected from direct solar penetration
through the windows. It assumes steady periodic
o u t d o o r conditions, i.e., about the same minimum
and maximum temperatures r e pe a t e d day after day.
During periods of rising o u t d o o r temperatures, e.g.,
a heat wave lasting for several days, the rate of
rise of the indoor t e m p e r a t u r e is lower than that
o f the outdoors, even in a medium-mass building
(as monitored by Wu [ 17 ]) and especially in a highmass building. As a result, the indoor t em pe r at ures
during the heat-wave period will be somewhat lower
than the ones predicted by the above formulae, and
during a period of falling outdoor t e m per a t ur es the
indoor temperatures will be higher than the predicted
ones. Consequently, average monthly m a xi m um temperatures can be used as the input data in estimating
the climatic boundaries for applying cooling by
nocturnal ventilation.
Although no daytime ventilation with o u t d o o r hot
air is desirable in buildings cooled by nocturnal
ventilation, the indoor comfort limit can be ext ended
by interior fans (e.g., ceiling fans) to about 30 C
in developed countries and to about 32 C in hot
developing countries. In this way the uppe r comfort

limit is extended without heating the interior of the

building by daytime ventilation.
Taking into account the relationships between the
ambient vapor pressure and the out door range in
summer, and between the indoor maximum temperature and the outdoor range, described above,
the BBCCs specify the out door maximum temperatures under which indoor comfort can be maintained in a well-designed building, as a function of
the ambient vapor pressure. This is presented in
Fig. 6, together with an example of the shnplified
calculations (eqns. ( 4 ) - ( 7 ) ) which produce an estimate of the indoor temperatures.
In this example it is assumed that the outd o o r
minimum, maximum and average temperatures are
18, 36 and 27 C, respectively. The indoor average
t em perat ure is elevated, by solar radiation and internal heat generation, to 29 C. The indoor temperature swing in a high-mass building closed day
and night, about 17% of the out door swing, is 3
K, resulting in indoor minhnum and maximmn temperatures of 27.5 and 30.5 C, respectively. Nocturnal ventilation lowers the indoor minimum and
maximum temperatures, according to eqns. (4) and
(5), to 22.8 and 27.5 C, respectively.

5.3. Evaporative cooling

As the response of the indoor temperatures to
changes in the out door conditions in a building
cooled by direct evaporative cooling is almost
instantaneous, the hourly o u t d o o r air temperature
and WBT are the relevant "driving forces" in evaluating the applicability of this cooling system and
of the expected indoor conditions.
The "driving f o r c e " controlling the indoor temperatures in a building cooled by a roof pond is
the temperature of the water in the pond, which
follows the ambient WBT. With sufficient depth of
the water, e.g., above 20 cm, the range of the water
t em perat ure is rather small so that the temperature
of the water during the hottest hours of the day is
below the ambient WBT. This factor, in addition to
the fact that the indoor vapor content is not elevated
by the roof pond, enables indirect evaporative cooling to be utilized beyond the limits applicable for
direct evaporative cooling.
A mathematical model predicting the indoor maximum and minimum t e m p e r a t u r e s of a building
cooled by a roof pond has been developed by Givoni
[9]. A mathematical model predicting the performance of a passive evaporative cooling tower has
also been developed [14l.

23

References
1 B. Givoni, Man, Climate and Architecture, Applied Science
Publishers, London, 2nd edn., 1976.
2 V. Olgyay, Design With Climate, Princeton University Press,
1963.
3 Physiological principles for comfort and health, ASHRAE
Fundamentals Handbook, 1985, Ch. 8.
4 M.A. Humphreys, Field studies o f t h e r m a l c o m f o r t compared
and applied, Current Paper CP76/75, Building Research
Establishment, Garston, Watford, UK.
5 M. Milne, and B. Givoni, Architectural design b a s e d on
climate, in D. W a t s o n (ed.), Energy Conservation Through
Building Design, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1979, Ch. 6.
6 S. I. Tanabe, Thermal Comfort Requirement in Japan,
W a s e d a University, Tokyo, Japan, 1988.
7 J. F. Nicol, An analysis of some observations of thermal
comfort in Roorkee, India and Baghdad, Iraq, Ann. Hum.
Biol., 1 ( 1 9 7 4 ) 4 1 1 - 4 2 6 .
8 C. G. Webb, An analysis of some observations of thermal
comfort in a n equatorial climate, Br. J. Indust. Med., 16
(1959) 2 9 7 - 3 1 0 .
9 B. Givoni, Passive indirect evaporative cooling by shaded
roof p o n d s -- a mathematical model, Proc. PLEA First Int.
Conf., Bermuda, Pergamon, Oxford, 1982, pp. 1 3 / 1 - 1 3 /
7.

10 B. Givoni, Performance and applicability of passive cooling

system, to be published in Energy Build.
11 B. Givoni, Evaluation of the effect of climate on man:
development of a new thermal index, Ph.D. Thesis, School
of Medicine, University of Jerusalem, Israel, 1963.
12 S. Chandra, P. Fairy and M. Houston, A Handbook f o r
Designing Ventilated Buildings, Florida Solar Energy Center, Cape Canaveral, FL, 1983.
13 W. A. Cunningham and T. L. Thompson, Passive cooling
with a natural draft cooling tower in combination with a
solar chimney, Proc. Conf. Passive and Low Energy Ar-

chitecture (PLEA), Pecs, Hungary, 1986.

14 B. Givoni, Modelling a passive evaporative cooling tower,

Proc. World Solar Congress, Denver, CO, August, 1991,

Pergamon, Oxford, pp. 3 0 6 7 - 3 0 7 1 .
15 H. Wu, The potential use and application of oscillating fans
in extending the s u m m e r comfort envelope, Research Rep.,
Environmental Testing Laboratory, Arizona State University,
Tempe, AZ, 1988.
16 D. A. McIntyre, Preferred air speeds for comfort in warm
conditions, ASHRAE Trans., 84 (1978) 2 6 4 - 2 7 7 .
17 H. Wu, Moisture up-take and energy efficiency associated
with the use of evaporative coolers, Research Rep., Environmental Testing Laboratory, Arizona State University,
Tempe, AZ, 1990.