Sorting algorithm

Sorting algorithm
In computer science, a sorting algorithm is an algorithm that puts elements of a list in a certain order. The
most-used orders are numerical order and lexicographical order. Efficient sorting is important for optimizing the use
of other algorithms (such as search and merge algorithms) that require sorted lists to work correctly; it is also often
useful for canonicalizing data and for producing human-readable output. More formally, the output must satisfy two
conditions:
1. The output is in nondecreasing order (each element is no smaller than the previous element according to the
desired total order);
2. The output is a permutation, or reordering, of the input.
Since the dawn of computing, the sorting problem has attracted a great deal of research, perhaps due to the
complexity of solving it efficiently despite its simple, familiar statement. For example, bubble sort was analyzed as
early as 1956.[1] Although many consider it a solved problem, useful new sorting algorithms are still being invented
(for example, library sort was first published in 2004). Sorting algorithms are prevalent in introductory computer
science classes, where the abundance of algorithms for the problem provides a gentle introduction to a variety of
core algorithm concepts, such as big O notation, divide and conquer algorithms, data structures, randomized
algorithms, best, worst and average case analysis, time-space tradeoffs, and lower bounds.

Classification
Sorting algorithms used in computer science are often classified by:
Computational complexity (worst, average and best behaviour) of element comparisons in terms of the size of the
list
. For typical sorting algorithms good behavior is
and bad behavior is
. (See Big
O notation.) Ideal behavior for a sort is

, but this is not possible in the average case. Comparison-based

sorting algorithms, which evaluate the elements of the list via an abstract key comparison operation, need at least
comparisons for most inputs.
Computational complexity of swaps (for "in place" algorithms).
Memory usage (and use of other computer resources). In particular, some sorting algorithms are "in place". This
means that they need only
or
memory beyond the items being sorted and they don't need to

create auxiliary locations for data to be temporarily stored, as in other sorting algorithms.
Recursion. Some algorithms are either recursive or non-recursive, while others may be both (e.g., merge sort).
Stability: stable sorting algorithms maintain the relative order of records with equal keys (i.e., values). See
below for more information.
Whether or not they are a comparison sort. A comparison sort examines the data only by comparing two elements
with a comparison operator.
General method: insertion, exchange, selection, merging, etc.. Exchange sorts include bubble sort and quicksort.
Selection sorts include shaker sort and heapsort.
Adaptability: Whether or not the presortedness of the input affects the running time. Algorithms that take this into
account are known to be adaptive.

Stability
Stable sorting algorithms maintain the relative order of records with equal keys. If all keys are different then this
distinction is not necessary. But if there are equal keys, then a sorting algorithm is stable if whenever there are two
records (let's say R and S) with the same key, and R appears before S in the original list, then R will always appear
before S in the sorted list. When equal elements are indistinguishable, such as with integers, or more generally, any
data where the entire element is the key, stability is not an issue. However, assume that the following pairs of

Sorting algorithm

numbers are to be sorted by their first component:

(4, 2)

(3, 7)

(3, 1)

(5, 6)

In this case, two different results are possible, one which maintains the relative order of records with equal keys, and
one which does not:
(3, 7)
(3, 1)

(3, 1)
(3, 7)

(4, 2)
(4, 2)

(5, 6)
(5, 6)

(order maintained)
(order changed)

Unstable sorting algorithms may change the relative order of records with equal keys, but stable sorting algorithms
never do so. Unstable sorting algorithms can be specially implemented to be stable. One way of doing this is to
artificially extend the key comparison, so that comparisons between two objects with otherwise equal keys are
decided using the order of the entries in the original data order as a tie-breaker. Remembering this order, however,
often involves an additional computational cost.
Sorting based on a primary, secondary, tertiary, etc. sort key can be done by any sorting method, taking all sort keys
into account in comparisons (in other words, using a single composite sort key). If a sorting method is stable, it is
also possible to sort multiple times, each time with one sort key. In that case the keys need to be applied in order of
increasing priority.
Example: sorting pairs of numbers as above by second, then first component:
(4, 2)

(3, 7)

(3, 1)

(5, 6) (original)

(3, 1)
(3, 1)

(4, 2)
(3, 7)

(5, 6)
(4, 2)

(3, 7) (after sorting by second component)

(5, 6) (after sorting by first component)

(4, 2)
(5, 6)

(5, 6) (after sorting by first component)

(3, 7) (after sorting by second component,
order by first component is disrupted).

On the other hand:

(3, 7)
(3, 1)

(3, 1)
(4, 2)

Sorting algorithm

Comparison of algorithms
In this table, n is the number of records to be sorted. The columns
"Average" and "Worst" give the time complexity in each case, under
the assumption that the length of each key is constant, and that
therefore all comparisons, swaps, and other needed operations can
proceed in constant time. "Memory" denotes the amount of auxiliary
storage needed beyond that used by the list itself, under the same
assumption. These are all comparison sorts. The run time and the
memory of algorithms could be measured using various notations like
theta, sigma, Big-O, small-o, etc. The memory and the run times below
are applicable for all the 5 notations.

The complexity of different algorithms in a

specific situation.

Comparison sorts
Name

Best

Worst

Stable

Method

Spaghetti
(Poll) sort

Yes

Polling

Quicksort

Depends

Partitioning

Yes

Merging

Heapsort

No

Selection

Insertion sort

Yes

Insertion

Average

Merge sort

Other notes

Memory

Depends

This A linear-time, analog algorithm for

sorting a sequence of items, requiring O(n)
stack space, and the sort is stable. This
requires a parallel processor. Spaghetti
sort#Analysis
Quicksort can be done in place with
O(log(n)) stack space, but the sort is unstable.
Nave variants use an O(n) space array to
store the partition. An O(n) space
implementation can be stable.
Used to sort this table in Firefox [2].

Average case is also

, where d is

the number of inversions

Introsort

No

Partitioning
& Selection

Selection
sort

No

Selection

Timsort

Yes

Insertion &
Merging

Used in SGI STL implementations

Its stability depends on the implementation.

Used to sort this table in Safari or other
Webkit web browser [3].
comparisons when the data is already
sorted or reverse sorted.

Sorting algorithm

4
depends on gap
sequence. Best known:

Shell sort

No

Insertion

Bubble sort

Yes

Exchanging

Binary tree
sort

Yes

Insertion

When using a self-balancing binary search

tree
In-place with theoretically optimal number of
writes

Cycle sort

No

Insertion

Library sort

Yes

Insertion

Patience
sorting

No

Insertion &
Selection

Smoothsort

No

Selection

Strand sort

Yes

Selection

Tournament
sort

Tiny code size

Finds all the longest increasing subsequences

within O(n log n)
An adaptive sort - comparisons when the
data is already sorted, and 0 swaps.

Selection

Cocktail sort

Yes

Exchanging

No

Exchanging

Small code size

Gnome sort

Yes

Exchanging

Tiny code size

In-place
merge sort

Yes

Merging

Bogosort

No

Luck

Comb sort

Implemented in Standard Template Library

(STL): [4]; can be implemented as a stable
sort based on stable in-place merging: [5]
Randomly permute the array and check if
sorted.

The following table describes integer sorting algorithms and other sorting algorithms that are not comparison sorts.
As such, they are not limited by a
lower bound. Complexities below are in terms of n, the number of
items to be sorted, k, the size of each key, and d, the digit size used by the implementation. Many of them are based
on the assumption that the key size is large enough that all entries have unique key values, and hence that n << 2k,
where << means "much less than."

Non-comparison sorts
Name

Best

Average

Worst

Memory

Stable n <<
2k

Notes

Pigeonhole sort

Yes

Yes

Bucket sort
(uniform keys)

Yes

No

Bucket sort (integer

keys)

Yes

Yes

Counting sort

Yes

Yes

LSD Radix Sort

Yes

No

[7] [6]

MSD Radix Sort

Yes

No

Stable version uses an external array of size n to hold all

of the bins

Assumes uniform distribution of elements from the

[6]
domain in the array.
r is the range of numbers to be sorted. If r =
[7]
Avg RT =

then

r is the range of numbers to be sorted. If r =

[6]
Avg RT =

then

Sorting algorithm

MSD Radix Sort

No

No

In-Place. k / d recursion levels, 2d for count array

Spreadsort

No

No

Asymptotics are based on the assumption that n << 2k,

but the algorithm does not require this.

The following table describes some sorting algorithms that are impractical for real-life use due to extremely poor
performance or a requirement for specialized hardware.
Name

Best

Average

Worst

Memory

Stable

Comparison

Other notes

Bead sort

N/A

N/A

N/A

No

Requires specialized hardware

Simple pancake sort

No

Yes

Count is number of flips.

Sorting networks

Yes

No

Requires a custom circuit of size

Additionally, theoretical computer scientists have detailed other sorting algorithms that provide better than
time complexity with additional constraints, including:
Han's algorithm, a deterministic algorithm for sorting keys from a domain of finite size, taking
time and
space.[8]
Thorup's algorithm, a randomized algorithm for sorting keys from a domain of finite size, taking
time and
space.[9]
An integer sorting algorithm taking
Algorithms not yet compared above include:

Odd-even sort
Flashsort
Burstsort
Postman sort
Stooge sort
Samplesort
Bitonic sorter
Cocktail sort
Topological sort

expected time and

space.[10]

Sorting algorithm

Summaries of popular sorting algorithms

Bubble sort
Bubble sort is a simple sorting algorithm. The algorithm starts at the
beginning of the data set. It compares the first two elements, and if the
first is greater than the second, then it swaps them. It continues doing
this for each pair of adjacent elements to the end of the data set. It then
starts again with the first two elements, repeating until no swaps have
occurred on the last pass. This algorithm's average and worst case
performance is O(n2), so it is rarely used to sort large, unordered, data
sets. Bubble sort can be used to sort a small number of items (where its
inefficiency is not a high penalty). Bubble sort may also be efficiently
used on a list that is already sorted except for a very small number of
elements. For example, if only one element is not in order, bubble sort
will take only 2n time. If two elements are not in order, bubble sort
will take only at most 3n time.

A bubble sort, a sorting algorithm that

continuously steps through a list, swapping items
until they appear in the correct order.

Bubble sort average case and worst case are both O(n).

Selection sort
Selection sort is an in-place comparison sort. It has O(n2) complexity, making it inefficient on large lists, and
generally performs worse than the similar insertion sort. Selection sort is noted for its simplicity, and also has
performance advantages over more complicated algorithms in certain situations.
The algorithm finds the minimum value, swaps it with the value in the first position, and repeats these steps for the
remainder of the list. It does no more than n swaps, and thus is useful where swapping is very expensive.

Insertion sort
Insertion sort is a simple sorting algorithm that is relatively efficient for small lists and mostly sorted lists, and often
is used as part of more sophisticated algorithms. It works by taking elements from the list one by one and inserting
them in their correct position into a new sorted list. In arrays, the new list and the remaining elements can share the
array's space, but insertion is expensive, requiring shifting all following elements over by one. Shell sort (see below)
is a variant of insertion sort that is more efficient for larger lists.

Sorting algorithm

Shell sort
Shell sort was invented by Donald Shell in 1959. It improves upon
bubble sort and insertion sort by moving out of order elements more
than one position at a time. One implementation can be described as
arranging the data sequence in a two-dimensional array and then
sorting the columns of the array using insertion sort.

Comb sort
Comb sort is a relatively simplistic sorting algorithm originally
designed by Wlodzimierz Dobosiewicz in 1980. Later it was
rediscovered and popularized by Stephen Lacey and Richard Box with
A Shell sort, different from bubble sort in that it
a Byte Magazine article published in April 1991. Comb sort improves
moves elements numerous positions swapping
on bubble sort, and rivals algorithms like Quicksort. The basic idea is
to eliminate turtles, or small values near the end of the list, since in a
bubble sort these slow the sorting down tremendously. (Rabbits, large values around the beginning of the list, do not
pose a problem in bubble sort.).

Merge sort
Merge sort takes advantage of the ease of merging already sorted lists into a new sorted list. It starts by comparing
every two elements (i.e., 1 with 2, then 3 with 4...) and swapping them if the first should come after the second. It
then merges each of the resulting lists of two into lists of four, then merges those lists of four, and so on; until at last
two lists are merged into the final sorted list. Of the algorithms described here, this is the first that scales well to very
large lists, because its worst-case running time is O(n log n). Merge sort has seen a relatively recent surge in
popularity for practical implementations, being used for the standard sort routine in the programming languages
Perl,[11] Python (as timsort[12] ), and Java (also uses timsort as of JDK7[13] ), among others. Merge sort has been
used in Java at least since 2000 in JDK1.3.[14] [15]

Heapsort
Heapsort is a much more efficient version of selection sort. It also works by determining the largest (or smallest)
element of the list, placing that at the end (or beginning) of the list, then continuing with the rest of the list, but
accomplishes this task efficiently by using a data structure called a heap, a special type of binary tree. Once the data
list has been made into a heap, the root node is guaranteed to be the largest (or smallest) element. When it is
removed and placed at the end of the list, the heap is rearranged so the largest element remaining moves to the root.
Using the heap, finding the next largest element takes O(log n) time, instead of O(n) for a linear scan as in simple
selection sort. This allows Heapsort to run in O(n log n) time, and this is also the worst case complexity.

Quicksort
Quicksort is a divide and conquer algorithm which relies on a partition operation: to partition an array an element
called a pivot is selected. All elements smaller than the pivot are moved before it and all greater elements are moved
after it. This can be done efficiently in linear time and in-place. The lesser and greater sublists are then recursively
sorted. Efficient implementations of quicksort (with in-place partitioning) are typically unstable sorts and somewhat
complex, but are among the fastest sorting algorithms in practice. Together with its modest O(log n) space usage,
quicksort is one of the most popular sorting algorithms and is available in many standard programming libraries. The
most complex issue in quicksort is choosing a good pivot element; consistently poor choices of pivots can result in
drastically slower O(n) performance, if at each step the median is chosen as the pivot then the algorithm works in

Sorting algorithm
O(nlogn). Finding the median however, is an O(n) operation on unsorted lists and therefore exacts its own penalty
with sorting.

Counting Sort
Counting sort is applicable when each input is known to belong to a particular set, S, of possibilities. The algorithm
runs in O(|S| + n) time and O(|S|) memory where n is the length of the input. It works by creating an integer array of
size |S| and using the ith bin to count the occurrences of the ith member of S in the input. Each input is then counted
by incrementing the value of its corresponding bin. Afterward, the counting array is looped through to arrange all of
the inputs in order. This sorting algorithm cannot often be used because S needs to be reasonably small for it to be
efficient, but the algorithm is extremely fast and demonstrates great asymptotic behavior as n increases. It also can
be modified to provide stable behavior.

Bucket sort
Bucket sort is a divide and conquer sorting algorithm that generalizes Counting sort by partitioning an array into a
finite number of buckets. Each bucket is then sorted individually, either using a different sorting algorithm, or by
recursively applying the bucket sorting algorithm. A variation of this method called the single buffered count sort is
faster than quicksort and takes about the same time to run on any set of data.
Due to the fact that bucket sort must use a limited number of buckets it is best suited to be used on data sets of a
limited scope. Bucket sort would be unsuitable for data such as social security numbers - which have a lot of
variation.

Radix sort
Radix sort is an algorithm that sorts numbers by processing individual digits. n numbers consisting of k digits each
are sorted in O(n k) time. Radix sort can process digits of each number either starting from the least significant digit
(LSD) or starting from the most significant digit (MSD). The LSD algorithm first sorts the list by the least significant
digit while preserving their relative order using a stable sort. Then it sorts them by the next digit, and so on from the
least significant to the most significant, ending up with a sorted list. While the LSD radix sort requires the use of a
stable sort, the MSD radix sort algorithm does not (unless stable sorting is desired). In-place MSD radix sort is not
stable. It is common for the counting sort algorithm to be used internally by the radix sort. Hybrid sorting approach,
such as using insertion sort for small bins improves performance of radix sort significantly.

Distribution sort
Distribution sort refers to any sorting algorithm where data is distributed from its input to multiple intermediate
structures which are then gathered and placed on the output. See Bucket sort.

Timsort
Timsort finds runs in the data, creates runs with insertion sort if necessary, and then uses merge sort to create the
final sorted list. It has the same complexity (O(nlogn)) in the average and worst cases, but with pre-sorted data it
goes down to O(n).

Sorting algorithm

Memory usage patterns and index sorting

When the size of the array to be sorted approaches or exceeds the available primary memory, so that (much slower)
disk or swap space must be employed, the memory usage pattern of a sorting algorithm becomes important, and an
algorithm that might have been fairly efficient when the array fit easily in RAM may become impractical. In this
scenario, the total number of comparisons becomes (relatively) less important, and the number of times sections of
memory must be copied or swapped to and from the disk can dominate the performance characteristics of an
algorithm. Thus, the number of passes and the localization of comparisons can be more important than the raw
number of comparisons, since comparisons of nearby elements to one another happen at system bus speed (or, with
caching, even at CPU speed), which, compared to disk speed, is virtually instantaneous.
For example, the popular recursive quicksort algorithm provides quite reasonable performance with adequate RAM,
but due to the recursive way that it copies portions of the array it becomes much less practical when the array does
not fit in RAM, because it may cause a number of slow copy or move operations to and from disk. In that scenario,
another algorithm may be preferable even if it requires more total comparisons.
One way to work around this problem, which works well when complex records (such as in a relational database) are
being sorted by a relatively small key field, is to create an index into the array and then sort the index, rather than the
entire array. (A sorted version of the entire array can then be produced with one pass, reading from the index, but
often even that is unnecessary, as having the sorted index is adequate.) Because the index is much smaller than the
entire array, it may fit easily in memory where the entire array would not, effectively eliminating the disk-swapping
problem. This procedure is sometimes called "tag sort".[16]
Another technique for overcoming the memory-size problem is to combine two algorithms in a way that takes
advantages of the strength of each to improve overall performance. For instance, the array might be subdivided into
chunks of a size that will fit easily in RAM (say, a few thousand elements), the chunks sorted using an efficient
algorithm (such as quicksort or heapsort), and the results merged as per mergesort. This is less efficient than just
doing mergesort in the first place, but it requires less physical RAM (to be practical) than a full quicksort on the
whole array.
Techniques can also be combined. For sorting very large sets of data that vastly exceed system memory, even the
index may need to be sorted using an algorithm or combination of algorithms designed to perform reasonably with
virtual memory, i.e., to reduce the amount of swapping required.

Inefficient/humorous sorts
These are algorithms that are extremely slow compared to those discussed above Bogosort
sort

, Stooge

References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]

Demuth, H. Electronic Data Sorting. PhD thesis, Stanford University, 1956.

http:/ / mxr. mozilla. org/ seamonkey/ source/ js/ src/ jsarray. c
http:/ / svn. webkit. org/ repository/ webkit/ trunk/ Source/ JavaScriptCore/ runtime/ ArrayPrototype. cpp
http:/ / www. sgi. com/ tech/ stl/ stable_sort. html
http:/ / citeseerx. ist. psu. edu/ viewdoc/ summary?doi=10. 1. 1. 54. 8381
Cormen, Thomas H.; Leiserson, Charles E., Rivest, Ronald L., Stein, Clifford (2001) [1990]. Introduction to Algorithms (2nd ed.). MIT Press
and McGraw-Hill. ISBN0-262-03293-7.
[7] Goodrich, Michael T.; Tamassia, Roberto (2002). "4.5 Bucket-Sort and Radix-Sort". Algorithm Design: Foundations, Analysis, and Internet
Examples. John Wiley & Sons. pp.241243.
[8] Y. Han. Deterministic sorting in

time and linear space. Proceedings of the thirty-fourth annual ACM symposium on

Theory of computing, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, 2002,p.602-608.

[9] M. Thorup. Randomized Sorting in
Time and Linear Space Using Addition, Shift, and Bit-wise Boolean Operations.
Journal of Algorithms, Volume 42, Number 2, February 2002, pp. 205-230(26)

Sorting algorithm

[10] Han, Y. and Thorup, M. 2002. Integer Sorting in

10

Expected Time and Linear Space. In Proceedings of the 43rd

Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science (November 1619, 2002). FOCS. IEEE Computer Society, Washington, DC, 135-144.
[11] Perl sort documentation (http:/ / perldoc. perl. org/ functions/ sort. html)
[12] Tim Peters's original description of timsort (http:/ / svn. python. org/ projects/ python/ trunk/ Objects/ listsort. txt)
[13] (http:/ / hg. openjdk. java. net/ jdk7/ tl/ jdk/ rev/ bfd7abda8f79)
[14] Merge sort in Java 1.3 (http:/ / java. sun. com/ j2se/ 1. 3/ docs/ api/ java/ util/ Arrays. html#sort(java. lang. Object[])), Sun.
[15] Java 1.3 live since 2000
[16] Definition of "tag sort" according to PC Magazine (http:/ / www. pcmag. com/ encyclopedia_term/ 0,2542,t=tag+ sort& i=52532,00. asp)

D. E. Knuth, The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 3: Sorting and Searching.

External links
Sorting Algorithm Animations (http://www.sorting-algorithms.com/) - Graphical illustration of how different
algorithms handle different kinds of data sets.
Sequential and parallel sorting algorithms (http://www.iti.fh-flensburg.de/lang/algorithmen/sortieren/algoen.
htm) - Explanations and analyses of many sorting algorithms.
Dictionary of Algorithms, Data Structures, and Problems (http://www.nist.gov/dads/) - Dictionary of
algorithms, techniques, common functions, and problems.
Slightly Skeptical View on Sorting Algorithms (http://www.softpanorama.org/Algorithms/sorting.shtml)
Discusses several classic algorithms and promotes alternatives to the quicksort algorithm.

Article Sources and Contributors

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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:SortingAlgoComp.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SortingAlgoComp.png License: Public Domain Contributors: GanKeyu
File:Bubblesort-edited.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bubblesort-edited.png License: Public Domain Contributors: crashmatrix
File:Shellsort-edited.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Shellsort-edited.png License: Public Domain Contributors: crashmatrix (talk

License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/

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