STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES

FOR COGNITIVE REHABILITATION

Manual for healthcare professionals
working with individuals with cognitive impairment
Dr Michelle E. Kelly (D.Psych.BAT, BCBA-D)
Dr Maria OSullivan (D.Psych.Sc., Clin Psych)
JULY 2015

STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES FOR COGNITIVE REHABILITATION

Manual for Healthcare Professionals

Working with Individuals with Cognitive Impairment

1. Overview

2. Goal Identification

3. Guiding Principles

4. Recall Strategies

3.1 Effortful Processing

3.2 Dual Cognitive Support
3.3 Errorless Learning

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5

Mnemonics
Cueing
Chunking
Method of Loci
Spaced Retrieval

5. Specific Interventions

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7

Face-name Recall
Number Recall
Story Recall
List / Object Recall
Procedural Memory
Fluency Training
Semantic Impairments

5
5
5

6
6
7
7
7

8
9
10
10
10
11
12

6. Additional Support

14

7. Examples of CR in Practice

15

6.1 Memory Aids

6.2 Environmental Adaptation
6.3 Relaxation

7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4

Case 1 Number & Face-Name Recall

Case 2 Face-Name Recall & Conversational Fluency
Case 3 Playing Bridge
Case 4 Using the Phone & Repetitive Questions

Acknowledgements
References

14
14
14

15
16
17
18

19
20

STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES FOR COGNITIVE REHABILITATION

Disclaimer
COGNITIVE REHABILITIATION MANUAL
No advice
This cognitive rehabilitation manual (CR MANUAL) contains general information regarding cognitive
rehabilitation strategies. The manual has been by created by Trinity College Dublin and The Alzheimer
Society of Ireland (AUTHORS) during the course of their academic research collaboration. The
information is not to be considered as comprehensive medical advice, and should not be treated
as such and should be used in conjunction with additional supporting therapies where necessary.

Use
Use of the CR MANUAL is prohibited under the following conditions: licensing, leasing, or selling
the CR MANUAL, or distributing the CR MANUAL for any commercial purpose.

Limitation of Warranties & Liability

The CR Manaul comes as is, with no warranties. This means no express, implied or statutory warranty,
including without limitation, warranties of mechantability or fitness for a particular purpose or any
warranty of title or non-infringment. The authors make no representations or warranties in relation
to the medical information contained within the CR Manual to the maximum extent permitted by
applicable law, the authors expressly disclaim all, and shall not be deemed to have given any warranties,
express or implied (by law or otherwise), in relation to the CR Manual and the use of the CR Manual.

Professional assistance
The CR MANUAL should not be used as an alternative to medical advice from any doctor or other
professional healthcare provider.
Any specific questions about any medical matter should be in consultation with a doctor or other
professional healthcare provider.

STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES FOR COGNITIVE REHABILITATION

1. Overview
The aim of this manual is to present healthcare
professionals with strategies and techniques that can
be used to assist people with memory problems in
optimising management of their daily lives and activities.
These strategies have been incorporated into goaloriented cognitive rehabilitation interventions that aim
to (i) draw on retained strengths to support adaptive
behaviour; and (ii) achieve optimum levels of wellbeing
by targeting performance on personally relevant goals
(Clare, 2008). The manual is not a comprehensive
account of cognitive rehabilitation (CR) however, and
should be used in conjunction with supporting literature
(e.g. Clare, 2008; Clare & Wilson, 2004; Dunn & Clare,
2007; Clare et al., 2010).
There are a number of different rehabilitative strategies
outlined in this manual aimed at assisting with difficulties
in memory and everyday functioning. Generally speaking,
there is a lot of individual variability in how people
respond to different strategies. For this reason, it is
preferable to try several strategies in an attempt to
determine what works best for each individual.

As the healthcare professional, your role is to help the

individual understand how to use these strategies, but the
individual is responsible for practice and implementation
between sessions. Explain that there is a requirement
of commitment and effort on their part. Typically, you
would identify target areas or goals to work on, practise
a number of different strategies, and then decide which
strategies the person prefers and can use most efficiently.
Preferred strategies can be selected for additional
practice until the individual feels confident using them.
Sessions should be conducted either in the persons
home, or in a comfortable setting suited to practising
the identified goals. Family members/carers should be
debriefed on each session and provided with explanations
of strategies used so that these may be practised outside
of intervention sessions.

Rehabilitative Strategies and Interventions:

GUIDING PRINCIPLES

RECALL STRATEGIES

SPECIFIC INTERVENTIONS

Effortful Processing

Mnemonics

Face-name Recall

Dual Cognitive Support

Cueing

Number Recall

Errorless Learning

Chunking

Story Recall

Method of Loci

List/Object Recall

Spaced Retrieval

Procedural Memory
Fluency Training
Semantic Impairments

STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES FOR COGNITIVE REHABILITATION

2. Goal Indentification
Difficulties with memory or cognition can often interfere
with a persons ability to carry out specific tasks or
activities; for example, the ability to recall peoples
names, play cards, or use household appliances. In
some cases, people may not have any specific area of
concern, but may wish to address more general memory
problems. Interventions can therefore focus either on
direct real-life, everyday situations or on more general
rehabilitative activities.
Where a person identifies specific goals that s/he would
like to work on (e.g. related to the examples provided
above), the techniques in this manual can be applied to
help the person to address these personal rehabilitation
goals. In such instances, it can be beneficial to assist
the person in eliciting goals either informally through
discussion, or by using structured goal-setting
approaches, like the Bangor Goal Setting Interview
(BGSI; Clare & Nelis, 2012) or the Canadian Occupational
Performance Measure (COPM; Law et al. 2005). These
structured interview measures are used in research
studies or clinical interventions to help elicit and rate
progress with goals.

Setting SMART Goals:

When setting goals, it is helpful to ensure that those
selected for intervention are Specific, Measurable,
Achievable, Realistic, and Time-limited. The following
areas/questions should be considered:
Describe exactly what is to be achieved.
What is needed to reach this goal?
What might get in the way of reaching this goal?
What resources are available to help meet
this goal.
What will help to overcome obstacles and
achieve this goal.
How do I know the goal has been achieved?
What is the time limit?

Examples of Goals:
Goals might focus directly on the impact of cognitive
difficulties in life or some goals may have a broader
focus (e.g. socialising). Examples of goals might
include: remembering the names of familiar individuals,
remembering important numbers (PIN codes, phone
numbers), developing and using a strategy to help
remember important events or keep track of important
personal effects, remembering how to carry out multicomponent daily tasks, learning to use a memory aid
such as a calendar or memory board, or learning and
retaining personally relevant information.

Measuring Outcomes:
If you wish to measure outcomes, it is beneficial to
gather data at the beginning and at the end of the
intervention. The BGSI allows for measurement of
participant, carer and therapist ratings of performance
and satisfaction for each goal identified. All ratings on
the BGSI are taken before the intervention begins, and
then repeated at follow-up to determine what changes
have occurred.
With some goals, it might also be appropriate to measure
actual goal performance at baseline and follow-up. An
example of this may be to record the number of correct
responses on a test of face-name recall conducted prior
to and after the intervention (see Clare, Wilson, Carter
& Hodges, 2003). This allows for measurement of actual
goal performance, to supplement self-ratings.

STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES FOR COGNITIVE REHABILITATION

3. Guiding Principles
Throughout the rehabilitative intervention sessions, it is important to be aware of and
to implement, where possible, the following guiding principles.

3.1 Effortful Processing

3.2 Dual Cognitive Support

In some cases, when a person is asked a question, the

more effort they are required to make in order to retrieve
the correct answer (i.e. the less prompts that are provided)
the better. For example, research shows that high effort
conditions (fewer prompts, more effort required) are more
effective than low-effort conditions (given the answer
immediately or given a lot of prompting) in facilitating
cued recall of novel associations for people with cognitive
impairment (Clare, 2008). It may also be beneficial for
face-name recall or number recall. To achieve effortful
processing, at encoding - assist the individual to engage
in elaboration of the to-be-remembered item at encoding
e.g. get them to generate additional cues such as (i) the
category that the item is in or a person that reminds
them of that item; (ii) other related meanings that can
be applied to the item; (iii) or think of the item in an
elaborate setting (see also mnemonics); self-generated
and more personal cues may be more effective than
clinician generated cues. Subsequently provide minimum
cuing to aid recall, such as first letter or category cues.

Cognitive impairment can affect peoples ability to use

methods that aid encoding and facilitate retrieval. It is
important to consider how teaching strategies might
provide support at both encoding and retrieval by
ensuring compatibility of cues at encoding and retrieval
(e.g. category cues). Interventions for people with
cognitive impairment; compared to healthy older adults,
need to focus on more guidance and support when
encoding material, extra learning trials, additional
prompts, and cues for retrieval.
Multi-modal encoding can be beneficial in facilitating
later recall and is achieved by involving multiple sensory
modalities during learning (e.g. providing sound and
smell cues to accompany the demonstration of an
action sequence).

3.3 Errorless Learning

Errorless learning is an instructional technique that
allows for the reduction or elimination of errors during
learning. This is particularly useful in facilitating learning
or re-learning of information for people with cognitive
impairment, as it minimises the number of times the
person is exposed to an incorrect response (Clare, 2008).
To achieve errorless learning during CR sessions, regularly
remind the individual that if they are not sure of an
answer, to say either Im not sure or just dont respond.
When this occurs, immediately provide the individual
with a cue or prompt to assist them in recalling the
correct answer.

STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES FOR COGNITIVE REHABILITATION

4. Recall Strategies
4.1 Mnemonics

4.2 Cueing

Mnemonics are learning techniques that aid information

retention. Useful mnemonics strategies include linking
visual imagery, stories, poems or acronyms to the
information to-be-remembered. Preferably mnemonics
are combined with other methods such as spaced
retrieval/repeated presentations.

Providing relevant cues at recall can aid retrieval and can

be useful when teaching information particularly facename recall or number recall (Clare, 2008). Two types
of cueing are vanishing cues (or cueing with decreasing
assistance) and forward cues (or cueing with increasing
assistance). Although one study reported no significant
differences between the two strategies (Dunn & Clare,
2007), two further studies that compared vanishing cues
to forward cues found forward cues to be more effective
(Clare & Wilson, 2004).

Example 4.1.1:
A mnemonic method might involve discussing a
photograph and name, and generating associations that
could be used to assist recall. For example: his name is
Eoin imagine him as an onion, Onion Eoin; OR his
name is Brian he has a large head so he must have
a big brain, Brain Brian; OR she looks like a girl I went
to school with that has the same name, etc. Both parties
should agree on the most effective association. It can be
difficult to generate a mnemonic but work at it together
and try to think of something humorous so that it stands
out more to the individual when recalling it.

Example 4.2.1:
Vanishing Cues (errorless and effortful): Each face is first
shown with the complete name and on each subsequent
presentation a letter is withdrawn in order from right
to left until only the first letter of the first name is
presented. Participants are asked to recall the name by
completing the target, but not to guess. If no response
is given, the preceding stage is shown again. This is
continued until a correct response is obtained. On all
subsequent trials within a session, as well as between
sessions, the next stage has one fewer letter than that
at which the participants succeeded in the correct
completion on the previous trial (Dunn & Clare, 2007).

Example 4.2.2:
Forward Cues (errorless and effortful): Each face is shown
together with the first letter of its name. Participants are
asked to recall or guess the name beginning with the cue
letter. If the correct response is not given, letters are added
one at a time until a correct response is obtained. Where
the full name has to be presented, the participant is asked
to say the correct name aloud (Dunn & Clare, 2007).

Example 4.2.3:
First letter cueing can also be beneficial for name recall.
Go through the letters of the alphabet one by one; when
you reach the first letter of the persons name, it may
prompt recall.

STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES FOR COGNITIVE REHABILITATION

4.3 Chunking

4.4 Method of Loci

Chunking information together into categories or small

groups can be helpful when a person needs to remember
lists or greater amounts of information. Organising
information into small, relevant, simple chunks or
categories means that there is less information to
remember.

The items to be remembered in this mnemonic system

are mentally associated with specific physical locations.

Example 4.3.1:
Practise making a grocery list by chunking items based
on their locations in the supermarket, e.g. fruit and
vegetables, dairy, meat, dried goods, cleaning products,
etc. Then try cueing information by associating it with
numbers; 5 fruit and vegetables items, 3 meat, 2 dairy,
etc.

Example 4.3.2.:
Present 12 items with four of each item within the
same category (e.g. dog, cat, horse, cow shoe, hat,
gloves, t-shirt, etc). Give the instruction to break these
items down into categories. Once they are sorted into
categories try to link the items in the category together
with a bizarre picture or a story. At recall, encourage
recall of the category first, then the items within the
category.

Example 4.4.1:
Visualise your house, visualise yourself going through
each room, pick a special location in each room. When
you are given a list to remember, visualise yourself
putting one item in each special location in your house.
Practise a number of times for each item. When trying
to recall items on the list, imagine yourself going from
room to room checking the special locations.

4.5 Spaced Retrieval

Spaced retrieval (SR) is also called expanding rehearsal,
and helps to aid increased retention of information. This
strategy is beneficial for face-name associations, object
naming, memory for object location and prospective
memory assignments (Clare, 2008). In SR, test trials are
spaced at gradually expanding intervals. For example,
show a picture of a face along with a name - then show
the picture and ask the individual to recall the name
after a number of set intervals (e.g. 5seconds, 10s,
30s, 1minute, 2m, 5m). If a correct response is given
the interval is expanded. If not, the correct answer is
rehearsed, the individual is asked to repeat the correct
answer and the interval is shortened to the previous
interval where successful recall occurred (Buchanan,
Christenson, Houlihan & Ostrom, 2011). The goal is
mastered when the information is successfully recalled
at the final time-point. Testing sessions occur within
the context of a situation that provides social interaction
and reduces demands, such as a casual conversation.

STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES FOR COGNITIVE REHABILITATION

5. Specific Interventions
This section provides concrete examples of how CR
strategies might be put into practice to target specific
goals. The examples are designed as a guide to
implementing CR interventions and should be used in
conjunction with CR research literature. Interventions
can be adapted accordingly depending on the
requirements of individual and on judgements of the
healthcare professional. The person with the memory
problem is referred to as a participant as they are
participating in the intervention with the healthcare
professional.

5.1 Face-Name Recall

The following information on face-name recall sessions
has been adapted from Clare and colleagues work on
goal-oriented cognitive rehabilitation (see Clare, Wilson,
Breen & Hodges, 1999; Clare & Wilson, 2004; Dunn &
Clare, 2007).
Present a photograph of the to-be-remembered
person.
Discuss the photograph and name. Generate
mnemonics (or associations) that can be used
to assist recall, and agree on the most effective
association.
For example: if the name to be remembered is
Brian Brian has a large forehead; he must have
a big brain! Brain is like Brian! Basically you need
to work with the participant to attach a visual or
a story to the to-be-remembered-item which will
help them recall it. This can be challenging but it
can also be fun and is a worthwhile exercise.
Present the face-name association and mnemonic.
For the training phase, using the forward cueing
method, present prompts, one line at a time,
with increasing cues. Increase the cues until
the participant correctly identifies the item
(see Figure 1 below).

Next present the prompts in the reverse order and

get the participant to repeat the correct answer
(if known).
Practise the mnemonic each time the answer is
correctly identified.
Test phase: After presenting all above prompts, ask
the participant to recall the information at spaced
intervals (SR). For example, test them immediately,
then after 30s, 1m, 2m, 5m, 10m.
If the participant fails to recall the item, review
the correct name and mnemonic and repeat that
interval. If they are incorrect again, halve the
interval. Criterion for completion: accurate recall
after 10 minutes.
Use an ERRORLESS LEARNING technique. Ask the
participant not to guess, only say the answer if they
know what it is. If they do not know, encourage
them to either say nothing or say I dont know.
This reduces the number of errors the participant
makes.
Only add one new item per session and only when
the prior item has been learned.

STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES FOR COGNITIVE REHABILITATION

SESSION PLAN: Face-Name Recall

5.2 Number Recall

Item for training

Shown photograph and told

name (e.g. BRIAN).

Mnemonic chosen

Discussed and agreed

mnemonic for each name

Present the to-be-remembered numbers in verbal and

written formats. Discuss the number, what it is for,
how often it is used, etc.

Learning Trials

Cue with increasing assistance

His name is Brian:
Shown and asked to complete:

Presentation 1

B _ _ _ _ (not named)
B R _ _ _ (not named)
B R I _ _ (not named)
B R I A _ (name identified)

Presentation 2
Presentation 3
Presentation 4
Presentation 5

BRIA_
BRI__
BR___
B _ _ _ _ (Errorless learning:
encourage saying nothing or
I dont know if unsure.
Prompt with correct ans in
P2-5)
Each time name given or
correctly guessed rehearse
the mnemonic

Consolidation
and Testing

Recording

Run one training trial (P1 5)

then test immediately, after
30s, 1min, 2min, 5min, 10min.
Spaced retrieval.
Only add one new name in any
given session. Test all names
once per session (i.e. continued
baseline for successive names)

Figure 1: Session plan for face-name recall goal.

Adapted from Clare et al. (1999); Appendix A: Example
of a session plan (p. 46).

As above, generate mnemonics (or associations)

that can be used to assist recall, and agree on the
most effective association.
For example: If the number to be remembered
is a daughters phone number (086) 84 75 350
we moved house in 84, my daughter was born
in 75, and she got 350 points in her leaving cert!
Try to link the mnemonic cues to the participant
or situation pertains to. Another example is a car
registration 04D99617 (the 04D can usually be
recalled without a cue) My old car was a 99,
I got my first car in 61, and I used to drive my
seven brothers and sisters around, etc.
Next, for the training phase, present the prompts,
one line at a time, with increasing or decreasing cues
(depending on the individuals preferred strategy).
Increase/decrease the cues until the participant
correctly identifies the item (see Figure 2, below).
Next present the prompts in the reverse order and
get the participant to repeat the correct answer
(if known).
8_ _ _ _ _ _

84 75 35_

84 75 _ _ _

84 75 3_ _

84 75 3_ _

84 75 _ _ _

84 75 35_ (number identified)

8_ _ _ _ _ _

Figure 2: Sample prompt for number recall task.

Practise the mnemonic each time the answer

is correctly identified.
Use the ERRORLESS LEARNING technique.

10

STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES FOR COGNITIVE REHABILITATION

After 5-10 presentations of the training materials,

conduct a test phase using spaced retrieval e.g. ask
the participant to recall the information immediately,
then after 30s, 1m, 2m, 5m, 10m.
If the participant fails to recall the item, tell them
the answer and repeat that interval. If they are
incorrect again, halve the interval. Set a specific
criterion for completion.

5.3 Story Recall

When you wish to target memory for newspaper articles
or stories, try to encourage the individual to use either
(or both) the WH questions or the PQRST strategy. Both
strategies should be rehearsed with the individual to test
for ability to use, preference and suitability.

5.3.1: WH Questions:
When reading or listening to a story, it might be helpful
to focus on only the key points of the story. This way,
irrelevant information can be forgotten and the story
may seem simplified and easier to recall. Think of it as
breaking the information down into sections, and try
to imagine what each section looks like:

What
Where
Who
When
Why

5.3.2: You might also try or add in the PQRST

strategy:
P Preview read it over again, get an overview
of what the story is about
Q Question who, what, when, where, why
R Read read through it again
S State state/ answer your questions
(write answers)
T Test test yourself to see if you remember
the answers to your questions

Encourage the individual to rehearse the information

a number of times to get the information to stick. Use
spaced retrieval (i.e. gradually increase the length of
time before attempting to recall the information again).
Practise by discussing the details of the story with others
and then check to see if it is correct. When presenting
the to-be-remembered information, it is practical to use
stories of actual current affairs and news events.

5.4 List/Object Recall

To help with recall of lists of things that need to be done,
or lists of items needed for cooking or shopping, it might
be useful to combine the strategies of chunking and the
method of loci. Have the participant imagine they are
carrying out the activity or task and have them explain
this to you in detail. Conduct a number of training trials,
and then use spaced retrieval to test for ability to recall.

5.5 Procedural Memory

To optimise procedural memory functioning, aim to
target the restoration or maintenance of the ability
to carry out selected tasks or activities of daily living
(Clare, 2008). Tasks might range from using the phone
to making breakfast. Specific strategies and intervention
options include;

5.5.1: Prompting and fading:

Prompting methods can be employed to assist with
training, and can be faded back to encourage eventual
independence conducting the task. A task-analysis is
required to identify the key steps in carrying out the
task. Prompts may be verbal prompts (now pick up
the phone), model prompts (modelling the required
action for the individual to imitate), gestural prompts
(pointing or gesturing) or physical prompts (guiding
the participants hand to the phone). Always begin
with the minimum required prompt. Gradually fade
back as performance improves until the participant
independently carries out the task.

STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES FOR COGNITIVE REHABILITATION

5.5.2: Action-based encoding:

5.6 Fluency Training

Instead of only providing a verbal instruction, where

appropriate, the participant could also physically engage
in completing the task along with the verbal instruction
at the time of encoding. Provide appropriate cues at the
time of retrieval (e.g. now its time to wash your hands
and point to the tap) as the individual may be less likely
to independently initiate the correct response at the
correct time.

Direct Instruction and Precision Teaching

5.5.3: Chaining:
Chaining is useful for relearning tasks with various steps,
such as making breakfast, brushing teeth, fishing, etc.
Conduct a task analysis to identify the key stages in
completing a task and the specific actions required by
the participant at each stage. Conduct an assessment of
the participants performance of each stage to determine
the appropriate level of prompting required for each step
in the task. Fade back prompts until each step can be
carried out independently. Teach as a chain of behaviour
so that each step becomes a prompt for the next.
Backward Chaining: The participant is fully prompted
(visual, verbal, and model prompts) through each step
of the task first. In the next trial, all steps are prompted
except prompts are faded back for the last step until it
becomes independent. Work backwards successively
through steps until the participant can complete the
entire task independently.
Forward Chaining: The participant is fully prompted
through each step of the task first. In the next trial, all
steps are prompted except prompts are faded back
for the first step until it becomes independent. Work
forward successively through steps until the participant
can complete the entire task independently.

Fluency training is thought to produce better learning

outcomes including long-term maintenance, the ability
to display skills in a distracting environment, and an
increased likelihood of component skills being appropriately
applied in practice (Kubina & Wolf, 2005). Below is a
suggested strategy for training to fluency. Others may
be found in Precision Teaching (Lindsley, 1991) and Direct
Instruction literature (http://www.education.ie/en/
Education-Staff/Information/NEPS-Literacy-Resource/
NEPS-Resource-Precision-Teaching-Approach.pdf).
Identify the material that you wish to train to fluency.
Here, we use the example of face-name or number
recall.

5.6.1: Fluency Training Names:

Show the pictures one at a time. This is __
(name) and printed text.
For each picture, instruct the participant to
Tell me something about him/her? Anything
they know is fine, even 1 or 2 pieces of relevant
information. If they know very little, suggest some
additional information that may differentiate the
to-be-remembered participant.
After each has been individually named and
discussed, put all pictures out on the table at the
same time and say point to __ (name). Continue
with all pictures x2.
Pick up photos, shuffle, put them down one
at a time and ask the individual to name each
participant.
Repeat this entire process 2 to 5 times or until
deemed appropriate to move to the test phase.

11

12

STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES FOR COGNITIVE REHABILITATION

5.7 Semantic Impairments

5.6.2: Fluency Training Numbers:

Rehabilitation interventions may be considered for

individuals with semantic impairments, such as temporal
variant fronto-temporal dementia (Clare, 2008). Although
this area of work is still in its infancy, research shows that
the following techniques can be beneficial -in alleviating
semantic impairments.

Identify important numbers.

Say the numbers out loud.
Ask the participant What is this number for?
The participant should write out each number
twice.
Place written copies of each number on the table
one at a time and ask the participant to identify
the number and say it out loud.
Repeat 2 to 5 times, as above.
After the fluency training sessions are complete,
you need to run a test trial. This consists of setting
a timer for one minute and recording how many
names/numbers the participant can correctly recall
per minute. Also record errors. Get the participant
to record these place the data in a table so the
participant can track their own performance.
Aim to complete up to eight sessions.

Sessions

S1

S2

S3

S4

S5

S6

S7

S8

Correct/
minute

10

23

30

24

34

26

32

No. of
errors

TABLE 1: Sample table for recording performance during

fluency training

Repeated rehearsal of names of concepts or

items paired with pictures or exemplars has been
shown to improve a participants ability to produce
previously hard to retrieve words. Constant practice
was needed though (Graham et al. 2001).
Recent research has shown that simple, repetitive
practice of word-picture pairing in a 3-week wordtraining programme significantly improved the
ability to name trained item for four people with
mild to severe impairments in semantic knowledge
(Savage, Ballard, Piguet & Hodges, 2013). See Savage
et al. (2013) for more information and a discussion
about research on strategies for re-building
vocabulary in individuals with semantic impairments,
with promising results.
Learning is more effective when: 1) the individual
retains some semantic knowledge of the item,
object or concept to be learned; and 2) learning
is supported by the availability of temporal and
spatial contextual information relevant to the
participants daily life (this way learning extends
beyond verbal labels to associated relevant
knowledge). Effective learning might require the
material to be linked with personal experience
(Snowden & Neary, 2002).
Research suggests that rehabilitation in in those
with semantic impairments should focus on
maintenance of current vocabulary rather than
relearning forgotten vocabulary; using repetition
combined with a multi-modal approach involving
manipulation, naming and rich description of
objects (Reilly, Martin & Grossman, 2005).

STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES FOR COGNITIVE REHABILITATION

5.7.1: For individuals with more mild

impairments including word finding difficulties
during conversation, or issues with verbal
fluency, it can be beneficial to practise:
Word-pairs: provide a word and ask the individual
to pair it with another appropriate word.
Word associations: provide one word and ask the
individual to identify a related word or a word with
the same meaning.

For this type of intervention, ask the individual to identify

common words, word-types or categories that they
typically find difficult (the participants family may be
able to help with this also). Based on the information
provided, select relevant words for word pairing and
associations. Practising particular word associations and
word pairs may not necessarily generalise to fluency of
all speech in everyday living but can provide confidence
and practice in specific areas of difficulty.

Commonly used fluency tests (e.g. F, A, S test) e.g.

go through lists of words beginning with F, then
present a brief one minute test session. Present
repeated exposures to lists and one minute tests in
successive sessions Allow individuals to keep track
of their own scores to track any improvements or
progress.
Use repeated presentations and practice across
sessions using multiple examples.

Word Pairs

Word Associations

Letter F Fluency Test

Share ---- Knowledge

Be ---- Creative
Remain ---- Hopeful
Meet ---- Needs
Promote --- Health
Support- --- Family
Remember ---- Me
Build ---- Strength
Similar ---- To
Prepare ---- For
Take ---- Responsibility
Shine ---- Brightly
Fill ---- Up
Last ---- Night

Father ---- Dad

Son ---- Child
Mother ---- Mum
Car --- Automobile
Bicycle ---- Bike
Train ---- Bus/Transport
Cup ---- Mug
Jug ---- Pitcher
Medication ---- Tablets
Cow ---- Farm Animal
Pen ---- Pencil
Paper ---- Page
Lamp ---- Light
Couch ---- Chair

Fast
Far
Fall
Fly
Film
Fit
Full
Fried
Fling
Flick
Front
Fake
Father
Feather

TABLE 2: Examples of word pairs, word associations and

responses for the letter F fluency test

13

14

STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES FOR COGNITIVE REHABILITATION

6. Additional Support
6.1 Memory Aids

6.2 Environmental Adaptation

Providing external support in the form of compensatory

memory aids can help to reduce demands on impaired
aspects of memory, provide cognitive support, reduce
anxiety and even promote social engagement.

Adapt the environment to be more organised a place

for everything and everything in its place. Encourage the
development of habits and routines so that items are
placed only in specific locations and always placed back
there after use. For example: A key holder by the door
for all keys; a special place in each room for glasses,
wallet, phone; an in tray for bills and letters; letters to
post by the door, etc. Encourage strategic placement of
objects when out e.g. bag/ umbrella in front of you or
on your lap. This may require an object-location pairing
intervention where the object is placed in the correct
location repeatedly; use action based encoding, spaced
retrieval, mnemonics and errorless learning. Reinforce
correct placement.

Selection of aids requires careful consideration where

use of the aid is already within the behavioural repertoire,
focus should be on more regular or efficient use; while if
new learning is required, use an intervention to address
this before everyday implementation is expected. For
generalised reminders, the association with the desired
response needs to be carefully taught. Aids need to be
acceptable to the individual, accessible and easy to use.
Specific strategies to consider for training association
with memory aids include:

Action-based learning
Prompting and fading
Modelling
Errorless learning
Chaining

6.3 Relaxation
Examples include breathing techniques, progressive
or passive muscle relaxation, yoga, relaxation classes,
exercise interventions, mindfulness, etc. Discuss with
the individual and find out what relaxation method suits
them best. Provide the participant with appropriate
reading materials, information about classes and
techniques that are suited to their needs. If possible,
practise relaxation strategies with the individual during
the CR sessions.

STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES FOR COGNITIVE REHABILITATION

7. Examples of CR in Practice
Case 1:

Number & Face-Name Recall

Joe was 75 years old with early-stage Alzheimers disease. He had difficulty with remembering important
numbers like PIN codes, and the names of people from his club.
The numbers included in the intervention were Joes PIN code, house alarm code, car number-plate, and
his mobile phone number. The numbers were targeted one by one that is, the therapist only worked on
one number at a time. When it was deemed that Joe had learned that number, the therapist moved on
to the next number. First, the number was chunked together (i.e. conceptualising 3-5-6 as 356). Next the
therapist worked together with Joe on selecting a verbal mnemonic for each number (see section 5.2, page
9). Training sessions consisted of 5-10 presentations of the to-be-learned number using forward cues (see
figure 3), followed by rehearsal of the number using spaced retrieval (see section 3.3 and section 5.2) at
the time intervals of 0s, 30s, 1m, 2m, 5m, 10m. The mnemonic was practised each time the number was
correctly identified. If an incorrect or no response was given at a certain interval, the therapist told Joe
the number and the interval was repeated. If this occurred again, the interval was halved. The learning
session was complete when Joe correctly recalled the target number after 10 minutes. All learned numbers
were rehearsed once in a probe session at the end of each intervention session to ensure that previously
learned numbers were not forgotten when the new number was introduced. Note that errorless learning
was adopted throughout Joe was reminded not to guess, only say the answer if he knew it. If he did not
know, he was encouraged to either say nothing or say I dont know.
This strategy worked well for Joe, so it was adopted for the face-name recall task also. To help remember
the names of his club members, Joe and the therapist selected the five names he was most likely to forget
(Joe attended the club and brought a notebook to record the names he wanted to work on). Joe had a
picture of the club members from a recent event which was used for the intervention. Recall of the five
names was targeted using the intervention outlined in section 5.1. As above, only one name was targeted
at any given time. First, Joe spoke about the person, what he/she looked like, their personality, etc. Then
Joe identified the mnemonic for the person. In learning sessions, the name was learned using the picture
and forward cues (as in section 5.1). The name was rehearsed using spaced retrieval at the time intervals
of 0s, 30s, 1m, 2m, 5m, 10m. The mnemonic was practised each time the name was correctly identified.
If an incorrect or no response was given at a certain interval, the therapist told Joe the persons name
and the interval was repeated. If this occurred again, the interval was halved. The learning session was
complete when Joe correctly recalled the target name after 10 minutes. Only one new name was trained
per session but a probe of all names was also conducted at the end of each session (as above).

15

16

STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES FOR COGNITIVE REHABILITATION

Case 2:

Face-Name Recall & Conversational Fluency

Mary was 62 years old with younger onset dementia, and was experiencing mild impairments as a result
of her dementia. Mary wanted to improve her memory for the names of characters in the TV soaps she
watched with her husband; and her ability to remember words during conversation.
The face-name recall intervention targeted recall of 10 face-name associations of TV soap stars; and employed
direct instruction and precision teaching (see section 5.6) methodologies. Mary and her husband assisted
the therapist in identifying the 10 names they wanted to work on. During intervention sessions, photographs
of the soap stars were placed on the table one by one, and the names were identified. The therapist again
placed the pictures on the table one by one and asked Mary to relay 2-3 pieces of information about each
person tell me about him? Next, the therapist placed all pictures on the table at the same time and said
point to__ and the name of each person. This was repeated 2-3 times. All photographs were then picked
up and shuffled and placed on the table one by one for Mary to name. If the Mary did not know the name,
the therapist would name the person in the picture and chat about the person using the information
previously identified. When all the pictures were correctly named, a one minute fluency test-session was
conducted. Mary recorded her own performance at each intervention session, and noted improvements
week to week (e.g. see table 1).
Mary also had trouble with word finding during conversations. The word would usually come back to her
eventually but it bothered her that she often forgot words and she noted that her confidence was affected
when speaking to people. The therapist asked Mary to write down words she had difficulty recalling on
a week-to-week basis. During the intervention sessions, Mary and the therapist compiled a list of these
words (and similar words), and created word association lists where alternative words with the same or
similar meaning to the target word were generated. The therapist told Mary that if she could not think of
a specific word during a conversation, that perhaps she could try to think of a suitable alternative (as in the
word association lists). Mary practised rehearsing the lists between sessions. During sessions, Mary and
the therapist read over the lists together and completed one minute test sessions. In addition to the word
association lists, Mary and the therapist wrote lists of words beginning with the letters F, A, and S, and
wrote lists of animals, fruit, vegetables, etc. Mary also worked on rehearsing these lists between sessions.
Mary tracked her own progress from week to week on the one minute tests, and noted improvements.
Although the possibility for generalisation to everyday conversation was questionable, Mary reported
feeling more confident during conversations and being more determined to try harder to retrieve the
correct word or a suitable alternative. Her family also reported an improvement.

STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES FOR COGNITIVE REHABILITATION

Case 3:

Playing Bridge
John was 68 and had a diagnosis of Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI). He engaged in a range of weekly
activities including Bridge, Golf, and attending GAA games. He reported most difficulty with playing Bridge
due the number of complex rules to be remembered while playing.
To target Johns ability to play Bridge, the intervention worked on the use of memory aids, and repeated
practice of important conventions. The therapist had no prior experience of playing bridge and so asked
John if he could help her to learn. John was asked to write down the rules of bridge, along with the most
important conventions that a novice should know (John worked on compiling these with his wife between
sessions). The therapist initially targeted the rules; and then worked on approximately one convention per
session. Prior to each session the therapist flagged with John what convention would be worked on in
the next session and he was required to bring in his notes about that convention for the session. During
intervention sessions, John was asked to name the convention, talk about it, and write down the most
important points. John was then asked to help the therapist to learn the convention (using playing cards
and notes). Repeated practice was conducted throughout each session to ensure clarity on how to use
each convention, how it fit into a standard bidding system, etc. At the end of each session, the therapist
worked with John on drafting key summary points, and they tested each others knowledge by asking
questions based on the summary information. As above, an errorless learning strategy was employed, and
only one new piece of information was introduced at a time. The therapist concluded subsequent sessions
by conducting a probe of 1-2 questions on conventions targeted in prior sessions, to ensure retention of
important information. Importantly, John was encouraged to use his notes during games when he had
difficulty remembering details of a certain conventions. This way, John built up a notebook of important
rules and conventions, and could use it fluently when required. It should be noted that Bridge is very
complex. John was encouraged to focus on only the most important rules and conventions (that were
deemed manageable for his abilities). Although this would allow him to continue to play, it was
acknowledged that he may be limited in more complex playing circles.

17

18

STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES FOR COGNITIVE REHABILITATION

Case 2:

Using the Phone & Repetitive Questions

Jane was diagnosed with early stage Alzheimers disease at 75. Jane had a busy social life, as she had a
large family and a number of grandchildren. She reported difficulty with using her phone, and her family
noted that she repeatedly asked about the time, dates and appointments.
Jane was having difficulty recalling the sequence of actions required to make a phone call using her mobile
phone. The target activity was broken down into small steps (1. Unlock the phone; 2. Enter pin-code; 3.
Select contacts; 4. Scroll to the number you wish to call; 5. Press the Call Button; 6. Press the red button
to hang up). The sequence of actions was taught using backward chaining, prompting and fading (see
section 5.5). The therapist delivered verbal and gestural prompts to Jane for steps 1-6 in the chain. Prompts
were subsequently faded back for step 6. When step 6 was completed independently, prompts were faded
back for step 5, and so on until all steps in the chain could be completed independently. Action based
encoding was implemented throughout, i.e. Jane completed the activity herself at each step. As mastery
increased during intervention sessions, the therapist asked Janes family to prompt her to make phone
calls throughout the day, and also to reinforce her with extra praise and conversation if she made calls
unprompted.
A whiteboard with information about the day, date, and appointments was placed on a wall in Janes
kitchen. Jane always wore a watch but did not use it to tell the time. At random intervals during initial
intervention sessions, the therapist asked Jane either the time or about an upcoming appointment
and then immediately prompted her to check the whiteboard or her watch. Jane gladly provided the
information to the therapist, who reinforced her by saying its great that you can use that whiteboard or
if you arent sure what time it is you can always look at your watch, thats a lovely watch, etc. Prompts
were gradually faded back during subsequent sessions using a progressive time delay of 1s, 2s, 3s, 5s, 8s,
10s. In response to spontaneous questions, Jane was given a standard response check your watch/ the
whiteboard. Janes family were instructed to direct Jane to her watch/whiteboard at random intervals
throughout the day by asking her about time or appointments, and also to give the standard response
if she asked them questions. Janes husband also reminded her each night before bed to change the
information on the board so that she was responsible for managing the board, and to ensure the relevant
information was available each day.

* Note that for all CR interventions, substantial time and effort practising the intervention outside of sessions
is required by each participant, and their family/ carer. CR was most successful when the participant adopted
the strategies, practised frequently, and attempted to apply learned strategies to other areas of difficulty.

STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES FOR COGNITIVE REHABILITATION

Acknowledgements

Funding/ Permissions

Sincere thanks to Prof Linda Clare, Dr Robert Coen, Dr

Andrea Higgins, Prof Brian Lawlor, and Sheena Cadoo
for their work on proof-reading the manual and sending
suggestions; and to the individuals and their families
who participated in Cognitive Rehabilitation research
studies with Dr Kelly and Dr OSullivan.

The first author was employed by The Alzheimer Society

of Ireland and the NEIL Programme in the Trinity College
Institute of Neuroscience during the writing of this manual;
a position funded by the Department of Environment,
Community and Local Government. The publication
of the manual was possible through funding from the
Ireland Funds.

Thank you to Prof Sabina Brennan, Prof Ian Robertson

and all of the NEIL Team in the Institute of Neuroscience,
Trinity College Dublin; and to Ms Grainne McGettrick and
all of the staff at The Alzheimer Society of Ireland for the
support provided to Dr Kelly in conducting the research
and completing the manual. Thanks also to Mr John
Donoghue and his family for their kind donations
which helped to support the dissemination of this work.

All relevant third parties have been informed of, and have
given their consent to the publication of the manual.

19

20

STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES FOR COGNITIVE REHABILITATION

References

Buchanan, J.A. Christenson, A., Houlihan, D. & Ostrom, C. (2011). The role of behaviour analysis in the rehabilitation of
persons with dementia. Behavior Therapy, 42, 9-21.
Clare, L. (2008). Neuropsychological rehabilitation and people with dementia. Hove: Psychology Press.
Clare, L., Linden, D.E., Woods, R.T., Whitaker, R., Evans, S.J., Parkinson, C.H., van Paasschen, J., Nelis, S.M., Hoare, Z.,
Yuen, K.S., & Rugg, M.D. (2010). Goal-oriented cognitive rehabilitation for people with early-stage Alzheimers disease:
a single-blind randomized controlled trial of clinical efficacy. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 18, 928-939. DOI:
10.1097/JGP.0b013e3181d5792a
Clare, L. & Nelis, S. (2012). The Bangor Goal Setting Interview. Research in Ageing and Cognitive Health, Bangor
University.
Clare, L., & Wilson, B.A. (2004). Memory rehabilitation for people with early-stage dementia: a single case comparison
of four errorless learning methods. Zeitschrift fr Gerontopsychologie und psychiatrie, 17, 109-117. DOI: 10.1024/10116877.17.2.109
Clare, L., Wilson, B. A., Breen, K. & Hodges, J. H. (1999): Errorless learning of face-name associations in early
Alzheimers disease. Neurocase: The Neural Basis of Cognition, 5 (1), 37-46.
Clare, L., Wilson, B.A., Carter, G. & Hodges, J.R. (2003). Cognitive rehabilitation as a component of early intervention
in Alzheimers disease. Aging and Mental Health, 7, 15-21.
Dunn, J. & Clare, L. (2007). Learning face-name associations in early stage dementia: Comparing the effects of
errorless learning and effortful processing. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 17, 735-754.
Graham, K. S., Patterson, K., Pratt, K. H. & Hodges, J. R. (2001). Can repeated exposure to forgotten vocabulary
help alleviate difficulties in semantic dementia? An illustrative case study. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation: An
International Journal, 11, 429-454.
Kubina, R. M., & Wolfe, P. (2005). Potential applications of behavioral fluency for students with autism. Exceptionality:
A Special Education Journal, 13, 3544.
Law, M., Baptiste, S., Carswell, A., McColl, M. A., Polatajko, H. & Pollock, N. (2005). Canadian Occupation
Performance Measure (4th Ed.). Ottawa, ON: CAOT Publications ACE.
Lindsley, Ogden R. (1991). Precision teachings unique legacy from B. F. Skinner.Journal of Behavioral Education, 1 (2),
253266.doi:10.1007/bf00957007.
Reilly, J., Martin, N. & Grossman, M. (2005). Verbal learning in semantic dementia: Is repetition priming a useful
strategy? Aphasiology, 19, 329-339.
Savage, S. A., Ballard, K. J., Piguet, O. & Hodges, J.R. (2013). Bringing words back to mind: Improving word production
in semantic dementia. Cortex, 49 (7), 1823-32.
Snowden, J. & Neary. D. S. (2002). Relearning of verbal labels in semantic dementia. Neuropsychologica, 40, 1715-1728.