HINDUSTAN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE &TECHNOLOGY

--: ASSIGNMENT:--

[RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM]

SUBMITTED TO: - MR. A. ARUN RAJA

SUBMITTED: - BY CHAINA RAM

DEPARTMENT: - M. TECH. [THERMAL]
ROLL NO.-15230010

A fuel cell uses the chemical energy of hydrogen or another fuel to cleanly and
efficiently produce electricity. If hydrogen is the fuel, electricity, water, and
heat are the only products. Fuel cells are unique in terms of the variety of their
potential applications; they can provide power for systems as large as a utility
power station and as small as a laptop computer.
WHY STUDY FUEL CELLS
Fuel cells can be used in a wide range of applications, including
transportation, material handling, stationary, portable, and emergency backup
power applications. Fuel cells have several benefits over conventional
combustion-based technologies currently used in many power plants and
passenger vehicles. Fuel cells can operate at higher efficiencies than
combustion engines, and can convert the chemical energy in the fuel to
electrical energy with efficiencies of up to 60%. Fuel cells have lower emissions
than combustion engines. Hydrogen fuel cells emit only water, so there are no
carbon dioxide emissions and no air pollutants that create smog and cause
health problems at the point of operation. Also, fuel cells are quiet during
operation as they have fewer moving parts.

HOW FUEL CELLS WORK

Fuel cells work like batteries, but they do not run down or need recharging.
They produce electricity and heat as long as fuel is supplied. A fuel cell consists
of two electrodes a negative electrode (or anode) and a positive electrode (or
cathode sandwiched around an electrolyte. A fuel, such as hydrogen, is fed to
the anode, and air is fed to the cathode. In a hydrogen fuel cell, a catalyst at
the anode separates hydrogen molecules into protons and electrons, which
take different paths to the cathode. The electrons go through an external
circuit, creating a flow of electricity. The protons migrate through the
electrolyte to the cathode, where they unite with oxygen and the electrons to
produce water and heat:

PARTS OF A FUEL CELL

Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells are the current focus of
research for fuel cell vehicle applications. PEM fuel cells are made from several
layers of different materials. The main parts of a PEM fuel cell are described
below.
The heart of a PEM fuel cell is the membrane electrode assembly (MEA), which
includes the membrane, the catalyst layers, and gas diffusion layers (GDLs).
Hardware components used to incorporate an MEA into a fuel cell
include gaskets, which provide a seal around the MEA to prevent leakage of
gases, and bipolar plates, which are used to assemble individual PEM fuel cells
into a fuel cell stack and provide channels for the gaseous fuel and air.
MEMBRANE ELECTRODE ASSEMBLY
The membrane, catalyst layers (anode and cathode), and diffusion media
together form the membrane electrode assembly (MEA) of a PEM fuel cell.

Polymer electrolyte membrane. The polymer electrolyte membrane, or

PEM (also called a proton exchange membrane)a specially treated
material that looks something like ordinary kitchen plastic wrapconducts
only positively charged ions and blocks the electrons. The PEM is the key to
the fuel cell technology; it must permit only the necessary ions to pass
between the anode and cathode. Other substances passing through the
electrolyte would disrupt the chemical reaction. For transportation
applications, the membrane is very thinin some cases under 20 microns.

Catalyst layers. A layer of catalyst is added on both sides of the

membranethe anode layer on one side and the cathode layer on the
other. Conventional catalyst layers include nano meter-sized particles of
platinum dispersed on a high-surface-area carbon support. This supported
platinum catalyst is mixed with an ion-conducting polymer (ionomer) and
sandwiched between the membrane and the GDLs. On the anode side, the
platinum catalyst enables hydrogen molecules to be split into protons and
electrons. On the cathode side, the platinum catalyst enables oxygen
reduction by reacting with the protons generated by the anode, producing
water. The ionomer mixed into the catalyst layers allows the protons to
travel through these layers.

Gas diffusion layers. The GDLs sit outside the catalyst layers and facilitate
transport of reactants into the catalyst layer, as well as removal of product
water. Each GDL is typically composed of a sheet of carbon paper in which
the carbon fibbers are partially coated with polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE).
Gases diffuse rapidly through the pores in the GDL. These pores are kept
open by the hydrophobic PTFE, which prevents excessive water build up. In
many cases, the inner surface of the GDL is coated with a thin layer of highsurface-area carbon mixed with PTFE, called the micro porous layer. The
micro porous layer can help adjust the balance between water retention
(needed to maintain membrane conductivity) and water release (needed to
keep the pores open so hydrogen and oxygen can diffuse into the
electrodes).

HARDWARE
The MEA is the part of the fuel cell where power is produced, but hardware
components are required to enable effective MEA operation.

Bipolar plates. Each individual MEA produces less than 1 V under typical
operating conditions, but most applications require higher voltages.
Therefore, multiple MEAs are usually connected in series by stacking them
on top of each other to provide a usable output voltage. Each cell in the
stack is sandwiched between two bipolar plates to separate it from
neighbouring cells. These plates, which may be made of metal, carbon, or
composites, provide electrical conduction between cells, as well as providing
physical strength to the stack. The surfaces of the plates typically contain a
flow field, which is a set of channels machined or stamped into the plate
to allow gases to flow over the MEA. Additional channels inside each plate
may be used to circulate a liquid coolant.

Gaskets. Each MEA in a fuel cell stack is sandwiched between two bipolar
plates, but gaskets must be added around the edges of the MEA to make a
gas-tight seal. These gaskets are usually made of a rubbery polymer

FUEL CELL SYSTEMS

The design of fuel cell systems is complex, and can vary significantly depending
upon fuel cell type and application. However, several basic components are
found in many fuel cell systems:

Fuel cell stack

Fuel processor
Power conditioners
Air compressors
Humidifiers

FUEL CELL STACK

The fuel cell stack is the heart of a fuel cell power system. It generates
electricity in the form of direct current (DC) from electro-chemical reactions
that take place in the fuel cell. A single fuel cell produces less than 1 V, which is
insufficient for most applications. Therefore, individual fuel cells are typically
combined in series into a fuel cell stack. A typical fuel cell stack may consist of
hundreds of fuel cells. The amount of power produced by a fuel cell depends
upon several factors, such as fuel cell type, cell size, the temperature at which
it operates, and the pressure of the gases supplied to the cell. Learn more
about the parts of a fuel cell.
FUEL PROCESSOR
The fuel processor converts fuel into a form usable by the fuel cell. Depending
on the fuel and type of fuel cell, the fuel processor can be a simple sorbent bed
to remove impurities, or a combination of multiple reactors and sorbents.
If the system is powered by a hydrogen-rich, conventional fuel, such as
methanol, gasoline, diesel, or gasified coal, a reformer is typically used to
convert hydrocarbons into a gas mixture of hydrogen and carbon compounds
called "reformate." In many cases, the reformate is then sent to a set of
reactors to convert carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide and remove any trace
amounts of carbon monoxide remaining and a sorbent bed to remove other
impurities, such as sulphur compounds, before it is sent to the fuel cell stack.
This process prevents impurities in the gas from binding with the fuel cell
catalysts. This binding process is also called "poisoning" because it reduces the
efficiency and life expectancy of the fuel cell.

Some fuel cells, such as molten carbonate and solid oxide fuel cells, operate at
temperatures high enough that the fuel can be reformed in the fuel cell itself.
This process is called internal reforming. Fuel cells that use internal reforming
still need traps to remove impurities from the unreformed fuel before it
reaches the fuel cell. Both internal and external reforming release carbon
dioxide, but due to the fuel cells high efficiency, less carbon dioxide is emitted
than by internal-combustion engines, such as those used in gasoline-powered
vehicles.
POWER CONDITIONERS
Power conditioning includes controlling current (amperes), voltage, frequency,
and other characteristics of the electrical current to meet the needs of the
application. Fuel cells produce electricity in the form of direct current (DC). In a
DC circuit, electrons flow in only one direction. The electricity in your home
and workplace is in the form of alternating current (AC), which flows in both
directions on alternating cycles. If the fuel cell is used to power equipment that
uses AC, the direct current will have to be converted to alternating current.
Both AC and DC power must be conditioned. Current inverters and
conditioners adapt the electrical current from the fuel cell to suit the electrical
needs of the application, whether it is a simple electrical motor or a complex
utility power grid. Conversion and conditioning reduce system efficiency only
slightly, around 2%6%.
AIR COMPRESSORS
Fuel cell performance improves as the pressure of the reactant gases
increases; therefore many fuel cell systems include an air compressor, which
raises the pressure of the inlet air to 24 times the ambient atmospheric
pressure. For transportation applications, air compressors should have an
efficiency of at least 75%. In some cases, an expander is also included to
recover power from the high pressure exhaust gases. Expander efficiency
should be at least 80%.
HUMIDIFIERS
The polymer electrolyte membrane at the heart of a PEM fuel cell does not
work well when dry, so many fuel cell systems include a humidifier for the inlet
air. Humidifiers usually consist of a thin membrane, which may be made of the
same material as the PEM. By flowing dry inlet air on one side of the humidifier
and wet exhaust air on the other side, the water produced by the fuel cell may
be recycled to keep the PEM well hydrated.

TYPES OF FUEL CELLS

Fuel cells are classified primarily by the kind of electrolyte they employ. This
classification determines the kind of electro-chemical reactions that take place
in the cell, the kind of catalysts required, the temperature range in which the
cell operates, the fuel required, and other factors. These characteristics, in
turn, affect the applications for which these cells are most suitable. There are
several types of fuel cells currently under development, each with its own
advantages, limitations, and potential applications. Learn more about the
following types of fuel cells.

(i) Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells

(ii) Direct methanol fuel cells
(iii) Alkaline fuel cells
(iv)Phosphoric acid fuel cells
(v) Molten carbonate fuel cells
(vi)Solid oxide fuel cells
(vii) Reversible fuel cells

Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells

Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cellsalso called proton exchange

membrane fuel cellsdeliver high power density and offer the advantages of
low weight and volume compared with other fuel cells. PEM fuel cells use a
solid polymer as an electrolyte and porous carbon electrodes containing a
platinum or platinum alloy catalyst. They need only hydrogen, oxygen from the
air, and water to operate. They are typically fuelled with pure hydrogen
supplied from storage tanks or reformers.
PEM fuel cells operate at relatively low temperatures, around 80C (176F).
Low-temperature operation allows them to start quickly (less warm-up time)
and results in less wear on system components, resulting in better durability.
However, it requires that a noble-metal catalyst (typically platinum) be used to

separate the hydrogen's electrons and protons, adding to system cost. The
platinum catalyst is also extremely sensitive to carbon monoxide poisoning,
making it necessary to employ an additional reactor to reduce carbon
monoxide in the fuel gas if the hydrogen is derived from a hydrocarbon fuel.
This reactor also adds cost.
PEM fuel cells are used primarily for
transportation applications and
some stationary applications. Due
to their fast start up time and
favourable power-to-weight ratio,
PEM fuel cells are particularly
suitable for use in passenger
vehicles, such as cars and buses

Direct methanol fuel cells

Most fuel cells are powered by hydrogen, which can be fed to the fuel cell
system directly or can be generated within the fuel cell system by reforming
hydrogen-rich fuels such as methanol, ethanol, and hydrocarbon fuels. Direct
methanol fuel cells (DMFCs), however, are powered by pure methanol, which
is usually mixed with water and fed directly to the fuel cell anode.
Direct methanol fuel cells do not have many of the fuel storage problems
typical of some fuel cell systems because methanol has a higher energy density
than hydrogenthough less than gasoline or diesel fuel. Methanol is also
easier to transport and supply to the public using our current
infrastructure because it is a liquid, like gasoline. DMFCs are often used to
provide power for portable fuel cell applications such as cell phones or laptop
computer

Alkaline fuel cells

Alkaline fuel cells (AFCs) were one of the first fuel cell technologies developed,
and they were the first type widely used in the U.S. space program to produce
electrical energy and water on-board spacecraft. These fuel cells use a solution
of potassium hydroxide in water as the electrolyte and can use a variety of
non-precious metals as a catalyst at the anode and cathode. In recent years,
novel AFCs that use a polymer membrane as the electrolyte have been
developed. These fuel cells are closely related to conventional PEM fuel cells,
except that they use an alkaline membrane instead of an acid membrane. The
high performance of AFCs is due to the rate at which electro-chemical
reactions take place in the cell. They have also demonstrated efficiencies
above 60% in space applications.
A key challenge for this fuel cell type is that it is susceptible to poisoning by
carbon dioxide (CO2). In fact, even the small amount of CO2 in the air can
dramatically affect cell performance and durability due to carbonate
formation. Alkaline cells with liquid electrolytes can be run in a re circulating
mode, which allows for electrolyte regeneration to help reduce the effects of
carbonate formation in the electrolyte, but the re circulating mode introduces
issues with shunt currents.
The liquid electrolyte systems also
suffer from additional concerns
including wettability, increased
corrosion, and difficulties handling
differential pressures. Alkaline
membrane fuel cells (AMFCs)
address these concerns and have
lower
susceptibility
to
CO2 poisoning
than
liquidelectrolyte AFCs do. However,
CO2 still affects performance, and
performance and durability of the
AMFCs still lag that of PEMFCs.
AMFCs are being considered for
applications in the W to kW scale.
Challenges for AMFCs include
tolerance to carbon dioxide,
membrane
conductivity
and

durability, higher temperature

operation, water management,
power density, and anode electro
catalysis

Phosphoric acid fuel cells

Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs) use liquid phosphoric acid as an electrolyte
the acid is contained in a Teflon-bonded silicon carbide matrixand porous
carbon electrodes containing a platinum catalyst. The electro-chemical
reactions that take place in the cell are shown in the diagram to the right.
The PAFC is considered the "first generation" of modern fuel cells. It is one of
the most mature cell types and the first to be used commercially. This type of
fuel cell is typically used for stationary power generation, but some PAFCs have
been used to power large vehicles such as city buses.
PAFCs are more tolerant of impurities in fossil fuels that have been reformed
into hydrogen than PEM cells, which are easily "poisoned" by carbon monoxide
because carbon monoxide binds to the platinum catalyst at the anode,
decreasing the fuel cell's efficiency. PAFCs are more than 85% efficient when
used for the co-generation of electricity and heat but they are less efficient at
generating electricity alone (37%42%). PAFC efficiency is only slightly more
than that of combustion-based power plants, which typically operate at
around 33% efficiency.

PAFCs are also less powerful than

other fuel cells, given the same
weight and volume. As a result,
these fuel cells are typically large
and heavy. PAFCs are also
expensive. They require much
higher loadings of expensive
platinum catalyst than other types
of fuel cells do, which raises the cost

Molten carbonate fuel cells

Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) are currently being developed for natural
gas and coal-based power plants for electrical utility, industrial, and military
applications. MCFCs are high-temperature fuel cells that use an electrolyte
composed of a molten carbonate salt mixture suspended in a porous,
chemically inert ceramic lithium aluminium oxide matrix. Because they operate
at high temperatures of 650C (roughly 1,200F), non-precious metals can be
used as catalysts at the anode and cathode, reducing costs.
Improved efficiency is another reason MCFCs offer significant cost reductions
over phosphoric acid fuel cells. Molten carbonate fuel cells, when coupled with
a turbine, can reach efficiencies approaching 65%, considerably higher than
the 37%42% efficiencies of a phosphoric acid fuel cell plant. When the waste
heat is captured and used, overall fuel efficiencies can be over 85%.
Unlike alkaline, phosphoric acid, and PEM fuel cells, MCFCs do not require an
external reformer to convert fuels such as natural gas and biogas to hydrogen.
At the high temperatures at which MCFCs operate, methane and other light
hydrocarbons in these fuels are converted to hydrogen within the fuel cell
itself by a process called internal reforming, which also reduces cost.
The primary disadvantage of current
MCFC technology is durability. The
high temperatures at which these
cells operate and the corrosive
electrolyte
used
accelerate
component
breakdown
and
corrosion, decreasing cell life.
Scientists are currently exploring
corrosion-resistant materials for
components as well as fuel cell
designs that double cell life from
the current 40,000 hours (~5 years)
without decreasing performance.

Solid oxide fuel cells

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) use a hard, non-porous ceramic compound as the
electrolyte. SOFCs are around 60% efficient at converting fuel to electricity. In
applications designed to capture and utilize the system's waste heat (cogeneration), overall fuel use efficiencies could top 85%.
SOFCs operate at very high temperaturesas high as 1,000C (1,830F). Hightemperature operation removes the need for precious-metal catalyst, thereby
reducing cost. It also allows SOFCs to reform fuels internally, which enables the
use of a variety of fuels and reduces the cost associated with adding a reformer
to the system.
SOFCs are also the most sulphur-resistant fuel cell type; they can tolerate
several orders of magnitude more sulphur than other cell types can. In
addition, they are not poisoned by carbon monoxide, which can even be used
as fuel. This property allows SOFCs to use natural gas, biogas, and gases made
from coal. High-temperature operation has disadvantages. It results in a slow
start up and requires significant thermal shielding to retain heat and protect
personnel, which may be acceptable for utility applications but not for
transportation. The high operating temperatures also place stringent durability
requirements on materials. The development of low-cost materials with high
durability at cell operating temperatures is the key technical challenge facing
this technology.
Scientists are currently exploring
the potential for developing lowertemperature SOFCs operating at or
below 700C that have fewer
durability problems and cost less.
Lower-temperature SOFCs have not
yet matched the performance of the
higher
temperature
systems,
however, and stack materials that
will function in this lower
temperature range are still under
development

Reversible fuel cells

Reversible fuel cells produce electricity from hydrogen and oxygen and
generate heat and water as by products, just like other fuel cells. However,
reversible fuel cell systems can also use electricity from solar power, wind
power, or other sources to split water into oxygen and hydrogen fuel through a
process called electrolysis. Reversible fuel cells can provide power when
needed, but during times of high power production from other technologies
(such as when high winds lead to an excess of available wind power), reversible
fuel cells can store the excess energy in the form of hydrogen. This energy
storage capability could be a key enabler for intermittent renewable energy
technologies.

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