Thesis Haichun Configuratia Electronica Tabel

Advancing upconversion
emissions for biomedical imaging

Haichun Liu
Doctoral Thesis
2014
Advancing upconversion emissions for biomedical imaging
2014 Haichun Liu
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Printed in Sweden by Media-Tryck, Lund, 2014
Division of Atomic Physics
Department of Physics
Faculty of Engineering, LTH
Lund University
P.O. Box 118
SE221 00 Lund
Sweden
http://www.atomic.physics.lu.se
ISSN 0281-2762
Lund Reports on Atomic Physics, LRAP-484
ISBN: 978-91-7473-880-3
To my father
Abstract
During the past decade, upconverting nanoparticles (UCNPs)
doped with rare earth ions have become an important class of
fluorescence contrast agents for molecular imaging, due to their
unique properties. Their property of anti-Stokes luminescence,
with both the excitation and emission wavelengths close to the
optimal for biomedical imaging, has been extensively explored in
various biomedical applications. The work described in this thesis
is mainly concerned with the investigation of other unique properties of UCNPs, including nonlinearity and saturation, to improve
fluorescence diffuse imaging and tomography. The aim of this work
was also to develop a suitable method of characterizing the powerdensity-dependent quantum yield of UCNPs, and to optimize the
excitation scheme in order to facilitate their use in deep tissues.
Upconversion emission has a nonlinear dependence on the excitation intensity. This nonlinearity was exploited to improve the
image reconstruction quality in fluorescence diffuse optical tomography, by increasing the orthogonal information density through simultaneous multibeam excitation. It is also demonstrated that the
use of nonlinear UCNPs as contrast agents in fluorescence tomography can breach the current limit on spatial resolution encountered
when using linear fluorophores. UCNPs can emit multiple emission
bands with large differences in tissue attenuation under excitation
of near-infrared light. Such multispectral information was used to
create a regularization map to guide fluorescence diffuse optical
tomography, which yielded significantly better axial resolution in
the reconstructed images than using standard Tikhonov regularization.
The quantum yield of upconversion emission increases with excitation intensity and gradually reaches a plateau. In this work, an
initial model was developed to describe the quantum yield of twophoton upconversion emission as a function of the excitation intensity, based on rate equation analysis. A balancing power density
was identified, which characterizes the excitation-intensity dependence of the quantum yield. At such a power density, the quantum
yield reaches half the maximum attainable value, occurring at very
v
Abstract
high excitation intensities when UCNPs are saturated. Pulsed excitation is proposed as a superior mode of excitation to continuous
wave excitation, due to the potential of achieving higher intrinsic
quantum yields from UNCPs without increasing the average excitation power. This will fundamentally increase the applicability of
UCNPs in deep tissues.
vi
Popular science description

Have you ever thought about what healthcare could be like in the
future, or in other words, how medical treatment will develop? As
non-invasive diagnostics and treatment are the ultimate goal of
many scientists and engineers, fluorescence-based biomedical techniques could be expected to occupy an important place in future
medical techniques. Imagine how wonderful it would be, if you
could just illuminate the body with light, allowing lesions in deep
tissues to be located and cured. Such a scenario has only seemed
possible in the movies until now, but will in all probability be
possible in the future.
Fluorescence-based techniques, such as fluorescence imaging
and photodynamic therapy, have shown great promise in various
biomedical applications. The physical basis of such techniques is
the fluorescent properties of different molecules that either constitute the building blocks of living organisms or are externally
introduced luminescent biomarkers. If the molecules embedded in
tissues are regarded as microscopic lamps, they could be switched
on remotely by laser radiation, and then emit fluorescent light
with a molecule-dependent color, or wavelength. Lesions such as
tumors have different molecular compositions from healthy tissue,
sometimes containing disease-related biomolecules. These microscopic lamps could be used to visualize the lesion by the detection
of fluorescent light of different wavelengths.
In techniques based on fluorescence, the introduction of exogenous luminescent molecules or phosphors is often necessary to
improve the visualization of the lesion, as endogenous molecules
generally exhibit poorer spectroscopic characteristics, making the
distinction between diseased tissue and healthy tissue difficult. Another advantage of introducing external luminescent biomarkers is
that they could be used as drug carriers, as the fluorescent light
that they emit could be used to control the release of drugs. These
luminescent biomarkers must be surface modified and functionalized, for example, by coating with specific antibodies, so that they
target the lesion. Common luminescent biomarkers include fluorescent dyes and semiconductor quantum dots.
vii
Abstract
Upconverting nanoparticles (UCNPs) composed of rare earth

ions doped in an inorganic host material are an emerging group of
luminescent biomarkers with excellent spectroscopic and physicochemical properties. Such nanolamps can be lit up, or excited,
by near-infrared light, and will then emit visible or near-infrared
light with a wavelength shorter than the excitation wavelength.
Since the fluorescent light originating from the labeled biological
tissues, called autofluorescence, usually has a longer wavelength
than the excitation light, the unique spectroscopic properties of
UCNPs can be used to avoid the overlap of the fluorescence spectra of the biomarkers with the autofluorescence. This would enable autofluorescence-free optical imaging with very high sensitivity and contrast. In addition, research has shown that UCNPmediated fluorescence imaging has much higher spatial resolution
than that possible with conventional luminescent biomarkers such
as fluorescent dyes, thanks to the nonlinear power dependence of
UCNPs. Besides their use as fluorescent contrast agents, UCNPs can also be incorporated into photo-responsive compounds
that contain bio-functional molecules, and the ultraviolet or visible emission induced by near-infrared excitation can be used to
control the release of those biomolecules.
Upconverting nanoparticles have been used in numerous preclinical biomedical applications, including microscopy, diffuse
imaging and tomography, photodynamic therapy and photoactivation. However, the low luminescence quantum efficiency of UCNPs, especially at the low excitation fluence rate that is typical in
deep biological tissues, prevent their successful application in clinical settings. A large part of the work presented in this thesis has
been devoted to developing a convenient method to characterize
the quantum efficiency of UCNPs, with strong dependence on the
excitation intensity, in a reproducible way, and exploring ways of
using UCNPs in deep tissues by adjusting the fashion in which the
excitation light is delivered.
viii
List of Publications
This thesis is based on the following papers, which will be referred
to in the text by their Roman numerals.
I Drug quantification in turbid media by fluorescence
imaging combined with light-absorption correction
using white Monte Carlo simulation
H. Xie, H. Liu, P. Svenmarker, J. Axelsson, C. T. Xu,
S. Gr
afe, J. H. Lundeman, H. P. H. Cheng, S. Svanberg,
N. Bendsoe, P. E. Andersen, K. Svanberg,
S. Andersson-Engels.
Journal of Biomedical Optics 16(6), 066002-1 - 066002-11
(2011).
II Synthesis of NaYF4 :Yb3+ , Er3+ upconverting
nanocrystals in a capillary-based continuous
microfluidic reaction system
H. Liu, O. Jakobsson, C. T. Xu, H. Xie, T. Laurell,
Proc. of SPIE 7909, 790917-1 - 790917-6 (2011).
III Upconverting nanoparticles for pre-clinical diffuse
optical imaging, microscopy and sensing: Current
trends and future challenges
C. T. Xu, Q. Zhan, H. Liu, G. Somesfalean, J. Qian, S. He,
Laser & Photonics Reviews 7(5), 663-697 (2013).
IV Balancing power density based quantum yield
characterization of upconverting nanoparticles for
arbitrary excitation intensities
H. Liu, C. T. Xu, D. Lindgren, H. Xie, D. Thomas,
C. Gundlach, S. Andersson-Engels.
Nanoscale 5, 4770-4775 (2013).
ix
V Deep tissue optical imaging of upconverting

nanoparticles enabled by exploiting higher intrinsic
quantum yield through use of millisecond single
pulse excitation with high peak power
H. Liu, C. T. Xu, G. Dumlupinar, O. B. Jensen,
P. E. Andersen, S. Andersson-Engels.
Nanoscale 5, 10034-10040 (2013).
VI Autofluorescence insensitive imaging using
upconverting nanoparticles in scattering media
C. T. Xu, N. Svensson, J. Axelsson, P. Svenmarker,
G. Somesfalean, G. Chen, H. Liang, H. Liu, Z. Zhang,
Applied Physics Letters 93(17), 171103-1 - 171103-3
(2008).
VII High-resolution fluorescence diffuse optical
tomography developed with nonlinear upconverting
nanoparticles
C. T. Xu, P. Svenmarker, H. Liu, X. Wu, M. E. Messing,
L. R. Wallenberg, S. Andersson-Engels.
ACS Nano 6(6), 4788-4795 (2012).
VIII Multibeam fluorescence diffuse optical tomography
using upconverting nanoparticles
H. Liu, C. T. Xu, S. Andersson-Engels.
Optics Letters 35(5), 718-720 (2010).
IX Multispectral guided fluorescence diffuse optical
tomography using upconverting nanoparticles
P. Svenmarker, C. T. Xu, H. Liu, X. Wu,
(2013) Accepted for publication by Applied Physics Letters.
Related publications not included in this thesis:

Upconversion emission tuning from green to red in
Yb3+ /Ho3+ -codoped NaYF4 nanocrystals by
tridoping with Ce3+ ions
G. Chen, H. Liu, G. Somesfalean, H. Liang, Z. Zhang.
Nanotechnology 20, 385704 (6pp) (2009).
Near vacuum ultraviolet luminescence of Gd3+ and
Er3+ ions generated by super saturation
upconversion processes
G. Chen, H. Liang, H. Liu, G. Somesfalean, Z. Zhang.
Optics Express 17(19), 16366-16371 (2009).
Anomalous power dependence of upconversion
emissions in Gd2 O3 :Er3+ nanocrystals under diode
laser excitation of 970 nm
G. Chen, H. Liang, H. Liu, G. Somesfalean, Z. Zhang.
Journal of Applied Physics 105, 114315-1 - 114315-5
(2009).
xi
Abbreviations
CT
computed tomography
CW
continuous wave
ED
electric dipole
ESA
excited state absorption
ETU
energy transfer upconversion
FDOT
fluorescence diffuse optical tomography
MC
Monte Carlo
MPE
maximum permissible exposure
MRI
magnetic resonance imaging
NIR
near-infrared
QY
quantum yield
RE
rare earth
RTE
radiative transport equation
TTA
triplet-triplet annihilation
UCNP
upconverting nanoparticle
xiii
Contents
1
Introduction
1.1
Nonlinearity and quantum yield characterization of upconverting nanoparticles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
Excitation scheme optimization of upconverting nanoparticles
1.3
Aims and outline of this thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Light-tissue interactions and photon migration theory

2.1
Light-tissue interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1
Tissue scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2
Tissue absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3
Luminescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2
Radiative transport theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3
Diffusion theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4
Monte Carlo simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.1
Simulation of light-tissue interactions . . . . . . . . .
2.4.2
Time-resolved, fluorescence, and white Monte Carlo
simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
7
7
10
12
13
15
18
19
Upconverting nanoparticles
3.1
Rare-earth luminescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1
Spectroscopic properties of rare earths in solids .
3.1.2
Upconversion mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.3
Efficient upconversion systems . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2
Material engineering of upconverting nanoparticles . . . .
3.2.1
Size and morphology control . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2
Luminescence enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.3
Excitation and emission wavelength optimization
3.2.4
Biocompatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.5
Multi-functionalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3
Biomedical applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1
Toxicity assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.2
Promising applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Quantum yield characterization and excitation scheme optimization for upconverting nanoparticles
4.1
Quantum yield characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1
Definition of the quantum yield . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.2
Power-density dependence of the quantum yield . . .
4.1.3
Two-parameter characterization . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.4
Experimental measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.5
Extension to triplet-triplet annihilation upconversion
4.2
Excitation scheme optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1
Pulsed excitation for higher quantum yield . . . . . .
4.2.2
Low light limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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20
Contents
4.2.3
4.2.4
5
ANSI standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Single-shot imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fluorescence diffuse optical tomography based on upconverting nanoparticles

5.1
The inverse problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.1
Measurables, excitation schemes and imaging geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.2
The theoretical scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.3
The sensitivity matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.4
Regularization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2
High-resolution fluorescence diffuse optical tomography using
upconverting nanoparticles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.1
Nanoparticles used in this work . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.2
Selective excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.3
Crosstalk between multiple excitation sources . . . .
5.2.4
Multispectral regularization . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.5
Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
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61
62
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Comments on the Papers
67
Acknowledgements
73
References
77
Contents
Papers
I
Drug quantification in turbid media by fluorescence

imaging combined with light-absorption correction using
white Monte Carlo simulation
105
Synthesis of NaYF4 :Yb3+ , Er3+ upconverting nanocrystals in a capillary-based continuous microfluidic reaction
system
119
Upconverting nanoparticles for pre-clinical diffuse optical imaging, microscopy and sensing: Current trends and
future challenges
127
Balancing power density based quantum yield characterization of upconverting nanoparticles for arbitrary excitation intensities
165
Deep tissue optical imaging of upconverting nanoparticles enabled by exploiting higher intrinsic quantum yield
through use of millisecond single pulse excitation with
high peak power
173
Autofluorescence insensitive imaging using upconverting

nanoparticles in scattering media
183
High-resolution fluorescence diffuse optical tomography

developed with nonlinear upconverting nanoparticles
189
VIII Multibeam fluorescence diffuse optical tomography using

upconverting nanoparticles
199
II
III
IV
VI
VII
IX
Multispectral guided fluorescence diffuse optical tomography using upconverting nanoparticles
205
Chapter
Introduction
Molecular imaging is a rapidly developing biomedical research discipline, the aim of which is the early detection of diseases via visual
representation, characterization, and quantification of physiology
and molecular signaling at the cellular and subcellular levels within
intact living organisms [1, 2]. It has now become an indispensable
tool, particularly in cancer research, clinical trials and medical
practice. Among these techniques, fluorescence imaging has become one of the most commonly used modalities, due to its ability
to visualize, for example, gene delivery [3], angiogenesis [4], and
apoptosis [5, 6], together with its simplicity and cost-effectiveness.
In fluorescence molecular imaging, contrast agents are of essential importance, as they are the final reporters of the biological
processes being probed. These can be either natural chromophores
in the body, or externally introduced fluorophores with the desired
spectroscopic properties. The latter are particularly widely employed, as they provide a large degree of freedom in tuning the fluorescence pathways in the way people expect. The most commonly
investigated and applied exogenous contrast agents include fluorescent dyes (e.g. indocyanine green and Cy5.5) [6, 7], fluorescent proteins [4, 8, 9], and semiconductor quantum dots [1017]. Despite
considerable success, the use of these fluorophores is limited in
fluorescence molecular imaging techniques by problems associated
with tissue autofluorescence, poor spatial resolution and limited
light penetration, making it difficult to image deeply located regions with high sensitivity [18]. Furthermore, photobleaching of
traditionally used organic fluorophores limits the possibility of the
repeated imaging required in longitudinal studies.
An emerging group of contrast agents - upconverting nanoparticles (UCNPs) have the potential to overcome the limitations discussed above due to their unique properties. UCNPs are nanosized inorganic crystals, doped with certain trivalent rare earth
(RE) ions that act as sensitizers and activators [19]. The most no1
1.1 Nonlinearity and quantum yield characterization of upconverting nanoparticles
table sensitizer-activator pairs include Yb3+ /Er3+ , Yb3+ /Tm3+

and Yb3+ /Ho3+ . Yb3+ /Tm3+ -codoped UCNPs can be excited
by laser light of about 980 nm, and emit light at 800 nm. Both
these wavelengths are close to the optimal for in vivo imaging in
biological tissues, ensuring adequate imaging depths. In addition,
imaging with UCNPs is background-free, without influence from
tissue autofluorescence, due to the large anti-Stokes shift of the upconverted photoluminescence signal [20, 21], making it possible to
detect very weak signals. Today, functional UCNPs with designed
optical and physicochemical properties have become an important
group of fluorescent contrast agents especially for preclinical studies in diffuse optical imaging, microscopy and bioassays [22, 23].
Although the quasi-optimal luminescent pathway and anti-Stokes
shifted property have been studied and applied extensively, the
potential advantage of the nonlinearity of UCNPs has been less
exploited in fluorescence molecular imaging. As demonstrated by
Svenmarker et al. [24], UCNP imaging provides improved spatial
resolution in the recorded images, due to the nonlinear relation
between the emitted signal and excitation power. Furthermore,
few studies have been carried out on the optimization of the excitation scheme for UCNPs. Since the discovery of upconversion
phenomena, continuous wave (CW) light sources have been used
for pumping upconverting materials. However, the study in this
thesis shows that pulsed excitation constitutes a superior excitation approach for UCNPs in biomedical applications.
The work described in this thesis has contributed to the characterization of the nonlinearity and the induced power-densitydependent quantum yield of UCNPs, and exploits such properties
to achieve better-quality fluorescence imaging with high spatial
resolution. The optimization of the excitation scheme for UCNPs
is discussed, with regard to fluorescence1 imaging in deep tissues.
This chapter provides a brief introduction to these two central
points. In addition, an outline and the aims of the work presented
in this thesis are presented.
1.1
Nonlinearity and quantum yield

characterization of upconverting
nanoparticles
Upconversion emission is generated by accumulating the energy

of more than one excitation photon via sequential energy transfer between dopant ions, and thus the emission intensity exhibits a
nonlinear dependence on the excitation power. This is of benefit in
1 Strictly speaking, upconversion emission should be named using a more
general term - luminescence. However, in order to stress the similarities to
conventional fluorescence imaging, the term fluorescence is adopted for UCNP
imaging and tomography throughout this thesis.
Introduction
both fluorescence imaging and tomography, providing higher spatial resolution than conventional linear fluorescent contrast agents
such as dyes and quantum dots. In addition, the nonlinear fluorophores being probed in fluorescence diffuse optical tomography
(FDOT) using UCNPs as contrast agents could make different excitation beams interfere with each other, thus providing additional information useful for image reconstruction. Such additional
information is contained in the difference between the fluorescence
images collected when using the individual excitation beams and
that obtained with simultaneous, multiple excitation beams.
In contrast to other multi-photon processes, which are instantaneous, such as second-harmonic generation and two-photon fluorescence, the upconversion process is relatively slow, as it involves
real intermediate energy states. These intermediate levels may become saturated at high excitation intensities, leading to a less steep
excitation-power-density dependence of the fluorescence intensity.
Due to the nonlinearity of UCNPs, exhibiting saturation, their
quantum yield, which is defined as the ratio between the number of excitation photons and the number of emission photons,
increases with excitation intensity, finally approaching a constant
value [25]. Characterization of such a dependence on the excitation intensity of upconversion emission is important in guiding the
practical use of UCNPs in biomedical applications. In addition, it
could potentially provide standard indices for characterizing UCNPs with respect to energy conversion, whereas at present, local
references are employed in different labs.
1.2
Excitation scheme optimization of

A major limitation of the use of UCNPs in biological applications

is their relatively low quantum yield, especially under low excitation intensities. This limitation is particularly severe when UCNPs are used in deep tissues, as the excitation light is significantly
attenuated due to tissue absorption and scattering. Besides fundamentally improving the luminescence efficiency of UCNPs by
means of material engineering, the low light limit, and thus small
applicable depth, of UCNP imaging could be partly overcome by
employing pulsed excitation.
Similar to two-photon fluorescence microscopy, pulsed excitation would provide high photon density during the pulse, thus
enabling a high quantum yield of upconversion emission, while the
average power (responsible for tissue heating) remains moderate.
In this way, the upconversion signal could be enhanced without
raising concerns regarding side effects and laser safety. The pulsed
laser excitation has the potential to fundamentally broaden the
applicability of UCNPs in deep tissue regions relying on diffuse
1.3 Aims and outline of this thesis
light excitation. Until now, the advantages of pulsed excitation

have generally been ignored in the literature, although numerous
studies have been conducted using pulsed laser sources for pumping upconverting materials, e.g., femtosecond pulses [2628] and
microsecond pulses [29, 30]. Gainer et al., for example, investigated the use of pulsed excitation to control the color of upconversion emission by varying the repetition rate of the excitation laser
[29, 31].
1.3
Aims and outline of this thesis
The general aims of the work presented in this thesis were:

(i) to improve the overall quality of fluorescence imaging and
tomography of fluorescent agents for biomedical applications,
(ii) to develop standard indices for characterizing the quantum
yield of UCNPs, and
(iii) to facilitate the use of UCNPs in deep tissues.
The general outline of the thesis is as follows.
Chapter 2 describes the light-tissue interactions when light
propagates through biological media, including scattering, absorption and luminescence. In addition, an overview of the physical
models used to describe light propagation in turbid media is
provided, including the radiative transport equation, the diffusion
approximation, and Monte Carlo simulations. In Paper I, timeresolved white Monte Carlo simulation was used to correct for
the influence of tissue absorption in fluorescence imaging, with
the aim of achieving quantitative evaluation of the photosensitizer.
Chapter 3 provides an overview of UCNPs. The property
of luminescence, including upconversion processes of rare earth
ions doped in solids, is described. The material engineering
of UCNPs, from their synthesis, to surface modification and
functionalization, is discussed. Microfluidic synthesis of UCNPs
is proposed in Paper II. Finally, the assessment of toxicity and
biomedical applications of UCNPs are discussed. In Paper III,
a review of the current state of the art of UCNPs and their
applications in diffuse imaging, microscopy and bioassays is given.
Chapter 4 focuses on the quantum yield characterization
and excitation scheme optimization of UCNPs. A two-parameter
method for quantum yield characterization of UCNPs is discussed,
based on the existence of the balancing power density, which
reflects the dependence of quantum yield on the excitation
intensity (Paper IV). The advantages of pulsed excitation over
4
Introduction
CW excitation are demonstrated experimentally in Paper V,

together with numerical simulations considering the excitation
dynamics of upconversion emissions. It is shown that the use of
pulsed excitation, including strong single-pulse excitation, can
increase the applicability of UCNPs in deep tissues by employing
higher intrinsic quantum yield.
Chapter 5 presents FDOT in scattering media using UCNPs as contrast agents. In Paper VI, it is demonstrated that
autofluorescence-free imaging can be achieved using UCNPs. The
nonlinearity of UCNPs proved to be a useful property for FDOT.
In Paper VII, this property is exploited to breach the present
resolution limit in fluorescence tomography. In Paper VIII, the
nonlinearity is exploited to increase the orthogonal information
density for image reconstructions. In addition, multicolor upconversion emissions were used to guide FDOT, as described in
Paper IX.
Chapter
Light-tissue interactions and

photon migration theory
Photonics-based techniques have been attracting increasing interest in clinical diagnosis and therapy, largely because they are noninvasive and cost-effective. A good understanding of how light
interacts with biological tissues is the basis for the success of such
techniques. This chapter starts with a discussion of the underlying physics of basic light-tissue interactions, including light scattering, light absorption and luminescence. This is followed by the
introduction and discussion of the most commonly used models
for describing light propagation in tissues, which are necessary for
quantitative and controllable optical diagnosis and therapy.
2.1
2.1.1
Light-tissue interactions
Tissue scattering
Light is scattered, i.e., being forced to deviate from a straight

trajectory to travel in all directions, when it encounters inhomogeneities in the medium through which it is propagating. From a
classical electromagnetic point of view, the inhomogeneity, usually
called the scatterer, consists of a collection of elementary charges,
while the light beam is an oscillating electromagnetic wave. The
charges will be excited by the incident wave causing them to oscillate, and thereby radiate secondary electromagnetic waves. The
superposition of the secondary waves gives the total scattered field.
Scattering can be either elastic, for example, Rayleigh [32] and
Mie scattering [33], or inelastic, such as Raman [34] and Brillouin
scattering [35, 36], depending on whether the energy, and thus
the wavelength is conserved in the scattering process. Theoretically, calculating the scattered field by superposing all the sec-
2.1.1 Tissue scattering
ondary waves is impracticable, due to the extremely large number

of elementary charges forming the scatterers. Depending on the
number density of the scatterers, two different regimes exist, i.e.
single scattering and multiple scattering, and different calculation
approaches can be applied.
Single-particle scattering
In the modern theory of electromagnetic scattering by a single
small particle, the large collection of charges forming the particle is treated as a macroscopic body with a specific refractive
index distribution, and the scattered field is computed by solving the Maxwells equations for the macroscopic electromagnetic
field subject to appropriate boundary conditions. The size and
shape of the particle are of fundamental importance in determining the scattered field, as they influence the phase differences, and
thus the superposition of the secondary waves. Rayleigh treated
the scattering problem involving scatterers much smaller than the
wavelength of incident light in 1871 [32, 37], and was the first to
explain the blue color of the sky. Mie investigated scattering by
spherical particles of different sizes using Maxwells theory in 1908
[33].
Generally, scattering by a single particle can be characterized
by two parameters: the integral scattering cross-section, sca [cm2 ],
and the scattering phase function, p(s0 , s), where s0 and s denote
the directions of propagation of the incident wave and the scattered wave, respectively. sca describes the strength or probability
of scattering. For Rayleigh scattering, sca depends on the wavelength, [nm], according to:
Ray
sca
4 .
(2.1)
As for Mie scattering, the wavelength dependence of the scattering

cross-section can be also approximated by a power law:
Mie
sca
ab .
(2.2)
Here, the coefficient a is related to the number density of the scatterers, and b to the size of the scatterer.
The scattering phase function, p(s0 , s), describes the normalized angular distribution of the power of the scattered field, fulfilling the expression:
Z
p(s0 , s)d 0 = 1.
(2.3)
4
The phase function is usually assumed to depend only on the deflection angle , and not on the azimuthal angle , yielding:
p(s0 , s) p(s0 s) = p(cos ).
8
(2.4)
10
10
p()
In the case of Rayleigh scattering, the phase function is isotropic,

while for Mie scattering, it typically exhibits dominant forward
scattering, as shown in Figure 2.1. The exact shape of Mie scattering phase function depends on the size and refractive index of
the spherical scatterer. The multiple side lobes in the phase function are due to interference effects. In addition, the phase function
is also dependent on the wavelength, as can be seen in the same
figure.
650 nm
800 nm
975 nm
10
10
180
90
Multiple scattering
For a collection of scatterers, each scatterer will contribute to the
final scattered light field. If the number density of scatterers, Nsca
[cm3 ], is small, the contribution of each scatterer can be regarded
as linearly independent, and thus the scattering property of the
medium can be characterized by a scattering coefficient, s [cm1 ]:
s = Nsca sca ,
0
[]
90
180
Figure 2.1. Mie scattering phase

functions for dielectric spherical
scatterers with a diameter of 1
m and refractive index of 1.5, at
three different wavelengths. Data
from the Mie calculator [38].
(2.5)
2
10
p(cos ) =
1
1 g2
.
4 (1 + g 2 2g cos )3/2
g=0.9
g=0.75
g=0
10
p()
which describes the scattering probability per unit length.

In a turbid medium such as tissue, where scatterers with different sizes, shapes, refractive indices and orientation are densely
packed, and sometimes also moving randomly, the treatment of
multiple scattering is not trivial in the framework of electromagnetic wave propagation. Therefore, a statistic description of the
scattering medium is generally employed instead. In this case, the
scattering material is described using an average scattering coefficient (s ), together with an average angular distribution function,
i.e., the scattering phase function (p(cos )). s is still the probability of scattering per unit length, and its reciprocal, usually called
the mean free path, characterizes the average distance between two
adjacent scattering events. The so-called Henyey-Greenstein phase
function is commonly adopted to describe the angular distribution
of the scattered light by tissues [3941], and has the form:
10
10
10
10
180
90
0
[]
90
180
Figure 2.2. Henyey-Greenstein

scattering phase function for
g = 0.9, g = 0.75, and g = 0.
Biological tissues usually exhibit
forward scattering, typically with
g > 0.8.
(2.6)
Here, g is the anisotropy factor, defined as the average of the cosine

of the scattering angle, which characterizes the directionality of
the scattered light. The Henyey-Greenstein phase function for
different anisotropy factors is illustrated in Figure 2.2.
The so-called reduced scattering coefficient, 0s [cm1 ], is usually introduced to describe light scattering solely, which is defined
by:
0s = (1 g)s ,
(2.7)
The wavelength dependence of the scattering parameters of scattering media is related to the sizes of the scatterers. Generally,
the scattering coefficient and the phase function exhibit a complex
9
2.1.2 Tissue absorption
dependence on the wavelength. However, the reduced scattering

coefficient can be well approximated as a function of wavelength by
a power law, in a similar way to that specified in Equation (2.2)
[42, 43]. Alternatively, the reduced scattering coefficient can be
described as a sum of the Mie-scattering and Rayleigh-scattering
contributions with different weights [44], i.e.:

0s = a0 fRay 4 + (1 fRay )bMie ,
(2.8)
where a0 is a scaling factor, fRay is the fraction of Rayleigh scattering, (1 fRay ) is the fraction of Mie scattering, and bMie is the
scattering power of Mie scattering.
2.1.2
Tissue absorption
In addition to scattering, another important process may occur

when light encounters an object, i.e., absorption. Light absorption can be well described using quantum mechanics. In such
a framework, the object, consisting of a collection of atoms or
molecules, can be quantized into discrete energy states, and the
light can be quantized as photons with energies characterized by
the frequency of the electromagnetic wave. When the energy of the
photon matches the energy difference between two different energy
states of the object, there is a probability of light absorption.
Absorption by a single absorber can be described by the absorption cross-section, abs [cm2 ]. A medium is normally composed of numerous absorbers. Hence, the absorption properties
of the medium can be described by the absorption coefficient, a
[cm1 ], taking into account the contributions of all the absorbers:
a = Nabs abs ,
(2.9)
where Nabs [cm3 ] denotes the number density of the absorbers.

The absorption coefficient describes the absorption probability per
unit optical path length. Absorption causes energy loss of the
incident beam. In Equation (2.9), the absorbers are considered
to be identical, and thus have the same absorption cross-section.
Tissues contains many different absorbers (or chromophores), including oxygenated (HbO2 ) and deoxygenated hemoglobin (Hb)
[45, 46], water [47, 48], lipids [49] and melanin [5052]. The absorption coefficient of the medium is thus the sum of the contributions from all the absorbing chromophores, with their different
absorption properties. For convenience, the absorption coefficient
is usually described using the concentrations Ci [M], and extinction
coefficients i [cm1 M1 ], of different chromophores [44], instead
of using number densities and absorption cross-sections, yielding:
X
a =
Ci i .
(2.10)
i
10
10
sum
H2O
10
Hb
HbO2
10
a (cm1)
10
lipid
10
10
10
10
300
400
500
600
700
800
Wavelengthp(nm)
900
1000
Figure 2.3. Absorption coefficients for the main absorbing chromophores in biological tissues and the corresponding synthetic absorption coefficient. The absorption coefficients were calculated using 70 %
water [53], 3 % blood volume fraction with 60 % oxygen saturation [54],
and 15 % lipids [55].
Figure 2.3 shows the absorption spectra of a few chromophores

found in tissue. Tissue has a relatively low light absorption in
the spectral range of 600-1000 nm, and thus light of these wavelength can propagate to depths of millimeters to centimeters. This
spectral range is called the tissue optical window.
Absorption causes energy loss of the incident beam, and the
loss of light intensity after traveling an infinitesimal distance, dL,
can be described as:
dI = a IdL.
(2.11)
This leads to the famous Beer-Lambert law, describing the transmitted light intensity after traveling through a homogeneous nonscattering, but absorbing medium [56]:
I = I0 exp(a d),
(2.12)
where I [Wcm2 ] is the transmitted intensity, I0 [Wcm2 ] is the

incident intensity, and d [cm] is the thickness of the medium. In
highly scattering media such as biological tissue, the Beer-Lambert
law can be applied with modifications accounting for the distribution of the optical path lengths [57, 58]. A modified Beer-Lambert
law was used in Paper I.
11
2.1.3 Luminescence
S2
IC
ISC
S1
Fluorescence
Absorption
T1
en
ph
os
Ph
sc
re
ce
S0
Ground state
Figure 2.4. Schematic Jablonski diagram depicting the luminescence

process. Sn (n=0, 1, 2) denote singlet states, and T1 is a triplet state.
ICinternal conversion. ISCintersystem crossing.
2.1.3
Luminescence
After the energy of the light has been absorbed by the chromophores, one portion of the absorbed energy is generally dissipated nonradiatively within the chromophores through the
medium, finally resulting in heat. The other portion of the absorbed energy is emitted as light or luminescence. This luminescence may be named differently depending on the mechanisms involved, sometimes even for the same chromophore. For instance,
the transition between singlet states in molecules yields fluorescence, which has a lifetime typically on the order of nanoseconds.
The transition between an excited triplet state and a lower-lying
singlet state generates phosphorescence, with much longer lifetimes
than fluorescence due to the violation of the transition selection
rule. A Jablonski diagram illustrating the processes of light absorption and luminescence is shown in Figure 2.4. A chromophore
that can generate luminescence upon excitation is usually called
as a fluorophore.
Compared with light absorption and scattering, luminescence can provide structural and functional information on tissues with much higher spatial resolution, sometimes even at
the single molecule level. Hence, the luminescence from endogenous and exogenous fluorophores is used extensively in various biomedical applications based on optical techniques. Endogenous fluorophores that exist naturally in biological tissues
include reduced nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide and reduced
nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate [59, 60], flavin adenine dinucleotide [61], collagen and elastin [62, 63], lipopigments
[61, 64], amino acids and porphyrins. Exogenous fluorophores
12
are introduced into living organisms using biotechniques, and include, for example, fluorescent dyes [7, 65], fluorescent proteins
[4, 9, 66, 67] and semiconductor quantum dots [68, 69]. In the
present work, RE-ion-doped inorganic UCNPs were mainly utilized
as exogenous luminescent biomarkers in various biomedical applications, including fluorescence diffuse optical imaging and FDOT.
The UCNPs will be introduced in detail in Chapter 3, and their
optical properties and applications are presented in Chapters 4
and 5.
2.2
S
iii)
V
i)
ii)
iv)
i)
v)
Radiative transport theory
A central issue in tissue optics is the modeling of the propagation

of light in a medium with known absorption and scattering properties. This is the prerequisite for quantitative light diagnostics
and therapy. As discussed previously, due to the generally high
scattering of light in tissue, light propagation modeling by solving
Maxwells equation is impracticable from an electromagnetic wave
point of view. Instead, radiative transport theory is employed, in
which light is treated as a flow of neutral particles, ignoring its
wave properties. This concept was borrowed from studies within
the field of radiation transfer [7072], neutron transport [73], and
the diffusion of charged particles [74]. Early works include those
by Longini et al. [75], Reynolds et al. [76], and Ishimaru et al.
[77].
Transport theory depends on an important quantity, namely
the photon distribution function, N (r, s, t) [m3 sr1 ], which defines the number of photons per unit volume per steradian traveling in direction s at a given position, r, and time, t. The radiative
transport equation (RTE) is constructed heuristically by considering the conservation of energy or photons in any direction, s, inside
a small volume, V , with boundary, S, taking into account the effects of tissue absorption and scattering, and the photon source,
as illustrated in Figure 2.5. This yields:
Z
Z
Z
Z
N
dA ca N dV cs N dV
dV = cNs n
t
V
S
V
V
|
{z
} |
{z
} |
{z
}
+
i)
cs
ii)
p(s0 , s)N (s0 )d 0 dV +

{z
iv)
Figure 2.5. Events considered in

the derivation of the RTE. i)
Photon transfer across the
boundary. ii) Photon loss due to
absorption. iii) Photon loss due to
scattering. iv) Photon scattering
in the
s direction from all other
directions. v) Photons generated
by the source.
iii)
qdV ,
(2.13)
| {z }
v)
where c [ms1 ] is the speed of light in the medium, and q(r, s, t)

[m3 s1 sr1 ] is a source term defining the production of photons per
unit volume, per steradian at time t and position r. Arguments for
different quantities are omitted for brevity unless considered neces13
2.2 Radiative transport theory
sary. The terms on the right-hand side describe the contributions

of:
i) photon transfer across the boundary,
ii) photons loss due to absorption,
iii) photons loss due to scattering from direction s to other directions,
iv) photons scattering in the s direction from all other directions,
and
v) photons generated by the source.
Applying Gausss divergence theorem to term i)1 and dropping all
volume integrations, gives the RTE valid for an arbitrary volume:
Z
N
= cs N c(a + s )N + cs p(s0 , s)N (s0 )d 0 + q.
t
4
(2.14)
Another quantity, L(r, s, t) [Wm2 sr1 ], called the radiance,
is often of interest, and describes the radiant power flow along s
through unit area at position r and time t. It is related to the
photon distribution function by [78]:
L = N hvc,
(2.15)
where h [m2 kgs1 ] is Plancks constant, and [s1 ] the frequency

of the light. The transport equation can then be expressed using
the radiance as:
Z
1 L
= s L (a + s )L + s p(s0 , s)L(s0 )d 0 + hvq.
c t
4
(2.16)
The RTE is analytically solvable only in very simple cases such
as one-dimensional geometries [79]. In most cases, the RTE is
solved using numerical methods, or is simplified based on certain
approximations so that simple analytical solutions may be found.
Such techniques include the spherical harmonics method [80, 81]
and the diffusion approximation [80], the simplified spherical harmonics method [8286], the discrete ordinates method [87], and
Monte Carlo (MC) simulations [88, 89]. In this thesis, the diffusion approximation and MC simulations were mainly used, and
they will be introduced in the following sections.
1 Here,
Gausss divergence theorem is used, i.e.,
F ndA = FdV . Note
that (N
s) = N
s + N
s = N
s, as
s is fixed.
14
2.3
Diffusion theory
The diffusion approximation is one of the most commonly used

methods to solve the RTE [73, 77, 80]. The basic idea is to expand
the radiance, the source term, and the phase function into infinite
series of spherical harmonics, and the series is truncated to include
only the first-order terms2 [92]. In this case, the radiance can be
expressed by the sum of an isotropic part and a gradient part:
L(r, s, t)
3
1
(r, t) +
J(r, t) s,
4
4
(2.17)
where (r, t) [Wm2 ] is the fluence rate, and J(r, t) [Wm2 ] is the
flux, fulfilling the expression:
Z
(r, t) = L(r, s, t)d,
(2.18)
4
and
J(r, t) =
L(r, s, t)sd,
(2.19)
respectively. In addition, the source is assumed to be isotropic,

i.e.:
1
hvq =
q0 (r, t).
(2.20)
4
Inserting Equations (2.17) and (2.20) into the RTE, i.e., Equation
(2.16), results in two coupled equations:

1
+ a + J = q0 ,
(2.21)
c t

1
1
+ a + 0s J + = 0.
(2.22)
c t
3
One more assumption is needed to give the diffusion equation, i.e.,
that the temporal change in the flux is negligible, J/t = 0,
yielding Ficks first law of diffusion:
J=
1
= D,
3(a + 0s )
(2.23)
where D [m] is the diffusion coefficient. The diffusion equation can

be obtained by inserting Equation (2.23) into Equation (2.21):
1 (r, t)
D(r)(r, t) + a (r)(r, t) = q0 (r, t).
c t
(2.24)
Accordingly, the steady-state diffusion equation is given by:

D(r)(r) + a (r)(r) = q0 (r).
(2.25)
2 The
diffusion equation can be derived in different ways, e.g., using random

walk theory, as described by Alerstam [90, 91]
15
2.3 Diffusion theory
In deriving this diffusion equation, two assumptions were made:

that the temporal change of the flux is negligible, and that the
source is isotropic. The first assumption is acceptable if the requirement c0s is fulfilled [9398], where is the modulation
angular frequency in frequency-domain techniques, and is related
to time via the Fourier transform. For steady-state problems,
= 0. The second assumption is valid far from the source for
strongly scattering media, as the directed source may be treated
as an isotropic source at a depth of 1/0s [99]. In addition, scattering must dominate over absorption, i.e., 0s a , in order for the
diffusion assumption to be valid [97], rooted in the difficulties in
describing strong gradients of the first order truncation. In cases
where these assumptions are not valid, other techniques such as
the spherical harmonics method or MC simulation should be used
instead.
The diffusion equation can be extended to model the fluorescence problem. In this case, the fluorophores inside the medium
are treated as point light sources, and the strengths are described
by the product of the local excitation fluence rates and the fluorescent yield of the fluorophores. The equation for modeling fluorescent light becomes [100, 101]:
Dm (r)m (r) + am (r)m (r) = x (r)af (r).
(2.26)
Here, m and x denote emission and excitation, respectively, [-] is

the quantum yield of the fluorophores at the emission wavelength,
and af [cm1 ] is the absorption coefficient of the fluorophores at
the excitation wavelength. The fluence rate of excitation light,
x (r), is calculated using Equation (2.25).
Boundary conditions
Boundary conditions are a general prerequisite for obtaining
unique solutions when solving differential equations. For the RTE
or diffusion equations dealing with the radiance, the boundary conditions mainly concern the reflection of light at the boundary, if
the refractive indices inside (n) and outside the medium (n0 ) are
mismatched.
Considering the reflection of the total radiance on the boundary
yields the modified Robin-type boundary condition [80, 102]:
= 0,
(r, t) + 2AD(r, t) n
(2.27)
is the outward normal direction of the boundary; paraHere, n

meter A takes into account the refractive index mismatch at the
boundary, and as a result of Fresnels law [103], is given by:
A=
16
2/(1 R0 ) 1 + | cos c |3
,
1 | cos c |2
(2.28)
where
R0 =
(n n0 )2
,
(n + n0 )2
(2.29)
and
c = arcsin
n
0
(2.30)
z0-zb
0
z+0
n0
r0-
r0+
r
n
Analytical solutions
For some simple geometries, there are analytical solutions to the
diffusion equation. For a homogeneous infinite medium, with a
point source expressed as q0 (r, t) = P0 (r)(t), where P0 [W] is
the power of the source, the solution is [104]:
(r, t) = cP0 (
1
r2
)3/2 exp(
a ct).
4Dct
4Dct
(2.31)
The solution for the steady-state diffusion equation with a source

term q0 (r) = P0 (r) can be described by [105, 106]:
(r) =
P0 exp(eff r)
,
4D
r
z
Figure 2.6. A homogeneous
medium with a semi-infinite
geometry.
(2.32)
where the effective attenuation coefficient, eff [m1 ], is defined

by:
r
a
eff =
.
(2.33)
D
For semi-infinite or slab geometries, the analytical solutions can
be obtained through the use of mirrored sources. In these cases,
the so-called extrapolated boundary condition is employed, i.e., the
virtual boundaries, placed away from the real medium boundaries
by a distance zb = 2AD, are considered to have a fluence rate of
zero [105]. In a semi-infinite geometry, as illustrated in Figure 2.6,
the real source is placed at a depth z0+ = 1/0s , and thus a mirrored,
negative source with the same power is placed at z0 = 2zb z0+ .
The resulting fluence rate inside the medium is given by the sum
of the contributions of these two sources:

P0 exp(eff r0+ ) exp(eff r0 )
,
(2.34)
(r) =
4D
r0+
r0
q
where r0+, = r2 + (z z0+, )2 .
In an infinite slab geometry as shown in Figure 2.7, the extrapolated boundary condition must be fulfilled at both interfaces, and
the z-positions of the resulting positive and negative sources can
17
2.4 Monte Carlo simulations
thus be derived from [104, 107, 108]:

+
zm
= 2m(d + 2zb ) + z0+ ,
z-1z-1+
zm
= 2m(d + 2zb ) 2zb
(2.35)
z0+ ,
m = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
(2.36)
(2.37)
giving the fluence rate inside the medium expressed as:
n0
z0z
+
0
r
n
z1z+1
z
(r) =
Fluence rate (W/cm2)
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
5
10 15 20 25 30
Depth (mm)
Figure 2.8. Calculated fluence rate

for a 3 cm thick slab with optical
parameters of 0s = 10 cm1 and
a = 0.5 cm1 . The incident
power was set to P0 = 1 W.
18
(2.38)
q
+, 2
+,
) .
= r2 + (z zm
where rm
The inclusion of mirrored sources of the first few orders is usually sufficient to provide good accuracy. Figure 2.8 presents the
fluence rate as a function of depth in a homogeneous slab, calculated using Equation (2.38) with m = 0 and 1.
2.4
Figure 2.7. A homogeneous
medium with a slab geometry.

m=+
+
P0 X exp(eff rm
) exp(eff rm
)
,
+
4D m=
rm
rm
Monte Carlo simulations
Monte Carlo simulation is a numerical problem-solving technique

based on probability theory and mathematical statistics. It relates the problem to certain probabilistic models, and provides
an approximate solution by performing multiple simulations using
random variables. Turning to transport of light in turbid media,
MC method can provide an accurate solution to the RTE, as it is
subject to the same approximation as the equation being solved.
Thus, MC method is considered the gold standard for solving the
RTE. The MC method can handle any geometry. The solution
provided by MC method is generally noisy, and the accuracy is
dependent on the number of particle packages used in the simulations.
In the MC simulation of light propagation in a scattering
medium, the problem-solving process is based on the following
scheme. A virtual particle with an initial weight, is launched into
the medium and travels in a stepwise manner. Its weight, position
and direction of motion are influenced, and accordingly updated,
by the interactions between the particle and the medium, including absorption, scattering, internal reflection and transmission [89].
All these interactions are treated from the perspective of probability theory. This process is repeated for all the particles, and
the final light distribution is given by the contributions of all simulated particles. A flowchart depicting the main components of
MC simulation is shown in Figure 2.9. The main limitation of
MC method is the long computational time due to the large number of particle packages that is needed in order to get an accurate
solution. Recently, graphics-processing-unit-accelerated MC simulations, based on the concept of parallel computing, have been
developed, which can reduce the computational time by a factor

of 103 [109, 110]. The simulation of light-tissue interactions in MC
method will be discussed in the following.
2.4.1
Initialize'particle
(W,r,s)
Simulation of light-tissue interactions

Hit'boundary?'
The simulation of absorption

N
Move's
(W,r',s)
Absorption is considered to have the effect of reducing the particle

weight at each interaction event by an amount [89]:
W =
a
W,
t
(2.39)
where W is the particles current weight, and t is the total interaction coefficient, equal a + s . This fraction of weight will
be deposited in the local grid element. The particle with the new
weight, i.e., W W , will undergo scattering.
Photon absorption is also involved in the probability density
function in the sampling of the step size, s, for particle motion
[111], i.e.:
p(s) = t exp(t s),
(2.40)
originating from the Beer-Lambert law for light propagation.
A pseudo-random number, , uniformly distributed over the
interval [0, 1] is generated. A non-uniformly distributed variable,
, can generally be obtained by one-to-one mapping between
and . The mapping function is defined by the equality of the
cumulative probabilities for these two variables:
F (1 ) = F (1 ).
(2.41)
For the step size obeying the probability density function stated
in Equation (2.40), it thus can be mapped by:
ln(1 )
,
s=
t
(2.42)
Absorption'E'Scattering
(W',r'',s')
Transmit?'
N
Weight'small?'
(W',r''',s'')
Y
Survive'roulette?'
Last'particle?'
Y
End
Figure 2.9. Monte Carlo

simulation flowchart. W , r and
s
are the weight, position, and
direction of travel of the particle,
respectively.
which is equivalent with:

s=
ln()
,
t
(2.43)
as is uniformly distributed over [0, 1].

The weight of the particle will decrease step by step, but never
reach zero. As a particle with a minuscule weight yields very little
information, it must be terminated, but without violating energy
conservation. A technique called roulette is used for this. This
technique gives a particle whose weight falls below a specified minimum one chance in m of surviving with a weight mW , otherwise,
it is terminated.
19
2.4.2 Time-resolved, fluorescence, and white Monte Carlo simulations
The simulation of scattering

Photon scattering exerts an influence on the step size in a similar
way to absorption, as described in Equation (2.43). Scattering will
also change the direction of the particles motion. Here, the normalized scattering phase function is reinterpreted as a probability
density function. The azimuthal angle is uniformly distributed in
(0, 2], and thus sampled by:
= 2.
(2.44)
The Henyey-Greenstein distribution, specified in Equation (2.6),

is commonly used to determine the deflection angle. By applying
Equation (2.41), the cosine of the deflection angle can be sampled
using the uniform random number :

2
1g 2
1 1 + g2
, if g>0
1g+2g
(2.45)
cos = 2g
2 1,
if g=0
The simulation of reflection and transmission
When the particle hits the boundary of the medium, internal reflection and transmission occur. The reflection probability is determined by the Fresnel reflection coefficient R():

1 sin2 (i t ) tan2 (i t )
R(i ) =
+
,
(2.46)
2 sin2 (i + t ) tan2 (i + t )
where i is the incident angle, and t is the transmission angle,
given by Snells law:
ni sin i = nt sin t .
(2.47)
Here, ni and nt are the refractive indices of the medium from

which the particle is incident and transmitted. A uniformly distributed random number, , is used to decide whether the particle
is reflected or transmitted. If < R(i ), the particle is reflected,
otherwise, it is transmitted.
2.4.2
Time-resolved, fluorescence, and white

Monte Carlo simulations
Time-resolved MC simulation can be implemented by recording

the step size information for each movement, as the traveling time
is related to the step size by the velocity of the particle.
Monte Carlo simulations can be adapted to deal with fluorescence problems. Basically, the propagation of the excitation light
is first simulated, and fluorescence photons can then be generated
with a certain probability and time delay, followed by the modeling
20
of fluorescence photon propagation. Such a standard method for

fluorescence MC simulations can be accelerated using the reverse
emission procedure and convolution technique [112], as in Paper I.
In an appropriate geometry, a single MC simulation with zero
absorption may be rescaled and attenuated to accommodate any
combination of scattering and absorption [109]. Such an approach
is referred to as white MC simulation. This method is particularly
useful in infinite and semi-infinite media.
21
Chapter
Exogenous luminescent biomarkers are often introduced to enhance fluorescence imaging and tomography. UCNPs, composed
of RE ions doped into an inorganic host material, are an emerging group of biomarkers with excellent spectroscopic and physicochemical properties. In this chapter, the spectroscopic properties
of RE ions are first discussed. Then, the upconversion mechanisms,
based on the interactions between dopant ions, are introduced.
Finally, the material engineering and biomedical applications of
UCNPs are reviewed.
Table 3.1. Electronic

configurations of lanthanide
atoms and trivalent ions.
Element
La
Rare-earth luminescence
Spectroscopic properties of rare earths in
solids
Energy level structure

The RE elements include 15 lanthanides together with scandium
and yttrium. Scandium and yttrium are considered RE elements
since they exhibit similar chemical properties and tend to occur
in the same ore deposits as the lanthanides. Trivalent yttrium
ions are optically inert due to the lack of 4f electrons, and their
compounds are usually used as the host for luminescent materials.
Trivalent scandium ions are often used as host ions [113], except
in few studies [114]. In the following, RE elements refer mainly to
the lanthanides.
The electronic configuration of lanthanides can be described as
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10 4f N 5s2 5p6 5dM 6s2 , where N and
M are natural numbers, specifying the number of 4f and 5d electrons, respectively, with different values for different lanthanides,
as listed in Table 3.1. Trivalent lanthanide ions, formed when the
two 6s electrons and one 4f or 5d electron are delocalized (see Ta-
4f0
4f1
4f 5d 6s
4f 5d 6s
Pr
4f3 5d0 6s2
4f2
Nd
4f4 5d0 6s2
4f3
Pm
4f5 5d0 6s2
4f4
Eu
Gd
3.1.1
Ce
Sm
3.1
RE3+
RE
0
4f5
4f6
4f7
4f 5d 6s
4f 5d 6s
4f 5d 6s
Tb
4f 5d 6s
Dy
4f10 5d0 6s2
4f8
4f9
Ho
4f11 5d0 6s2
4f10
Er
4f12 5d0 6s2
4f11
Tm
4f13 5d0 6s2
4f12
Yb
Lu
14
4f 5d 6s
4f14 5d1 6s2
4f13
4f14
23
3.1.1 Spectroscopic properties of rare earths in solids
4f
104 cm-1
H0
HC
103 cm-1
HSO
102 cm-1
HCF
Figure 3.1. A schematic

illustration of energy level
splitting of RE3+ ions in solids.
ble 3.1), have been extensively used to activate luminescent and

photonic materials. The majority of applications involve electronic
transitions between states within a 4fN configuration in trivalent
RE ions doped in solids.
The electronic energy level structure of trivalent RE ions is
established primarily using quantum theory. For free ions, the
primary terms of the Hamilton for an N -electron system are commonly described by:
H = H0 + HC + HSO ,
(3.1)
where H0 includes the kinetic energies of electrons and the

Coulomb interactions between the nucleus and electrons, HC represents the inter-electron Coulomb repulsion, and HSO describes
the spin-orbit interactions. In calculations of energy levels, the
central field approximation and Hartree-Fock method are used to
handle the Coulomb interactions [115, 116]. As the Coulomb electrostatic interactions and spin-orbit interactions have the same
order of magnitude, the intermediate coupling scheme of momentum summation is involved for trivalent RE ions. Despite this,
the symbol 2S+1 LJ is used to denote the energy states of RE ions,
where L, S, and J denote the total orbital momentum, the total
spin momentum, and the total angular momentum, respectively.
When doped in solids, the solid-state effects, known as the crystalfield interaction (HCF ), cause further energy level splitting. In
theory, the crystal-field interactions are treated as a perturbation.
Figure 3.1 presents schematically the energy levels of RE3+ in crystals. Other mechanisms, including ion-ion interactions, hyperfine
splitting, and ion-ligand hyperfine splitting, generate energy level
splitting on even smaller scales. Electrons in the 4f shell have localized states, exhibiting weak coupling to ligand electrons and
lattice vibrations due to shielding by 5s and 5p electrons.
The energy level structure of RE ions is usually called a Dieke
chart, and was first created for trivalent ions in a LaCl3 crystal
[118], as shown in Figure 3.2. The chart was later extended by
Carnall et al. to include ions in LaF3 [119]. Energy levels of RE3+
ions can vary by approximately 1% in different matrices [120].
Transition intensities
In free RE3+ ions, electric dipole (ED) transitions between states
of 4f configurations are forbidden, as 4f states have definite parity.
In a solid, states with different parities are mixed by the crystal
field, making the forbidden 4f-4f transitions slightly allowed [121].
Completely reliable ab initio calculations of the oscillator
strengths for ED transitions of RE3+ ions are not possible at
present. Instead, a parameterization scheme is used, making use of
the concept of effective operators. In practice, an effective dipole
24
Figure 3.2. The lower 4f levels of trivalent RE ions in a LaCl3 crystal.

Reproduced from [117]
25
3.1.2 Upconversion mechanisms
moment operator (Deff ), expanded in tensor operator space, is employed in order to connect 4f states, i.e. [122124]:
ESA
Deff = D(1) + D(1)
X | >< | V
(0)
M
/
GSA
Figure 3.3. Schematic diagram of

the excited state absorption
(ESA) upconversion process,
following ground state absorption
(GSA).
E0 E
+V
X | >< |
(0)
M
/
E0 E
D(1) + . . .
(3.2)
Here, D(1) is the ED operator, | > are excited states of the
RE ions or ligand, and M is the model space. The potential V
is the sum of the crystal field, Coulomb interaction and spin-orbit
interaction. At first order in V , only the odd parity part of the
crystal-field potential can connect the 4f configurations of RE3+
ions. The parameters in the expansion are determined by fitting
with experimental data.
Early work by Judd and Ofelt yielded the Judd-Ofelt theory
[125, 126], which has been extensively used in areas such as laser
and phosphor design for calculating the total intensities of transitions between J -multiplets [127]. The key accomplishment of
the Judd-Ofelt theory is that the ED transition strength can be
expanded as the sum of three even-ranked tensors, with certain
assumptions, and the standard parameters are usually denoted
( = 2, 4, 6). However, the Judd-Ofelt theory should be applied
with care, as it is based on a poor approximation even for room
temperature conditions, i.e., that there is equal occupations of the
states of the ground multiplets [128].
The symmetry and strength of the crystal field play an important role in the splitting of 2S+1 LJ levels and radiative decay
rates between 4f-levels. The local crystal field around RE ions can
be tailored by ion doping, leading to altered transition intensities
[129, 130].
3.1.2
Upconversion mechanisms
When RE3+ ions are incorporated into solids, upconversion emission with anti-Stokes shift can occur in the absence of direct multiphoton processes, through the accumulation of excitation energy.
Upconversion is complicated in practice, but several basic mechanisms contribute to upconversion emission, including direct photoexcitation and energy transfer between ions. These will be discussed in the following.
Excited state absorption
The first identified upconversion mechanism is excited state absorption (ESA), following ground state absorption, as illustrated
in Figure 3.3. In 1959, Bloembergen proposed that infrared photons could be detected and counted through sequential absorption
within the levels of a given ion in a solid [131]. This can be re-
26
garded as the origin of the whole field of upconversion in ion-doped

systems. ESA is a weak process.
E2
Energy transfer upconversion

ETU2
Energy transfer upconversion (ETU) is a far more efficient upconversion process than ESA, and was first proposed by Auzel
[132, 133] and by Ovsyankin et al. [134] independently in 1966.
The process is illustrated in Figure 3.4. In a microscopic view, the
ETU process is achieved by nonradiative energy transfer between
two neighboring ions. Such energy transfer can take place not only
between excited- and ground-state ions (e.g., ETU1 in Figure 3.4),
but also between excited ions (e.g., ETU2 in Figure 3.4) [132, 133].
In addition, the participating ions are not limited to ions of the
same type [132, 134]. The energy transfer process between the
same type of ions that results in the population of an intermediate level is known as cross relaxation. In the field of upconversion
emission, the energy donor and accepter involved in the ETU process are usually termed the sensitizer and activator, respectively.
The mutual interactions between the two ions are Coulomb interactions of the van der Waals type. F
orster first treated such
interactions theoretically using quantum mechanical theory, considering the dipole-dipole interaction [135]. Later, this theory was
extended by Dexter to include higher multipole and exchange interactions [136]. Generally, the probability of energy transfer for
electric multipolar interactions can be expressed as [136, 137]:
s
1 R0
pSA =
,
(3.3)
s R
E1
GSA
ETU1

the energy transfer upconversion
process. E1,2 denote the energy
mismatches. GSAground state
absorption.
where s [s] is the actual lifetime of the excited state of the sensitizer including the contribution of multiphonon radiative decay, R
[m] is the distance between the two ions, while R0 [m] is the critical
transfer distance for which energy transfer and spontaneous deactivation of the sensitizer have equal probability, and s is a positive integer associated with the index of the multipolar interaction, with
s = 6 for dipole-dipole interactions, s = 8 for dipole-quadrupole
interactions, and s = 10 for quadrupole-quadrupole interactions.
However, this form of power law is less applicable when calculating the energy transfer probability, because the critical distance
cannot be easily obtained theoretically. Another calculation technique was developed by Kushida [138] for multipolar interactions,
applying Racahs tensorial methods. Pouradier and Auzel treated
magnetostatic and exchange interactions in a similar fashion [139].
In many cases, the ETU process is non-resonant, as illustrated
in Figure 3.4, where phonons play a critical role to account for the
energy mismatches. Actually, energy transfer with energy mismatch as high as several thousand inverse centimeters can take
27
3.1.2 Upconversion mechanisms
place, with the assistance of multi-phonons [140, 141]. Unawareness of this once led to the misinterpretation of upconversion emission from a Yb3+ /Tm3+ pair as being due to cooperative sensitization [142]. The phonon-assisted energy transfer probability
depends exponentially on the energy mismatch E [143]:
pphonon (E) = pphonon (0) exp(E),
(3.4)
where pphonon (0) is the energy transfer probability when the zero
phonon lines overlap, and is a constant determined by the characteristics of the host lattice and the electron-phonon interaction.
A tremendous number of ions are assembled in a macroscopic
system, even in a very local region. In such cases, the energy transfer between ions is very complicated. Basically, three types of energy transfer can occur: sensitizer-sensitizer, activator-activator,
and sensitizer-activator transfer. The first two represent excitation migration or energy diffusion through the crystal. In order to
obtain an association with experimental data acquired from real
macroscopic samples, a statistical analysis of the energy transfer
between many ions is needed, taking into account all three types
of energy transfer. Average transfer probabilities can be calculated using certain assumptions regarding the concentrations of
the doping ions and their spatial distributions [136, 137, 144, 145].
Excitation migration could be a limiting step, or not, depending on
the sensitizer concentration, leading to different decay behavior of
the luminescence [145]. The case of high sensitizer concentration,
when the migration rate is faster than spontaneous sensitizer decay
or sensitizer-activator energy transfer, is called the fast migration
case. In such a case, the energy transfer probability is proportional to the activator concentration, but not depending on the
sensitizer concentration [145]. Otherwise, the probability is also
dependent on the sensitizer concentration. Rate equations dealing
with the populations of ions in given states can also be used for the
macroscopic system, especially in the fast migration case [19]. The
validity of this has been discussed from first principles by Grant
[146].
Excitation migration is of essential importance in upconversion
emission, as it allows energy transfer over a long distance in a
stepwise manner. This makes the pumping of activators possible,
even if they are located far away from the sensitizer ions excited
directly by photons. Such a feature opens up the possibility of
designing new efficient upconverting nanomaterials with core-shell
structure, in which the sensitizers and activators are isolated in
different layers to suppress concentration quenching1 [147149].
1 High doping levels of dopant ions lead to deleterious energy transfer
among activator ions or back energy transfer from activator ions to sensitizer
ions, resulting in quenching of upconversion emission.
28
Cooperative upconversion
Another upconversion mechanism consists of cooperative processes, including cooperative sensitization (Figure 3.5) [150, 151]
and cooperative luminescence (Figure 3.6) [152], which are about
3-5 orders of magnitude less effective than ETU [19]. The cooperative processes involve cooperative pair states, and are thus
likely to take place within clusters, and must only be considered
practically when ETU cannot take place [143]. Examples of such
cases are when the real single-ion levels allowing energy transfer do
not exist, and when the concentration is too low to allow efficient
transfer. Apart from the detection of RE ion clusters [153], very
few applications of cooperative processes exist.
The synergistic effect of all the upconversion mechanisms discussed above and the basic ground state absorption process can
lead to complex upconversion phenomena, such as the photon
avalanche effect [154158] and the looping upconversion processes
[159, 160].
3.1.3

cooperative sensitization.
Efficient upconversion systems
An upconversion system generally consists of three components:

an inorganic host, sensitizer ions and activator ions. These must be
carefully chosen in order to achieve efficient upconversion emission.
Among the numerous applications of upconverting materials, such
as in display [161] and upconversion lasers [157], this thesis focuses
mainly on UCNPs for biomedical applications. The selection of
the components of the upconversion systems discussed below is
primarily based on this purpose.

cooperative luminescence.
Host materials
The host material is required to have good lattice matching with
the dopant ions. Inorganic compounds containing RE3+ , alkaline
earth and some transition metal ions (e.g., Zr4+ , Ti4+ and Mn2+ )
are thus suitable host candidates. The cations of the host materials
are generally chosen so as to be optically inert in the spectral range
of interest, in order to suppress luminescence due to the host ions.
Sc3+ , Y3+ , Gd3+ , La3+ and Lu3+ are commonly used as host ions,
but not other RE3+ ions.
As discussed in Subsection 3.1.1, the crystal field of the host
lattice has an important influence on the optical properties of a
given ion, as it determines the spectral positions and splitting of
certain optical transitions. In addition, the uneven components
of the crystal field, present when a RE ion occupies a crystallographic site without inversion symmetry, are able to relax the
parity selection rule by mixing a small amount of opposite-parity
wave functions into the 4f wave functions [162]. Thus, a host
lattice with low symmetry is usually preferable [163]. Although
29
3.1.3 Efficient upconversion systems
Intensityo(a.u.)
Figure 3.7. Schematic

presentation of hexagonal phase
NaYF4 . Reproduced from [182].
YbEr
YbTm
YbHo
0.5
0
400
600
800 1000
Wavelengtho(nm)
Figure 3.8. Typical

photoluminescence spectra of
different sensitizer-activator pairs.
The spectra are normalized to the
maximum.
phonon assistance is needed in ETU, ideal host materials should

have low lattice phonon energies in order to minimize nonradiative energy loss and ensure long lifetimes of the intermediate states
[164]. Other considerations for host materials include chemical stability, the interionic distance between the sensitizer and activator
in the host lattice, and the bio-compatibility of the materials.
Fluorides, having low phonon energies (350 cm1 ) and high
chemical stability, are widely used as the host materials for UCNPs. In particular, hexagonal-NaYF4 -based UCNPs shown in Figure 3.7 have been found to be among the most efficient [165, 166],
and have been investigated and applied extensively in various
biomedical applications [22, 23, 167, 168]. However, recent studies
have shown that better candidates exist. CaF2 has been proposed
to be a better host material than NaYF4 [169], as the CaF2 lattice
promotes the formation of ion clusters when doped with lanthanide
ions, facilitating ETU due to an effective reduction in the interionic distance [170, 171]. In addition, CaF2 is more biocompatible,
as calcium is a common endogenous component and a lattice substituent of calcified tissues [172, 173]. NaLuF4 -based UCNPs have
also been found to exhibit higher luminescence intensity than their
Y-based counterparts [174179]. Several explanations have been
proposed. The ionic radius of Lu3+ (0.85
A) is much closer to that
of Yb3+ (0.86
A) than Y3+ (0.89
A), and the Lu3+ -based host is
thus expected to be more stable when doped with a high concentration of Yb3+ ions [180]. The valence band could also play a role
by relaxing the parity selection rule by mixing the 4f state with
the 5d states [181]. In addition, the lifetimes of the energy levels
of the activator ions have been found to be prolonged, indicating
the suppression of nonradiative processes [175] .
Sensitizer-activator combination
In singly doped nanoparticles, two parameters effecting the upconversion processes must be balanced, i.e., the activator ion concentration and the inter-ion distance. Although high doping levels
can facilitate the absorption of pump energy, this would lead to
deleterious cross relaxation due to the decreased distance between
the ions, eventually resulting in upconversion emission quenching.
The choice of a sensitizer-activator pair is based on efficient
energy transfer between them. As stated by Auzel [19], As is
often in science, the most efficient systems are the ones discovered
at first, here the Yb-Er and the Yb-Tm systems. The Yb-Ho pair
has also been found to be efficient, but has been less extensively
investigated, probably due to emission band overlap with the YbEr pair. The emission bands of these upconversion systems are
shown in Figure 3.8. Good sensitizer-activator pairs such as these
have the following characteristics.
30
(i) The sensitizer ions have a simple energy level structure,

matching commercially available and cost-effective laser
sources. For instance, Yb3+ ions have a simple two-level
structure that matches laser sources of around 980 nm.
(ii) The sensitizer ions have relatively long-lived excited levels.
(iii) The sensitizer ions have a large absorption cross-section. The
absorption cross-section of Yb3+ ions at 975 nm is on the
order of 1020 cm2 , which is significantly larger than those
of other RE ions at the same wavelength.
(iv) The activator ions have a ladder-like energy level structure
with long-lived intermediate energy states, and the energy
gaps match those of the sensitizer ions well.
(v) The activator ions have luminescence channels that fulfill the
demands of specific applications, e.g., the 800 nm emission
of Tm3+ ions for biomedical imaging in deep tissues.
In such codoped materials, the concentration of the activator is relatively low, usually less than 2 mol%, while that of the sensitizer is
often high, e.g., 20 mol% for Yb3+ ions in fluoride nanoparticles.
Interactions between different types of ions can be introduced
in order to tune the excitation and emission pathways. Typically,
different activator ions are incorporated into the same nanoparticles to achieve multicolor emission bands, aiming at multiplexing
encoding in optical imaging [183], or white light generation in displays [184]. Ce3+ ions can be introduced into the Yb-Ho system
to adjust the upconversion emission from green to red [185], and
tri-doping of Nd3+ ions in the Yb-Tm system can significantly
enhance the blue upconversion emission band of Tm3+ ions [186].
3.2
Material engineering of upconverting

nanoparticles
During the past decade, considerable effort has been devoted to

material engineering of UCNPs, in order to address the issues of
size and morphology, efficiency, and the bioapplicability of UCNPs,
of interest for biomedical applications. Tremendous progress has
been made.
3.2.1
Size and morphology control
Size and morphology are two major concerns when using nanoparticles as exogenous contrast agents in living organisms [187, 188].
Different sizes are required, depending on the applications. In
order to trace biological activity on the subcellular level, particles
are generally required in the range of 4-10 nm, comparable to most
31
3.2.2 Luminescence enhancement
RE3+
NaF
Mixer
180
Oil baths
Microcapillary
110
Nanocrystals
Figure 3.9. Schematic description
of the microfluidic synthesis of
upconverting nanoparticles.
membrane and globular proteins [189]. The morphology (or shape)

of nanoparticles is also of importance due to its effect on cellular
intake and metabolism [190192]. Nanoparticles must often be
monodispersible for successful biomedical applications. In addition, the hexagonal phase is preferred for NaREF4 -based UCNPs,
as these provide about one order of magnitude higher emission
efficiency than their cubic counterparts [165, 166, 193]. All these
issues can be addressed by using appropriate synthesis methods.
Many synthesis methods have been developed over the past
decade for the fabrication of high-quality NaREF4 UCNPs, with
the desired size and size distribution, as well as monodispersity
[194196]. Two routes are the most widely used: the trifluoroacetate route [197, 198] and the oleate route [199]. Fluoride UCNPs
ranging from sub-10 nm to a few hundred nanometers can now be
produced [175, 200, 201]. Different shapes, e.g., nanopolyhedra,
nanorods, nanoplates, and nanospheres, can also be achieved by
tuning reaction parameters such as the Na/RE ratio, the solvent
composition, and the reaction temperature and time [197].
Generally, the synthesis of UCNPs, from the preparation of reaction precursors to the final nanoparticles, is very time consuming
[202]. This is a considerable problem, especially when optimizing
reaction parameters. Parallel synthesis has been employed, providing rapid screening for optimization of synthesis parameters [203].
Methods employing other types of heat sources, such as microwave
synthesis [204], which enables rapid energy transfer, are promising
to significantly shorten the reaction time.
Microfluidic synthesis (Figure 3.9), presented in Paper II, offers
new possibilities including real-time reaction monitoring and scaleup via continuous synthesis.
3.2.2
Luminescence enhancement
UCNPs suffer from low emission efficiency, which is a major barrier

to their practical applications in biomedical areas. A great deal of
effort has been devoted to enhancing the upconversion emission.
Considering a single UCNP, the emitted power of upconversion
emission, Pem [W], can be expressed by the following equation:
Pem = Ns V abs Iex ,
(3.5)
where Ns [cm3 ] is the concentration of sensitizer ions, V [cm3 ]

is the volume of the nanoparticle, abs [cm2 ] is the absorption
cross-section of the sensitizer ion at the excitation wavelength, Iex
[Wcm2 ] is the excitation intensity, [-] is the quantum yield, and
[-] is a constant compensating for the energy difference between
the excitation photon and emission photon, i.e., = em /ex ,
where em,ex [s1 ] denote the frequency of the emission and excitation photon, respectively. Many emission enhancement proce-
32
dures have been developed by manipulating relevant parameters,

as described below.
Manipulating the light absorption
Although the intrinsic absorption cross-section of the sensitizer
ion, abs , is expected to be constant for a specific host material,
the absorption of the excitation light can be increased by attaching optical antennas, such as dye molecules with large absorption
cross-section, taking advantage of the subsequent efficient energy
transfer between the antennas and the nanoparticles [205]. Broadband excitation of upconversion emission can be achieved simultaneously.
Increasing the doping level of sensitizer ions will increase the
absorption of excitation light, which will lead to enhanced upconversion emission [206, 207]. On the other hand, it will also influence
the quantum efficiency of the upconversion system by affecting the
energy transfer between the dopant ions. For instance, too high
a sensitizer concentration has been reported to result in upconversion emission quenching in some systems [208]. It should be
noted that a large amount of sensitizer ions can be incorporated
into a shielding layer to increase the absorption efficiency of the
excitation energy while suppress emission quenching, caused by
high concentration of sensitizer ions [209211].
Manipulating the excitation intensity
The excitation intensity can be increased by increasing the pump
power. For the conventional CW excitation of UCNPs, this is trivial, but is generally restricted especially in in vivo studies due to
laser safety concerns. Pulsed excitation, as proposed in Paper V,
was found to be optimal in this case, as a higher intrinsic quantum yield of upconversion emission could be employed due to the
high peak power, while the thermal effect of the excitation light is
suppressed. The advantages of pulsed excitation will be discussed
in detail in Chapter 4. Another approach to increase the excitation level is through the use of the surface plasmonic effect of
noble metal nanostructures to enhance the local excitation intensity at the UCNPs [30, 212219]. This technique is unfortunately
very demanding, because many parameters must be precisely controlled, such as the geometry and the distance between the upconverting nanomaterials and the metal nanostructure, otherwise,
upconversion emission quenching could dominate [212]. This topic
is discussed in more detail in Paper III.
Manipulating the intrinsic quantum yield
The quantum yield of an upconversion emission band is the result
of the synergic effect of multiple factors involved in the upcon33
3.2.3 Excitation and emission wavelength optimization
shell
core
dopant
Figure 3.10. Schematic

description of the core-shell
structure.
shell
4
4
3.2.3
core
F5/2
F3/2
I15/2
I13/2
I11/2
4
I9/2
Nd3+
Nd3+
Yb3+
A3+
Figure 3.11. Energy transfer

mechanisms of Nd3+ -Yb3+
cosensitized upconversion
emission in a core-shell structured
UCNP under 800 nm excitation.
34
version process, such as the host lattice, doping level and energy
dissipation on the nanoparticle surface, as well as the excitation
intensity. Several approaches for upconversion emission enhancement have been developed by considering these factors. Typical
methods include the use of ion doping, e.g., lanthanide and transition ions, to promote the formation of the hexagonal phase of
NaREF4 nanoparticles [182, 220, 221], and alkali ions to adjust
the local environment of dopant ions [129, 130, 222, 223]. Another
important concept for the enhancement of upconversion emission
is the adoption of a core-shell structure (Figure 3.10). A shielding
layer on the surface of the UCNPs can reduce crystal defects and
protect the optically active ions from coupling with the vibrational
modes of, for example, -OH or -NH2 groups in the solvent, thereby
reducing the nonradiative energy losses [224, 225]. The shell can
be either inert or active [172, 209, 210, 226, 227]. In addition, the
concentration quenching threshold of upconversion emission can be
also exceeded via spatial separation of dopant ions [147, 228230].
Excitation and emission wavelength

optimization
When designing new UCNPs for biomedical applications, the optical properties of tissues discussed in Chapter 2 are of major importance. Ideal UCNPs for such applications should have excitation
and emission bands located in the tissue optical window, in order to achieve maximum penetration depth. Strictly speaking, the
975 nm excited UCNPs are less optimal, because the excitation
wavelength overlaps an absorption peak of water (as shown in Figure 2.3), which constitutes a major part of most tissues. Zhan
et al. suggested the use of 915 nm excitation [231]. The problem of overheating can be partly alleviated, but this wavelength is
associated with decreased emission efficiency.
The energy transfer properties between RE3+ ions provide opportunities for tuning the luminescence pathway. A novel upconversion emission pathway was recently achieved by cascade sensitization through introducing Nd3+ ions as co-sensitizers [232],
where 800 nm light was used as excitation. Bright upconversion
emission with efficiency comparable to that under 975 nm excitation can be obtained by using a core-shell structure with Nd3+
ions in the shell and the emitting ions in the core [148, 149], as
illustrated in Figure 3.11. Compared with the most promising upconversion system for biological applications discovered previously,
i.e., Yb3+ /Tm3+ -codoped fluoride nanoparticles with excitation
and emission wavelengths of 975 nm and 800 nm, respectively
[21], the major emission bands (green and red) of such new types
of nanoparticles are less optimal. However, the optimization of
the excitation wavelength will still provide significant signal gain,
in particular when UCNPs are used in deep tissues, due to the

nonlinearity of upconversion emission.
The emission wavelength from the same activator ions can also
be tuned by introducing other ions into the upconversion system
[185, 233], or by adjusting the doping concentrations [183, 234].
Optimization of the emission wavelength to the near-infrared
(NIR) range will remain a subject of interest in the future.
3.2.4
Biocompatibility
As with other exogenous nanosized biomarkers, UCNPs must also

be biocompatible, and in some applications they are required to
target cells or molecules. The techniques involved are mainly hydrophilic processes and surface functionalization, as discussed below.
Hydrophilic processing
The need for hydrophilic processing for UCNPs arises from the
need to use hydrophobic surfactant (e.g., oleic acid) in nanoparticle production. Although several one-pot synthesis methods have
been developed for fabricating hydrophilic UCNPs [235239], it
is still difficult to obtain UCNPs with a quality as high as those
synthesized using oil-phase methods. A multitude of strategies
are available for achieving water dispersibility, including ligand
exchange [198, 231, 240243], ligand oxidation [240, 244, 245], ligand attraction [246], surface silanization [247250] and cross-linked
polymer coating [251]. This topic is reviewed in Paper III, and
other recent reviews [23, 163].
Surface functionalization
After hydrophilic processing, further treatment is necessary in
order to make the UCNPs capable of interacting with the proteins and molecules involved in cellular and organ functions.
The functional groups (e.g., carboxyl, amino, and thiol) or the
strongly charged surface obtained after hydrophilic processing provide the basis for conjugation with various biological or polymeric
molecules. Several well-developed bio-conjugation methods with
biomolecules (e.g., folic acid, peptide, protein, and DNA) exist,
which can allow UCNPs targeting specific cell lines to be made
[23, 238, 238, 244, 252258]. Such methods mainly make use of
physical electrostatic adsorption or chemical covalent binding.
3.2.5
Multi-functionalization
Molecular imaging based on luminescent contrast agents has high

sensitivity, but is often associated with poor spatial resolution due
to the high scattering of biological tissues. Thus, it is generally
35
3.3 Biomedical applications
beneficial to combine the optical imaging modality with other bioimaging modalities that have higher spatial resolution but lower
sensitivity, such as X-ray computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). In many cases, it is thus favorable
to have a contrast agent that can be used for multiple modalities
[259]. For UCNP-based imaging, multimodality imaging can be
enabled by modifying the chemical composition of the nanoparticles. The high atomic number of the RE elements can lead to
effective attenuation of X-rays. Thus, the use of UCNPs for Xray CT imaging has recently been proposed [260263]. Ytterbium
(Yb) and lutetium (Lu) have received most attention due to their
high atomic numbers. The UCNPs can be modified to provide
contrast in MRI by incorporating Gd3+ ions or a Gd3+ complex
into the crystal host or in a core-shell structure [264266]. Another approach for achieving MRI contrast is through the use of
iron oxide nanomaterials [255, 267270].
Doping or coating UCNPs with radioisotopes or agents can
endow them with radioactivity contrast for nuclear imaging, e.g.,
positron emission tomography [271274] and single-photon emission computed tomography [179, 275, 276]. Nuclear imaging has
a sensitivity comparable to that of fluorescence molecular imaging. However, nuclear imaging and fluorescence imaging can still
provide independent and complementary information, as the data
acquisition for these two modalities has a different time window.
3.3
Biomedical applications
In recent years, UCNPs have been extensively used in diverse

biomedical areas, as well as other areas, due to their properties of
being autofluorescence-free (Paper VI, [277, 278]) and photostable
[266], and having large anti-Stokes shifts [19], narrow emission
bands, non-blinking behavior [279], deep detection ability and high
spatial resolution [24]. Areas of application include cell microscopy
and optical thermometry [280], small animal imaging [281], FDOT
[282], bioassays [283] and photoactivation of biomolecules in deep
tissues [284286]. Other areas of application include photovoltaics
[287291] and photocatalysis [292295]. The toxicity of nanomaterials is of considerable concern in biomedical applications, and,
therefore, results on the toxicity of UCNPs are summarized below.
3.3.1
Toxicity assessment
The possible toxicity of nanosized materials must be thoroughly

investigated before they can be used in biomedical applications.
The toxic effects of nanomaterials are due to their physicochemical properties, including size [296], shape [297], surface charge
[243, 298], surface modification [299], chemical composition [300],
36
metal impurities [301], agglomeration and dispersion [302], degradation [303], and the formation of a protein corona2 [304, 305].
The toxicity of UCNPs has been less systematically investigated
than that of quantum dots and metal nanomaterials, due to their
relatively short history of existence. This topic has, however, attracted great interest.
The in vitro cytotoxicity of UCNPs with different surface modifications has been investigated in many studies, on a large number
of both human and animal cell lines [20, 238, 253, 272, 306, 307].
It was found that the cytotoxicity was very low, generally with cell
viability remaining above 80%, provided the nanoparticle concentration was kept below 100 g/ml [248].
Studies on the long-term effects of UCNPs on small animals have recently started to appear. Zhangs group investigated the biodistribution and clearance of polyethyleneiminecoated NaYF4 :Yb,Er nanoparticles in female Wistar rats following
an intravenous injection [20]. They found that the nanoparticles
were accumulated in the lungs immediately after injection, but
the amount of nanoparticles was significantly reduced in all tissues 24 h post-injection; the highest concentration being found in
the spleen. After 7 days, the nanoparticles were undetectable in
the rats. This group also studied the biocompatibility of silicacoated NaYF4 :Yb,Er nanoparticles using the same rat model, and
found accumulation in the lungs and the heart [248], and that
clearance time was significantly less than 7 days. The study by
Lis group on polyacrylic-acid-coated NaYF4 :Yb,Tm nanoparticles
in athymic nude mice showed the UCNPs to be mainly accumulated in the spleen and liver, with a clearance time longer than 7
days [308]. The same group recently studied the time-dependent
biodistribution of poly(ethylene glycol)-coated NaYF4 :Yb,Er labeled with a radioisotope (153 Sm) using single-photon emission
computed tomography imaging and -counter analysis [309], and
found that they had a long retention time in the blood, and were
partly eliminated through urinary excretion in vivo.
In addition to small animal studies, the toxicity of UCNPs
has also been assessed in other models. Yans group recently investigated the toxicity of polyethyleneimine-coated NaYF4 :Yb,Tm
nanoparticles in the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans [310], and
found that feeding them 100 g UCNPs had no obvious toxic effect
based on observations on the growth and procreation. In a study
by Wang et al., on zebrafish embryos, they reported that concentrations of silica-coated LaF3 :Yb,Er nanoparticles under 100
g/ml had no obvious toxic effects, but concentrations above 200
g/ml led to chronic toxicity, which resulted in delayed hatching
and embryonic and larval development, and malformation [311].
2 A corona formed by adsorbed proteins surrounding a nanoparticle in
physiological environment.
37
3.3.2 Promising applications
3.3.2
Promising applications
Numerous applications of UCNPs have been proposed during the

past few years, of which the most successful and promising are
microscopy, bioassays, deep tissue imaging (including UCNP-based
multimodality imaging), and photoactivation of biomolecules.
Microscopy, bioassays and deep tissue imaging
Figure 3.12. In vitro microscopy

imaging of mouse stem cells
incubated in a suspension
containing NaYF4 :Yb,Tm UCNPs
and stained with fluorescent dyes.
Red and green are the
luminescence from the UCNPs
and dyes, respectively. The figure
is pseudo-color encoded.
In vitro microscopic imaging of cells using UCNPs (Figure 3.12)

has been extensively demonstrated. The imaging may be nonspecific [21, 243, 312, 313] or specific [238, 253, 314316], depending
on the surface modification and functionalization of the nanoparticles. However, the long lifetime of upconversion emission appears
to be a limiting factor for laser scanning microscopy, as this imposes restrictions on the scanning speed and real-time monitoring
[317].
The autofluorescence-free property of UCNPs and their relatively narrow emission bands and large anti-Stokes shifts suggest
that these particles will exhibit unique advantages in the field of
bioanalytical chemistry, in bioassays based on Forster resonance
energy transfer [254, 283, 318322], or other types of bioassays
[323326]. Various assays, including immunoassays [258, 318, 327],
enzyme activity assays [320], and protein and DNA hybridization
assays [321, 328331], have already been successfully performed
using UCNP-based techniques.
Deep tissue imaging is another potentially important application for UCNPs, thanks to the large penetration depths for both
the excitation and emission wavelengths. This will be discussed
further in Chapter 5.
Further details on the above applications can be found in
Paper III, which presents a review of the use of UCNPs for preclinical diffuse optical imaging, microscopy and sensing.
Photoactivation
The controlled activation or release of biomolecules is of essential
importance in many biological applications. Controlling the activity of biomolecules by light has attracted increasing interest in
recent years. As light can be readily tuned, both temporally and
spatially, photoactivation of biomolecules can provide on-demand
drug delivery. One major drawback of this process is that photoresponsive compounds mostly respond to UV or visible radiation,
which has small penetration depths in biological tissue and induce
undesirable photochemical reactions. The photon upconversion
ability of UCNPs makes them excellent nanotransducers, which
can absorb NIR light and emit UV light locally that is needed for
the photoactivation of biomolecules.
38
In 2008, Zhou et al. demonstrated an upconversion luminescence switch using intermolecular energy transfer, employing
a diarylethene derivative and LaF3 :Yb,Ho nanoparticles loaded
in a poly(methyl methacrylate) film [332]. Since then, UCNPbased photoactivation has gained a considerable amount of interest. The group led by Branda achieved reversible ring-closing and
ring-opening reactions of dithienylethene photoswitches using NIR
light together with NaYF4 :Yb,Tm and NaYF4 :Yb,Er nanoparticles [285, 333, 334], as well as NIR-light-triggered release of a carboxylic acid from caged compounds3 [286]. Zhaos group reported NIR-triggered release of caged nitric oxide using UCNPs,
facilitating the therapeutic delivery of nitric oxide to physiological targets [335]. Zhangs group recently demonstrated the photorelease of small interfering RNA and plasmid DNA from caged
compounds in tissue phantoms with thicknesses up to 4 mm [284].
Xings group also reported the controlled photorelease of small
interfering RNA [336], and a system for the controlled uncaging
of D-luciferin and bioluminescence imaging based on D-luciferinconjugated UCNPs [337]. Other interesting progress in this field
can be found in recent publications [338342].
It is worth mentioning that the low quantum yield of UCNPs
is still a major limiting factor for applications such as these, especially when used in deep tissue, where the excitation fluence rate
is low. The use of such photoactivation systems in deep tissues
could be greatly facilitated by the adoption of pulsed excitation,
which will be discussed in detail in Chapter 4.
3 Caged compounds are light-sensitive probes that functionally encapsulate

biomolecules in an inactive form.
39
Chapter
Quantum yield characterization

and excitation scheme
optimization for upconverting
nanoparticles
The quantum yield (QY) of UCNPs is a critical parameter for their
use in biomedical applications. The QY of UCNPs is dependent
on the excitation intensity in a complex manner. This is due to
the nonlinear nature of upconversion emission achieved by sequential energy transfer between sensitizer and activator ions, as well
as due to the saturation of intermediate energy levels involved in
the upconversion processes. With advances in material engineering of UCNPs, the saturation of upconversion emissions can occur
even at the moderate excitation intensities required in biological
applications. Thus, characterization of the QY of UCNPs for the
entire excitation intensity regime is of essential importance for the
optimal use of UCNPs. This chapter deals with the QY characterization of UCNPs. In addition, excitation scheme optimization for
UCNPs is explored, based on the investigation of the nonlinearity
of UCNPs with the property of gradual saturation.
4.1
Quantum yield characterization
The characterization of the QY of UCNPs, accounting for the excitation power density dependence, is of paramount importance,
both for materials development and practical applications. There
is currently no standard for characterizing and presenting the luminescence efficiency of UCNPs. Each group uses their own local
references, and compares the relative brightness of different sam41
4.1.1 Definition of the quantum yield
ples. Although the QY has been measured in some studies, these

measurements were mostly performed at a specific excitation intensity [172, 175, 193, 200], usually in the saturating excitation
intensity range. The lack of a standard characterization method
of the QY makes it difficult to compare the luminescence efficiency
of UCNPs from different labs. For biomedical applications, especially in clinical studies, the dose of biomarkers is an important
parameter that must be carefully controlled in order to guarantee
good signal quality while avoiding overuse. The lack of QY data
at different fluence rates, as would be the case at various depths
in biological tissues, makes it impossible to estimate the correct
dose.
4.1.1
Definition of the quantum yield
The QY is usually defined in percent, as the ratio between the

number of emitted photons (Nem [-]) and the number of absorbed
photons (Nabs [-]):
k0 Iem
Nem
=
,
(4.1)
=
Nabs
Iex
where k0 [-] is a scaling factor, accounting for the photon energies at the two wavelengths involved, Iem [Wcm2 ] is the emission
intensity, and Iex [Wcm2 ] is the excitation intensity. A normalized efficiency (norm ) is often used to characterize an n-photon
upconversion process, e.g., second-harmonic generation and multiphoton fluorescence [19]:
norm =
Iem
,
n
Iex
(4.2)
which has the dimensions of [cm2 W1 ]n1 . However, for upconversion emission based on ETU, the n-power law for the luminescence intensity can become degraded even at moderate excitation
intensities.
In a non-saturating excitation regime, the power density dependence of the emission intensity of an n-photon upconversion
band can be expressed by:
n
Iem = k1 Iex
,
(4.3)
where k1 [cm2 W1 ]n1 is a scaling factor, yielding a slope of n

on a double-logarithmic scale. Such power density dependence
analysis is widely used to investigate the number of excitation
photons needed to generate one emission photon. Nevertheless,
as systematically considered by Pollnau et al. [343] and Suyver
et al. [344], saturation can occur with increasing excitation power
density, which would in turn lead to a decrease in the slope for
the same upconversion emission band. This trend can be clearly
42
Quantum yield characterization and excitation scheme optimization for upconverting

nanoparticles
4.1.2
Power-density dependence of the quantum

yield
Due to the nonlinear dependence of the upconversion emission intensity on the excitation power density, the QY defined in percent
will be dependent on the power density, rather than constant [25].
In addition, the degradation of the power law caused by saturation
makes this dependence even more complex. For this reason, the
linear model for the QY characterization of two-photon upconversion emission, as demonstrated by Faulkner et al. [345], will fail
when saturation is present.
The saturation of upconversion emission is governed by the
competition between the ETU rate and the linear decay rate for the
depletion of the intermediate energy state involved in the upconversion process [343, 344]. This saturation feature has been used
to evaluate the quantum efficiency of UCNPs by many researchers
[346350], showing a small slope in the double-logarithmic plot,
and a small saturating power density indicating a high QY. However, the use of saturation to assess QY can lead to ambiguous
results unless a thorough theoretical analysis is performed.
Numerically solving the rate equations describing upconversion
processes and extracting the QY at steady state will, in principle,
provide accurate QY data for arbitrary excitation intensities, as
demonstrated in Paper V. However, this approach is extremely
demanding, and may not be feasible in practical applications, because too many parameters are required for the rate equations
and some of them are difficult to obtain. An analytical expression describing the excitation-intensity-dependent QY, with few
parameters, that can be easily obtained experimentally, will be
valuable, although the use of assumptions in achieving such an
expression would reduce the accuracy.
4.1.3
106
105
Intensity [a.u.]
seen, for example, in the 800 nm upconversion emission band of

core-shell NaYF4 :Yb3+ /Tm3+ @NaYF4 UCNPs, as illustrated in
Figure 4.1. Thus, the normalized efficiency, norm , will not be
valid over the entire excitation intensity range of interest. The
QY defined in percent in Equation (4.1) is used in this thesis.
104
103
102
101
100
10-1
10-2
102
103
104
105
Power density [mW/cm2]
Figure 4.1. The power density

dependence of the 800 nm
upconversion emission band of
core-shell
NaYF4 :Yb3+ /Tm3+ @NaYF4
UCNPs.
Two-parameter characterization
Yb3+ -sensitized two-photon upconversion emission is the most efficient identified so far, and has attracted the greatest interest in
biomedical applications. A two-parameter model for QY characterization of such emission, accounting for the saturation property
of upconversion process, is proposed in Paper IV.
The mechanism of Yb3+ -sensitized two-photon upconversion
emission can be generally depicted by a quasi-three-level model for
the main upconversion activators, including Er3+ , Tm3+ and Ho3+
43
4.1.3 Two-parameter characterization
ETU2
2 (N2)
[140], as shown in Figure 4.2. The excitation-intensity-dependent

behavior of the upconversion emission intensity and QY can be
well approximated by the following steady-state rate equations:
F5/2 (NYb1)
1 (N1)
ETU1
975 nm
dNYb1
NYb1
= NYb0
= 0,
dt
h
Yb1
dN1
N1
= C0 N0 NYb1 C1 N1 NYb1
= 0,
dt
1
N2
dN2
= C1 N1 NYb1
= 0.
dt
2
F7/2(NYb0)
Yb3+
Activator
0 (N0)
Figure 4.2. Schematic energy level

diagrams of the Yb3+ and
activator ions and the proposed
upconversion mechanism following
excitation at 975 nm.
(4.4a)
(4.4b)
(4.4c)
Here, NYb0,Yb1 [cm3 ] are the population densities of the states

F7/2 and 2 F5/2 of Yb3+ ions, respectively, while N0,1,2 [cm3 ] are
the population densities of states 0, 1 and 2 of the activator ions,
respectively; [cm2 ] is the absorption cross-section of Yb3+ ions;
[Wcm2 ] is the excitation power density; h [m2 kg/s] is Plancks
constant; [s1 ] is the frequency of the excitation light; 1,2 [s] are
the lifetimes of activator ions in states 1 and 2, respectively, including the contributions of radiative and nonradiative relaxation
mechanisms, while Yb1 [s] is the lifetime of Yb3+ ions in the 2 F5/2
state; and C0,1 [cm3 s1 ] are ETU rates constants characterizing
the processes ETU1 and ETU2, respectively.
Algebraically, the QY of two-photon upconversion emission can
be described by (see Paper IV):
2
= s
/b
,
1 + /b
(4.5)
with
s = C0 N0 Yb1 2 /2rad ,
and
b =
(4.6)
,
(4.7)
1 C1 Yb1 NYb0
where s is the maximum attainable QY of the system, b is the
balancing power density, reflecting the excitation intensity dependence of the QY, and 2rad is the radiative lifetime of state 2. At b ,
the ETU rate and the linear decay rate contribute equally to the
de-excitation of state 1, i.e., N1 /1 = C1 N1 NYb1 , and the slope
efficiency of the excitation-power-density dependence of the upconversion emission intensity on a log-log scale, expressed as (see
Paper IV):
k =1+
1
,
1 + 1 C1 Yb1 NYb0 /h
(4.8)
has a value of 1.5. The terms NYb0 , 1 and Yb1 , and C1 characterize the absorption of excitation light by Yb3+ ions, and the
retention times of the intermediate state of activator ions and the
excited state of Yb3+ ions, respectively, and the energy transfer
44

nanoparticles
0.03
0.025
Quantum yield
rate between excited Yb3+ ions and activator ions. The balancing power density is thus a measure of the effectiveness of the
upconversion system; a lower value implying better performance.
Considering the fact that the upconversion emission is generated
through a stepwise process, the term s can be simply regarded
as the probability of reaching state 1 from state 0, while the term
/b
1+/b regarded as the probability of reaching state 2 from state 1.
Experimentally, s can be obtained by measuring the QY at very
high excitation intensity, and b can be extracted from routine
power dependence measurements of upconversion emission intensity.
Experimental QY data can be reasonably well fitted by Equation (4.5), as shown in Figure 4.3. The values of s and
b are estimated to be 0.91% and 3.8 W/cm2 , and 2.6% and
1.3 W/cm2 for the core (NaYF4 :Yb3+ /Tm3+ ) and core-shell
(NaYF4 :Yb3+ /Tm3+ @NaYF4 ) samples, respectively. The discrepancy could be due to the omission of certain energy transfer
processes in the rate equation, and the inaccuracy in the excitation beam size measurement involved in the measurement of the
excitation power density.
coreshell
core
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
0
0.5
1.5
x 10
Power density [mW/cm ]
Figure 4.3. Experimentally

determined QYs for the 800 nm
upconversion emission band of
core NaYF4 :Yb3+ /Tm3+ and
core-shell
UCNPs. The solid lines are the
fitted curves using Equation (4.5).
4.1.4
Experimental measurements
In the early work on QY measurements for upconverting phosphors

conducted by Page et al. [25], a CW laser chopped to a 50% duty
factor at 100 Hz was employed to facilitate synchronous detection
of the signal. However, the study presented in Paper V reveals that
pulsed excitation is less desirable than CW excitation, because the
overall upconversion process is generally slow, and the repeating
population/de-population processes of upconversion system under
excitation by pulse trains would lead to a smaller apparent QY.
Two types of setup can be used in measuring the QY,
i.e., integrating-sphere-based and spectrofluorometer-based. Nonuniform spatial irradiation, typically with a Gaussian profile, is
commonly present, when excitation light is illuminating the sample. For linear fluorophores including fluorescent dyes and quantum dots, such non-uniform irradiation would not cause any extra
consideration in the QY measurement. However, as the QY is
highly power-density-dependent, the non-uniform illumination effect must be compensated for in nonlinear UCNPs, in order to
achieve good accuracy. Figure 4.4 presents the calculated photoluminescence intensities as a function of excitation power (Note:
not excitation power density) for uniform illumination and a Gaussian distributed illumination. As can be seen, even with the same
series of laser output powers, different excitation profiles will result in distinct optical responses of the UCNPs. This effect will
lead to large inaccuracy in the interpretation of the results of the
QY measurements if one doesnt have precise knowledge of the ex-
Intensity (a.u.)
10
10
Gaussian
Uniform
10
10
4
10
10
Excitation power (W)
10
Figure 4.4. Calculated

photoluminescence intensities as a
function of excitation power under
uniform and Gaussian excitation.
45
4.1.5 Extension to triplet-triplet annihilation upconversion
Quantum yield
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0.2
0.4
Excitation power (W)
Figure 4.5. Calculated quantum

yield as a function of excitation
power under uniform and
Gaussian excitation.
S2
S1
IC
Sn
S1
ISC
T1
T1
S0
S0
Donor
Acceptor

the triplet-triplet annihilation
(TTA) upconversion process. S
and T denote singlet states and
triplet states, respectively.
ICinternal conversion.
ISCintersystem crossing.
ETenergy transfer.
citation beam profile, as illustrated in Figure 4.5, which presents

the deduced QYs as a function of output power for two different
excitation profiles.
In an integrating-sphere-based setup, it is difficult to determine the true excitation profile that contributes to the finally
detected fluorescence signal, since the excitation light repeatedly
passes through the sample, generating fluorescence due to reflection from the sphere wall. A spectrofluorometer-based setup was
therefore employed instead in the work described in this thesis. A
beam profiler was used to measure the excitation profile, and a
corresponding compensation procedure was developed to correct
for the effect of non-uniform illumination.
In the spectrofluorometer-based setup, a fluorophore with a
known QY is required as a reference. The luminescence of fluorescent dye dissolved in a certain solvent has been reported to
be dependent on the polarization property of the excitation light
[351]. Polarization effects on UCNP suspension are expected to be
averaged out due to the random orientation of a large number of
nanoparticles, although such an effect could be observed for single
nanostructures [352]. The overall influence of the polarization of
excitation light on the QY measurements must be corrected for.
Absorption measurements are important for the characterization of QY. Besides absorption, the scattering due to UCNPs will
also attenuate the incident excitation light. Two wavelengths, 975
nm and 915 nm, are used for UCNPs to correct for the scattering
effect.
A more thorough study report on above effects encountered in
the QY measurement of UCNPs is in preparation [353].
4.1.5
Extension to triplet-triplet annihilation

upconversion
Triplet-triplet annihilation (TTA) based on organic molecules

is an even more efficient upconversion mechanism (Figure 4.6)
[354, 355]. This process typically converts red or green excitation
light into blue emission light. There has been rapid development
in such upconversion systems during the past decade, and their
applications in biomedical imaging started to appear very recently
[356]. Similar to RE-ions-doped UCNPs, TTA-based upconversion
emission also exhibits a power-density-dependent QY with saturation. The QYs are usually measured at different excitation power
densities [357360].
In a TTA system, there are two main deactivation channels
for the triplet states, namely, spontaneous decay and bimolecular
annihilation. Either of these channels could become dominant depending on the excitation power density. Similar to upconversion
systems based on RE ions, there exists an balancing excitation
intensity, and this balancing point was termed excitation inten46

nanoparticles
sity threshold by Monguzzi et al. [361]. This threshold is determined by a few parameters of the constituent molecules. Above
this threshold, triplet bimolecular annihilation becomes dominant
over spontaneous decay, resulting in efficient upconversion generation. Experimentally, the threshold is extracted by fitting the
power density dependence curve of upconversion emission in low
and high excitation intensity regimes; the threshold is then given
at the intersection of the fitted lines. Monguzzi et al. presented an
expression for the excitation-power-density-dependent intensity of
upconverted light [362].
As the TTA-based upconversion emission has a similar mechanism to that based on RE ions, the two-parameter QY characterization approach can be applied with some modifications. The
dynamics of a typical TTA system can be described by the following rate equations [361]:
TD
T
= (E)ISC Iex kD
TD ktr TD ,
t
(4.9a)
TA
T
= ktr TD kA
TA TT TA2 ,
(4.9b)
t
SA
1
S
= f TT TA2 kA
SA ,
(4.9c)
t
2
with the same notation as used by Monguzzi et al. [361], and where
ISC denotes the quantum efficiency of donor intersystem crossing.
Back energy transfer from acceptor to donor is not considered here.
The steady-state intensity can be expressed as:
s
#2
"
1
4(E)
k
I
f
TT
tr
ISC
ex
S
I = A kA
SA = A
,
1 + 1 +
T )2 (k + k T )
8
TT
(kA
tr
D
(4.10)
where A is the quantum efficiency of acceptor photoluminescence.
The slope efficiency on a double logarithmic scale can be described
by:
kTTA
dlogI
=1+ q
dlogIex
1+
1
4(E)TT ktr ISC Iex
T )2 (k +k T )
(kA
tr
D
(4.11)
When the contributions of spontaneous decay and bimolecular annihilation to the deactivation of the acceptor triplet states are
T
equal: kA
TA = TT TA2 , the excitation intensity threshold is given
by:
T
T 2
ktr + kD
2(kA
)
(
),
(4.12)
Ith =
(E)TT ISC
ktr
which gives a slope efficiency k = 4/3.
47
Quantum yield ( W/cm2 )
4.2 Excitation scheme optimization
The overall QY of upconversion emission can be obtained from:

2
q
Iex
Ith /8
k2 I
sat
TTA
= TTA

(4.13)
2 ,
q
(E)Iex
Iex
1 + 1 + Ith
/8
0.2
0.1
0
200
400
600
Power density (mW/cm2)
Quantum yield ( W/cm2 )
Figure 4.7. Fit to the QY data

reported by Kim et al. [360] (*)
using Equation (4.13) (solid line).
0.1
0.05
0
0
500
1000
Power density (mW/cm2)
Figure 4.8. Fitting of the QY data

reported by Monguzzi et al. [357]
(*) using Equation (4.13) (solid
line).
where k2 a parameter correcting for the energy difference between

sat
the excitation photon and emission photon, and TTA
is the attainable maximum QY of the system achieved in saturating excitation
intensity regime, described by:
sat
TTA
=
1 A f ISC ktr
.
T )2
T
2 (kA
ktr + kD
(4.14)
sat
can
As can be seen in Equation (4.13), parameters Ith and TTA
be used as two standard indices to describe a TTA system, as they
fully characterize the QY, i.e., both the amplitude and the power
density dependence.
The QY data for PdOEP/DPA-based TTA systems reported
previously [357, 360] are well fitted by Equation (4.13), as shown
in Figure 4.7 and Figure 4.8, respectively. The parameters Ith and
sat
were estimated to be approximately 35 mW/cm2 and 27.5%,
TTA
and 5 mW/cm2 and 9% by fitting these two systems. Interestingly,
Equation (4.5) also gave a reasonably good fit to the reported QY
data, probably due to the similarity of the upconversion mechanisms in the ETU-based and TTA-based systems.
4.2
Excitation scheme optimization
Upconversion emission can be excited using CW lasers or noncoherent lamps with excitation power densities well below 1
W/cm2 [132134], sometimes as low as 50 mW/cm2 [199]. This
is a considerable advantage compared to other types of anti-Stokes
emission such as second-harmonic generation and two-photon fluorescence, as it alleviates the need for high excitation intensity
allowing their use in deep biological tissues. However, the conventional CW excitation scheme is less optimal than pulsed excitation
from the perspective of energy conversion and possibility of suppressing the thermal effects of excitation light. Optimization of
the excitation scheme for UCNPs will be discussed in this section.
4.2.1
Pulsed excitation for higher quantum yield
Due to the excitation power density dependence of the QY of upconverting materials, as shown in Figure 4.3 and Figure 4.7, higher
excitation intensity will lead to a higher QY. Considering a CW
source and a pulsed source that provide identical average power
density, a larger overall QY and thus a larger upconversion signal gain can be expected from the pulsed source, as the excitation
48
Quantum yield
Figure 4.9. Schematic of the

benefit of using pulsed excitation
for pumping UCNPs. The CW
source and pulsed source provide
identical power.
10
10
10
10
10
10
10 15 20 25 30
Depth (mm)
Low light limit
The currently available maximum QY of UCNPs, of a few percent,

meets the needs for superficial planar imaging. However, significantly lower QYs at low excitation intensities remain a hurdle for
the successful applications of UCNPs in deep tissues, where the
excitation fluence rate is low due to absorption and scattering by
tissue. Figure 4.10 shows the fluence rate of 975 nm light at different depths in a tissue with typical optical properties [365, 366].
The QY of UCNPs at different depths in the same tissue is presented in Figure 4.11. The maximum attainable QY, s , and balancing power density, b , of the UCNPs were assumed to 2.6%
and 1.3 W/cm2 , respectively. As can be clearly seen, the UCNPs
are very inefficient regarding luminescence at a depth of 10 mm,
with a QY of around 0.1%. At a depth of 15 mm, the QY is even
lower, approximately 0.01%. This would obviously impose a severe
limitation on the usable depth of UCNPs in deep tissues, such as
diffuse optical imaging, photodynamic therapy and biomolecule
remote photoactivation.
Figure 4.10. Calculated fluence

rate at 975 nm with
a = 0.7 cm1 and 0s = 5 cm1 .
Quantum yield
4.2.2
pulsed
CW
Fluence rate (W/cm2)
photons are confined to a narrow time window, resulting in an instantly higher excitation power density, as illustrated in Figure 4.9.
Upconversion processes are relatively slow with typical population times on the order of milliseconds [363, 364], because many
long-lived intermediate energy states of RE ions are involved. The
transient behavior of the upconversion system in each pulse period
must be taken into account when evaluating the performance of
pulsed excitation. The upconversion system has a lower QY at the
very beginning of each pulse than in a later phase at steady state,
since the energy states involved are far less populated. Thus, a
long rise time of upconversion emission, related to the lifetimes of
intermediate energy levels, would reduce some of the benefit of the
high excitation power density of pulsed excitation.
The applied average excitation power density is another critical
parameter determining the signal gain. If it is already located in
a saturating regime, no gain in signal will be obtained by using
pulsed excitation, relative to equivalent CW excitation.
It is worth mentioning that pulsed excitation is even better for
multi-photon upconversion emission such as blue and ultraviolet
emission from Tm3+ ions, due to their high-order dependence on
excitation power density. Such short wavelength emission has been
shown to be very promising in the photoactivation of biomolecules.
It is expected that the pulsed excitation approach will facilitate the
implementation of NIR-triggered photoactivation in deep tissues,
while the depth is limited to only a few millimeters at present
[284].
The pulsed excitation approach is described in detail and compared with CW excitation in Paper V.
Intensity

nanoparticles
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
5
10 15 20 25 30
Depth (mm)
Figure 4.11. Quantum yield for

the UCNPs as a function of depth.
49
4.2.3 ANSI standard
Apart from approaches to improve the efficiency of the materials, such as surface modification with optical antennas including
fluorescent dyes [205] and noble metal nanostructures [219], another solution to enhance the upconversion emission is to increase
the excitation light intensity. However, this is not possible when
using CW excitation due to the risk of tissue damage. This is
regulated by the ANSI standard as described below.
MPE ( W/cm )
1.5
1
0.5
0
500
1000
(nm)
1500
Figure 4.12. The MPE as a

function of wavelength for CW
laser sources.
4.2.3
ANSI standard
For a train consisting of identical pulses, the average power density

is the limiting factor. For a square wave with an average power
P and a duty cycle T , the resulting much higher peak power of
P
T is allowed by the ANSI standard. The standard for safe use of
lasers established by the Laser Institute of America [367], called the
ANSI standard, defines how lasers can be used in bioapplications
all over the world. This standard takes into account all possible
hazardous effects of exposure to laser light, such as photochemical
effects and photothermal effects. In the spectral region of 0.1800.400 m, dual limits apply for photochemical and photothermal
effects, while for wavelengths between 0.400 and 1000 m, thermal
effects are the only concern. The maximum permissible exposure
(MPE) is stipulated for all wavelengths, both for CW and pulsed
laser sources. Different standards are applied to skin exposure and
ocular exposure.
MPEs for skin exposure to a laser beam with wavelengths in
the range of 0.400-1.400 m are given in Table 4.1. In calculating MPEs for single-pulse lasers, the exposure duration is equal
to the pulse duration. For repetitive-pulse lasers, two MPEs are
defined: (1) a single-pulse MPE and (2) an average power MPE
for thermal and photochemical hazards. The first protects against
thermal injury resulting from a single pulse having greater than
average power, while the second protects against cumulative photochemical injury and thermal injury due to heat buildup resulting
from the average power. A third MPE, i.e., multiple-pulse MPE
for thermal hazards, applys only to ocular exposure, which proTable 4.1: Maximum permissible exposure (MPE) of skin to a laser
beam. This table is reproduced from Ref. [367]. CA is a wavelength
dependent parameter, CA = 102(0.700) with expressed in m.
50
Wavelength
(m)
Exposure duration, t
(s)
0.400-1.400
0.400-1.400
0.400-1.400
109 to 107
107 to 10
10 to 3104
(Jcm
MPE
)
(Wcm2 )
2C A 102
1.1CA t 0.25
0.2C A
tects against sub-threshold pulse-cumulative thermal injury. Figure 4.12 presents the MPEs for skin exposure to CW lasers with
different wavelengths. As can be seen, for a CW 975 nm laser, the
MPE is around 710 mW/cm2 , and around 320 mW/cm2 for 800
nm. It should be noted that the ANSI standard is rather conservative. Considering the optical properties of tissues at these two
wavelengths, as discussed in Chapter 2, a higher MPE should be
allowed for 800 nm radiation.
MPE ( W/cm2 )

nanoparticles
10
10
10
4.2.4
Single-shot imaging
For single-pulse excitation with a pulse duration in the range of

107 10 s, the MPE [Wcm2 ] is given by:
MPEsinglepulse =
1.1CA t0.25
.
t
10
t (ms)
10
Figure 4.13. The dependence of

MPE on pulse duration for pulsed
laser sources.
(4.15)
Figure 4.13 shows the dependence of MPE on pulse duration at a

wavelength of 975 nm. As can be seen, a much higher excitation
power density is allowed with short pulse durations. This excitation approach enables the use of UCNPs in a more efficient way.
Another merit of single-pulse excitation is the significant reduction of the data acquisition time. Today, integration times of 10
s are often used for UCNP imaging in deep tissues due to their
low QYs. Comparable signal quality can be achieved with much
shorter integration times by employing single pulse excitation.
Single-shot imaging using UCNPs is demonstrated in Paper V.
51
Chapter
Fluorescence diffuse optical

tomography based on
Fluorescence diffuse optical tomography (FDOT) is a relatively
new biomedical imaging modality that can be employed to noninvasively quantify fluorescent biomarkers distributed in biological
tissues. This powerful technique has been widely used in preclinical
research as well as in clinical cases, e.g., to follow the development
of proteases [368], Alzheimers disease [369], tumors [370], and the
effects of various drugs [6]. Due to the general high light scattering of tissue, FDOT suffers from low spatial resolution. Nonlinear
UCNPs, with autofluorescence-free detection capacity and superlinear power dependence, are excellent contrast agents for FDOT,
leading to unprecedented resolution compared with conventional
linear fluorophores. In this chapter, FDOT is discussed in a general framework as the special case of the inverse problem. The
advantages of UCNPs as contrast agents for FDOT are also discussed.
5.1
The inverse problem
In the field of tissue optics, the aim of solving the inverse problem is to extract the interior optical properties of a medium noninvasively through measurements performed on the tissue boundaries, as illustrated in Figure 5.1. The optical properties in question include the absorption, a [cm1 ], and reduced scattering
coefficients, 0s [cm1 ], the diffusion coefficient D [cm], the fluorescence lifetime, [s], and the fluorescence yield (i.e., the product
of the QY and the absorption coefficient of the fluorophore), af
53
5.1.1 Measurables, excitation schemes and imaging geometries
(a)
Iexc
a , s'
[cm1 ]. As a spatial map of the optical properties within the

medium is usually obtained, the method is commonly referred to
as diffuse optical tomography. The work described in this thesis
concerned with FDOT, in which the spatial distribution of the
fluorescence yield is obtained.
5.1.1
(b)
Measurables, excitation schemes and

imaging geometries
Measurables
Iexc
Figure 5.1. The schematic

description of (a) the forward
problem and (b) the inverse
problem.
54
The measurable in FDOT is often the fluorescence intensity at

steady state under CW excitation, as this requires a relatively
simple setup to acquire fluorescence data.
The temporal signal following short-pulse excitation can also
be employed to extract the optical properties of the medium. The
detection can be gated, typically on the timescale of 100 ps after
the time of arrival of a laser pulse on the target of interest, in
order to use only the early arriving photons for reconstruction.
This yields high spatial resolution [371, 372]. Femtosecond pulse
lasers are thus used to provide excitation light in such techniques.
The fluorescence lifetime can be obtained by recording the
time-resolved fluorescence intensity, and is typically in the nanosecond regime for fluorescent dyes. The fluorescence lifetime provides excellent contrast, independent of the probe concentration
or light path length, but it is dependent on excited-state reactions
[373, 374]. These properties of fluorescence lifetimes allow the exploration of the micro-environment of probes in the interior of biological tissues, such as the variation in tissue oxygenation, pH and
glucose concentration [100, 375]. In addition, three-dimensional
mapping of F
orster resonance energy transfer in turbid media
can be implemented by using the approach of tomographic lifetime imaging [376378]. As biological tissues have different optical
properties at different wavelengths, they behave as spectral filters
when light propagates through them, leading to a shift in intrinsic excitation and the emission spectra of the fluorophores. Thus,
multispectral data on both the excitation and emission side are
often collected to provide further constraints for FDOT [379385].
When irradiating tissue with light with a sinusoidally varying
amplitude, the collected light signal will also be sinusoidal, with
a phase shift and demodulation relative to the source amplitude
[386, 387]. The optical properties of the irradiated tissue can be
extracted from the recorded phase and modulation response, particularly when multiple modulation frequencies are employed [388].
The use of the measurables discussed above has led to the development of a range of imaging systems for CW, time-domain and
frequency domain optical tomography.
Excitation schemes
A point-like source with a CW output is typically used to provide
the excitation energy, while point-like short-pulse laser sources
are used for time-resolved measurements [371]. Spatially modulated illumination, developed by Cuccia et al. [389, 390], has
also been exploited and has been found to be useful in alleviating
the ill-posedness of the optical tomography problem [391395]. In
the frequency domain technique, intensity-modulated laser sources
are utilized, irradiating the tissue with sinusoidally varying source
power [386, 387].
(a)
(b)
Imaging geometries
Imaging geometries can be divided into three main categories: epiillumination, transillumination, and projection geometries. In the
epi-illumination geometry (Figure 5.2(a)), with the source and the
detector placed on the same side of the tissue, the sensitivity at
shallow depths is superior to that at greater depths. The fluorescence signal is usually considerable if fluorophores are not deeply
located, as the fluorescent light will propagate only a relatively
short distance before exiting from the surfaces of the tissue. The
background from the excitation light is often relatively high, for
the same reason. Some large tissues only allow this geometry due
to their size, e.g., in fluorescence tomography of most parts of the
human body. In the transillumination geometry (Figure 5.2(b)),
the source and detector are placed on opposite sides of the tissue.
The imaging sensitivity is then higher near the source and the detector than deep in the tissue. The fluorescent light is generally
weak, as is the excitation background, due to the attenuation of
light by the tissue. In the projection geometry (Figure 5.2(c)),
either the source-detector pair or the tissue can be rotated, usually by 360 , yielding a relatively uniform sensitivity throughout
the whole tissue.
The appropriate geometry will depend on the application. In
very deep tissue, such as the human prostate, other geometries may
be necessary, e.g. interstitial measurements, using fibres inserted
into the tissue to deliver and collect the light [396].
5.1.2
(c)
Figure 5.2. Imaging geometries for

fluorescence diffuse optical
tomography. (a) Epi-illumination.
(b) Transillumination. (c)
Projection geometry.
The theoretical scheme
In the framework of FDOT, the measurable, denoted by y, is compared with the modeled value F (x), calculated by a forward model.
The forward model is given by:
F (x) = M[(x)],
(5.1)
where M denotes the measurement operator accounting for how

the signal is measured, and (x) is the fluorescence fluence generated by a given fluorophore distribution, x. The forward model
55
5.1.2 The theoretical scheme
If
should describe the light propagation as accurately as possible.

Different theoretical models, as described in Chapter 2, can be
employed, depending on the case. An objective function is constructed based on the measured data and the modeled value, i.e.:
2 = ky F (x)k2 .
Figure 5.3. Schematic description

of the non-uniqueness in
fluorescence diffuse optical
tomography. Two fluorophore
distributions with different
concentration at different depths
could render the same
fluorescence intensity and profile
on the surface.
(5.2)
The solution is obtained by finding the value of x giving the minimal value of 2 , using least-squares minimization.
Due to the high scattering of biological tissues, the problem at
hand is fundamentally ill-posed, i.e., the solution is non-unique,
and a small perturbation in the data can therefore cause a significant alteration in the solution with minimal 2 . The origin of
the ill-posedness caused by high scattering can be understood by
considering the following two facts. (1) A small, deeply located
fluorophore could render the same surface fluorescence exitance as
a large, shallow one, as illustrated in Figure 5.3; and (2) a perturbation in a small volume inside the tissue causes signal changes
in many source-detector projections. In addition, this problem is
under-determined, as the number of unknowns usually exceeds the
number of measurements. Even if a large data set is obtained, for
example, by employing a charge-coupled device as the detector,
the problem remains, because only linearly independent measurements contribute to the constraint to the solution.
The ill-posedness and under-determination discussed above
make the inversion process unstable, causing the solution to fluctuate considerably. In order to stabilize and smooth the solution, a
Tikhonov regularization term is generally included in the objective
function [397]:
2 = ky F (x)k2 + kL(x x0 )k2 .
(5.3)
Here, L is a regularization matrix, and is the Tikhonov regularization parameter, giving the weight of the solution norm in the
objective function. x0 is the initial estimate of the fluorophore distribution, often set to zero. The fluorophore distribution is thus
reconstructed by minimizing the objective function. The regularization may be performed in different ways, and its meaning will
be discussed in detail in Section 5.1.4. Adopting a Euclidean norm
provides a solution when the derivative with respect to x is zero:

T
F
2
= 2
[y F (x)] + 2LT L(x x0 ) = 0.
x
x
(5.4)
This problem can be solved in an iterative approach. For iteration

k + 1, Equation (5.4) becomes:

56
F
x
T
[y F (xk+1 )] LT L(xk+1 x0 ) = 0.
(5.5)
F (xk+1 ) is expanded in Taylor series around xk and only the firstorder terms are retained, i.e.:
F (xk+1 ) = F (xk ) +
F
(xk+1 xk ),
x
(5.6)
practically meaning that the forward model is linearized around

xk . Insertion of Equation (5.6) into Equation (5.5) yields [398]:
[JT J + LT L]x = JT y LT L(xk x0 ),
(5.7)
where J = F
x is the Jacobian matrix, x = xk+1 xk , is the
update for the fluorophore distribution, and y = yF (xk ) is the
difference or misfit between the data and the model in the current
iteration. A Levenberg-Marquardt procedure is often applied in
the iteration, i.e., assuming x = xk x0 [398, 399], which leads
to:
T L]1 JT y.
x = [JT J + L
(5.8)
= 2.
Note
5.1.3
Figure 5.4. An example of the

sensitivity profile between source
and detector where regions with
higher values will affect the
measurement to a higher degree.
The sensitivity matrix
Explicit expression
The Jacobian introduced in Equation 5.7 gives the rate of change
of the modeled values relative to the parameters. In the calculation
of the Jacobian, the adjoint method is employed in order to reduce
computational cost [400]. In addition, the Born approximation is
usually applied, which neglects the influence of the fluorophore
distribution on the excitation field and the emission field [370].
This is valid for low fluorophore concentrations [375]. The explicit
expression of the Jacobian can thus be described by:
J=
=
(Cx xm ) = Cx m .
x
x
(5.9)
Here, C is a constant accounting for the detection efficiency and

emission efficiency of the fluorophore, is a factor describing the
excitation power dependence of the fluorophore, where = 1 for
linear fluorophores and = 2 for quadratic fluorophores, x is the
excitation field, and m is the adjoint emission field.
Equation 5.9 implies that equal parameter perturbation at different locations could lead to considerably different changes in the
modeled values. The presence of a fluorophore in front of the
source or detector is more evident than fluorophores at other locations for each source-detector projection, as illustrated in Figure 5.4. This is the reason why the Jacobian is also referred to
as the weight or sensitivity matrix.
The normalized Born approximation, in which the measured
fluorescence intensity is normalized by the intensity of the transmitted excitation light, is often used in the inverse problem [401].
57
5.1.4 Regularization
The Jacobian is thus normalized in the same way. Such modifications afford advantages such as avoiding absolute photon-field
measurements and certain robustness to heterogeneities in the optical properties [402].
Singular-value analysis
Singular-value decomposition of the Jacobian is often performed
for the purpose of analyzing and optimizing an experimental setup
[403406]. This factorization yields:
J = USVT ,
(5.10)
where U and V are orthonormal matrices containing the singular

vectors of J, and S is a diagonal matrix containing the singular
values of J. The column space of U is spanned by the detectionspace modes, while that of V is spanned by the image-space modes.
The singular values (elements of J) denote how effectively a given
image-space mode can be detected with the experimental setup,
and thus contribute to the parameter reconstruction [407]. The
merit of this method is that it efficiently condenses the information contained in the weight-matrix model into a singular-value
spectrum.
In Paper VIII, singular-value analysis was performed to verify
the usefulness of the data obtained under simultaneous dual-beam
excitation for the reconstruction of UCNP distribution.
5.1.4
Regularization
The purpose of regularization is to both improve the spatial resolution and reduce the noise in FDOT reconstruction. The difference
in the sensitivities at different depths can also be equilibrated by
manipulating the regularization. Regularization is controlled by
the regularization parameter and the regularization matrix.
The regularization parameter
The regularization parameter, , controls the weight given to minimization of the solution norm relative to minimization of the residual norm in Equation (5.3). A large favors a small solution norm
although the residual norm is large, while a small allows a large
solution norm. In addition, also controls the sensitivity of the
regularized solution to perturbations in the weight matrix and the
data [408, 409]. Regularization can be viewed as a smoothing of
the solution. Generally, a large regularization parameter results
in a smooth image with low spatial resolution, while a small regularization parameter can sharpen the solution with noise of high
spatial frequency components, as shown in Figure 5.5.
58
Target
=10-6
=10-5
=10
-1
=10
=10
Solution norm L(x-x0)2
10
10
10
10
10
10
Residual norm y-F(x)2
Figure 5.6. The generic L-curve

for standard Tikhonov
regularization.
Figure 5.5. The influence of the regularization parameter in standard

Tikhonov regularization on the FDOT reconstructions.
The optimal regularization parameter should be equal to the

ratio of the variances of the measurement data and optical properties [398, 410]. However, no such a prior information is available generally. Instead, it is most commonly derived empirically.
The regularization parameter is often initially set to a high value
and is monotonically decreased with increasing iterations. Some
techniques based on mathematical principles such as generalized
cross-validation [411] and the L-curve technique [412] are useful
in choosing an appropriate regularization parameter. The L-curve
method is a convenient graphical tool. In this method, the solution norm is plotted versus the residual norm in a log-log plot for
different values of , giving a typical L-shaped curve, as shown
in Figure 5.6. A good regularization parameter is found near the
characteristic corner of the L-curve [412], as such a value of
yields a trade between a small residual norm and a small solution
norm [397]. However, the L-curve method may fail in cases where
no well-defined corner exists. The U-curve method, proposed by
Krawczyk-Sta
ndo et al. [413, 414], is also useful in defining the
regularization parameter for FDOT [415]. In addition, a neighborhood regularization method was recently proposed, in which
multiple regularized solutions, corresponding to a series of adjacent
regularization parameters, were combined in a geometric mean to
obtain the final solution [416].
For FDOT using nonlinear UCNPs, as described in Paper VIII
and Paper VII, there was no classical L-curve, and the regularization parameter was thus determined by empirical means.
59
5.1.4 Regularization
The regularization matrix

The regularization matrix, L, was set to the identity matrix, I,
in the discussions above, giving the standard Tikhonov regularization. However, different regularization matrices can be chosen.
For instance, Pogue et al. used a depth dependent regularization
matrix in a cylindrical geometry to compensate for the decrease in
sensitivity at greater depths [409]. Liu et al. used a regularization
matrix normalized with the 2-norm of columns of the sensitivity
matrix to reduce the differences in detection sensitivities [417].
Cao et al. presented an adaptive Tikhonov regularization method,
in which the regularization matrix was dynamically updated using
the result of the previous iteration to penalize the solutions [418].
Most commonly, L is adapted using spatial or spectral a prior
information obtained from other measurements. X-ray CT [419]
and MRI [420] can be incorporated into the FDOT system. The
whole volume is divided into different regions according to tissue
type, using the anatomical information obtained from the additional imaging modality. Such information is beneficial not only
for improving the forward model by providing constraints on the
variation in optical properties variation, but also for regularizing
the inverse problem. A regularization matrix is accordingly created
to control the smoothness and sensitivity of the inverse process. A
Laplacian-type of regularization proposed by Brooksby et al. [421]
is commonly used, giving the regularization matrix:
Li,j
if i and j are not in the same region,

0,
= 1/N, if i and j are in the same region,
1,
if i = j,
(5.11)
where i and j are node indices, and N is the number of nodes

within the given region (or segment). This method smooths the
solution within individual regions, while allowing discontinuities
across region borders. A Helmholtz-type structured regularization
matrix has also been suggested [422]. Hyde et al. assigned regularization weights to different segments using fluorescence data
and anatomic information through a low-dimensional inverse problem [423]. In addition, they considered each FDOT voxel, especially in the vicinity of tissue boundaries, as a mixture of different
anatomic regions, due to the difference in resolution of the FDOT
and anatomical imaging modality. In this way, they could adjust
the regularization level for each node more finely. This method increases smoothing in regions with larger weights, while decreasing
smoothing in regions with smaller weights. Ale et al. combined the
Laplacian and weighted segments regularization methods, to produce the local Laplacian and Laplacian+Weight-segments methods [424]. All these approaches rely on the assumption that voxels
60
within the same tissue region should have similar optical properties, and thus the sought quantity varies smoothly.
Multispectral fluorescent emission recordings provide depth information about the fluorophores embedded in tissues [379, 380,
425]. Axelsson et al. presented a method of creating a spatially
varying regularization matrix using the intensity ratio of two emission wavelengths [381]. This approach was also employed in the
present work (Paper IX) with UCNP-mediated FDOT. Both improved resolution and contrast were obtained in the reconstructed
images, compared to using standard Tikhonov regularization.
High-resolution fluorescence diffuse optical

tomography using upconverting
nanoparticles
Fluorescent dyes and quantum dots are commonly used as contrast agents in FDOT. Recently, UCNPs have been introduced
as contrast agents in FDOT [282]. UCNPs have many benefits
in FDOT. Both the excitation and emission wavelengths can be
tuned to the tissue optical window, where biological tissue has relatively low absorption and scattering. This enables imaging to
a considerable depth. Upconversion emissions from UCNPs are
anti-Stokes shifted, and this makes the complete separation of upconversion emission from tissue autofluorescence possible by using
an appropriate filter system, thus achieving autofluorescence-free
imaging, as demonstrated in Paper VI. As FDOT is susceptible
to noise, the suppression of background tissue autofluorescence
leads to reconstructions with high quality [282]. In addition, the
nonlinear power dependence of upconversion is also advantageous
in FDOT, as will be discussed in detail below. Based on these
factors, high-resolution FDOT has been developed using NIRemitting Yb3+ /Tm3+ -codoped nanoparticles.
5.2.1
Figure 5.7. Transmission electron

microscopy image of core-shell
UCNPs used as the contrast
agents in FDOT.
NaYF4:Yb3+/Tm3+@NaYF4+
Intensity+ [a.u.]
5.2
50 nm
JCPDS+281192
10
20
30
2 []
Figure 5.8. X-ray diffraction
pattern of the
UCNPs used as the contrast
agents in FDOT.
Nanoparticles used in this work
The nanoparticles used in this study were synthesized primarily using the oleate route proposed by the group of Zhang [199, 228, 426]
with slight modifications, except in Paper II. The particles have a
core-shell structure, and the average size can be tuned from 20 nm
to 50 nm by varying reaction parameters. Figure 5.7 shows a typical transmission electron microscopy image. The particles appear
spherical in shape. The prepared UCNPs have a hexagonal phase,
with an X-ray diffraction pattern well consistent with the JCPDS
standard card (28-1192), as shown in Figure 5.8. Oleic acid was
used as surfactant in the synthesis. The prepared nanoparticles
could be well dispersed in commonly used nonpolar solvents, such
61
5.2.2 Selective excitation
as hexane, cyclohexane, chloroform and toluene, and are colloidally

stable for months without visible agglomeration.
linear
quadratic
Figure 5.9. Schematic illustration

of selective excitation achieved by
the steeper gradients of quadratic
fluorophores. The circles represent
the fluorescent inclusions.
5.2.2
Selective excitation
The resolution of far-field fluorescence imaging, i.e., how closely

spaced fluorophores can be and still be resolved, is limited to
the diffraction limit. An approach commonly used to increase
the imaging resolution is to implement selective/localized excitation, as in stimulated emission depletion microscopy [427, 428]
and multi-photon fluorescence microscopy [429, 430]. For example,
the stimulated emission depletion microscopy employs a depletion
beam to inhibit the fluorescence originating from neighboring fluorophores, thus only fluorophores in a localized region are allowed
to emit at a certain time. Multi-photon fluorescence microscopy
makes use of the nonlinear intensity dependence of fluorophores,
giving rise to efficient excitation only near the focus of the excitation beam.
Similarly, upconversion emission provides high spatial resolution, especially in diffuse imaging and tomography, due to its nonlinear nature. Deep in a tissue, the excitation light originating
from the source is severely attenuated by tissue absorption and
scattering. The resulting fluence rate is usually well below the saturation regime for upconversion emissions. In such circumstances,
the two-photon upconversion emission exhibits a quadratic dependence on the excitation intensity, and thus experiences a higher
excitation gradient than linear emission, leading to high-resolution
diffuse imaging [24].
In the present work (Paper VII), high-resolution FDOT was
developed with NIR-emitting UCNPs. Two capillaries filled with
an UCNP suspension, at a depth of 7 mm from the excitation
source, placed 4 mm apart, could still be resolved, while tubes filled
with linear fluorophores could only be resolved when seperated
by a distance greater than 8 mm. Selective excitation is clearly
demonstrated in the sensitivity maps for these two cases, as shown
in Figure 5.9.
5.2.3
Crosstalk between multiple excitation

sources
The nonlinear power dependence of upconversion emissions can

be used to increase the information density in a given volume by
including simultaneous multibeam excitation. Taking dual-beam
excitation as an example, two fluorescence images, recorded during
excitation with individual beams at different positions, are useful
for image reconstruction. The nonlinearity of upconversion emission opens up the possibility of increasing orthogonal data points
62
by acquiring a third image under excitation by two beams simultaneously at the two positions, as the emission intensity, , can be
expressed as:
(x,1 + x,2 )2 af m
= (2x,1 + 2x,2 + 2x,1 x,2 )af m ,
(5.12)
where x,1(2) denotes the excitation fluence rates generated by the

two beams. The existence of the cross-term makes the new image
independent, rather than being a simple linear superposition of
the first two. Singular value decomposition analysis of the sensitivity matrices has verified the usefulness of the additional data.
This effect was not possible with linear fluorophores. This approach is especially relevant for measurements on small surfaces,
such as those found in mice, as sufficient data for an accurate reconstruction can still be obtained. Multibeam FDOT is described
in Paper VIII.
5.2.4
Multispectral regularization
In the multispectral regularization approach, the most probable

distance between the fluorophores and the detector is estimated
by comparing the detected fluorescence intensity ratio with the
modeled value for different emission wavelengths [381], yielding a
spatially varying regularization map. Small regularization parameters are assigned to the regions where the fluorophores are
mostly likely to be found, in order to increase the spatial resolution, while large parameters are assigned to regions where the
fluorophores are not expected, to allow smoothing to reduce artifacts. This approach works best for a single fluorophore inside the
tissue, while the small infinite spatial distribution of several fluorophores could make the depth estimate less accurate. The spatial
distribution of fluorophores can be reasonably well estimated by
repeating the process for all source-dector projections.
A large difference in effective attenuation coefficients at fluorescence wavelengths is preferable in order to increase the depth
sensitivity. For biological tissues, this is typically achieved at the
blue end of the tissue optical window, making use of the sharp absorption profile of hemoglobin. UCNPs can offer large anti-Stokes
shifted emission in a spectral region with large differences in tissue
attenuation. In Paper IX, core-shell NaYF4 :Yb3+ /Er3+ @NaYF4
UCNPs, emitting two upconversion bands (540 nm and 660 nm)
under excitation of 975 nm, were used in multispectral guided
FDOT, yielding significantly better axial resolution than using
standard Tikhonov regularization.
A spatially varying regularization map can be obtained using
the data acquired with multiple excitation wavelengths in a similar
way. UCNPs efficiently excitable by both 975 nm and 808 nm are
63
5.2.5 Outlook
now available [148, 149]. More complicated regularization maps

can be created by combining multispectral excitation and emission
data, in order to provide more constraints and improve the quality
of FDOT.
5.2.5
Outlook
Although showing great advantages and promise, the relatively

weak luminescence from UCNPs is still a limiting factor for their
applications in deep tissue regions relying on diffuse light excitation. Besides enhancing the intrinsic luminescence efficiency of
UCNPs fundamentally by means of material engineering, progress
in the following aspects will greatly increase the applicability of
UCNPs in deep tissues:
Luminescence pathway optimization. At present, the most
notable sensitizer and activator combinations are Yb3+ /Tm3+
and Nd3+ /Yb3+ /Er3+ [148, 149, 232], for which the excitation
wavelength and the main emission wavelength can be 975 nm and
800 nm, and 800 nm and 650 nm, respectively. Both of these
two luminescence pathways are close to the optimal for biological
applications, especially the one for the Nd3+ /Yb3+ /Er3+ combination, as discussed in Section 3.2.3. If the major upconversion
emission band can be tuned to the range of 700800 nm, it will
be more than welcome.
Excitation enhancement by optical antennas. Upconversion emission can be significantly enhanced by modifying the
surface of UCNPs with dye molecules [205] and noble metal
nanostructures [218], as discussed in Section 3.2.2. However,
some issues associated with such techniques need to be addressed.
Dye molecules are generally photobleached. Surface modification
with metal nanostructures is rather demanding, as emission
quenching easily becomes dominant if the modification process is
not precisely controlled.
Excitation scheme optimization.
Pulsed excitation including single-pulse excitation, proposed in Paper V, proved
to be able to break through the low light limit of UCNPs to
some extent. In Paper V, only square-wave excitation was
investigated. A more wisely designed pulse train, taking into
account the upconversion dynamics, could enable UCNPs to be
used in an even more efficient way. In addition, the combinational
use of pulsed excitation approach and optical antenna effect can
further increase the applicable depth of UCNPs in biological tissue.
At present, the use of UCNPs in biomedical applications
is mainly making use of the response of UCNPs to the excitation
64
wavelength, i.e., certain emission bands are generated under excitation at one wavelength, and the response to excitation power
density, i.e., the nonlinear excitation-power-density dependence of
upconversion emission intensity. As an optical system, UCNPs are
relatively complex, as many steps are involved in the generation
of upconversion emission, and some of them are rather slow,
characterized by the long lifetimes of the energy levels of RE ions.
The response of UCNPs to time-varying excitation light could
provide contrast or other interesting information for biomedical
imaging on an easy-to-operate time scale, i.e., sms. This could
be an interesting topic of research.
The use of UCNPs for biomedical imaging is still in its infancy,
and most work so far has been for the proof of concept. Functional
imaging using UCNPs in different biological models is becoming
and will remain a hot research topic in next stage.
65

I Drug quantification in turbid media by fluorescence
H. Xie, H. Liu, P. Svenmarker, J. Axelsson, C. T. Xu, S. Gr
afe,
J. H. Lundeman, H. P. H. Cheng, S. Svanberg, N. Bendsoe,
P. E. Andersen, K. Svanberg, S. Andersson-Engels
The concentration of photosensitizers is a critical parameter in
photodynamic therapy, and it is preferable to quantify them
using fluorescence techniques as they are noninvasive. However,
the detected fluorescence signal generally exhibits a complex
dependence on the concentration of photosensitizers deep in
the tissue, as different types of tissue have different optical
properties. This article describes a procedure for correction of
the fluorescence intensity due to the different optical properties
of tissues, utilizing time-resolved fluorescence white Monte-Carlo
simulations combined with the Beer-Lambert law. The method
was validated using data obtained from tissue phantoms and
murine tissues.
I proposed the light-absorption-correction procedure, and
performed a major part of the data analysis and the implementation of the time-resolved white Monte-Carlo simulations. I made
substantial contributions to the preparation of the manuscript.
67
II Synthesis of NaYF4 :Yb3+ , Er3+ upconverting

S. Andersson-Engels
The continuous flow synthesis of NaYF4 :Yb3+ ,Er3+ upconverting nanocrystals was achieved for the first time in a
capillary-based microfluidic reaction system. Microfluidic synthesis opens up the possibility of real-time reaction monitoring
and scale-up production.
I participated in the planning of the work, and was responsible for the main part of the nanoparticle synthesis and
optical characterization. I wrote the manuscript.
III Upconverting nanoparticles for pre-clinical diffuse

S. Andersson-Engels
This is a review article in which the current state of the
art of UCNPs and their applications in diffuse imaging, microscopy and sensing are discussed. In addition, future directions
and challenges for the development of UCNPs as potential
clinical biomedical materials are presented.
I made substantial contributions to the preparation of the
manuscript.
68
IV Balancing power density based quantum yield

H. Liu, C. T. Xu, D. Lindgren, H. Xie, D. Thomas, C. Gundlach, S. Andersson-Engels
The characterization of the excitation-intensity-dependent
quantum yield of upconverting nanoparticles is a crucial issue
for both the development of upconverting materials and their
biomedical applications. In this study, a simple relationship
between the quantum yield and excitation intensity was theoretically derived for two-photon upconversion emission. A
two-parameter quantum yield characterization approach is proposed, involving the balancing power density and the maximum
attainable quantum yield. The results presented in this paper
provide a potential standard characterization approach for
upconverting nanoparticles regarding energy conversion.
I proposed the quantum yield characterization of UCNPs
using balancing power density. I was responsible for the theoretical derivation, the experimental work and the data analysis. I
wrote the manuscript.
V Deep tissue optical imaging of upconverting

H. Liu, C. T. Xu, G. Dumlupinar, O. B. Jensen, P. E. Andersen,
S. Andersson-Engels
The low quantum yield of upconverting nanoparticles, especially at low excitation fluence rate, as is typically encountered
in biological tissues, constitutes a severe hurdle for biomedical
applications of upconverting nanoparticles in deep tissues. This
cannot be overcome by increasing the intensity of continuous
excitation of the upconverting nanoparticles due to laser safety
concerns. A pulsed excitation approach was thus proposed in
this study, which has the potential to employing higher intrinsic
quantum yield of upconverting nanoparticles using the same
amount of excitation energy, thus extending the imaging depth.
I participated in the proposal of the idea, and was responsible for the numerical simulations, the experimental work and
the data analysis. I played a major part in the interpretation of
the experimental results and prepared the manuscript.
69
VI Autofluorescence insensitive imaging using

C. T. Xu, N. Svensson, J. Axelsson, P. Svenmarker, G. Somesfalean, G. Chen, H. Liang, H. Liu, Z. Zhang, S. AnderssonEngels
In this study, autofluorescence-free diffuse optical imaging
using upconverting nanoparticles as a type of exogenous luminescent markers was demonstrated in a tissue phantom. It was
found that UCNP-mediated imaging led to exceptionally high
contrast, compared to conventional downconverting luminescent
markers, due to the absence of autofluorescence.
I took part in the nanoparticle synthesis and optical characterization, as well as discussions on the optical imaging
experiments.
VII High-resolution fluorescence diffuse optical

nanoparticles
L. R. Wallenberg, S. Andersson-Engels
In this study, it was demonstrated that the spatial resolution of the FDOT reconstruction images could be significantly
improved by using nonlinear upconverting nanoparticles, compared to using conventional linear fluorophores as contrast
agents. The improvement was achieved by selective excitation,
to some extent, of individual fluorescent targets due to the
large excitation gradient, rooted in the nonlinear power density
dependence of upconverting nanoparticles.
I took part in the design of the experiments and participated in all parts. I made substantial contributions to the data
analysis.
70
VIII Multibeam fluorescence diffuse optical tomography

H. Liu, C. T. Xu, S. Andersson-Engels
In FDOT, the image reconstruction quality is essentially
determined by the amount and quality of the information
obtained from boundary measurements. In this study, the unique
nonlinear power dependence of upconverting nanoparticles was
exploited to increase the information density for FDOT. By
performing excitation simultaneously with two beams, orthogonal data were obtained when using UCNPs as contrast agents,
leading to significantly improved reconstructions. The same
behavior could not be observed when using linear fluorophores.
I proposed the use of multiple excitation beams for UCNPmediated fluorescence diffuse optical tomography in order to
increase information density. I participated in planning the work,
took part in all the experiments, and prepared the manuscript.
IX Multispectral guided fluorescence diffuse optical

P. Svenmarker, C. T. Xu, H. Liu, X. Wu, S. Andersson-Engels
In this study, a spatially varying regularization map was
created using multispectral emission information generated
using upconverting nanoparticles as contrast agent, and was
incorporated as a priori information to guide fluorescence diffuse
optical tomography. This led to significantly improved resolution
and contrast in the reconstructed images.
I contributed substantially to the synthesis and optical
characterization of the upconverting nanoparticles. I took part
in the preparation of the manuscript.
71
Acknowledgements
First of all, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to
my supervisor, Professor Stefan Andersson-Engels, who was my
mentor throughout this endeavor. I still remember how green I
was when I started my PhD studies, but thanks to him, I now
feel much more confident in scientific research. His patience,
guidance and encouragement have been indispensable. Thank
you for encouraging me to pursue my own ideas, and for giving
me a little nudge when necessary. Thank you also for all
the illuminating discussions we have had, especially when I was
confused or frustrated. Your kindness and support will never be
forgotten.
I would also like to express my thanks to my co-supervisor,
Professor Thomas Laurell, for giving me the opportunity to dabble in the fantastic field of microfluidics, and for his wonderful
support and rewarding discussions throughout the period of these
studies.
Special thanks also to my mentor, Dr. Gabriel Somesfalean.
I am truly grateful to you for introducing me to a splendid world,
for your invaluable help in research throughout the years, and for
being a good friend.
Sincere thanks also to Professor Peter E. Andersen, for fruitful
collaboration, and for organizing the wonderful summer school at
Hven.
I would also like to express my gratitude to the Svanberg
family. Thank you all for your warm welcome when I set foot
in a foreign land. Sune, thank you for organizing the very nice
apartment. I will never forget the night when you painted the
floor. You painted my family in the bedroom, and painted yourself
out, in order to make our living environment even nicer. Thank
you also for your truly inspiring and contagious enthusiasm for
life and science. Katarina, thank you for always being friendly
and helpful, in both professional and personal matters. Emilie
73
Acknowledgements
and Kristina, thank you for including my family as members of

your family.
Furthermore, I would like to thank my splendid colleagues,
past and present, for creating the friendliest of atmospheres. It
has really been a pleasure to work with you. Can Xu, I am really
grateful for your help in research and for our fruitful discussions
and collaboration on many interesting topics, and for your help
to my whole family. I have learnt a lot from you about science
and life. It is my fortune to have you as a good friend. Haiyan
Xie, thank you for your help and company in the first project,
and for your positive attitude to life and research. It is simply
wonderful to have you as a good friend and an elder sister. Ola
Jakobsson, thank you for your invaluable help in the project on
microfuidic synthesis of upconverting nanoparticles, and also for
your help to my family. The experience of barbecues and making
chili oil is unforgettable. Pontus Svenmarker, thank you for your
constant help and collaboration in research throughout the years.
I would also like to thank Johan Axelsson for his kindness and
willingness in solving technical problems; Dmitry Khoptyar, for
taking me to my first international measurement campaign at the
Technical University of Denmark, and also for organizing many
social events; Erik Alerstam, for sharing his passion for science, as
well as for carrying out time-of-flight measurements for me; Patrik
Lundin, for sharing his experience and knowledge in supervising
the wonderful diode laser lab; Nina Reistad, for her kindness
and pleasant talks; and Xia Wu, Gokhan Dumplupinar, Bjorn
Thomasson, Arefeh Mousavi, Arman Subash, Alfi Shaharin, and
Hugo S
oderlund, for being excellent MSc students.
I would like to express my thanks to all present and former
members of the Atomic Physics Division for providing a friendly,
exciting and stimulating environment to work in. I particularly
enjoyed the Friday meetings, the annual Lund Laser Center
excursion, St. Lucia celebrations and the julbord!
This thesis could not have been completed without the assistance of my splendid local and international collaboration
partners: Sarah Fredriksson, Fredrik Olsson, Anna Gisselsson,
Hanna Toftevall, Pontus Kjellman, Rene in t Zandt, Linda
Andersson, Malin Mejare, Nina Rogelius, and collaborators at
Genovis AB in Lund, David Lindgren and Maria E. Messing at
the Division of Solid State Physics in Lund, Diana Thomas and
Carsten Gundlach at MAXLAB in Lund, L. Reine Wallenberg
at Polymer and Materials Chemistry/nCHREM in Lund, Guanying Chen and Professor Zhiguo Zhang at Harbin Institute of
Technology in China, Qiuqiang Zhan, Professor Sailing He and
collaborators at Zhejiang University in China, Ole B. Jensen at
74
Acknowledgements
the Department of Photonics Engineering, Technical University

of Denmark, and collaborators at Biolitec AG in Jena, Germany.
My appreciation also goes to Dr. Hampus Nilsson and Dr. Sven
Huldt at the Lund Observatory, and Professor Dan Hessman at
the Division of Solid State Physics in Lund, for their assistance in
the spectroscopic measurements on upconverting nanoparticles,
Professor J
orgen Larsson at the Division of Atomic Physics in
Lund for his assistance in the X-ray diffraction measurement
on upconverting nanoparticles, Professor Yong Zhang at the
Department of Biomedical Engineering, National University of
Singapore, and Professor Frank C. J. M. van Veggel at the
Department of Chemistry, University of Victoria, Canada, for
instructing me about the synthesis of upconverting nanoparticles.
Finally, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my
beloved family and friends for their unconditional support and
encouragement, and also for making life colorful and enjoyable.
At the end, I would also like to apologize to my beloved sweet
daughter. Please forgive me for not having more time and patience
to play with you.
75
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102
Papers
Paper I
H. Xie, H. Liu, P. Svenmarker, J. Axelsson, C. T. Xu, S. Gr
afe,
J. H. Lundeman, H. P. H. Cheng, S. Svanberg, N. Bendsoe,
P. E. Andersen, K. Svanberg, S. Andersson-Engels.
Journal of Biomedical Optics 16(6), 066002-1 - 066002-11 (2011).
Paper I
Journal of Biomedical Optics 16(6), 066002 (June 2011)

using white Monte Carlo simulations
Haiyan Xie,a Haichun Liu,a Pontus Svenmarker,a Johan Axelsson,a Can T. Xu,a Susanna Grafe,b
Jesper Holm Lundeman,c Haynes Pak Hay Cheng,c Sune Svanberg,a Niels Bendsoe,d Peter E. Andersen,c
Katarina Svanberg,e and Stefan Andersson-Engelsa
a Lund University, Department of Physics, P.O. Box 118, SE-221 00, Lund, Sweden
b Biolitec AG, Research and Development, D-077 45, Jena, Germany
c Technical University of Denmark, DTU Fotonik, DK-4000, Roskilde, Denmark
d Lund University Hospital, Department of Dermatology and Venereology, SE-221 85,
e Lund
Lund, Sweden
University Hospital, Department of Oncology, SE-221 85, Lund, Sweden
Abstract. Accurate quantification of photosensitizers is in many cases a critical issue in photodynamic therapy.
As a noninvasive and sensitive tool, fluorescence imaging has attracted particular interest for quantification in
pre-clinical research. However, due to the absorption of excitation and emission light by turbid media, such
as biological tissue, the detected fluorescence signal does not have a simple and unique dependence on the
fluorophore concentration for different tissues, but depends in a complex way on other parameters as well. For
this reason, little has been done on drug quantification in vivo by the fluorescence imaging technique. In this paper
we present a novel approach to compensate for the light absorption in homogeneous turbid media both for the
excitation and emission light, utilizing time-resolved fluorescence white Monte Carlo simulations combined with
the BeerLambert law. This method shows that the corrected fluorescence intensity is almost proportional to the
absolute fluorophore concentration. The results on controllable tissue phantoms and murine tissues are presented
and show good correlations between the evaluated fluorescence intensities after the light-absorption correction
and absolute fluorophore concentrations. These results suggest that the technique potentially provides the means
to quantify the fluorophore concentration from fluorescence images. C 2011 Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers
(SPIE). [DOI: 10.1117/1.3585675]
Keywords: fluorescence; imaging; biomedical optics; tissues; optical properties; absorption; Monte Carlo; photon migration.
Paper 11047R received Feb. 2, 2011; revised manuscript received Apr. 6, 2011; accepted for publication Apr. 8, 2011; published online
Jun. 1, 2011.
1 Introduction
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has been clinically accepted to
treat certain types of malignant tumors as well as some nonmalignant diseases.1, 2 In PDT a photosensitizer (PS) is administrated either systemically or topically. It is activated by irradiating appropriate light to the sensitized tumor. As the PS
absorbs light, the gained energy can be transferred to nearby
oxygen molecules, leading to the formation of highly reactive
oxygen radicals and thereafter tissue damage. PDT is a nonthermal photochemical reaction, which requires the presence of a
photosensitizing agent (i.e., PS), oxygen and light, simultaneously. In PDT, quantification of the PS in a noninvasive way is
in many cases a critical issue, since light dosimetry, irradiation
parameters, and therapeutic outcome depends significantly on
the PS quantities distributed in the region of interest (ROI).
Various techniques have been proposed to quantify the PS
concentration. In ex vivo animal experiments, high performance
liquid chromatography (HPLC) of excised tissues is conventionally used as a gold standard for quantitative analysis of the PS
concentration as well as for its pharmacokinetic behavior.3 Optical techniques can offer alternatives and be used in vivo. Among
Address all correspondence to: Haiyan Xie, Lund University, Department of
Physics, P.O. Box 118, 22100 Lund, Sweden. Tel: 0046-46-222 3119; Fax: 004646-222 4250; E-mail: [email protected].
Journal of Biomedical Optics
these techniques, absorption spectroscopy47 provides a noninvasive tool for PS concentration studies. However, it suffers from
a relatively poor detection sensitivity, limiting its applicability.4
Most photosensitizing agents are, however, fluorescent, providing another possibility for measuring its concentration. Fluorescence has already been extensively used for tumor localization
and to assess treatment progression during diagnostic screening
or image-guided surgery to improve clinical decision-making
and the therapeutic outcome (see e.g., Refs. 811).
Fluorescence spectroscopy (either in the point-monitoring or
imaging mode) can also be used as a tool for PS concentration
measurements.4, 1215 No tissue excision would be required in
contrast to HPLC. Thus, it may constitute a tool for minimally
invasive quantification studies providing in vivo capabilities.
In these types of measurements, it is, however, a challenge to
reduce the influence of the attenuation of the probing light.
The signal depends not only on the concentration of the fluorophore but also on the optical properties, the detection geometry, and the tissue autofluorescence [i.e., the fluorescence
from endogenous tissue fluorophores such as collagen or nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH)16 ], etc. Ultimately, these
dependencies tend to decrease the correlation coefficient between the fluorescence signal and the true PS concentration.
C 2011 SPIE
1083-3668/2011/16(6)/066002/11/$25.00
066002-1
June 2011 Vol. 16(6)
Downloaded from SPIE Digital Library on 30 Nov 2011 to 130.235.39.169. Terms of Use: http://spiedl.org/terms
107
Drug quantification in turbid media by fluorescence imaging combined with light-absorption correction
Xie et al.: Drug quantification in turbid media by fluorescence imaging...
An alternative method would be to perform a tomographic

reconstruction [fluorescence diffuse optical tomography(FDOT)]. Such a procedure would obtain the fluorescence signal
per unit volume tissue compensated for the light attenuation. The
reconstruction is achieved by fitting the collected boundary fluence for multiple source-detector pairs to a forward propagation
model, for example, the diffusion model. This somewhat limits the geometries possible in the measurements. Furthermore,
FDOT suffers from the requirement of a sophisticated system,
greatly increasing the system expense. Moreover, an increased
computation time, usually unknown background, and that the reconstruction algorithm most often is very ill-conditioned makes
the technique difficult to use in practice.1720 Image ratiometric
quantification is therefore a commonly used method12 to correct
for these properties. Svensson et al. have suggested and shown
that an image ratio of the fluorescence signal from the PS over
tissue autofluorescence signal could provide a capability in realtime PS quantification in a defined murine organ.21 However,
different organs do not show the same dependence, probably
due to their different optical properties. In Ref. 13, a double
fluorescence/reflectance ratio was calculated for two different
excitation sources. The excitation wavelengths were chosen to
match the maximum and minimum of the fluorophore absorption spectrum. In this way, it was possible to compensate for
the optical properties, and to obtain a signal that is only weakly
dependent on these properties. This approach requires a sharp
edge in the fluorophore absorption in order to facilitate a proper
normalization. In Ref. 22, Themelis et al. employed a single
fluorescence/remittance ratio approach to correct for the light
attenuation effects. They managed to improve the correlation between the fluorescence intensity and fluorophore concentration
approximately from 2.5:1 to 1.6:1 for the epi-illumination imaging and from 1.8:1 to 1.2:1 for the transillumination imaging at a
five-fold absorption variation for the phantoms they constructed.
None of these techniques compensates adequately for the absorption at both excitation and emission wavelengths. The ratiobased methods are thus generally limited to certain special cases.
In this paper we present a novel model-based light-absorption
correction approach to obtain the fluorescence intensity originating from the fluorophores to accurately quantify the PS concentrations from the 2D fluorescence images. This method utilizes
time-resolved fluorescence white Monte Carlo (FWMC) simulations in combination with the BeerLambert law for light
absorption. It takes into account details of the light propagation in homogeneous turbid media and thus does not require
separate multispectral fluorescence measurements. The results
on tissue-like phantoms containing Rhodamine 6G and organs
of mice following systemic administration of a liposomal formulation of meso-tetra hydroxyphenyl chlorin (m-THPC), are
presented and show an almost linear response of the corrected
fluorescence intensities to the chemically extracted fluorophore
concentrations measured from HPLC, regardless of the tissue
optical properties. The sensitivity of the results to the optical
properties variation of the media in the model are also presented.
2 Materials and Methods

The light-absorption correction method based on 2D fluorescence images was first validated with a set of well controlled
tissue-like phantoms containing the fluorescent dye Rhodamine
6G. Then the PS concentration was evaluated in excised murine

tissues and compared to the results from the gold standard in
terms of HPLC analysis of extracted tissue samples.
2.1 Phantom Preparation

Twenty homogeneous liquid tissue phantoms were prepared
by mixing water (192.3 ml), Intralipid (Fresenius Kabi,
Uppsala, Sweden; 200 mg/ml, 7.3 ml), India ink (Pelican Fount,
Hannover, Germany; 1:100 stock solution prepared in our lab,
0 ml, 0.5 ml, 1.0 ml, 1.5 ml, respectively), and Rhodamine 6G,
a fluorescent dye with similar emission spectra to fluorescent
proteins (Lambda Physik, Gottingen, Germany; a concentration
of 10 m solution, 0.2 ml, 0.5 ml, 1.0 ml, 1.5 ml, 2.0 ml,
respectively). The ranges of ink and dye concentrations were
chosen to match the absorption and fluorescence for small
animals for both the excitation and emission wavelengths.23
Each phantom was placed in a cylindric glass container. The
thickness of the phantom was 3.1 cm. The absorption and reduced scattering coefficient were measured with a time-of-flight
(TOF) spectroscopy system, described in detail elsewhere.24
The coefficients were measured at two wavelengths (632 and
660 nm). The absorption could be assumed constant over the
wavelength range of interest, with the India ink as the absorber.
For the reduced scattering, we assumed the relation
s () = a b ,
2.2 Photosensitizer
R
In the animal measurement, Fospeg
(Biolitec AG, Jena,
Germany), a liposomal formulation of the active ingredient mTHPC, or temoporfin, was employed as the PS.26, 27 Liposomes
are designed as carrier and delivery systems with the aim of
improving the tumor accumulation behavior of the PS during
PDT. The PS was diluted in 50 l of 5% glucose. All compounds
were stored at 4 C in the darkness. The extinction coefficients
and fluorescence emission spectrum of m-THPC dissolved in
ethanol were measured using a conventional spectrofluorometer
(HORIBA Jobin Yvon GmbH, Unterhaching, Germany).
2.3 Animal Model

The study was performed on 30 female NMRI nu/nu mice
(Harlan Winkelmann GmbH, Borchen, Germany). All animal
experiments were carried out in compliance with the guidelines
established by European Council Directive 86/909/EC and had
been approved by the Thuringer Landesamt fur Lebensmittelsicherheit und Verbraucherschutz, Weimar. A suspension
of HT29 human colorectal carcinoma cells (0.1 ml of 8107
cells/ml in 5% aqueous glucose solution) was inoculated subcutaneously 13 days before the measurements into the left and right
hind thigh of six- to eight-week-old mice, weighing 22 to 25 g.
The optical properties for various murine tissues used in our
data evaluation for some discrete wavelengths were obtained
from Ref. 23. The reduced scattering coefficient was then
extrapolated using Eq. (1). The absorption coefficient was
066002-2
108
(1)
where the parameters a and b were determined from the

measurements. The anisotropy factor was assumed to be 0.87
at these two wavelengths.25
June 2011 Vol. 16(6)
Paper I
approximated in a similar way as a weighted sum of the

concentrations of the blood (both oxy- and deoxy-hemoglobin)
and water volume fractions in the organs, i.e.,
a () = Cdiff (, Rvessel ) SB [xaHbO2 ()
+ (1 x)aHb ()] + SW aW (),
(2)
where aHbO2 (), aHb (), and aW () were the spectral

absorption coefficients of oxy-haemoglobin (HbO2 ), deoxyhaemoglobin (Hb) and water, respectively. x = HbO2 /
(HbO2 + Hb). SB and SW were blood and water volume
fractions, respectively in the different mouse organs. The
factor, Cdiff (, Rvessel ), was introduced to extend the applicability of the diffusion theory in homogeneous media to
shorter wavelengths than 650 nm, due to the fact that blood
is not a homogeneously distributed absorber but a strong
absorber concentrated in the discrete blood vessels.28 The
mean vessel radius, Rvessel , was set to 60 m.29 Numerical
values for all parameters in the model were selected as in
Ref. 23. Finally, the anisotropic factor was set to be 0.8 at both
the excitation and emission wavelength.30
2.4 Animal Procedures

R
Fospeg
was injected into the tail vein of the mice 13 days
after the tumor cell inoculation, when the tumors had reached
a surface diameter of approximately 5 to 8 mm, and protruded
approximately 2 to 3 mm above the skin surface. After injection
R
of Fospeg
, the mice were kept in the dark and given food
ad libidum until the experiment was performed. The animals
were then sacrificed at different times (0.5, 2, 4, 8, and 18 h) after
the PS injection. Blood was removed rapidly by cardiac puncture and organs (muscle, liver, kidney, and lung) were excised
for fluorescence imaging measurements followed by HPLC
analysis. Five mice without PS injection were used as controls.
2.5 HPLC Analysis

Immediately following the fluorescence imaging, the tissue samples were snap frozen and stored in the darkness until analyzed
using chemical extraction and HPLC analysis. In preparation
for the HPLC analysis, tissue samples were homogenized by
cutting into small pieces, freeze dried for 24 h using a freeze
dryer (Alpha 1-4 LSC, Martin Christ Gefriertrocknungsanlagen
GmbH, Osterode am Harz, Germany), mixed with methanol
and dimethyl sulfoxide (3:5, volume:volume), and continuously
shaken for at least 12 h in a vortex mixer (Merck Eurolab, MELB
1719, Lutterworth, UK) operating at 2400 rpm. All samples were
then spun at 16,000 rpm in a centrifuge (Microfuge, Heraeus,
Germany) during 5 min. 1.0 ml of each supernatant was transferred to an HPLC vial. Details of the sample preparations and
HPLC analysis are described in Refs. 21 and 31. The results
from the HPLC method of the excised tissue were used as gold
standard for determining the drug concentrations. These values
were correlated to the animal fluorescence measurements.
2.6 Fluorescence Imaging Measurements

Fluorescence images were acquired using the setup schematically depicted in Fig. 1. The excitation light was coupled into an
Fig. 1 Schematic picture showing the fluorescence imaging setup. The

distal end of the fiber was positioned to obtain either a transillumination
or an epi-fluorescence geometry.
optical fiber. The distal end of the fiber was positioned to obtain
either a transillumination or an epi-fluorescence geometry.
For the phantom experiments, Rhodamine 6G was excited by
an Nd:YAG laser (Viasho VA-I-N-532200mW, Beijing, China)
at 532 nm with a spot size of 3 mm in diameter from the bottom
of the container. The fluorescence was spectrally filtered using
a liquid crystal tunable filter (LCTF VIS 20-35, Varispec, CRI,
Inc., Woburn, California). Images of transmitted fluorescence
were acquired with the LCTF set to 600 nm, using a chargecoupled device (CCD) camera (Andor iXon DU-897, Belfast,
Ireland) with a standard camera lens (50 mm focal length and
f/1.8, Nikon, Tokyo, Japan). To suppress the transmitted laser
light from reaching the camera, a long-pass, cut-off color-glass
filter (OG-550, Schott Inc., W. Germany) was fixed between the
sample and the LCTF.
For the animal measurement, a continuous-wave laser source
at 405 nm developed at DTU Fotonik was used for excitation of the PS. It was based on a frequency doubled tapered
diode amplifier placed in an external grating cavity with Littrow feedback, described in Ref. 32. The entire laser system
was built on a breadboard and placed on a mobile cart. The
output power was 130 mW, out of which 70% was coupled
into and delivered through an optical fiber mounted above the
target. The spot size on the tissue was approximately 4 cm in
diameter. The fluorescence images were captured by the CCD
camera with the LCTF set to 652 nm (corresponding to mTHPC fluorescence peak) and 525 nm (tissue autofluorescence),
respectively.
The fluorescence images were acquired in a dimmed room to
avoid any artifacts from background light. Background images
without the excitation light were also acquired using the same
filter wavelength.
066002-3
June 2011 Vol. 16(6)
109
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of the geometry used for fluorescence white Monte Carlo simulations. (a) The medium is divided into volume elements
using small grids along the r and z axes. Similarly, time is divided into intervals with a size of dt. (b) View of the coordinate system used to calculate
2 + 2r r cos )1/2 .
the convolution of excitation and emission light for a slab of thickness dz at z, where d = (r 2 + r D
D
2.7 Evaluation Procedure

The background image was subtracted pixel by pixel from each
fluorescence image. The fluorescence intensity for an image
was normalized with respect to the exposure time. Prior to the
correction, all images obtained were cropped to the size of the
ROI corresponding to the area where the fluorescence signal
was measured for the phantom or the entire organ. Then the
fluorescence intensity was computed as the average over each
investigated sample.
2.7.1
Image ratio
The PS concentration within each animal organ was quantified

by calculating a dimensionless contrast function resulting from
forming a spectral ratio between the two detection bands:
R = Fimage (652 nm)/Fimage (525 nm),
(3)
where Fimage (652 nm) and Fimage (525 nm) denote the mean value
of the fluorescence intensities within the ROI at the two wavelengths for each animal tissue sample.
2.7.2
Light absorption correction
For a series of nonabsorbing media with the same scattering

coefficient and geometry but containing a different amount of
fluorescence molecules (uniformly distributed), the fluorescence
escaping from the surface is proportional to the concentration of
the fluorophores. However, different media usually have different absorption coefficients, leading to different absorbed fractions both for the excitation and emission light. As a result,
the fluorescence signal detected thus normally shows a strong
dependence on the tissue type in addition to the fluorophore concentration. In principle, the absorptions of both the excitation
and emission light can be compensated for by the BeerLambert
law, if the temporal distribution of the escaping fluorescence is
known. Thus, the linear dependence of the fluorescence intensity
on fluorophore concentration could be reconstructed, independent on tissue type (or optical properties).
The temporal distribution of the fluorescence was simulated by a reverse-emission accelerated Monte Carlo (MC)
approach,33 which accelerated the fluorescence MC simulations

considerably. To further save computation time, the method was
modified and combined with the white Monte Carlo (WMC)
simulation approach. The principle of WMC is explained in
detail in Ref. 24. The WMC approach accelerates multispectral simulations as the solution for one set of optical properties
(corresponding to one wavelength) can be rescaled to another
set. This makes it only necessary to conduct one simulation
run, independent of the number of wavelengths of interest. The
simulation time can thus be greatly shortened, especially when
modeling tissue fluorescence, where multiple wavelengths and
different sets of optical properties are involved.
The medium simulated was assumed to be homogeneous and
the fluorescent molecules to be uniformly distributed. The geometry used for the simulation is a cylinder with a radius of R
and height of Z, as shown in Fig. 2. The optical properties of
the medium at the excitation wavelength are described by the
absorption coefficient ax , the scattering coefficient sx , and the
anisotropy factor g x . The corresponding parameters at the emism
sion wavelength are am , m
s , and g , respectively. Furthermore,
we define t x as the time an excitation photon takes from the
excitation light source to exciting a fluorophore, and t m the time
an emission photon takes from the fluorophore to the detector
on the medium surface. For a nonabsorbing white medium with
certain scattering coefficients sx and m
s , the fluorescence intensities detected at a radial position r D after time t x and t m are
denoted as FW (r D , t x , t m ), the short term of FW (ax = 0, am
x m
= 0, sx , m
s , r D , t , t ). It could be simulated through a
reverse-emission accelerated FWMC procedure, as defined in
Ref. 33, by setting ax and am to zero and convolving over space.
Z
FW (rD , t x , t m ) =
R
dz
2
dr

d AW xa = 0, xs , r, z, t x

m
m
, (4)
eff (r, , z)E W m
a = 0, s , d, z, t
where A W (ax = 0, sx , r, z, t x ) is the probability per unit
volume and unit time for an excitation photon to be absorbed
at a fluorophore position (r , , z), after a time delay t x from
m
the injection point; E W (am = 0, m
s , d, z, t ) is the probability
066002-4
110
June 2011 Vol. 16(6)
Paper I

Table 1 Input parameters for white Monte Carlo simulations.
Grid resolution
Grid size
No. photons
eff
dz (m)
dr (m)
dt (ps)
2106
0.25
500
500
10
61
120
400
400
107
0.25
40
40
125
200
150
150
Phantoms
Murine tissues
per unit volume and unit time to detect a fluorescence photon

which originates from the fluorescence emission point which
is located at a radial distance d and a depth z, after a delay
t m ; eff (r, , z) is the effective quantum yield, which is a
constant in time and space and proportional to the fluorophore
concentration. In our evaluation the decay of the fluorophore is
assumed to be negligible. Values of input parameters used for
the WMC simulations are stated in Table 1.
In the experiments, the excitation light was distributed over
the medium surface. This effect was taken into account by
FW (r D , t x , t m ) = FW (r D , t x , t m ) SBeam ,
(5)
where denotes the convolution, and SBeam is the beam intensity

profile on the medium surface.
If absorption is added to this white medium at both excitation and emission, the corresponding fluorescence intensities,
FA (r D , t x , t m ), can be derived analytically from FW (r D , t x , t m )

using the BeerLambert law:

m
FA (rD , t x, t m ) = FW
,
(rD , t x, t m ) exp xa vt x exp m
a vt
nz
nr
nt 1
nt 2
where Conc is the fluorophore concentration to be determined.

This indicates the corrected fluorescence intensity, Fimage ,
will be proportional to the fluorophore concentration.
3 Results
3.1 Time-Resolved Fluorescence
Distribution from the FWMC Simulations
The simulated temporal distribution of the fluorescence signal
F(r D , t x , t m , z D ) is plotted in Fig. 3. This corresponds to the
detected signal at a surface of the simulated phantom at a radial
distance r D = 5.0 mm, where z D indicates if the detector is at
the bottom (the left column, z D = 3.1 cm, corresponding to the
transillumination geometry) or the top surface (the right column,
(6)
where v = c/n is the light speed in the medium with a refractive
index n. Integrating over the time, we will get a signal corresponding to the recorded fluorescence signal from a pixel at a
radius r D , or a Cartesian position (x, y) in the image, where
r D = (x 2 + y 2 )1/2 . We denote this Fimage (x, y):

FA (rD , t x , t m )dt x dt m .
(7)
Fimage (x, y) = Fimage (rD ) =
tx tm
Then the total intensity from the image can be obtained by

summing up all over the pixels:

Fimage =
Fimage (x, y).
(8)
x,y
By defining a calculated correction factor

F (rD , t x , t m )dt x dt m ds
x
m
t t ROI W
,
Fimage
(9)
where s denotes the surface integral, and ROI is the evaluated

region of interest from which the fluorescence is measured, we
get

Fimage
FW
(rD , t x , t m )dt x dt m ds eff Conc,
t x t m ROI
(10)
Fig. 3 Simulated temporal distribution of the fluorescence for the

phantom at r D = 5.0 mm. The left column illustrates the fluorescence at Z D = 3.1 cm, i.e., for the transillumination geometry.
The fluorescence intensity has been normalized to its peak signal.
The right column shows the corresponding data at Z D = 0, i.e., for the
epi-fluorescence geometry. The top row show the results for a white
medium when all the incident photons were injected at the origin;
in (b) and (e) a uniform flat beam was incident all over the surface
of this white medium; while in (c) and (f) an absorption of ax = am
= 0.37 cm1 is added. In the simulations, reduced scattering
1 and m = 8.30 cm1 were used.
coefficients of x
s = 10.07 cm
s
Values of the other parameters are listed in Table 1.
066002-5
June 2011 Vol. 16(6)
111

x 10
m
a [cm1]
25
20
15
10
5
ax [cm1]
11
(b) 10 x 10
Fluorescence intensities [a.u.]
Fluorescence intensities [a.u.]
11
10
10
10
10
a=0.012 cm
10
0 0.025 0.05 0.075 0.1
Rhodamine 6G concentration [M]
a=0.14 cm
10
2
1
0
0.025
0.05
0.075
0.1
Rhodamine 6G concentration [M]
Fig. 4 (a) Dependence of the correction factor on phantom absorption

coefficients for the transillumination geometry. (b) Scatter plots showing
the fluorescence signals captured at 600 nm before (markers without
circles) and after (with circles) the light-absorption correction versus
the true dye concentrations for liquid tissue-like phantoms, where the
absorption coefficients are the same at the 532-nm excitation and 600nm emission, i.e., a = ax = am. The inset shows the same data in the
semi-log scale.
z D = 0 cm, the epi-fluorescence geometry). The subplots in the

top row show the results for a point source at the top center of
a white medium, i.e., with zero-absorption. It can be seen that
most of the excitation light has a large probability to be absorbed and the fluorescence reaches the detector within a much
longer time in the transillumination geometry [Fig. 3(a)] than in
the epi-fluorescence geometry [Fig. 3(d)]. For a flat light source
with uniform power distribution irradiating all over the surface
of the white medium, the fluorescence signal in the point source
case was convolved with the beam intensity profile on the total surface. The result of that is shown in the middle row. The
signal is increased by a factor of approximately one thousand.
When a certain absorption was added to the white medium,
Eq. (6) was applied to calculate the absorbed light. The results
are illustrated in the bottom row. Photons with a long traveling
time are absorbed, resulting in a decreased fluorescence signal.
For the phantom, the total simulation time is approximately
3 h for one single FWMC process, running on a Intel Duo Core
2-GHz processor. For the smaller grids corresponding to the
animal case, the simulation time is approximately 10 h.
3.2 Phantom Measurements

Our light-absorption correction method was first tested on homogeneous well-controlled tissue-like phantoms. From the TOF
measurement, the absorption coefficients of the phantoms with
0.5
400
500
600
800
0
900
Fig. 5 The extinction coefficients (dashed line) and the fluorescence

emission spectrum (solid line) of m-THPC when excited at 405 nm in
ethanol.
the same ink concentration were the same at both 532 and
600 nm, as the India ink absorption is very flat over this wavelength range. For different ink concentrations, the results were
0.37, 0.26, 0.14, and 0.012 cm1 , respectively. The reduced
scattering coefficients were measured and extrapolated to be
10.10 cm1 at 532 nm and 8.30 cm1 at 600 nm.
The simulated dependence of the correction factor on different absorption coefficients at the excitation and emission
wavelength is shown in Fig. 4(a). For the four sets of phantoms
with different absorptions, the correction factor was = 5303,
949, 87, and 2, respectively. The large variation in illustrates
that the fluorescence signal from the surface is heavily dependent
on the optical properties of the absorbing medium. Figure 4(b)
shows the correlation between the fluorescence signal and the
fluorescent dye (Rhodamine 6G) concentrations before and after
the light-absorption correction, respectively. The markers without circles represent the raw signals directly from the images,
while the markers with circles representing the corrected fluorescence intensities, which were achieved by multiplying the
measured fluorescence from the images by the corresponding
simulated . The correlation between the fluorescence signal
and the fluorophore concentration is dramatically improved from
3000:1 to 1.3:1.
3.3 Animal Measurements

The extinction coefficients and fluorescence emission spectrum
of m-THPC dissolved in ethanol are plotted in Fig. 5, which
shows a high extinction coefficient at 405 nm and strong fluorescent emission at 652 nm.
For the animal measurements, the data from the HPLC
method were regarded as the absolute PS concentrations.
Figure 6 shows some fluorescence images of the murine organs
ex vivo, acquired from the imaging setup. Both the image spectral ratio [Fimage (652 nm)/Fimage (525 nm)] and light-absorption
correction method [Fimage (652 nm) ] were evaluated for the
different types of murine organs. The results are shown in
Figs. 7 and 8. The subplots on the left of Figs. 7 and 8 show
the correlations between the raw fluorescence signals at 652 nm
directly from the images and the PS concentrations. The slope of
the linear fit varies from 5900 for muscle to 720 for lung (8.3:1).
That is to say, no universal correlation curve could adequately fit
066002-6
112
700
Wavelength [nm]
=0.26 cm1
a=0.37 cm
0
300
12
10
Fluorescence emission a.u.
log() [a.u.]
Extinction coefficient [l/mol/cm]
(a)
June 2011 Vol. 16(6)
Paper I
Fig. 6 Fluorescence images of some animal organs ex vivo captured at different emission wavelengths with an exposure time of 11 s. The color bars
indicate fluorescence intensity after background subtraction. (a) The top row shows the images taken with the LCTF set to 652 nm (corresponding
to the maximal drug fluorescence), while (b) the bottom row shows the images at 525 nm (tissue autofluorescence).
(a)
(b)
5000
(c)
2000
1000
0.4
0.8
1.2
8
Corrected Fluo @652nm [a.u.]
Raw Fluo @652nm [a.u.]
3000
Fluo@652nm/Fluo@525nm [a.u.]
Muscle
Liver
Kidney
Lung
4000
x 10
400
300
200
100
2
0
0
0
1.6
0.5
HPLC [ng/mg]
1.5
0.4
HPLC [ng/mg]
0.8
1.2
1.6
HPLC [ng/mg]
Fig. 7 Scatter plots showing (a) the fluorescence signals captured at 652 nm versus the HPLC values for individual organs, where a linear fit of the
data points for each type of organs (solid line) is also shown; (b) the spectral ratio of the fluorescence intensities at 652 nm to that at 525 nm; and
(c) the fluorescence signals after the light-absorption correction versus the HPLC values.
6000
(a) Raw fluorescence
5000
250
(b) Spectral ratio
x 10
(c) Fluorescence*
200
4000
Slope k [a.u.]
4
150
3000
3
100
2000
2
50
1000
Muscle
Liver
Kidney
Lung
Muscle
Liver
Kidney
Lung
Muscle
Liver
Kidney
Lung
Fig. 8 Comparison of the linear fit slopes between the fluorescence signals and the HPLC values. The methods are the same as stated in Fig. 7.
066002-7
June 2011 Vol. 16(6)
113

Table 2 Optical properties of different organs.
Organs ax (cm1 ) am (cm1 ) sx (cm1 ) sm (cm1 ) gx = gm ( )
Muscle
Liver
Kidney
Lung
6.2
0.4
88.7
23.0
0.8
26.5
1.8
57.5
34.9
0.8
4.9
0.3
240.9
117.4
0.8
13.5
0.6
142.0
110.0
0.8
the fluorescence imaging data and the HPLC values, mainly due
to the varying optical properties of the tissue under investigation.
As shown in the middle columns, the slope from the spectral
ratio varies from 240 for muscle to 60 for liver (4.4:1). After the
absorbed light is compensated for, using the optical properties
of a different type of murine organs listed in Table 2, the result
on the right shows the slope varying from 53,500 for liver to
21,400 for lung (2.5:1).
4 Discussion
The simulated time-resolved fluorescence signal provides us
with a clear picture of how the excitation and emitted photons
migrate in the medium. With the information of the photomigration time, one can simulate the amount of light which is absorbed
within the turbid medium, using the proposed absorption correction method. As demonstrated with tissue-like phantoms in
Fig. 4(b), the correlation between the corrected (intrinsic) fluorescence signal and the dye concentration has been dramatically
improved by approximately 2000-fold in comparison to the uncorrected signal, when absorption of the phantoms was varied
over a wide range (approximately by a factor of 30). However,
the corrected correlation is not a perfect single line (about 30%
error in the correlation) for different sets of optical properties.
This results mainly from about a 10% relative error in the optical properties measured by the TOF spectroscopy system.34
Therefore, we tested the sensitivity of due to the error in the
measured optical properties by altering them to a 10% variation, while the other parameters remained the same in the simulations. How is affected for the set of phantoms with the highest
absorption and scattering coefficients (ax = am = 0.37 cm1 ,
1
m
1
x
s = 10.10 cm , s = 8.30 cm ) is shown in Tables 3
and 4, respectively. The relative change in is within the range
of 18% to +36%. For the other phantoms, a smaller variation
in was obtained for lower values of the optical properties.
Provided more accurate optical properties, one could expect
a better correlation between the fluorescence and fluorophore
concentrations. In addition, photobleaching of Rhodamine 6G
(which also could provide an error) is not relevant due to the
low light fluence and short acquisition time used.
R
For the animal study, Fospeg
content ex vivo in murine
organs was quantified. This drug contains the active ingredient
m-THPC, and therefore is interesting as a PDT sensitizer. The
observed signal level directly from the fluorescence imaging
measurement is affected by many factors. It generally leads to
a poor correlation between the signal level and drug concentration, as shown in Figs. 7(a) and 8(a). The fitted linear slope of the
raw fluorescence signals at 652 nm varies drastically between
different organs. The large variations in the raw signals indicate
that absorption caused by tissue should be taken into account to
allow quantification of the PS in the tissue samples. Tissue absorption at the interesting wavelengths is mostly dependent on
the amount of hemoglobin (both oxy- and deoxy-hemoglobin)
in the tissue. The high absorbance in lung, kidney, and liver is
caused by high blood contents, attenuating both the excitation
and emission light. This effect explains the lower slope of the
correlation curves for these organs as compared to those for
muscle and skin. The detailed selectivity and biodistribution of
R
Fospeg
following systemic administration were studied separately in Ref. 31.
To compensate for the tissue absorbed light, the optical properties for different murine organs need to be known. Values from
literatures vary a lot and seem not fully consistent between tissue types. The large variation in literature values results from
the fact that measurements were performed on tissues from different species, in vitro or in vivo, and at a great variety of sample
preparation techniques and other experimental conditions. In the
preparation period of the tissue samples in this study, bleeding
during organ removal caused partial loss of the blood resulting
in a variation of absorption coefficient even for the same type of
tissues. As mentioned above, we do not have the precise values
of the tissue optical properties. Instead, the tabulated values from
Ref. 23 were used. They could only be interpreted as reasonable
but rough estimates of the true mouse tissue optical properties.
This is one of the main reasons why the correlation is not as
good as that for the phantom. The sensitivity of the correction
factor to tissue absorption coefficients are also examined for the
liver with highest absorption (ax = 26.5 cm1 , am = 1.8 cm1 ,
1
m
1
x
s = 11.5 cm , s = 7.0 cm ). In Table 5, the absorption
coefficients have been altered by 30%, resulting in a variation
in from 34% to +41%. Apparently this variation is less
sensitive than that of the phantoms due to the much shorter migration pathlengths the photons spend in the epi-fluorescence
geometry. Furthermore, if the tissue optical properties could be
measured individually for each tissue investigated, simultaneously with the fluorescence imaging measurements, the correlation could be further improved.
The absorption correction method proposed in this study
is based on assumptions that the fluorescent drug is homogeneously distributed within these tissues, and that all tissues
have homogeneous optical properties. Unfortunately very little
is known about distribution of this new drug following system-
Table 3 Sensitivity of the simulated correction factor to absorption coefficients of the phantoms.
Variation in
(ax , am )
(ax 10%, am )
(ax + 10%, am )
(ax , am 10%)
(ax , am + 10%)
23%
+ 26%
27%
+ 32%
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June 2011 Vol. 16(6)
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Table 4 Sensitivity of the simulated correction factor to scattering coefficients of the phantoms.
Variation in
(sx , sm )
(sx 10%, sm )
(sx + 10%, sm )
(sx , sm 10%)
(sx , sm + 10%)
22%
+ 25%
18%
+ 19%
atic administration. Nonetheless, we believe it is reasonable to

assume a homogeneous fluorophore distribution. The assumptions are based on the following considerations and facts. First,
the drug was systemically administrated to the animals. This suggests, in a first order approximation, a relatively homogeneous
distribution in the tissues. Second, the time delays between drug
injection and the measurements are relatively long in this study,
again suggesting a relatively homogenous distribution. In addition, the tumors in this study are relatively small without visible
necrotic regions that would cause an inhomogenous distribution.
Actually, the inhomogeneity of the fluorescence can somehow
be examined from the spatial distribution of the fluorescence
ratio analyzed. From the fluorescence ratio image, a rather homogeneously fluorescence is present across the organ surface.
Any spatial variation in raw data images for a single wavelength is mostly due to nonuniform illumination, variations in
the distance, and the angle between the tissue surface and light
source. In this study the fluorescence measurements are correlated with absolute drug concentration using chemical extraction and HPLC analysis, where the tissues were homogenized in
preparation and the results were considered as a gold standard.
This technique also relies on a homogeneous distribution.
It is known that the fluorescence intensity sometimes exhibits
local variations in certain tissue structures due to light reabsorption or fluctuations in fluorescence yield due to the local
fluorophore environment. The intra-animal variation in mTHPC
concentration has been investigated by Kruijt et al. They investiR
gated intratumoral localization of Foslip
(a different liposomal
formulation of mTHPC in rat liver).35 For short drug-light intervals, the drug is vascularly targeted, whereas longer time periods
(>3 h) enable the PS to diffuse into the nearby tissues.3 They
found an overall homogeneous distribution of mTHPC on the
macroscopic scale, while it was heterogeneous on a submillimeter spatial scale. The macroscopic fluorescence imaging setup
and chemical extraction do not have the spatial resolution to
pick up such a small spatial heterogeneity. Instead these techniques averaged the fluorescence intensities and homogenized
the tissues in the chemical extraction. In fact, the absorption
coefficient of animal tissues at 405-nm excitation wavelength is
on the order of tens of cm1 . When the fluorescence is excited
at 405 nm, the effective penetration depth into tissue is typically
on the order of hundreds of micrometers. In practice we are
sampling a relatively small volume of tissues. This might also
decrease the correlation between the fluorescence signal and PS

concentration.
Tissue autofluorescence could be another issue to slightly
influence the measured fluorescence intensities and thus the
resulting correlation. When excited by UV- or blue radiation,
tissue autofluorescence has a broad spectrum without any
distinct spectral features and slightly overlaps the drug fluorescence signals. The cross-talk will give a background in the
detection. Johansson et al.,4 and Svensson et al.21 discussed how
the influence of this cross-talk can be minimized for fluorophore
assessments. In this work, another approach to handle the tissue
autofluorescence was employed, using a dimensionless contrast
function, namely the fluorescence ratio between the m-THPC
emission peak at 652 nm and the strongest tissue autofluorescence at 525 nm, to study the drug concentrations. This
approach improves the correlation between the fluorescence
signals and the absolute drug content, yet not good enough, as
shown in Figs. 7(b) and 8(b). To reduce the tissue autofluorescence, fluorescence imaging in the near-infrared was utilized in
Ref. 22, since autofluorescence is much smaller than in the
visible. Furthermore, a halogen lamp for white-light color
imaging was employed to get the attenuation image, which
had to be selected where the fluorophore of interest does not
fluoresce. Therefore, the ratio-based quantification method has
a quite strict limit on the spectral bands. It can not be applied
in general cases. A significant advantage of the now proposed
light-absorption correction method is that it does not have
strict requirements on the spectral bands as in the ratiometric
quantification methods.
Photodegradation of Temoporfin over time is usually expected in the fluorescence measurement, in particular in relation
to the ultimate goal of using this technique for quantification
of PS concentration during PDT. Normally photobleaching
depends much on irradiance. Bendsoe et al. reported a photobleaching of about 30% to 35% after 200 s in a liposome formulation based on dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine of m-THPC,
with an irradiation of 20 J/cm2 at 652-nm excitation.36 In comparison, the fluence rate is 7 mW/cm2 at 405-nm excitation in
our measurement, which should translate in that the photodegradation is negligible within the imaging acquisition time (11 s).
Based on this point, the light-induced changes in the resulting
absolute PS concentration, which was obtained from HPLC
analysis after fluorescence measurement, is also at an acceptable
Table 5 Sensitivity of the simulated correction factor to absorption coefficients of murine livers.
Variation in
(ax , am )
(ax 30%, am )
(ax + 30%, am )
(ax , am 30%)
(ax , am + 30%)
34%
+ 41%
10%
+ 9%
066002-9
June 2011 Vol. 16(6)
115
level. It is worthwhile to point out that the fluorophore lifetime

does not influence the correlation in the model at all, since the
absorbed light depends only on the photon migration time.
5 Conclusion
In conclusion, this paper has shown that the fluorescence imaging technique can be used as a noninvasive and sensitive tool to
quantify the fluorescent markers in homogeneous turbid media,
using the novel light-absorption correction approach combining
the fluorescence imaging and FWMC simulations. The results
on both the well-controlled tissue-like phantoms and ex vivo animal tissues have shown that this method provides an acceptable
quantification of fluorescent molecule markers in media with
known geometry and optical properties at both the excitation and
emission wavelengths. An improved linear correlation with the
true concentrations is obtained independent of the tissue optical
properties, since this method efficiently compensates for light
attenuation and thus more directly relates to the intrinsic fluorescence signal levels from the fluorophores. This approach offers
the advantages of minimizing the dependence on the tissue optical properties, a very low concentration detection limit, and wide
spectral bands. The sensitivity of the results to the medium optical properties variation are presented and discussed, in order to
point toward the possible future improvement of this technique.
In future work, it is highly desirable to combine the sensitivity of the fluorescence imaging technique with the tissue
optical properties measurements to constitute an even better and
more reliable fluorophore concentration estimate. The absorption correction and image ratio methods could also be combined
to compensate for tissue autofluorescence.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to Biolitec AG for the realization of
animal studies, HPLC analysis of tissue samples, and providing photosensitizer formulations (a drug they have a commercial interest in), and to Erik Alerstam for his assistance with
the time-of-flight measurements. This work was funded by the
EUBrighter project (FP6-IST-035266) (all groups), and a
Linnaeus grant for the Lund Laser Center.
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Paper II
Synthesis of NaYF4 :Yb3+ , Er3+ upconverting
Proc. of SPIE 7909, 790917-1 - 790917-6 (2011).
Paper II
Synthesis of NaYF4 : Yb3+ , Er3+ upconverting nanocrystals in a

capillary-based continuous microfluidic reaction system
Haichun Liu1 , Ola Jakobsson2 , Can T. Xu1 , Haiyan Xie1 , Thomas Laurell2,3 , and Stefan
Andersson-Engels1
1 Department
of Physics, Lund University, P. O. Box 118, S-221 00, Lund, Sweden;

of Electrical Measurements, Lund University, P. O. Box 118, S-221 00, Lund,
Sweden;
3 Department of Biomedical Engineering, Dongguk University, Seoul, South Korea
2 Department
ABSTRACT
We report for the rst time continuous ow synthesis of NaYF4 : Yb3+ , Er3+ upconverting nanocrystals in a
capillary-based microuidic reaction system. Two sequential temperature steps were employed for heating with
an initial high temperature (180 C) step to burst nuclei and a subsequent low temperature (110 C) step to
promote growth of the nanocrystals in order to obtain high-performance nanocrystals. The prepared nanocrystals
exhibit green and red emissions under excitation of 974 nm diode laser. Our research opens the door for the
synthesis of upconverting nanocrystals in microuidic systems.
Keywords: upconverting nanocrystals, continuous ow, microuidic
1. INTRODUCTION
Upconverting nanocrystals doped with lanthanide ions have drawn much attention due to their potential as optical imaging probes in biomedical applications. These contrast agents have several advantages over conventional
uorescent biomarkers (e.g., organic dyes and semiconductor nanocrystals), such as dramatically reduced autouorescence from cells or tissues, better light penetration depth, no photo-damage to living organisms, and higher
spatial resolution in the captured images.13 Upconverting nanocrystals have come to be widely used in such
diverse elds as, luminescence microscopy,4 reectance and transillumination imaging of biological tissues,57
and uorescence diuse optical tomography8, 9during the last decade.
Among upconverting nanomaterials, lanthanide-ions-doped NaYF4 nanocrystals (NaYF4 : Yb3+ , Er3+ /Tm3+ )
have been demonstrated to be the most ecient to date. Many eorts are being made in order to develop ecient
and less complex methods for synthesizing high quality and monodispersed NaYF4 : Yb3+ , Er3+ /Tm3+ nanocrystals for various biomedical applications. Currently, NaYF4 nanocrystals are mainly synthesized in batch-control
modes in small volumes, for example, using the hydrothermal method,10 solvothermal method,11 microwave
synthesis,12 and pyrolysis of triuoroacetates.13 Although achievements have been made, batch reactors often
suer from the disability to rapidly establish homogenous reaction conditions, e.g., during temperature changes.
This problem is commonly addressed by minimizing reactor volumes, thus leading to a negative impact on the
production rate. It is also dicult to implement fast screening and optimize the synthesis conditions in batch
modes.14
Microuidic reaction systems oer a solution to these challenges and have an increasingly important role in
the synthesis of nanocrystals as highly controlled thermal and stoichiometric microenvironments can be obtained
in the synthesis process.15 Particularly the synthesis of quantum dots was early targeted, and the strategy of
using microuidic reactors was rst presented by Edel J.B. et al, at Imperial College London in 2002.16 In
this paper, we report continuous ow based synthesis of NaYF4 : Yb3+ , Er3+ nanocrystals in a capillary-based
microuidic reaction system. In order to obtain high-performance nanocrystals, a typical synthesis scheme for
colloidal nanocrystals was utilized, which separated the nucleation and growth phase of the nanocrystals by
employing two temperature steps.17, 18
Further author information: (Send correspondence to Haichun Liu)
Haichun Liu: E-mail: [email protected], Telephone: +46 46 222 7471
Colloidal Quantum Dots/Nanocrystals for Biomedical Applications VI, edited by Wolfgang J. Parak, Kenji Yamamoto,
Marek Osinski, Proc. of SPIE Vol. 7909, 790917 2011 SPIE CCC code: 1605-7422/11/$18 doi: 10.1117/12.874348
Proc. of SPIE Vol. 7909 790917-1

Downloaded from SPIE Digital Library on 15 Sep 2011 to 130.235.188.55. Terms of Use: http://spiedl.org/terms
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Synthesis of NaYF4 :Yb3+ , Er3+ upconverting nanocrystals in a capillary-based continuous microfluidic

reaction system
Fig. 1. Scheme of the experimental setup.
2. EXPERIMENTAL
2.1 Chemicals
All chemicals were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich, Ltd., and used as received without further purication. Ln2 O3
(Ln = Y, Yb, Er) (99.99%), NaF (99.9%), and HNO3 (70%) were used as precursor materials, while polyethylene
glycol (PEG, 99%) with an average molecular weight of 200 g/mol and ethylene glycol (EG, 99%) were used as
the solvents. Oleic acid (OA, 90%) was used as the surfactant.
2.2 Synthesis of NaYF4 nanocrystals

In the preparation of stock solutions, rst Ln(NO3 )3 6H2 O (Ln = Y, Yb, Er) were prepared by dissolving Y2 O3 ,
Yb2 O3 and Er2 O3 in HNO3 , respectively, followed by evaporative crystallization of the solutions. Stoichiometric
amounts of Ln(NO3 )3 6H2 O were subsequently dissolved in EG or PEG under vigorous stirring to form a
clear solution with 0.01 M Ln3+ and a molar ratio of Y3+ :Yb3+ :Er3+ 78:20:2. The NaF EG solution with a
concentration of 0.03 M was obtained in the same way. In the synthesis of sample A, the Ln3+ and NaF EG
solutions were aspirated in two syringes respectively and injected into a coaxial mixing device by syringe pumps.
The mixing of the two solutions was diusion limited and no active mixing was introduced. Then the mixture
was injected into a polytetrauoroethylene microcapillary with an inner diameter of 800 m and heated in a 180
C oil bath, and subsequently heated in a 110 C oil bath. Retention times of the reaction mixture in the two
oil baths were determined by the ow rates and capillary lengths. The ow rates of Ln3+ and NaF solutions
were 50 l/min and 200 l/min, respectively, while the capillary lengths in the rst and second oil bath were 8
cm and 100 cm, respectively, resulting in retention times of 10 s in the rst oil bath and 120 s in the second oil
bath. The product were collected from the outlet of the capillary in a test tube. A schematic representation of
the reaction system is shown in Fig. 1. In the synthesis of sample B, the PEG solution of lanthanide ions with
the same concentration and molar ratio of lanthanide ions was used to replace corresponding EG solution, and
OA was further added in with a volume ratio of OA/PEG 1:1. The nanocrystals were separated by diluting the
obtained suspension using acetone followed by centrifugation, and washed using ethanol and deionized water for
several times. The nanocrystals were nally redispersed in ethanol for further characterization.
2.3 Characterization
The size and morphology of the nanocrystals were observed using a JEOL 3000SFF transmission electron microscope (TEM). Samples were prepared by placing a drop of ethanol dispersed nanocrystals on the surface of a
copper specimen grid coated with a perforated carbon lm. The uorescence spectra were recorded on a USB
6500 Ocean Optics spectrometer equipped with a 974 nm diode laser as the excitation source with nanocrystals
redispersed in ethanol.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In Fig. 2 the shapes of the NaYF4 : Yb3+ , Er3+ nanocrystals are shown. As also shown in Fig. 2 (a), the
nanocrystals synthesized without the presence of OA (sample A) show rod-like shapes. Although these rodlike shaped nanocrystals have a broad length distribution, they have a relative narrow diameter distribution
(16.0 3.2 nm). This suggests that the rod-like nanocrystals were probably formed by the connection of spherical

122
Paper II
50 nm
50 nm
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2. TEM images of (a) sample A and (b)sample B.
or ellipsoidal precursors synthesized in the microcapillary, as reported in the synthesis of worm and chain-like
metal nanoparticles in Ref.19. One possible reason is that the growth of nanocrystals were not properly quenched
due to the lack of protection of surfactants. In view of this, OA was added in the subsequent experiment, the
product of which was shown in Fig. 2 (b). As can be seen, the synthesized nanocrystals (sample B) show more
regular shapes and have much smaller size (less than 10 nm) as compared to sample A. However, they tend to
aggregate when dispersed in ethanol, probably due to the adsorption of OA on the surface of the nanocrystals.
These results reveals that OA can be employed to modify the shape and size of upconverting nanocrystals in
the microuidic reaction. The inuence of OA on the microuidic synthesis of upconverting nanocrystals is
currently being thoroughly investigated, and the postprocessing procedures are being improved in order to wash
and redisperse the nanocrystals.
The upconversion uorescence spectra of sample A and B under excitation of 974 nm are presented in Fig. 3
(a) and (b), respectively. As seen, both sample A and B have dominant red emissions, while sample A has a
much larger red/green emission ratio (10:1), which can be explained by the dierence in the size and morphology
of the nanocrystals obtained in the two dierent batches. The emission bands can easily be assigned to intra-4f
electronic transitions of the Er3+ ions. The green emissions between 510 and 530 nm and between 530 and 570
nm were assigned to the 2 H11/2 4 I15/2 and 4 S3/2 4 I15/2 transitions, respectively. The red emission between
635 and 700 nm originated from the 4 F9/2 4 I15/2 transition.20
In order to determine the number of photons responsible for the upconversion mechanism, the dependence of
the upconversion emissions of sample A on the excitation power was investigated. As presented in Fig. 4, both the
green and red upconversion emission intensities demonstrated second order power dependence at low excitation
densities, indicating a two-photon upconversion mechanism. The power dependencies of Er3+ upconversion
emissions became linear at high excitation densities due to saturationof the upconversion processes.21 The
upconversion emissions of sample B have similar power dependences, not shown here.
The upconversion excitation pathways in the Yb3+ /Er3+ system are well-known and are shown in Fig. 5.
The Er3+ ions are rstly excited to 4 I11/2 via an energy transfer from Yb3+ ions in 2 F5/2 state. A second 974
nm photon, or energy transfer from Yb3+ ions can then pump Er3+ ions to the 4 F7/2 level. Subsequently the
Er3+ ions undergo a multi-phonon assisted relaxation to the 2 H11/2 and 4 S3/2 levels and the green emissions
occur via transitions of 2 H11/2 /4 S3/2 4 I15/2 . Alternatively, the ions can further relax and populate the 4 F9/2
leading to the red emission via transition of 4 F9/2 4 I15/2 .20

123

reaction system
6000
4500
5500
4000
5000
3500
4500
3000
15/2
F I
9/2
4
15/2
15/2
3/2
500
S I
1000
1500
500
2000
11/2
1000
4I
1500
S3/2 I15/2
15/2
2000
2500
2500
11/2
F9/24I15/2
3000
Intensity [a.u.]
3500
Intensity
[a.u.]
4000
0
500
550
600
650
Wavelength [nm]
700
750
500
550
600
650
Wavelength [nm]
(a)
700
750
(b)
Fig. 3. Measured upconvertsion emission in NaYF4 : Yb3+ , Er3+ nanocrystals under excitation of 974 nm diode laser.
13
4
F9/24I15/2
12
S3/24I15/2
ln(Intensity (arb. units))
11
10
Slope = 1.9 0.1
9
8
7
Slope = 2.1 0.1
6
5
5.5
6.5
7
ln(Laser Power (mW))
7.5
Fig. 4. Power dependence of the upconversion emissions of sample A when excited at 974 nm.
Energy X 103 (cm-1)
25
4
F7/2
2
H11/2
4
S3/2
20
15
2
10
F9/2
I9/2
I11/2
F5/2
I13/2
I15/2
5
2
Yb3+
F7/2
Er3+
Fig. 5. The energy level diagrams of the Er3+ and Yb3+ dopant ions and the upconversion mechanisms for the green
and red emissions under excitation of 974 nm diode laser. The solid, dotted, and curly arrows represent emission, energy
transfer, and multiphonon relaxation processes, respectively.

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4. CONCLUSIONS
The NaYF4 : Yb3+ , Er3+ nanocrystals were successfully synthesized in a capillary-based continuous microuidic
reaction system. The nanocrystals prepared without the presence of OA shows rod-like shapes with a large
length distribution but a relative narrow diameter distribution. The shape and size of the nanocrystals can
be dramatically modied by addition of surfactant OA. The prepared nanocrystals can emit green and red
upconversion emissions under excitation of 974 nm, and both the green and red emissions originate from twophoton processes. On-going research targets the further improvements of the upconverting nanocrystals synthesis
process.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by a Swedish Research Council grant (VR 2007-4214) and a Linnaeus grant for the
Lund Laser Centre.
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increased spatial resolution in uorescence diuse imaging, Opt. Lett. 35(16), 27892791 (2010).
[4] Yu, M., Li, F., and Chen, Z., Laser scanning up-conversion luminescence microscopy for imaging cells
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[5] Nyk, M., Kumar, R., Ohulchanskyy, T. Y., Bergey, E. J., and Prasad, P. N., High contrast in vitro and in
vivo photoluminescence bioimaging using near infrared to near infrared up-conversion in Tm3+ and Yb3+
doped uoride nanophosphors, Nano Lett. 8(11), 38343838 (2008).
[6] Chatterjee, D., Rufaihah, A., and Zhang, Y., Upconversion uorescence imaging of cells and small animals
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[7] Vinegoni, C., Razansky, D., Hilderbrand, S. A., Shao, F., Ntziachristos, V., and Weissleder, R., Transillumination uorescence imaging in mice using biocompatible upconverting nanoparticles, Opt. Lett. 34(17),
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[8] Xu, C. T., Axelsson, J., and Andersson-Engels, S., Fluorescence diuse optical tomography using upconverting nanoparticles, Appl. Phys. Lett. 94(25), 251107 (2009).
[9] Liu, H., Xu, C. T., and Andersson-Engels, S., Multibeam uorescence diuse optical tomography using
upconverting nanoparticles, Opt. Lett. 35(5), 718720 (2010).
[10] Sun, Y., Chen, Y., Tian, L., Yu, Y., Kong, X., Zhao, J., and Zhang, H., Controlled synthesis and morphology dependent upconversion luminescence of NaYF4 : Yb, Er nanocrystals, Nanotechnology 18(27), 275609
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[11] Wang, L. and Li, Y., Controlled synthesis and luminescence of lanthanide doped NaYF4 nanocrystals,
Chem. Mater. 19(4), 727734 (2007).
[12] Wang, H.-Q. and Nann, T., Monodisperse upconverting nanocrystals by microwave-assisted synthesis,
ACS Nano 3(11), 38043808 (2009).
[13] Boyer, J.-C., Cuccia, L. A., and Capobianco, J. A., Synthesis of colloidal upconverting NaYF4 : Er3+ /Yb3+
and Tm3+ /Yb3+ monodisperse nanocrystals, Nano Lett. 7(3), 847852 (2007).
[14] Song, Y., Hormes, J., and Kumar, C. S. S. R., Microuidic synthesis of nanomaterials, Small 4(6), 698711
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[15] Marre, S. and Jensen, K. F., Synthesis of micro and nanostructures in microuidic systems, Chem. Soc.
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[16] Edel, J. B., Fortt, R., deMello, J. C., and deMello, A. J., Microuidic routes to the controlled production
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[18] Zhu, X., Zhang, Q., Li, Y., and Wang, H., Redispersible and water-soluble LaF3 : Ce, Tb nanocrystals via
a microuidic reactor with temperature steps, J. Mater. Chem. 18(42), 50605062 (2008).
[19] Song, Y., Sun, Q., Zhang, T., Jin, P., and Han, L., Synthesis of worm and chain-like nanoparticles by a
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Paper III
Upconverting nanoparticles for pre-clinical diffuse
Laser & Photonics Reviews 7(5), 663-697 (2013).
Paper III
Laser Photonics Rev. 7, No. 5, 663697 (2013) / DOI 10.1002/lpor.201200052
LASER & PHOTONICS

REVIEWS
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ARTICLE
Abstract Upconverting nanoparticles (UCNPs) are a class of

recently developed luminescent biomarkers that in several aspects are superior to organic dyes and quantum dots. UCNPs
can emit spectrally narrow anti-Stokes shifted light with quantum yields which greatly exceed those of two-photon dyes for
fluence rates relevant for deep tissue imaging. Compared with
conventionally used Stokes-shifting fluorophores, UCNP-based
imaging systems can acquire completely autofluorescence-free
data with superb contrast. For diffuse optical imaging, the multiphoton process involved in the upconversion process can be
used to obtain images with unprecedented resolution. These
unique properties make UCNPs extremely attractive in the
field of biophotonics. UCNPs have already been applied in
microscopy, small-animal imaging, multi-modal imaging, highly
sensitive bioassays, temperature sensing and photodynamic
therapy. In this review, the current state-of-the-art UCNPs and
their applications for diffuse imaging, microscopy and sensing targeted towards solving essential biological issues are
discussed.
Upconverting nanoparticles for pre-clinical diffuse optical

imaging, microscopy and sensing: Current trends and future
challenges
Can T. Xu1,3, , Qiuqiang Zhan2,3,4, , Haichun Liu1,3 , Gabriel Somesfalean1,2,3 , Jun Qian2,3 ,
Sailing He2,3,4 , and Stefan Andersson-Engels1,3,
1. Introduction
Upconverting nanoparticles (UCNPs) constitute a novel
type of contrast agent with highly interesting and unique
properties for luminescence bioimaging. The aim of this review paper is to illustrate the great potential of this emerging field. The phenomenon of upconverting luminescence
has been studied for decades, with the earliest experimental
works presented in, e.g., Refs. [1, 2]. The idea originated
from Bloembergen in 1959 [3], who proposed that infrared
(IR) light could be detected by sequential stepwise absorption of an ion in a solid material. An extensive review of
the early work was given by Auzel in 2004 [4]. Most efforts were focused on rare-earth (RE) ions doped into a
lattice host. Such ions are ideal because they exhibit very
long lifetimes for the intermediate states in the upconver-
sion excitation chain, which are essential for increasing the

probability of sequential excitations. The reasons for the
long lifetimes are that intra 4f level transitions are parity forbidden (being relaxed a bit due to the crystal field
of the host lattice) and that excited f-levels are shielded
by outer electrons. The host crystals are usually oxides or
fluorides. Especially fluoride lattices exhibit low phonon
energies which reduces multiphonon relaxation of the ions,
also of importance to ensure long lifetimes of the intermediate states. The importance of the host properties for the
upconversion (UC) process, e.g., the low multiphonon relaxation, is the reason why it is difficult to achieve efficient
UC in aqueous solutions [5].
Submicron luminescent particles based on UC were
introduced for biomedical assays in the middle of the
90s [69]. They displayed a better sensitivity (a factor of
Department of Physics, Lund University, Box 118, 221 00 Lund, Sweden

Centre for Optical and Electromagnetic Research, State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Instrumentation, Zhejiang University (ZJU), Hangzhou
310058, China
3
Joint Research Center of Photonics, ZJU-Royal Institute of Technology-Lund University, Hangzhou 310058, China
4
ZJU-SCNU Joint Research Center of Photonics, South China Academy of Advanced Optoelectronics, South China Normal University (SCNU),
510006 Guangzhou, China
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Corresponding author(s): e-mail: [email protected]

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction
in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
2

C 2013 The Authors. Laser Photonics Rev. published by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA Weinheim.
129
Upconverting nanoparticles for pre-clinical diffuse optical imaging, microscopy and sensing: Current
LASER & PHOTONICS

REVIEWS
664
C. T. Xu et al.: Upconverting nanoparticles
10 improvement) than conventional luminescent reporters,

which is most likely caused by the absence of sample autofluorescence background. It was known from the early beginning that host materials doped with two types of ions
sensitizers and activators were the most efficient [1012].
With the upconverting materials attracting an increasing
amount of interest, further efforts were invested into the
understanding of the UC process, leading to particles that
were acceptable both in terms of size and brightness for
in-vivo biomedical studies [1316]. The power dependence
n
of the UC signal (I ) was known to be I Iex
, where n is
the number of photons absorbed in the process, and Iex is
the power density of the excitation light. Later, it was realized that this relationship is only valid in a limited range
of power densities, as saturation alters the power dependence and the efficiency was shown to have a more complex
power-density-dependent behavior for high power densities
[17, 18].
During the last few years, the great potential of UCNPs
for in vitro and in vivo use in, e.g., tissue microscopy applications and also deep tissue imaging and tomography,
is becoming obvious [19]. Today, the research topic of upconverting nanoparticles for biomedical applications is extremely popular, in particular related to optical bioimaging.
Much progress has been made in developing nanoparticles
with outstanding properties, motivated by the huge interest for biomedical applications. In this review, recent and
present trends in optical imaging, microscopy and sensing
using upconverting nanoparticles are discussed, with emphasis placed on the biological applicability rather than the
nanoparticle materials. Recent reviews which focus more
on the properties of the UCNPs themselves can be found
in, e.g., Refs. [2023].
This review paper will first introduce the UCNPs and
how they are synthesized. This section will be followed by
a discussion on means to characterize these particles and
determine their most interesting properties. The importance
of careful characterization of their luminescence efficiency
in a reproducible manner will be stressed, as this appears to
be neglected in the literature, making it difficult to compare
results from different studies. Furthermore, the necessary
surface modifications for in vitro and in vivo applications,
and health issues related to UCNPs are discussed. Finally,
the central theme of this review is developed, i.e., biomedical applications of UCNPs which is followed by a discussion of the outlook as well as the present and future
challenges.
UCNPs are generally comprised of an inorganic host

doped with a sensitizer and an activator. The dopants,
especially the activator, are usually incorporated into the
host lattice at a low doping concentration in order to avoid
quenching caused by undesired cross relaxations [24, 25].
Efficient UC emissions can be obtained by manipulating
the energy transfer between the sensitizer and the activator
with the assistance of the host lattice [4]. The sensitizer,
which displays a considerable absorption cross-section, absorbs the energy from the excitation light, and transfers it
to the activator, mainly through non-radiative and phononassisted processes. During the last decade, many kinds of
UCNPs which incorporate RE ions into various host materials have been developed [2636]. However, up to date, efficient UC emissions with good potential in bioapplications
have only been observed in very few dopant-host combinations, such as NaYF4 :Yb3+ /Er3+ , NaYF4 :Yb3+ /Ho3+ and
NaYF4 :Yb3+ /Tm3+ [37, 38].
Well-crystallized nanoparticles are highly desirable in
biological applications as luminescence markers, since they
can exert a strong field on the doped ions and energy losses
caused by crystal defects can be minimized. Uneven components of the field increase the f f transition probabilities of the dopant ions [39, 40], resulting in efficient UC
emissions [41, 42]. The crystal structure of the host thus
plays an important role in the process of UC emission, as
it determines the crystal field and the doping concentration [4347]. NaYF4 UCNPs constitute a good example
of this, since NaYF4 exists in two polymorphs at ambient pressure: cubic () phase (metastable high-temperature
phase) and hexagonal () phase (thermodynamically stable low-temperature phase) [48, 49], which are closely related to the quantum yield (QY). The -NaYF4 UCNPs
have approximately one order of magnitude higher QY than
their -phase counterparts [43, 44, 50, 51]. Due to the stringent requirements on the crystallinity and phase purity of
the host materials, during the last decade, considerable efforts have been invested into developing synthesis methods
which yield highly crystalline structures for efficient UC
emissions.
In the following, the three most important aspects that
determine the quality of UCNPs will be discussed, i.e., the
commonly used host materials, activators and sensitizers;
the typical synthesis methods; as well as the phase-and-size
control approaches.
2. Composition and synthesis
2.1.1. Host materials
Upconverting materials have been known and studied over

a long period of time, however, only recently have they
become interesting for biomedical applications. For this
reason, there are still plenty of unexplored aspects of the
UCNPs which can lead to improved and optimized properties for biomedical applications. In this section, the composition and synthesis methods for UCNPs used in biomedical
imaging will be briefly reviewed.
Host materials play a key role in UC emissions. Ideal host

materials should be transparent in the spectral range of interest, have high optical damage threshold and chemical
stability. They are also required to have low lattice phonon
energies in order to minimize non-radiative energy losses.
Fluorides satisfy these conditions and are commonly used
as host materials for UCNPs due to their relatively low
phonon energies ( 350 cm1 ). Oxides have also been
2.1. Host materials, activators and sensitizers

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Laser Photonics Rev. 7, No. 5 (2013)
665
Figure 1 (online color at: www.lpr-journal.org) Energy level structure and proposed UC mechanisms of the Yb3+ , Er3+ / Tm3+ /Ho3+
co-doped UCNPs under excitation at 975 nm.
extensively investigated in the past decades, however, this

is of more historical reasons as they have relatively large
phonon energies ( 500700 cm1 ). In addition, the host
materials should have lattices which matches well with the
dopant ions in order to achieve high doping levels. All
trivalent RE ions, alkaline earth ions (e.g., Ca2+ , Sr2+ and
Ba2+ ) and some transition metal ions (e.g., Zr4+ , Ti4+ ,
and Mn2+ ) exhibit similar ionic sizes. Therefore, inorganic
compounds, especially oxides and fluorides, containing
these ions are suitable host materials for RE ions. Y2 O3
[16, 52], Gd2 O3 [53], Y2 O2 S [54], LaF3 [5557], NaYF4
[13, 5868], NaGdF4 [6972], CaF2 [7376], NaLuF4
[31,77,78] and Nax ScF3+x [79] are typical UC host materials. RE-doped fluoride UCNPs, which exhibit low phonon
energies and high chemical stability are currently the most
efficient in generating UC luminescence, and have shown
great potential as contrast agents in the field of bioimaging.
Thus, they will be given more emphasis in this review.
2.1.2. Activators
Upconversion emissions are theoretically expected from

most RE ions. However, under low excitation power densities, efficient UC emissions can only be generated by very
few RE ions, such as Er3+ , Ho3+ and Tm3+ . This is due
to the ladder-like arrangement of their energy states and
good match with commercially available high-power diode
lasers (Fig. 1). For example, Er3+ ions have mainly three
UC emissions bands, including two green emission bands at
around 525 nm and 545 nm originating from the transitions
2
H11/2 4 I15/2 and 4 S3/2 4 I15/2 , respectively, and a red
emission band at around 652 nm originating from the transition 4 F9/2 4 I15/2 [80]. The Ho3+ ions have two main
UC bands of green and red emission at 541 and 647 nm, corresponding to the transitions 5 S2 /5 F4 5 I8 and 5 F5 5 I8 ,
respectively [81]. The main UC band of the Tm3+ ions is in
the near infrared (NIR) range at around 800 nm, originating
from the transition 3 H4 3 H6 [82]. This NIR UC band is
www.lpr-journal.org
located within the window of optical transparencyfor biological tissues, in which both light absorption and scattering
are significantly reduced. This feature makes Tm3+ -doped
UCNPs particularly interesting for imaging of deeply located bio-targets. The Tm3+ ions have another two generally less efficient UC emission bands at around 479 and
648 nm, generated by the transitions 1 G4 3 H6 and
1
G4 3 F4 , respectively [82]. The blue emission band
is less suitable for bioimaging due to much higher light
absorption and scattering in biological tissues at this wavelength. The intensity ratio between different UC bands is
host and doping concentration dependent, even for the same
activator.
For other RE ions, Wang et al. [83] has made pioneering
work to exploit their UC emission ability. They suggested
a general approach for realizing efficient UC emissions
through gadolinium sublattice-mediated energy migration,
by incorporating a set of RE ions into separated layers
at precisely defined concentrations. In this way, they have
demonstrated efficient UC emissions from a wide range of
activators, such as Tb3+ , Eu3+ , Dy3+ and Sm3+ . Generally, the doping concentration of activators is relatively low
(usually < 2 mol%) in order to minimize cross-relaxation
energy losses.
2.1.3. Sensitizers
In single-doped nanoparticles, the efficiencies of UC emissions are relatively low. This is due to the difficulty in
finding an equilibrium point for minimizing the quenching
effect by reducing the RE-ion concentration, and maximizing the absorption of pump energy by increasing its concentration. To enhance the UC luminescence efficiency, a
sensitizer with a sufficiently large absorption cross-section
in the NIR region is usually incorporated together with the
activator. Certainly, it is required that efficient energy transfer between the sensitizer and activator can occur. These
types of sensitizers can be called direct sensitizers. For

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example, Yb3+ fulfills the condition and is commonly used

as UC direct sensitizer for Er3+ , Ho3+ and Tm3+ under excitation by 975 nm light. The optimal concentration of Yb3+
is dependent on the host and the activator [84], but is usually kept high ( 20% for fluoride nanoparticles). Another
type of sensitizers, called indirect sensitizers, are used to
quench and enhance certain emission bands. For instance,
Nd3+ , Ce3+ and Ho3+ have been used as co-sensitizers
to enhance the blue emission band of Tm3+ , red emission
band of Ho3+ and NIR emission band of Tm3+ , respectively
[81, 85, 86]. It should be noted that the cations of the host
materials themselves can be used as indirect sensitizers, as
indicated in recent reports [83, 87].
Up to date, most efforts have been devoted to developing Yb3+ -sensitized UCNPs pumped at around 975 nm.
Although biological tissues have relatively small scattering at this wavelength, the applications of this type of
UCNPs are still limited in biomedical imaging, due to the
non-negligible absorption of water, which comprises the
major part of biological tissues. In view of this and benefiting from the development of commercially available
high-power tunable laser sources, the research on the sensitization capability of different RE-ions excited by different
pump wavelengths constitutes an interesting topic. Such
research could eventually lead to the emergence of a new
group of UC materials.
2.2. Synthesis methods

A large number of methods have been developed in order to fabricate high-quality fluoride UCNPs, including
the co-precipitation method [58], the hydro(solvo)thermal
method [65], the thermal decompositon method [61], the
two-phase synthesis [8890], the hydrothermal in-situ conversion route [31, 45, 91], and the ionic liquids-based syntehsis [9294]. This review mainly focuses on the thermal
decomposition and hydro(solvo)thermal methods, which
are the most widely used as they can offer precise control over the phase, shape and size of fluoride UCNPs. For
other synthesis approaches, the readers are directed to other
reviews [23, 25, 38, 9597].
2.2.1. Thermal decomposition method
In a typical thermal decomposition procedure, metal trifluoroacetates are thermally decomposed to corresponding
metal fluorides. Zhang et al. [55] first reported the synthesis of single-crystalline and monodisperse LaF3 triangular
nanoplates via the thermal decomposition of lanthanum trifluoroacetates (La(CF3 COO)3 ) in a mixture of oleic acid
(OA) and octadecene (ODE). The approach was later developed as a general route to synthesize high-quality REF3
and NaREF4 nanoparticles [61, 62, 67, 80, 98] (Fig. 2(a-b)).
In this approach, ODE with a high boiling temperature (315 C) is used to provide a high-temperature environment, while OA having a good coordinate capability,
is acting as the coordinating solvent which aids in capping the surface of UCNPs to prevent agglomeration. Be-
Figure 2 (online color at: www.lpr-journal.org) TEM images of

NaREF4 nanocrystals synthesized by the thermal decomposition method and the hydro(solvo)thermal method. (Adapted with
permission from Refs. [61, 65, 66, 80, 110] and [126]. Copyright
2006,2007,2007,2007,2008,2012, American Chemical Society,
Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim, and IOP Publishing Ltd.)
sides OA, oleylamine (OM), trioctyphosphine (TOP) and

trictylphosphine oxide (TOPO) have also been used as capping agents in the synthesis of UC fluoride nanoparticles
[14,64,98]. Due to the use of RE and sodium trifluoroacetic
precursors, the decomposition method inevitably generates
some toxic by-products such as trifluoroacetic anhydride
(CF3 CO)2 O, trifluoroacetyl fluoride CF3 CF2 COF, carbonyl
difluoride COF2 and tetrafluoroethylene C2 F4 [80], with
apparent safety concerns. Wei et al. [99] reported a more
friendly thermal decomposition method for synthesizing
- and -NaYF4 UCNPs by empolying RE-oleate complexes and NaF as precursors. The decomposition method
has also been extended to synthesize other RE fluorides,
such as LiREF4 [100103], KREF4 [100, 101], KRE3 F10
[104], MF2 (M = Mg, Ca, and Sr) [74], and BaREF5
[100, 105].
Although the thermal decomposition method is an efficient approach in synthesizing high-quality and monodisperse UCNPs, it has some disadvantages, including the
harsh conditions needed (300 C, anhydrous, oxygen-free
and inert gas protection), expensive and toxic metal precursors, and hazardous by-productsas mentioned above.
Additionally, post-synthesis processes are required to introduce hydrophilic and biocompatible coatings on these
nanoparticles due to the presence of hydrophobic capping
ligands on the surface of the UCNPs.
2.2.2. Hydro(solvo)thermal method
The hydro(solvo)thermal method is a typical solution-based

chemical synthesis approach in which reactions occur in
a sealed environment under high pressure and temperature, usually above the critical point of the solvent in order
to increase the solubility and reactivity of the inorganic
substances. In a typical synthesis procedure, RE and fluoride precursors, solvents and certain surfactants are mixed

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and then heated in a specialized reaction vessel known

as an autoclave. HF, NH4 F, NaF and NH4 HF2 are typical
fluoride precursors, while RE nitrates, chlorides and oxides
are typical RE precursors. Ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid
(EDTA), cetyltrimethylammonuim bromide (CTAB), OA
and trisodium citrate (TSC) are commonly used as surfactants. Wang et al. [106] first reported a liquid-solid-solution
(LSS) strategy for synthesizing high-quality RE fluoride
colloid nanoparticles, based on a general phase transfer
and separation mechanism occuring at the interfaces of the
liquid, solid, and solution phases present during the synthesis. This approach was further developed as an effective
method to synthesize RE fluoride UCNPs [59,65,107,108]
(Fig. 2(c)). Wang et al. [13] developed a one-step synthesis
of polyethylenimine (PEI)-coated NaYF4 :Yb,Er/Tm UCNPs via a solvothermal approach. The prepared nanoparticles were hydrophilic and biocompatible directly after production due to the free amine groups capped on the surface
of the UCNPs, thus, no further surface modification and
functionalization were needed. Zhang et al. [66, 109] reported the synthesis of uniform nanostructured -NaREF4
arrays by an OA-assisted hydrothermal route without the
assistance of templates, applied fields, and undercoating
on substrates (Fig. 2(d)). Li et al. [68, 110] reported a
novel user-friendly solvothermal-like method in a glass
flask rather than in a sealed autoclave for fabricating high
quality hexagonal-phase NaYF4 :Yb,Er/Tm nanoparticles
without the use of excess fluoride reactants (Fig. 2(e)). This
synthesis strategy has been widely used in the synthesis of
fluoride UCNPs [42, 83, 111115].
Possible advantages of the hydro(solvo)thermal method
include cost-effective raw materials, excellent control over
the crystalline phase, particle size and shape under much
lower reaction temperatures (generally below 200 C). Disadvantages of this method include the need for long reaction
time (hours-days) and specialized reaction vessels. In addition, surface modifications are usually likewise required
because of the insufficient hydrophilicity of the prepared
UCNPs in most cases.
The optimization of the synthesis parameters is generally very time-consuming, and the relatively long reaction
time makes it even more challenging. Recent work conducted by Wang et al. [116] and Chan et al. [51] showed
great progress along these lines. Wang et al. greatly shortened the reaction time to 5 min by employing microwave
heating. This microwave-assisted approach has been further
developed and is currently another widely used approach
for producing high quality fluoride UCNPs [117119].
Chan et al. used a different approach and developed a
parallel reaction workstation called WANDA (workstation
for automated nanomaterials discovery and analysis) for
reproducible and high-throughput synthesis of colloidal
nanocrystals including NaYF4 UCNPs [51].
Although the above discussed batch-control methods
are proved to be efficient in the synthesis of UCNPs and
enable control over the phase, size and shape, they are not
of complete satisfaction. Inherent to batch-control methods, it is difficult to monitor the UCNPs in real time and
accordingly control their growth by adjusting experimental
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parameters. Microfluidic methods have been shown to be

excellent in the synthesis of nanostructures including QDs,
gold and silver nanoparticles [120124]. Despite this, currently very few attempts have been made to synthesize
UCNPs in microfluidic systems [125]. In the reported microfluidic synthesis, the reaction time, limited by the final
length of the microchannel or capillary, seems to retard
the formation of uniform UCNPs with desired hexagonal
phase, and the prepared UCNPs suffer from aggregation
problems probably due to the absence of proper surfactants
during the synthesis. Further studies are therefore required.
2.3. Phase and size control

Control of the crystal structure of the fluorides is critical to achieve a high QY. It has been shown that in the
thermal decomposition and hydro(solvo)thermal synthesis approaches, -phase NaYF4 nanoparticles are generally first formed, and then -phase can be formed through
phase transition by overcoming the free-energy barrier [61, 126]. Hence, any method which could facilitate
such a phase transition is helpful in obtaining -NaYF4
nanoparticles. Here, several commonly used methods for
the phase control of NaYF4 UCNPs will be summarized.
(a) Controlling the reaction temperature and time
Generally, prolonged reaction time and high temperature
are needed to overcome the free-energy barrier for the
phase transition [59, 61, 127]. Usually, a reaction
time of at least 30 minutes and temperatures of 290310 C are needed in order to obtain hexagonal NaYF4
UCNPs [110, 126].
(b) Adjusting the molar ratio of Na+ /RE3+ and F /RE3+
-NaYF4 is disfavored under most conditions, except
within a narrow window in which the 1:1:4 stoichiometry of Na+ , RE3+ , and F is strictly maintained [29, 126],
indicated by the phase diagrams of bulk sodium yttrium fluoride [48]. However, influenced by the mechanisms of Na+ ,
RE3+ , and F liberations, previous reports have suggested
that higher Na+ / RE3+ and F / RE3+ reactant ratios favor
the formation of -NaYF4 [61,128130]. Thus, when using
different Na+ and F sources, different reactant ratios may
be required to promote the phase transition.
(c) Ligand-mediated phase transition
Wei et al. [67] found that EDTA molecules capping on
the surface of the UCNPs could suppress the cubicto-hexagonal phase transition, prohibiting transformation
from the -phase to -phase, even when annealed at
600 C for 5 hours. OA was also found to be in favor
of the formation of cubic-phase UCNPs, because negatively charged oleate ligands strongly binds electrostatically to the positively charged (100) surfaces of small
-NaYF4 particles and stabilizes the -phase relative to phase [51,63,98,126]. OM can mediate the phase transition

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from cubic to hexagonal [63, 126], while TOP can be used

as combined ligands together with OA and ODE to change
the surface energy and control particle phase and shape. A
ligand formed between oleate and TOP at high temperature promotes the phase transition from cubic to hexagonal
[64, 128]. TOPO was found to be able to reduce the energy
barrier of the phase transition, thus, it can be used
as a single solvent, both a boiling solvent and a capping
reagent, to control crystalline growth by providing a broad
temperature window for the -NaYF4 UCNPs [14].
(d) Lanthanide and transition metal ions doping
Yu et al. [131] and Wang et al. [114] reported that lanthanide
dopants with larger ionic radius, such as La3+ , Ce3+ , and
Gd3+ , can decrease the energy barrier and tip the balance
in favor of the formation of -NaYF4 . Chen et al. [47] reported that Ti4+ doping induced phase transition in
a liquid-solid-solution reaction system at as low temperature as 130 C. Tian et al. [132] reported a facile strategy for
controlling the phase ( ) and UC emission behavior
(green red) of NaYF4 :Yb/Er UCNPs through Mn2+ ion
doping.
Varying the parameters mentioned in the above procedures will also affect the size of UCNPs. Thus, the control
over the crystalline phase is always accompanied with the
control over the size. The size is an aspect of significance
which influences the uptake, biodistribution and clearance
of nanoparticles in living organisms. Although research on
how the size of UCNPs influences their uptake in cell or
animal models is limited, a large amount of effort has been
devoted towards the control of the size in order to produce UCNPs with various diameters which are needed for
different biomedical applications [63, 77, 109, 114]. For, in
particular, in vivo imaging applications, nanoparticles are
usually required to have comparable sizes to the targeted
molecules, in the range of 410 nm for most membrane
and globular proteins [133]. Significantly larger nanoparticles may have limited accessibility to smaller subcellular
structures, perturb trafficking patterns, retard diffusion, interfere with protein functions or binding events, or alter
pharmacokinetics [134136]. Smaller nanoparticles means
lower brightness and thus the challenge is to synthesize
UCNPs small enough while maintaining their brightness.
Much progress has been made in producing sub-10 nm
NaYF4 nanoparticles [77, 126, 137]. Most notable of these
studies has been the determination of the window for synthesis of sub-10 nm -NaYF4 by Ostrowski et al. [126].
They described the conditions for controlled synthesis of
protein-size -NaYF4 from 4.5 to 15 nm in diameter with
efficient UC emissions, by varying the concentration of basic surfactants (OA and OM), Y3+ /F ratio, and reaction
temperature (Fig. 2(f)).
It is noteworthy to point out that the phase and size
control of fluoride UCNPs often requires a precise control
over many experimental parameters, since the phases are
affected by multiple factors instead of a single one. In addition, the above approaches can be employed synthetically
in order to obtain desired products with reasonable con-
ditions [77]. To fully meet the demands of different sized

UCNPs for various applications, approaches for phase and
size control need to be further explored.
3. Optical properties and characterization

In contrast to traditional fluorescent biomarkers, UCNPs
can be excited by NIR rather than ultraviolet (UV) radiation,
thereby significantly minimizing photo damage of biological specimens and maximizing the penetration depth of the
excitation light. The anti-Stokes nature of the UC emissions
enables autofluorescence-free detection which results in excellent signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and improved detection
sensitivity. Distinguished from other anti-Stokes processes
including second harmonic generation, multi-photon absorption and anti-Stokes Raman scattering UC emissions
are based on real intermediate states, thus allowing for more
efficient frequency conversion. This means that UC emissions can occur under moderate light intensities, which is
often a basic requirement in biological studies. UCNPs
can be excited by compact, inexpensive and low-power
(11000 W/cm2 ) NIR lasers. UCNPs show non-blinking
characteristics under continuous irradiation and are resistant to photobleaching as well as photochemical degradation. Additional advantages of UCNPs include narrow and
well-defined emission peaks, a large anti-Stokes shift, and
convenient emission color tuning [81, 84, 138].
The UC photoluminescence spectra of the UCNPs constitute one of their most important characteristics and typical luminescence spectra are presented in Fig. 3. Since
the discovery of the UC phenomenon in the 1960s, extensive efforts have been invested into the research of the
UC emission mechanisms. To date, several basic processes
have been identified, including ground state absorption
(GSA), excited state absorption (ESA), energy transfer upconversion (ETU), cross relaxation (CR) and cooperative
Figure 3 (online color at: www.lpr-journal.org) Photoluminescence spectra emitted by UCNPs doped with different RE-ions.
The NaYbF4 :Yb3+ /Er3+ /Ho3+ /Tm3+ nanoparticles are suspended
in a chloroform solution and being irradiated by a 915-nm diode
laser with a power density of 500 mW/cm2 . (Reprinted with permission from Ref. [139]. Copyright 2011, American Chemical
Society.)

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sensitization (CS) [4]. Through the combined action of

these processes, complex multi-photon UC phenomena
including photon avalanche (PA) and anti-Stokes spectra
can be achieved. The details of UC mechanisms have been
summarized in previous reviews [4, 140].
There are very few reports on the use of this approach on

UCNPs in the literature and an interesting topic could be
to correlate the microscopic rate constants and the reaction
conditions in order to guide the synthesis of UCNPs.
3.2. Power dependence

3.1. Rate equation analysis
In principle, the UC process can be quantitatively expressed
by a set of coupled differential equations describing the
population density, Ni , of each lanthanide 4 f N manifold,
taking into account all population and depopulation rates
involved [141143]:

dNi
=
population rate
depopulation rate
dt

MD
NR
=
+ Ni+1 Wi+1,i
N j AED
ji + A ji
j
N j Nl C ET
ji,lk
i j,kl
NR
Ni Wi,i1
Ni AiED
j
n
I Iex
.

MD
+ Ai j
Ni Nk CiET
j,kl
(1)
i j,kl
MD
where AiED
j and Ai j are Einstein coefficients for electric
dipole (ED) and magnetic dipole (MD) radiative transitions
NR
from manifold i to j; Wi,i1
is the nonradiative multiphonon
relaxation (MPR) rate constant from manifold i to i 1;
ET
Ci j,kl is the microscopic energy transfer parameter for the
transfer of energy via the donor transition i j and the
acceptor kl transition. In this model, the interactions
among more than two ions (such as the CS process) are not
considered. The intensity of any given UC emission peak
is proportional to the product of the population density of
the emitting state and the microscopic rate constants for the
radiative transition. Obviously, these rate constants play
critical roles in depicting the UC emissions. Once they are
known, the characteristics of UC emissions, including the
QYs and spectral purities, can be obtained by calculation
directly, as shown in a recent work of Chan et al. [142]. This
model can also be used to determine critical energy transfer
transitions involved in UC process [142]. However, the use
of this model is demanding mainly due to the difficulty
in determining the rate constants, although in theory the
ED, MD transition rates and energy transfer rate CiET
j,kl can
be calculated using the Judd-Ofelt theory [39, 40], while
the quantum mechanical magnetic dipole operator [144]
and the nonradiative MPR can be treated with a modified
energy gap law [145]. Thus, this model is usually simplified
to only include the major transitions and MPR processes
identified by previous studies.
The investigation on the time dependent behavior of
UC emissions is a good way to verify the validity of the
proposed UC pathways, and the rate constants could be
extracted by fitting the measured time-dependent emission
intensity with time-dependent rate equations [146148].
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In addition to studying the time-resolved behavior of UC

emissions, power dependence analysis of UC emission intensity under CW excitation, combined with steady-state
rate equation analysis, also provides useful information for
the UC mechanism. A theoretical model for this was systematized by Pollnau et al. and Suyver et al. [17, 18], and is
now one of the most important aspects of the optical characterization of UCNPs. Briefly, the UC emission intensity,
I, is related to the absorbed excitation power density, Iex ,
by the following equation
(2)
By plotting the emission intensity versus the excitation

power density in a double-logarithmic diagram, the order
n of the UC process, i.e., the number of pump photons required to excite the emitting state, can be obtained by the
slope of the power dependence curve. This slope indicates
the multi-photon nature of the UC emission. An example of
the power dependence of the NIR UC emission for Tm3+ is
shown in Fig. 4 together with the corresponding UC spectrum, indicating that this UC emission line originates from
a two-photon process.
It should be noted that the power density dependence
of the UC emission described by Eq. ((2)) is only valid under weak excitation power densities and will become more
Figure 4 Emission spectrum recorded for NaYF4 :Yb3+ /Tm3+

nanoparticles under 980-nm excitation with an intensity of
6 W/cm2 . The inset shows the pump-power dependence of the interesting 800 nm line measured under low intensities. (Reprinted
with permission from Ref. [19]. Copyright 2008, American Institute of Physics.)

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complicated for higher excitation power densities due to the

competition between the ETU rate (excitation power density dependent) and the linear decay rate in the individual
excitation steps. The slope of the power dependence curve
is known to decrease with increasing excitation power density. When the excitation intensity is high enough such that
saturation of the intermediate energy state involved in the
UC process occurs, the two-photon UC luminescence will
appear with a slope of 1 [17]. Smaller slopes and saturation
power densities are often used to indirectly indicate better
performance of UCNPs in energy upconversion [103, 149].
3.3. Quantum yield

The QY measurement constitutes another important aspect
in the optical characterization of UCNPs, playing a crucial role for their practical applications. The QY is generally defined as the ratio between the number of the emitted UC photons and the number of absorbed excitation
photons. Currently, QY measurements on UCNPs are directly adapted from the QY characterization of conventional fluorescent materials, such as fluorescent dyes and
QDs. Two different experimental setups can be employed: a
spectrofluorometer-based setup and an integrating-spherebased setup. The former needs a fluorophore with known
QY as a reference, while the latter is self-calibrated. Different from linear fluorescent dyes and QDs, the QYs of
UCNPs are power density dependent rather than constant
[150, 151]. Thus, the determination of the excitation power
density is critical for QY measurements on UCNPs. In an
integrating-sphere-based setup, it is typically challenging
to determine the true excitation power-density, since the
excitation light repeatedly passes through the sample due
to reflections from the wall of the sphere, which could
lead to errors in the measurements. Compared with an
integrating-sphere-based setup, determining the excitation
power density of a spectrofluorometer-based setup is much
more straight forward.
Reports in the literature on the absolute QY of
UCNPs are generally very scarce [50, 150152]. Page
et al. [150] measured the QYs of several UC phosphors using an integrating-sphere-based setup. For bulk
NaYF4 :Yb3+ /Tm3+ material, they determined the power
conversion factor of the blue emission band to be 2 104
at an excitation intensity of 1 W/cm2 . Size-dependent effects have also been considered by Boyer et al. [50] for
Yb3+ /Er3+ co-doped NaYF4 nanoparticles, where 10 times
lower QY of coreshell nanoparticles (30 nm) as compared
with bulk material was found under an excitation intensity of 150 W/cm2 . Recently, Xu et al. [151] measured the
QY of NaYF4 :Yb3+ /Tm3+ @NaYF4 coreshell nanoparticles using a spectrofluorometer-based setup and reached a
value of 3.5% under an excitation intensity of 78 W/cm2 , as
illustrated in Fig. 5. For comparison, the QYs of the most
efficient two-photon dyes were simulated under identical
experimental conditions and are also shown in the same
figure. It can be seen that the required excitation intensity is
Figure 5 (online color at: www.lpr-journal.org) Quantum yield of the 800 nm emission band in core-shell
NaYF4 :Yb3+ /Tm3+ @NaYF4 nanoparticles and core nanoparticles NaYF4 :Yb3+ /Tm3+ . The quantum yield increases linearly
with the excitation intensity until a saturation point, from which
the quantum yield approaches a constant value. Solid lines show
simulated corresponding QYs for highly efficient two-photon
dyes under identical experimental conditions. (Reprinted with
permission from Ref. [151]. Copyright 2012, American Chemical
Society.)
clearly too high to be used in scattering tissues. The reason

is that these dyes require simultaneous absorption of two
photons via a virtual state, in contrast to UCNPs, which
display long-lived real intermediate states.
An important aspect of proper QY measurements is to
make it possible to compare the results between different
studies. However, up to date, the QY characterization on
UCNPs still does not follow a harmonized protocol, instead
the QYs are usually provided at one specific power density,
ignoring their power density dependencies [50,77,126]. As
mentioned above, UCNPs are different from conventional
Stokes-shifting fluorophores, since saturation can occur due
to competition between ETU and linear decay. This leads
to QYs that in general have complex power density dependent behaviors. Thus, the reported QYs from different
studies are not directly comparable. Here we propose a
protocol for a standardized QY measurement for UCNPs,
where the whole power density dependence is measured in
order to provide complete information on the UC energy
conversion system. In addition, the intensity of the excitation light generally has an inhomogeneous rather than a
top hatdistribution. This inhomogeneity should also be
compensated in order to provide accurate QY information.
If possible, finding a few parameters which are able to
characterize both the absolute QY and the change on excitation power density are also highly desirable. Such a
careful characterization of the luminescence efficiency in a
reproducible way which appears to be neglected in the literature would make direct comparisons between results
from different studies possible. This would stimulate the
further development of the UCNPs, improving their performance and lead to more optimized synthesis methods.

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3.4. Enhancement of upconversion efficiency

In most cases, the emission efficiency of UCNPs is relatively low because of two reasons: (1) non-radiative decay
due to surface defects and (2) two-photon nonlinear processes. Hexagonal phase NaYF4 UCNPs usually have one
order of magnitude higher QY than their cubic counterparts.
Thus, by phase control approaches UCNPs with enhanced
UC efficiency can be obtained. Another trivial method to
increase the QY is to synthesize larger UCNPs. Smaller particles have larger surface-to-volume-ratio, which naturally
leads to more defects. Ions on or near the surface of the UCNPs are sensitive to the local environments, thereby causing
higher non-radiative energy losses. However, the maximum
size of UCNPs for specific applications is normally limited.
Therefore, this approach is not generally valid. Other versatile approaches will be presented as follow.
3.4.1. Ion doping and composition tuning
Ion doping can modify the crystal field surrounding doped

RE ions, thus changing the UC emission intensity by altering the transition probabilities of the RE ions. Introduced by
Chen et al. [16, 153] and Bai et al. [154156], Li+ -doping
was found to be able to enhance the UC emission in oxide
UCNPs. In some recent reports [116, 157] it was shown
that Li+ -doping gives similar results in fluoride UCNPs.
Ho3+ -doping is found to enhance the NIR UC emission
of Tm3+ [86]. Composition tuning is another commonly
used approach to enhance the QY, where the recent work
of Chen et al. [137] is a good example.
3.4.2. Coating with a shielding layer
A shield layer on the surface of the UCNPs can reduce crystal defects and protect the active optical ions
from the coupling with vibrational modes in the solvent,
thereby reducing the non-radiative energy losses [42].
The shell could be either inert (i.e., with no optical active ions) or active (i.e., containing active ions, mainly
Yb3+ ). For example, increased QYs were observed after growing of an undoped NaYF4 shell over Er3+ - or
Tm3+ -doped core UCNPs [50, 151]. In another report,
a 50-fold higher QY was observed for sub-10 nm UCNPs, and the emission from 9-nm core-shell UCNPs was
larger than that of comparable 37-nm cores when normalized to the absorbance at 980 nm [126]. For the use of
active shells, examples include comparison of the pure
BaGdF5 :Yb3+ /Er3+ core with the active-shell coated counterparts, where it was shown that the luminescence intensity could be enhanced by several hundreds of times [158].
In another report, a significant increase in the UC intensity was measured in NaGdF4 :Er3+ , Yb3+ @NaGdF4 :Yb3+
mol 20% active-core/active-shell UCNPs compared to
NaGdF4 :Er3+ ,Yb3+ @NaGdF4 active-core/inert-shell and
NaGdF4 :Er3+ /Yb3+ core-only nanoparticles [159]. In addi-
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tion, by spatially separating dopant ions using a layer (laminated) structure, the effect of the concentration quenching
can be suppressed, and an enhancement of the UC emission
can be expected [83, 159, 160].
3.4.3. Surface plasmonics coupling
It is well known that the unique surface plasmon properties of metallic structures can be exploited to enhance
the fluorescence from adjacent fluorophores (organic dyes
and inorganic QDs) [161,162]. Similarly, surface plasmons
with strong local field can also be used to enhance the
efficiency of UC emission [163,164]. Zhang et al. and Sudheendra et al. have successfully attached gold nanoparticles onto UCNPs to modulate the UC emission [165, 166].
A specifically designed plasmonic gold surface coupling
with 980-nm radiation was shown to clearly enhance NIRto-visible upconversion luminescence from the nanocrystalline layer [167]. It is very important to study the surface
plasmon enhancement mechannism at single nanoparticle
level in order to provide an optimal design of hybrid UCNPs
and metallic nanoparticles. Schietinger et al. coupled single NaYF4 :Yb3+ /Er3+ nanocrystals with gold nanospheres
(30 and 60 nm in diameter) to enhance UC emission in a
combined optical and atomic force microscopy (AFM) system, gaining an overall enhancement factor of 3.8 [168].
Time-resolved measurements revealed that both the excitation and the emission processes are influenced by the
coupling to plasmon resonance in the gold nanospheres.
Several studies have shown that the separation critically
determines whether enhancement or quenching eventually
dominates [161, 169]. The enhancement of UC emission
is highly spectral dependent. A more-photon-involved UC
process resulted in a larger enhancement factor under the
same excitation power density [170].
The enhancement is known to result from the modification of the radiative and nonradiative decay rates and
the enhancement of the excitation intensity by the localized surface plasmonic resonance of metallic nanostructures [163, 168, 171, 172]. However, some details remain
unknown, e.g., is the change of decay rates or the increase
of excitation intensity contributing the most to the enhancement of the intrinsic QY of the nanocrystals, and by how
much the ultimate (maximum achievable) intrinsic QY will
be increased due to the change of the decay rates (the enhancement of the excitation intensity will not change the
ultimate intrinsic QY). Further experimental studies on the
QY enhancement are needed. Regarding the QY of the
system, although it always tends to increase due to the enhanced local field, the enhancement is, however, related
with the intrinsic power-density dependent QY of the crystal. Thus the understanding of the influence of the surface
plasmonic coupling on the intrinsic QY could address questions related to the amount of gain that can be expected.
Although the UC emission enhancement depends on
the fourth or higher power of the local field, solid theoretical analysis revealed much weaker gains than that of
Raman enhancement [163]. Furthermore, chemical sample

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preparation and precise physical control are essential to

ensure a satisfactory enhancement, making the process
complicated and demanding. Thus, considerable challenges
involved in using metallic nanoparticles to enhance UC
emission for biodetection remains and there is a strong
need of simplifed and reproducible synthesis strategies.
4. Surface modification
Similar to other nanosized biomarkers, UCNPs also need to
be water dispersible, highly stable, biocompatible, sensitive
and biotargeting for successful bio-applicability. However,
most of the commonly used UCNPs were synthesized using
oil-phase methods which render UCNPs with no intrinsic
aqueous dispersibility and functional organic groups on the
surface. Recently, several single-step synthesis methods,
mainly including polyol process [173,174], one-pot synthesis assisted by hydrophilic ligands [175,176], hydrothermal
microemulsion synthesis [177] and ionic liquid-based synthesis [94, 178], have been developed to directly synthesize
hydrophilic UCNPs. However, it is still very demanding to
obtain monodisperse and hydrophilic UCNPs with small
size via single-step methods, although they simplify the
reaction procedure and reduce the post-processing. For hydrophobic UCNP synthesis strategies, it is easier to control
the size, morphology, phase and crystallinity of the UCNPs,
and the procedure of post-processing is straight forward
and controllable. Furthermore, the directly synthesized hydrophilic UCNPs without any treatment also show toxicity
to cells, tissues or whole organisms. Therefore, UCNPs
synthesized from hydrophobic methods are still the most
commonly used in biological applications. In the following, more emphasis will be placed on how to re-process
the as-synthesized hydrophobic UCNPs into a hydrophilic
state with high stability, high biocompatibility and bioconjugation platform.
4.1. Hydrophilic processing of UCNPs

In general, a multitude of methods exist for converting hydrophobic UCNPs into a hydrophilic state [38]. Here, four
main methods commonly found in the literature are summarized: ligand exchange, ligand oxidation, silanization and
ligand free. These methods are versatile and do not have any
obvious side effects upon the morphology, size, composition, crystallization and optical properties of the resulting
UCNPs.
4.1.1. Ligand exchange
Ligand exchange is an effective method for modificating the surface of nanoparticles. When the hydrophobic ligands on the as-prepared nanoparticles are replaced
by some hydrophilic ligands, the nanoparticles will become water dispersible. Due to the surfactant OA ad-
Figure 6 (online color at: www.lpr-journal.org) FTIR spectra of (a) OA-capped NaYbF4 :Yb3+ /Er3+ sample, (b) MSANaYbF4 :Yb3+ /Er3+ and (c) PAH-MSA- NaYbF4 :Yb3+ /Er3+ .The
alternation of FTIR spectrum peaks (corresponding to the specific chemical bonds) revealed the process of surface modification.(Reprinted with permission from Ref. [139]. Copyright 2011,
American Chemical Society.)
sorbed on the surface, UCNPs contain a large number of

carboxyl groups (COOH), which strongly interact with
RE ions. Therefore, for the OA-coated UCNPs, multichelated ligands or an excess of single-chelated ligands
are required to exchange the OA ligands. In recently reported works, poly(ethyleneglycol) (PEG) [139, 179], 3mercaptopropionic acid (3-MSA) [82], 5-mercaptosuccinic
acid (MSA) [139], polyacrylic acid (PAA) [71, 180, 181]
and citrate have been used to replace the OA ligands via
ligand exchange. These replacement processes are simple,
highly repeatable and do not change the unique optical
properties of UCNPs in any significant way. These commonly used organic molecules all carry functional groups
and facilitate further biofunctionalization and bioconjugation. For UCNPs which are coated by charged organic
molecules, it is possible to add an additional polymer coating of opposite charge. Once the UCNPs become water dispersible, further process could be performed. Recently Zhan
et al. [139] proposed to encapsulate negatively charged
MSA-UCNPs using positively charged polyallylamine hydrochloride (PAH). The significant decrease of OA, the
MSA encapsulation and PAH coating were confirmed by
Zeta potential measurements and Fourier transform infrared
(FTIR) spectroscopy, as shown in Fig. 6. This attraction is
based on electrostatic interaction. Repeated coating via this
attraction can be useful and this approach is called layerby-layer method [182], which, however, normally requires
repeated coating and complicated washing procedure.
4.1.2. Ligand oxidation
Apart from ligand exchange, OA ligands on the surface

of the UCNPs can also be oxidized into azelaic acids

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(HOOC(CH2 )7 COOH), which results in the generation of

free carboxylic acid groups on the surface. After ligand
oxidation, the OA-coated UCNPs will become water dispersible. A strong oxidizing agent is very important for the
effective ligand oxidation process. In 2008, the group of
F.Y. Li proposed a simple and versatile strategy for direct
oxidization of OA ligands without any intermediate procedures using a strong oxidizing reagent named Lemieux-von
Rudloff reagent [16,183]. Naccache et al. [71] proposed the
utilization of permanganate/periodate to oxidize and break
the double bond of the long OA C18 chain with the COOH
moiety maintained, facilitating better dispersibility in water. The OA ligands could also be directly oxidized by ozone
a clean and readily available strong oxidant under specific conditions, which enabled the presence of COOH or
CHO groups on the surface [184]. These oxidization reactions were reported to have no significant negative effect on
the chemical and optical properties of UCNP, and the introduction of carboxylic or aldehyde groups not only rendered
high water dispersibility, but also facilitated further bioconjugation with biomolecules through covalent methods.
It is worth to point out that this method involves oxidation
of the double C=C bond of the ligand, and thus the types
of available ligands are limited and dependent on the used
surfactants. Other disadvantages of the oxidation strategy
include the long reaction times and the low yields.
4.1.3. Silanization
Silicate systems have been used to synthesize bulk, film,

and particle silicate mesoporous structures for a wide range
of applications. As one of the most frequently used methods of surface modification for nanoparticles, silica coating
is highly stable (chemically inert), biocompatible, optically
transparent and offers nanometer-precision thicknesses. It
is also suitable for use as a coating material for UCNPs
[185]. In recent years, the group of Y. Zhang has employed silica to encapsulate hydrophobic OA-coated UCNPs [90, 111, 186191]. Surface silanization methods can
flexibly offer abundant functional groups (e.g., COOH,
NH2 , SH, etc.) and thus satisfy various needs of conjugation with biological molecules. The most commonly
used approach of silica coating is the reversed microemulsion system, which is based on a homogeneous mixture
of water, oil, surfactant and tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS)
[115, 192]. This method can precisely control the silica
shell thickness via altering the reagent amount or the reaction time, which is very useful to control the distance
between the nanoparticles and the molecules of interest
[115, 193]. Furthermore, another advantage of silica coating is that mesoporous silica shell can be easily obtained
and greatly facilitates the loading of drugs and biomolecules
onto the surface of UCNPs. Thus, such surface modification of the UCNPs can allow drug delivery to specific cells
or receptors. An representative application is to employ
mesoporous-silica-shell-coated UCNPs as nanocarriers for
PDT drugs [194].
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4.1.4. Ligand free
The surface OA ligands of NaYF4 :Yb3+ ,Er3+ nanoparticles

could be released by thorough washing using excess ethanol
[90] and HCl [195] under ultrasonic treatment. This ligandfree method is very simple and was proposed very recently.
UCNPs without any ligand on the surface are highly water
dispersible. However, the problem would be that biofunctionalization and bioconjugation is nontrivial due to the lack
of functional groups on the surface. A solution to efficiently
biofunctionalize these ligand free UCNPs would be the
key.
4.1.5. The impact of surface modification on optical

properties
The described surface modification methods have different applicabilities due to their distinctive features, and thus
the method selection should rely on the specific application of interest. As previously discussed, a large number
of successful bioapplications of UCNPs were substantially
demonstrated with the assist of these surface modification
methods. It is reasonable to believe that these methods are
essential and effective, and they hardly have considerable
side effect on the optical properties of UCNPs. However, it
is still of significance to investigate the impact of these processes on the luminescence intensity in order to improve or
maintain their brightness. In very recent years, there have
been an increasing number of studies revealing the impact
of surface modification on the optical proterties of UCNPs,
although they are not covered in most review papers. According to some reports, the luminescence intensity, to some
extent, was actually decreased after treatment with certain
modification processes [113, 115, 196, 197]. As a case of
point, decreased luminescence intensity can be observed
for PAA-coated UCNPs due to the interaction between the
surface of UCNPs and PAA [196, 197]. Besides, in the
silanization method the silica shell can slightly scatter both
excitation and emission light and thus weaken the luminescence to some extent [115]. The type of solvent is also
an important factor affecting the brightness. UCNPs dispersed in aqueous solvent were reported to have a decreased
brightness when compared to the same UCNPs dispersed
in organic solvent [113]. The reason is that water molecules
have high energy vibrational modes, which probably results
in an increased nonradiative relaxation of the excited states
and thus an overall quenching of the luminescence [113].
These problems could be overcome partially by a protective
shell of NaYF4 , which has low phonon energy and can act
as an isolation layer in order to greatly weaken the negative interaction between UCNPs and surface ligands/local
environment [113, 196]. The other strategies of enhancing
QY previously discussed in section 3 can also be exerted to
compensate the possible brightness decrease caused by surface modification and aqueous solvent. The key is to keep
or even improve the unique optical properties of UCNPs
while performing surface modification.

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4.2. Surface functionalization of UCNPs
5. Toxicity and health issues
The previously mentioned surface modifications of UCNPs

enable their dispersion and stability in aqueous solutions.
This post-treatment is quite indispensable for hydrophobic UCNPs, but not sufficient for further bioapplications.
In most applications, including bioimaging, biosensing and
biotherapy, UCNPs also need to be capable of targeting
specific cell lines, tumors or biomolecules. Living cells do
not interact directly with the assistant biomaterials, but with
the proteins or molecules adsorbed on their surface. Thus,
it is needed to develop a bioconjugation of UCNPs interacting with such proteins and molecules. After the surface
modification, UCNPs either gain functional groups (e.g.,
carboxyl, amino, thiol, etc.) or are strongly charged (positive/negative) on the surface, which both enable them to
conjugate with various biological or polymeric molecules.
In the field of bionanotechnology, there exists several wellknown approaches for bioconjugation of nanoparticles with
biomolecules. Generally, these biomolecules can be bioconjugated to the surface of UCNPs via physical interaction
(e.g., electrostatic adsorption) or chemical interaction (e.g.,
covalent link).
As one of the most commonly used procedures, the
electrostatic adsorption method is straightforward and effective via non-covalent forces. Zhan et al. [139] successfully conjugated positively charged PAH-UCNPs with
negatively charged antibodies (anti-CEA8 with isoelectric
point (pI) in the range pH 5.86.5) in phosphate buffer
solution (PBS) (pH 7.4). Without chemical bonding, the
proteins or molecules attached on the surface of UCNPs
will not change or lose their activity. Non-specific binding cannot be eliminated in the case of physical methods. In comparison, chemical binding is more specific and
also more complicated to perform. Chemical binding needs
to make use of covalent interaction between some specific functional group pairs, such as, a carboxylic acid
and a primary amine to form an amide bond, two thiols to form a disulfide bond, a thiol and a maleimide to
form a thioether bond, and an aldehyde group and a hydrazide group to form a hydrazide bond [23]. Covalent
binding of biomolecules often requires some intermediate
process and are assisted with some linker agents. As a case
of point, EDC (ethyl(dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide)
and Sulfo-NHS (N-hydroxysulfosuccinimide) are always
employed to couple amino and carboxyl, conjugating surface modified UCNPs and biomolecules [182, 198, 199].
The effectiveness of this strategy relies on the precise control of the molar ratio of the reagent molecules. In addition, there are many other useful bioconjugation strategies. As a very popular protein binding mechanism, biotin
binding to streptavidin were also introduced to the bioapplications of UCNPs [200, 201]. Some peptides bearing
COOH, including RGD (arginineglycineasparatic acid)
and CTX (chlorotoxin)), were directly conjugated to the
surface of NH2 modified UCNPs for desired function activity [199, 202]. DNA and folic acid (FA) were also successfully used to directly bioconjugate UCNPs to specifically target cancer cells [187, 201].
Despite all of the advantages of UCNPs as compared to conventional fluorophores, in order for them to be an attractive
choice for biological imaging studies, it is obviously of utmost importance that the toxicity and potential health issues
are thoroughly investigated. Even though UCNPs have not
been available for very long, the importance of this topic
has already attracted a great amount of interest. Most of
the studies have focused on in vitro cytotoxicity, however,
results concerning long-term effects within small animals
have recently started to appear. In this section, a few of
the most important results concerning the cytotoxicity of
UCNPs will be highlighted.
Following the increasing interest of UCNPs, several
studies of in-vitro cytotoxicity of UCNPs have been conducted. Already in 2008, Chatterjee et al. [203] used murine
stem cells to assess the cell biocompatibility of PEI-coated
UCNPs, while Shan et al. [204] studied the toxicity of silica
coated UCNPs in human osteosarcoma (HOS) cells, using
the methylthiazol tetrazolium (MTT) assay to evaluate the
cytotoxicity. Both of these early studies found the cytotoxicity to be very low. To date, the cytotoxicity of a large
number of both human and animal cell lines have been
studied, including HeLa cells [177], human glioblastoma
(U87MG) cells [199], human nasopharyngeal epidermal
carcinoma (KB) cells [205], and human hepatic (L02) cells
[206]. An example of the cell viability of HeLa, KB and
L02 cells are shown in Fig. 7. Currently, no severe adverse
effects have been found that can be directly related to the
UCNPs, indicating them to be of high biocompatibility.
An important aspect that in-vitro cell studies cannot provide an immediate answer to is the biodistribution and clearance of UCNPs following an injection into an animal. The
long-term biodistribution of intravenously injected UCNPs
has been reported by Xiong et al. [205]. In this study, the
animals were followed for 115 days and the results showed
that the UCNPs mainly accumulate within the spleen and
liver. Furthermore, the UCNPs were found to have a clearing time longer than 7 days, in contrast to a previous study
which showed a more rapid clearance speed [186]. This
shows that sample preparation is of high importance in order to determine the pharmacokinetics of the UCNPs within
an organism. However, perhaps more importantly, for these
Figure 7 (online color at: www.lpr-journal.org) In vitro cell viability of HeLa, KB and L02 cells incubated with UCNP-OA-CDT
at different concentration for 5 (a) and 24 h (b), respectively.
(Reprinted with permission from Ref. [206]. Copyright 2008, Elsevier Ltd.)

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studies, no significant toxicity effects could be seen in the

animals under the moderate doses ( 15 mg/kg) used.
In addition to the studies of small animals, systematic
investigation of the effects upon Caenorhabditis elegans (C.
elegans) has also been recently conducted [207]. The worms
were fed with a mixture of B-growth media and UCNPs, and
the toxicity assessments were based on green fluorescent
protein (GFP) expression, life span, egg production, egg
viability, and growth rate. The results showed no significant
differences between the worms fed with the mixture of Bgrowth media and UCNPs compared with those fed with
only B-growth media.
Predicting the toxicity and health issues associated with
nanoparticles in a general manner is very difficult. Since
the toxicity is not only related to the composition of the
nanoparticles (including surface modification), it is clear
that the properties of the bulk material very seldom can
be directly translated to the nanometer scale. For example,
size-dependent factors and the local environment within an
organism will play a significant role in the pharmacokinetics
of the nanoparticles. For the case of UCNPs, the material
itself is still relatively new and despite the current studies
showing no significant toxicity effects, further studies on an
even longer time scale are certainly required before they can
be applied in clinical settings. For example, it is known that
RE elements could induce autophagy in HeLa cells, which
is a common biological effect for the lanthanide elements
[208]. It is also worth to point out that for the purpose of
small-animal studies, the effects on a very long time scale
may not be of extreme importance. Similarly, the use of
experimental drugs on patients carrying terminal diseases
is approved in certain regions of the world, e.g., Europe.
Thus, even though the effects on a very long time scale
may not be clear at this time, there are still numerous of
compelling in-vivo applications of UCNPs.
6. Applications of UCNPs
In recent years, UCNPs have attracted remarkable attention in the biophotonics area due to their merits of autofluorescence free, large anti-Stokes shifts, sharp emission
bandwidths, high resistance to photobleaching, nonblinking
emission behavior, deep detection ability and high spatial
resolution. As shown in Fig. 8, UCNPs have widely been
employed in in vitro cell microscopy, in vivo animal diffuse imaging, luminescence diffuse optical tomograpy, in
vivo multimodal animal imaging (MRI/PET), highly sensitive bioassays (luminescence resonance energy transfer
(LRET)), in vitro temperature sensing and photodynamic
therapy (PDT). In the following, all the above biological
applications will be covered and discusssed in detail.
6.1. Bioassays
Bioassay techniques are of fundamental importance in bioanalytical chemistry and biological sciences. They can of-
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Figure 8 (online color at: www.lpr-journal.org) Schematic summary of biological applications using UCNPs.
fer qualitative assessment or measurement of the presence,

amount and the functional activity of the analyte, which can
be a drug, a biochemical substance or a cell in an organism
under study. Concerning single biomolecule detection or
nano-scale bioprocess monitoring, the SNR performance
of the employed bioassays is very critical and needs further improvements. UCNPs can facilitate the weak signal
detection due to the improved SNR as compared to conventional fluorophores. Therefore, in recent years, UCNPs
have gained much popularity in applications towards bioassays. In the year of 2001, Corstjens et al. [209] developed
UCNP-based lateral-flow bioassays to identify Human Papillomavirus type 16 infection via detection of specific nucleic acid sequences. Later, the same group further applied
UCNPs in immunohistochemistry in lateral flow assay formats, and in immunochromatographic assays for human
chorionic gonadotropin [210]. A host of UCNP-based nucleic acid assay has also been exploited by Tanke et al. and
coworkers to achieve a detection limit of 1 ng/ml oligonucleotides [54]. A sensitive luminescent bioassay for the
simultaneous detection of Salmonella Typhimurium and
Staphylococcus Aureus was developed for both recognition
and element concentration evaluation [211]. UCNP-based
assays are highly sensitive, inexpensive, allow for multiplexing, and are suitable for quantitative detection. Successful on-site detection with UCNP-based assays and portable
readers has been performed in Europe for the detection of
drugs abuse via oral fluids. These reports show the very
large potential of the UCNP-based bioassay in biochemical
testing.
As one of the most powerful bioassay tools, FRET
(Forster resonance energy transfer)-based assays are advantageous in detecting bioaffinity interactions and conformational changes of biomolecules on nanometer scale

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assays to be utilized in diagnostic applications and also in

high-throughput screening approaches. As a donor, UCNPs
with two-photon emission processes have a relatively low
quantum yield compared to the downconversion donors of
traditional FRET. Further enhancement of the UCNP luminescence will improve the detection limit of the UCNPbased LRET.
6.2. Optical thermometry
Figure 9 (online color at: www.lpr-journal.org) Principles of

UCNP-based LRET: a UCNP donor produces anti-Stokes emission at 530550 nm upon excitation. Consequently, it can excite the attached acceptors via FRET process. The intensity
of the sensitized emission from the acceptor measured around
600 nm is proportional to the analyte concentration in the reaction. Biomolecules here could be RNA, DNA, antigen/antibody
and various proteins (depending on the type of biorecognition).
(< 10 nm) [211]. Here, UCNP-based probes could assist

in circumventing some of the challenges with traditional
FRET system caused by the commonly used downconversion organic dyes or QDs. The cross-talk between the donor
and acceptor absorption and/or emission spectra probably
disables the detection of the weak FRET signals. A significant overlap between these spectra could lead either to
direct excitation of the acceptor by the excitation light of
the donor or to incomplete discrimination between acceptor
and donor emissions. Another limiting factor in traditional
FRET is that the background autofluorescence of biological materials caused by the excitation light could disable
the detection of weak FRET signals. Such drawbacks limit
the efficiency and feasibility of FRET and could be overcome by using UCNPs as donors because of their large
anti-Stokes shifted and narrow-band emission. As a derivative of FRET, the working principle of upconversion luminescence RET (LRET) is schematically introduced in
Fig. 9. The group of Soukka has performed several studies
on UCNP-based LRET bioassays [200, 212215]. In 2005,
they developed a novel homogeneous upconversion LRET
assay technology and its potential was well demonstrated
[200]. Since then they applied this technology in many applications, such as immunoassay for E2 (17-estradiol) in
serum [212], enzyme activity assay [214], dual-parameter
DNA hybridization assay [215]. A highly sensitive nucleotide sensor has also been exploited with a detection
limit of 1.3 nm [201, 216]. Very recently, UCNP-based
LRET was used to perform detection of Matrix Metalloproteinase, which is a very important biomarker in blood,
while, also challenging for sensitive and selective detection
[211]. These examples clearly demonstrate that upconversion LRET can extend the applications of FRET technique
and enable the realization of effective and highly sensitive
As a property of the Boltzmann distribution, the relative

intensity of the different emission bands of UCNPs will be
dependent on the surrounding temperature. For this reason,
UCNPs have been proposed as sensitive nanothermometers.
For the UC emission bands originating from two states in
close proximity, separated by an energy gap of E (usually on the order of several hundred wavenumbers), a thermal equilibrium exists governed by the Boltzmann factor
[217]:
I1
= C exp(E/kT ),
I2
where I1 and I2 are the integrated intensities of the emissions from the higher state and the lower state, respectively;
C is a constant which depends on the degeneracy, spontaneous emission rate, and photon energies of the emitting
states in the host materials; k is the Boltzmann constant,
and T is the absolute temperature. Up to date, several emission bands of different activators have been used in temperature sensing, including the green emission bands of Er3+
[219225] and Ho3+ [226], red emission bands of Er3+
[227], and blue emission bands of Tm3+ [228]. In addition, the ratio between two well-separated emission bands
has also been used as temperature-sensitive measurables
[218,229]. A theoretical model is, however, needed to evaluate such information.
Recently, optical thermometry based on UCNPs has
been used in cell models. Vetrone et al. [217] reported
the use of green UC emissions from NaYF4 :Yb3+ , Er3+
nanoparticles for temperature sensing in HeLa cervical cancer cells (Fig. 10(a)). In this study, the excitation light at
920 nm with excitation intensity well below 0.5 kW/cm2
was used in order to avoid any pump-induced heating.
Fischer et al. [218] reported the use of the same kind of
nanoparticles for temperature sensing in human embryo
kidney cells (Fig. 10(b)).
It is worth pointing out that the ratiometric optical thermometry using UCNPs, although reliable, is primarily applicable for superficial imaging. When the UCNPs are embedded in biological tissue, the luminescence light will be
spectrally distorted by absorption and scattering of the tissue. The intensity ratio of two emission bands can thus not
directly be related to a temperature. In addition, considering different power-density dependencies of various UC
emission bands, even in superficial imaging, optical thermometry based on the use of two well-separated UC bands

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Figure 10 (online color at: www.lpr-journal.org) Temperature sensing using NaYF4 :Yb3+ , Er3+ nanoparticles in cell models. (a) Top:
Optical transmission images of an individual HeLa cell at three inner temperatures. Cell death is observed at 45 C. Bottom: Temperature
of the HeLa cell, determined by the fluorescence intensity ratio of the NaYF4 :Yb3+ , Er3+ UCNPs at 525 and 545 nm, as a function
of the applied voltage. (b) Temperature-dependent images of human embryo kidney (HEK) cells transfected with NaYF4 :Yb3+ , Er3+
UCNPs showing sub-micrometer resolution. (c) Calibration plot for the temperature-sensitive nanoparticles inside HEK cells (Adapted
with permission from ref. [217] and [218]. Copyright 2010, 2011, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim, and American
Chemical Society.)
is difficult because of a general lack of adequate control of

the excitation intensity.
6.3. Optical Microscopy

Photoluminescence microscopy using either organic dyes
or fluorescent nanoparticles can offer high resolution and
sensitivity, thus constituting a powerful tool for biological
studies as well as clinical medical applications. Microscopy
techniques vary a lot depending on the involved emissive
features. Due to their unique properties, UCNP-based microscopy exhibits a lot of advantages over other traditional
fluorophores.
6.3.1. Ideal properties for single molecule imaging
Due to the multiphoton excitation process involved, UCNPbased microscopy can yield high resolution images under
CW excitation. In most cases, a Gaussian beam of light
is used to excite the emissive samples and this Gaussian
intensity profile (unsaturated level) of the excitation beam
can be expressed as

Iex (r ) = I0 exp
2r 2
02

(4)
where r is the radial distance from the center axis

of the beam, 0 the beam waist size, and I0 the
center intensity. The power dependence of multiphoton process is nonlinear, which can be seen in
Eq. ((2)). Thus the corresponding emission intensity profiles via one-photon (linear/conventional fluorescent dyes), two-photon and three-photon processes
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Figure 11 (online color at: www.lpr-journal.org) Calculated photoluminescence intensity profiles upon excitation by a Gaussian
beam for three cases: one-photon (conventional fluorophores),
two-photon (red and green emission of UCNP) and three-photon
luminescence (blue emission of UCNP).
(nonlinear upconverting nanoparticles) are shown in

Fig. 11. Apparently such nonlinear power dependence can
be exploited to improve the spatial resolution in microscopy
applications. Apart from their anti-Stokes emission characteristics, UCNPs are highly photostable and display nonblinking emission in contrast to quantum dots. Compared
with the traditional organic dyes (red and blue emission
in Fig. 12c), UCNPs (green emission in Fig. 12c) exhibit exceptional photostability after the same long-time
exposure to the excitation [230]. As shown in Fig. 12b
the time-resolved emission intensity did not show on/off
behavior for single UCNPs [231]. The absence of photobleaching and photoblinking enables rapid and precise
tracking of single UCNPs. Thus, individual UCNPs possess such ideal properties suitable for single nanoparticle
imaging [72, 126, 231], as shown in Fig. 12d. To use sin-

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successful excitation of a single fluorophore molecule in

organic dyes or a single QD in superresolution imaging systems (e.g., PALM (photoactivated localization microscopy), STORM (stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy)) [232, 233]. For the case of multiple UCNPs in
close proximity of each other, differentiation is not possible due to the fact that they have no dark/activate states or
stochastic blinking. To develop other time-division mechanisms for exciting UCNPs is challenging but required
to address this problem. Different from single-moleculeimaging based superresolution microscopy, STED (stimulated emission depletion) and SIM (structure illumination
microscopy) superresolution technologies break through
the diffraction limit optically instead of using photobleaching or blinking properties [234, 235]. It is reasonable to
envisage that UCNP with many unique optical properties
can be an ideal probe for these modalities.
6.3.2. In vitro non-specific imaging for cells
Figure 12 (online color at: www.lpr-journal.org) Nonbleaching

and nonblinking behavior of UCNPs: (a) Photostability of a single
UCNP under long-time monitoring; (b) time-resolved emission of
UCNP, suggesting no on/off behavior; (c) simultaneous excitations were provided by CW lasers at 405, 543, and 980 nm with
powers of approximately 1.6, 0.13, and 19 mW in the focal plane,
respectively; (d) Single particle imaging of UCNPs: luminescence
image (left) and AFM image (right) of the UCNPs dispersed on
the cover slip.(Adapted with permission from Refs. [72, 230, 231],
Copyright 2009, National Academy of Sciences, American Chemical Society and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
gle UCNPs for probing single proteins, the particles should

be small enough in order not to affect the protein itself.
However, smaller nanoparticles also means less emission
light. Very recently, Ostrowskigrow et al. [126] reported
on the successful synthesis of light-emitting nanocrystals
small enough not to disrupt cell activity but bright enough
for single detection, enabling single protein imaging. This
breakthrough will broaden the applications of UCNPs, such
as mapping single proteins moving through a cell, neurons
cell interaction, and the process in brain cells connecting
together to form a synapse.
With the merit of single particles imaging, UCNP can
be envisaged as a superresolution probe. Generally, superresolution can be realized using centroid localization and
computer rendering as long as the detected light spots in the
microscopy field of view are confirmed from single or
separate nanoparticles. It is well known that photoswitchable emission or blinking behavior are the paramount for
In 1999, Zijlmans et al. [8] demonstrated for the first

time UCNP-based high-contrast bioimaging. In their work
Y2 O2 S:Yb3+ /Tm3+ particles were used to study the distribution of prostate specific antigen in paraffin-embedded
human prostate tissue. At that time, the size of upconversion particles was in the range of hundreds of nanometers, and surface modification engineering was in its infancy. In recent years, with the improvement of the UCNP
performance, UCNP-based microscopy techniques have
been widely exploited for high-resolution and high-contrast
imaging of cellular specimens. Non-targeting UCNPs are
found to be attached to the membrane or to be endocytosed by various cell lines incubated with those UCNPs. In
2008, Nyk et al. [82] successfully employed MSA-UCNPs
to label Panc 1 cells to produce high-contrast images. PEG
and some polymers modified UCNPs can also be utilized
for in vitro nonspecific cell imaging [236]. For non-specific
binding, two main interaction mechanisms are electrostatic
interactions and ligand interactions with cell membranes.
Non-specific binding depends on the charge and hydrophobicity of a ligand, but the dependence has not yet been
clarified. Very recently, Jin et al. [181] prepared three types
of polymer-coated UCNPs, which resulted in the discovery
that positively charged PEI-UCNP have enhanced cellular
uptake, more than its neutral and negative counterparts as
shown in Fig. 13(b)(d). UCNPs doped with RE elements
could induce autophagy in HeLa cells and it is a common
biological effect for RE elements with this process being
dose and time dependent [208]. Nonspecific binding can,
however, also occur for molecules or cell lines of no interest for the study, and thus this process is not suitable for
targeted diagnosis and therapy.
6.3.3. In vitro specific imaging for cells
Having obvious advantages over non-specific binding

imaging, specific imaging of tumor cells has been

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Figure 13 (online color at: www.lpr-journal.org) (a) MSA-UCNPincubated non-specific cell imaging; (b)(d) Charge-dependent
cellular imaging (PEI-UCNPs, PVP-UCNPs, PAA-UCNPs); photoluminescence images (upper row) and bright field images (bottom row).(Reprinted with permission from Ref. [82]. Copyright
2008; [236], Copyright 2009, American Chemical Society.)
widely studied using surface-functionalized UCNPs via

biomolecular recognition. In 2009, Wang et al. [189, 198]
proposed anti-CEA8 conjugated UCNPs to perform cell
imaging. Zhan et al. [139] have recently performed a
set of solid control experiments and demonstrated that
NaYF4 :Yb3+ /Er(Ho)3+ nanoparticles conjugated with antiCEA8 antibody can be utilized for highly specific binding
and imaging of HeLa cells with antigen expressed on the
cell membrane, as shown in Fig. 14. In their report, the assynthesized OA-capped UCNPs were first rendered aqueous dispersible through MSA encapsulation. Then negatively charged MSA-UCNPs were further polymer-coated
through physical adsorption by positively charged PAH,
which allows for antibody protein bioconjugation. Other
representative work have been reported by Zhang et al.
[177, 187], where FA-modified UCNPs were introduced
to specifically bind to the folate receptor overexpressed by
cancer cells for targeted imaging. High-affinity polypeptide
have in recent years been shown to be effective agents for
probing biological systems with high specificity. Utilized as
peptides, RGD-conjugated UCNPs have been successfully
used for cell targeted imaging [199,237]. Yu et al. [202] conjugated PEI-coated NaYF4 : Yb3+ , Er3+ /Ce3+ with recombinant chlorotoxin a typical peptide neurotoxin that could
bind with high specificity to many types of cancer cells
and incubated the modified UCNPs with C6 glioma cells for
targeted imaging. Utilized as target agents, UCNPs could
also be nanocarriers and indicators for some molecules
and drugs. In a recent report, Zhang et al. [238, 239]
used UCNPs for the intracellular investigation of smallinterference (siRNA) in living cells. Their results have
shown that UCNPs are capable of delivering and tracking
siRNA.
Figure 14 (online color at: www.lpr-journal.org) In vitro cancer cell imaging using 915-nm laser-excited UCNPs: images of HeLa cells
separately incubated with (a) blank, (b) anti-CEA8-NaYbF4 :Yb3+ /Ho3+ , (c) anti-CEA8-NaYbF4 :Yb3+ /Er3+ , (d) NaYbF4 :Yb3+ /Er3+ , and
(e) anti-CEA8-NaYbF4 :Yb3+ /Er3+ in the presence of 10-fold excess unlabeled antiCEA8. Bright field images (upper-row), photoluminescence images (middle-row) and superimposed images(bottom-row). (Reprinted with permission from Ref. [139]. Copyright 2011,
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In principle, the long lifetime in emissive organic

dyes and nanoparticles would result in a relatively low
photoluminescence intensity under the unsaturated power
density level. Due to very long phosphorescence lifetime (millisecond to microsecond) and relatively low QY,
UCNP-based microscopy requires relatively low scanning
speed to obtain high lateral resolution [240]. Saturated excitation could speed up the scanning while preserving the
same lateral resolution. However, in this case it is difficult
to obtain a satisfactory axial resolution as the 3D sectioning ability of multiphoton processes will be significantly
affected. Another drawback of UCNP-based laser scanning
microscopy is that in the cases of 3D spatial scanning, emission wavelength scanning or real-time monitoring, the cell
sample has to be exposed to excitation for several minutes or even hours of time [139]. Thus, it is not possible
to record very quick bioprocesses. Wide field microscopy
could be an alternative method for time-consuming laser
scanning upconversion microscopy [82, 240]. Up to date,
almost all excitation wavelengths for UCNP applications
were selected around 980 nm. It is worth pointing out that
light around 980 nm suffers from an intrinsic disadvantage:
water being the most significant ingredient of animal and
human body heavily absorbs light around this wavelength.
In the cases of long-time scanning, the excitation light of
980 nm can significantly heat up the cell growth medium,
which probably results in damage to the cells, as shown in
Fig. 15. Alternatively, Zhan et al. have proposed the use of
excitation light around 920 nm (where the optical absorption coefficient of water is much lower and the excitation
can still occur effectively) to replace 980-nm light in order
to avoid cell damage [139].
6.4. Diffuse optical imaging

As is the case for novel microscopy techniques, deep-tissue
diffuse optical imaging (DOI) has over the last decades
also attracted an increasing amount of attention [241244].
Compared with conventional non-invasive imaging systems, such as X-ray computed tomography (CT), magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI), and Positron emission tomography (PET), optical imaging systems are fast, compact and
very sensitive to luminescent contrast agents. However, due
to the relatively high scattering and absorption of light in
tissue, the penetration depth is typically limited to 10 cm
[243, 245]. Although the penetration depth may seem to
be a severe limitation, DOI has already been applied to
monitor a wide range of biological processes and systems
in both small animals and humans. In small animals, DOI
has, for example, been used to follow the development in
time of Alzheimers disease [246], brain metabolism [247],
proteases [248] and various drug effects [249]. In humans,
DOI has, for example, been employed to monitor and detect breast cancer tumors [250254], brain activity and brain
metabolism [252,255]. However, the images obtained from
DOI techniques can be of relatively poor quality due to
a number of reasons, including endogenous background
tissue autofluorescence, the diffusive nature of light propagation in tissue, and the ill-posedness of the mathematical problem formulation. In this section, we will focus on
luminescence/fluorescence diffuse imaging, and in particular luminescence/fluorescence diffuse optical tomography
(LDOT/FDOT) and discuss how the upconversion luminescence (UCL) of UCNPs can be applied to obtain images
of superior qualities as compared to conventional Stokesshifting contrast agents.
6.4.1. Autofluorescence of tissue
Figure 15 (online color at: www.lpr-journal.org) Calculated results of cell-in-celldish imaging model: excitation laser induced
temperature elevation ( C) after (a, b) 30 s and (c, d) 5 min
of irradiation with (a, c) a 915 nm laser and (b, d) a 980 nm
laser(power 300mW).(Adapted with permission from Ref. [139].
Copyright 2011, American Chemical Society.)
Biological tissue contains a large number of endogenous

fluorophores. The fluorophores can either be components
of the tissue structural matrix, for example, collagen and
elastin, or be formed during metabolism processes, for
example, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) and
flavins [256, 257]. Although the fluorophores are individually well known, any given tissue, however, typically consists of a mixture of a large number of endogenous fluorophores. The distribution and optical characteristics of the
fluorophores within the tissues are not only dependent on
the tissue type, but also on the chemical environment as
well as the metabolic state at the cellular level. By measuring the changes in the autofluorescence spectra, it is possible, for example, to perform cancer diagnostics [258260].
However, for diffuse optical imaging, and in particular

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luminescence diffuse optical imaging employing an exogenous contrast agent, the ever-present tissue autofluorescence will certainly deteriorate the signal-to-background
ratio and limit the sensitivity of the system, and can at the
same time cause severe artifacts in the reconstructed tomographs [261].
In order to obtain accurate representations of the fluorophore distribution as well as to increase the sensitivities, significant efforts have been invested to develop
methods to overcome the tissue autofluorescence. Suggested approaches include subtraction-methods which
model the tissue autofluorescence [262], time-domain separation using fluorophores with suitable lifetimes [263],
spectral unmixing and multispectral methods [264, 265],
transillumination and normalized approaches [266], and
large Stokes-shifting markers, such as QDs [265, 267].
Although these methods can reduce the effects of unwanted tissue autofluorescence, they are usually associated with complex instrumentation and heavy computational needs. The use of UCNPs can, however, completely
eliminate the tissue autofluorescence since the emission
from endogenous fluorophores is Stokes shifted, as shown
in Fig. 16 [19, 38, 199, 236]. As illustrated in Fig. 17,
Figure 17 (online color at: www.lpr-journal.org) LDOT reconstruction of two cylindrical luminescent targets in a tissue phantom. (a) Reconstruction using UCNPs. (b) Reconstruction using
rhodamine 6G. It is demonstrated that the presence of even a
weak autofluorescent background can cause severe artifacts in
the tomographic reconstructions due to the ill-conditioned mathematical formulation. (Reprinted with permission from Ref. [269].
Copyright 2009, American Institute of Physics.)
this will significantly reduce the numbers of artifacts in

the particularly sensitive LDOT problem [268, 269]. Furthermore, in contrast to the approaches discussed above,
a system using UCNPs is very straightforward to implement and does not require any complex instrumentation
in terms of, for example, excitation-light rejection due to
the large anti-Stokes shift and the narrow bandwidth of the
emission.
6.4.2. Improving image quality by exploiting the
nonlinear power dependence
Figure 16 (online color at: www.lpr-journal.org) Comparison of

imaging sensitivities between UCNPs and QDs: (a) a white light
image of a mouse subcutaneously injected with various concentrations of UCNP1; (b) an in vivo UCL image of the injected mouse; (c) UCL emission spectra recorded at the injection
sites; (d) and (g) white light images of mice subcutaneously injected with QDs; (e) spectrally-resolved fluorescence images of
a QD545-injected mouse and (h) a QD625 injected mouse (red
and green colors represent QD fluorescence and autofluorescence, respectively); (f) and (i) fluorescence spectra recorded at
the QD injection sites (the fluorescence spectra of 1.5 nmol/L QDs
were nearly identical to the background spectra). (Reprinted with
permission from Ref. [236]. Copyright 2010, Tsinghua University
Press and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.)
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In addition to the anti-Stokes shifted emission, it has been

shown that the nonlinear power dependence of the UC emission can be further exploited to enhance both the quality and
the contrast of the resulting images. Since the emissions utilized in diffuse imaging correspond typically to two-photon
processes, this can be used to confine the excitation volume,
leading to an increase in the spatial resolution. The enhancement of the spatial resolution has been demonstrated for the
case of diffuse planar imaging [270] as well as LDOT [151]
(Fig. 18). Related to the case of microscopy, the improved
spatial resolution can be explained by considering the sensitivity profiles for a given source-detector pair, shown in
Fig. 19. It is clear that a multi-photon process will cause
a confinement of the sensitivity profiles, thus effectively
resulting in selective excitation of each individual luminescent target within the medium. From Fig. 19, it can also
be realized that not only will the lateral resolution be improved, but also the axial resolution. This is due to the fact
that the resolution strongly depends on the gradient in the
sensitivity profiles, and such sharp gradients can be found
along all spatial dimensions when nonlinear fluorophores
are employed.
An interesting aspect of the nonlinear power dependence of the UCNPs is their potential to increase the
information density from a given volume by carefully
designing the excitation scheme to include multi-beam
excitation. This was demonstrated by Liu et al. [271],
where it was shown that the use of two excitation beams

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Figure 18 (online color at: www.lpr-journal.org) Experimental results demonstrating that due to the two-photon-dependent emission,
the use of UCNPs can significantly increase the ultimate spatial resolution obtainable in LDOT. The experiments were carried out in
tissue phantoms, and two glass tubes filled with either DY-781 dye or UCNPs were placed with different center-to-center separation to
evaluate the spatial resolution obtained. (Reprinted with permission from Ref. [151]. Copyright 2012, American Chemical Society.)
results in a luminescence intensity which can be expressed

as
(I1 + I2 )2 = I12 + I22 + 2I1 I2 ,
Figure 19 (online color at: www.lpr-journal.org) Simulated sensitivity profiles for three different source positions and a fixed
detector position. The sharp gradients associated with UCNPs
(quadratic luminescence markers), enable LDOT reconstructions
with superior spatial resolutions as compared with conventional
fluorophores (linear luminescence markers). (Reprinted with permission from Ref. [151]. Copyright 2012, American Chemical Society.)
where is the detected luminescence intensity and I1,2

denote the excitation intensities of the two beams. It can
be seen that in contrast to conventional linear fluorophores,
the use of two excitation beams for a quadratic luminescent
marker results in a cross term which contains additional
information of the distribution. Figure 20 shows the effect
of including the cross term in the reconstructions, which
makes clear that the inclusion of the cross term results
in a much more correct representation of the true UCNP
distribution. Furthermore, by using even more excitation
beams, it should be possible to extract additional orthogonal
information. Although the benefits may diminish and the
system complexity will increase for more excitation beams,
this approach should still be very relevant for measurements
on small surfaces, such as those found on mice. Using
the UCNPs, even a small surface can provide sufficient
data for an accurate reconstruction, whereas the amount
of orthogonal data points while employing a conventional
fluorophore may be very limited.

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Figure 20 (online color at: www.lpr-journal.org) Experimental results demonstrating that a dual-beam excitation scheme can be
used for UCNPs to extract additional spatial information facilitating FDOT reconstructions of higher qualities. (a) Single-beam
setup. (b) Dual-beam setup. (Reprinted with permission from Ref.
[271]. (Copyright 2010, Optical Society of America).
6.4.3. Improving the penetration depth and avoiding

overheating
As has been previously discussed, few reports present the

efficiency of UCNPs in absolute terms [50, 151]. However,
it is relatively safe to conclude that compared with conventional dye molecules, the QY of UCNPs is usually a few orders of magnitude lower. In most cases, the absence of background tissue autofluorescence will still produce images
that are superior to those produced with autofluorescencesensitive fluorophores. However, the maximum depth that
can be imaged while employing UCNPs is of course ultimately limited by the QY as well as the attenuation of the
excitation and the emission light in biological tissue. As
previously mentioned, the most commonly excitation light
(975 nm) can be strongly absorbed by the water in tissue,
which may result in limited penetration depth as well as
overheating. It is of importance to systematically investigate these issues in order to optimize UCNP-based optical
imaging. Recently, it has been demonstrated that by shifting
the excitation wavelength to the absorption band of Yb3+
at 915 nm, it is possible to increase the penetration depth
as the absorption of water is lower than the typically employed absorption band at 975 nm [139]. The experimental
and calculated results shown in Fig. 21 both confirm that
915 nm laser excitation is advantageous for deep tissue
imaging as compared to 980-nm laser excitation. This is
highly relevant when imaging tissue types which contain
a high water content, not only to increase the penetration
depth but also to avoid the need of excessive laser intensities
that may cause tissue heating and damage [159]. The possible overheating effect induced by 980-nm laser irradiation
during UCNP-based diffuse imaging was computationally
and experimentally studied by Zhan et al. [139]. As shown
in Fig. 22, the in vivo experimental results of a mouse show
that overheating of the mouse can clearly be induced by
980-nm laser irradiation, which can be effectively overcome by using a 915 nm laser. However, it is worth to point
out that the absorption of Yb3+ at 915 nm is significantly
lower and thus the shift of the excitation wavelength is most
relevant for water-dense tissues at depths greater than ap-
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Figure 21 (online color at: www.lpr-journal.org) Comparison

of the UCNP photoluminescence intensity under excitation by
915 nm and 980 nm, respectively, for different UCNP inclusion
depths. It is shown that the intensity decreases much slower
under excitation by 915 nm (a) as compared to 980 nm (b).
(c) Line plots showing the intensity as a function of depth for
fixed excitation conditions. (d) Ratio of the absolute photoluminescence intensity under excitation by 915 nm and 980 nm, respectively. (Reprinted with permission from Ref. [139]. Copyright
2011, American Chemical Society.)
Figure 22 (online color at: www.lpr-journal.org) In vivo temperature ( C) monitoring for (a) a 915-nm laser irradiated mouse
and (b) a 980-nm laser irradiated mouse and (c) the corresponding temperature line profiles (curve A and B in (c) corresponding to line A in (a) and line B in (b), respectively). The experiment was performed under a stable room temperature of 18
C. (Reprinted with permission from Ref. [139]. Copyright 2011,
proximately 1.5 cm. The current limitation in absorption

motivates the further development of UCNPs. If a more efficient upconversion process can be enabled in the 915-nm
region, the penetration depth could be enhanced by several
times as compared with excitation at 975 nm.

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Figure 23 (online color at: www.lpr-journal.org) Real-time in vivo

upconversion luminescence (UCL) imaging of athymic nude mice
with intravenous injection of PAA-UCNPs (15 mg/kg) at different
time points. Column 3: overlays of UCL and brightfield images of
mice. Column 6: overlays of UCL and brightfield images of dissected mice. (Reprinted with permission from Ref. [205]. Copyright 2010, Elsevier Ltd.)
Figure 24 (online color at: www.lpr-journal.org) In vivo lymphatic

drainage UCL imaging at 800 nm was clearly detected at four
different draining lymph basins (1, 2, 3, 4) along the right antebrachium of the nude mouse. Detection of upconversion luminescence in the different positions, prostrate (a) or lateral (b) position,
after injection of 20 mL (1 mg/mL) UCNPs-OAAA into the paw of
the nude mouse for 20 min. (c) The lymphatic drainage UCL imaging after removal of skin and fatty tissues was also measured. All
images were acquired under the same instrumental conditions
(power density of 120 mW/cm2 and temperature at 25 C on the
surface of the mouse). The mean luminescence intensity of the
regions of interest (blue areas) of ROI 1 (specific uptake), ROI 2
(nonspecific uptake) and ROI 3 (background) were selected for
the in vivo SNR calculation. (Reprinted with permission from Ref.
[274]. Copyright 2011, Elsevier Ltd.)
6.4.4. Small-animal imaging
The rapid development of UCNPs has made them viable for

employment in in-vivo small-animal imaging. To date, several aspects within small-animal imaging have been studied
with the use of UCNPs. Early studies involved imaging of
subcutaneous injections [139, 272], and biodistribution of
UCNPs. Salthouse et al. [273] studied the accumulation of
UCNPs in mice following a tail vein injection and showed
that PEG-coated UCNPs with no specific targeting accumulate primarily within the liver and spleen of the animals.
This was later confirmed by Xiong et al. [205] using polyacrylic acid (PAA) modified UCNPs, see Fig. 23. In addition, long clearing times were found and the UCNPs could
still be observed 7 days post injection in an in-vivo setting
[205].
Mapping of the lymphatic systems within small animals
is another research topic that has been of great interest for
UCNPs. Knowledge of the lymphatic system is important
to predict the spread of certain kinds of cancer metastasis. Due to the small sizes of the sentinel nodes, it can be
difficult to accurately detect and quantify the distribution
of fluorophores if autofluorescence is present. Thus, UCNPs are very promising for this application where imaging
of the lymphatic vessels and lymphatic nodes has been
demonstrated [236, 274, 275]. As demonstrated in Fig. 24,

by using UCNPs codoped with different RE ions, it is possible to optically separate injections at different times and
sites with virtually no cross talks, enabling means to probe
and separate movement speeds.
For targeting of specific tissue types, such as cancer
tumors, several approaches exist. The use of FA to label
UCNPs for the targeting of folate receptor overexpressing
cell lines, for example, HeLa and KB, is among the first
to be employed in an in vivo setting [177]. Using nude
mice bearing a HeLa tumor on the hind leg, it was demonstrated that specific targeting could be achieved and imaged
in vivo after intravenous injection of the UCNPs. Other reports on targeting methods include peptide labeling, which
could provide a more efficient uptake in vivo [199, 202].
The specificity was found to be very good and the lack
of background tissue autofluorescence resulted in SNRs
which were comparable with those found in bioluminescence imaging.
The long-time stability of UCNPs in biological environments has also enabled the possibility to perform live
cell tracking of transplanted cells in an animal [112]. Traditionally, cell monitoring of transplanted cells is performed

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Figure 25 (online color at: www.lpr-journal.org) Multicolor in vivo

cancer cell tracking and imaging. White light (a) and UCL (b) images of KB cell (a human carcinoma cell line) pellets after incubation with three colors of UCNPs for 24 h. Excess UCNPs
were completely removed by extensive washing. Substantial cellular uptake of UCNPs was evidenced by the bright UCL signals
from the cell pellets. White light (c) and UCL (d) images of a
nude mouse immediately after subcutaneous injection with three
KB cell suspensions labeled by different colors of UCNPs. White
light (e) and UCL (f) images of the same mouse one week after cancer cell injection. Three tumors developed on the injected
sites and were clearly visualized by the three-color UCL imaging.
(Reprinted with permission from Ref. [236]. Copyright 2010, Tsinghua University Press and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.)
using histology since the staining agents used typically operate within the UVblue range of the spectrum. As known,
light at these wavelengths has extremely high attenuation
and thus in-vivo imaging is difficult except for very superficial targets. In addition, these dyes are highly sensitive to
photobleaching, which sets a limit on the time span for longitudinal studies in contrast to the stable UCNPs. Idris et al.
[112] first demonstrated the use of UCNPs for both in-vitro
and in-vivo tracking of stem cells over a time span of more
than one week using confocal microscopy. On the macroscopic scale, Cheng et al. [236] have shown that human
cancer cells can be tracked after injection into an animal
and the further development of the tumor itself can also be
monitored (Fig. 25).
6.5. Photodynamic therapy

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a treatment modality that
has gained clinical acceptance and is now in many places a
first line treatment for selected indications, including nonmelanoma skin cancer [276]. For other indications, PDT
is still being developed and evaluated. In particular, efforts
are made towards developing PDT for solid and deeply lo-
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cated malignancies [277,278], antibacterial and anti-fungal

treatment [279, 280].
Another area of great interest in connection to photodynamic actions is drug delivery. Berg et al. [281, 282]
have developed photochemical internalization (PCI) as a
technique to assist drug delivery into cells. Photodynamic
reactions are used here to destroy the membrane of a vesicle
after endocytosis, and consequently to release its content
into the intracellular liquid.
Recently, a number of studies have been conducted to
evaluate whether UCNPs could be beneficial for PDT, especially due to the long excitation wavelength which provides
good light penetration. Commonly used drugs for PDT typically require light in the visible region, however, the penetration depth at these wavelengths is clearly a limiting
factor. The strong need to shift the excitation wavelength
to the NIR region is therefore motivated. The optimal region for penetrating biological tissue resides around 800
to 1 m. However, these NIR photons have too low energy to generate 1 O2 . Efforts have been invested into using
two-photon absorption to enable the use of NIR photons
for PDT [283]. Unfortunately, the usefulness of this technique for deep-tissue PDT is limited by the required intensities for two-photon absorption. As UC processes in
UCNPs are efficient, they should be more suitable for the
use of deep-tissue PDT as compared to two-photon dyes.
The use of UCNPs for PDT was already reported in 2007
by Zhang et al. [194]. The obtained efficiency for generation of 1 O2 was, however, very low, although it was
envisaged that the rapid development of UCNP materials
in general will significantly enhance the efficiency. Several
approaches have since been developed to obtain sufficient
efficiency to enable deep-tissue PDT [187, 188, 284287].
These approaches include the encapsulation of the photosensitizer within mesoporous nanoparticles to overcome
the hydrophobic properties of many photosensitizers, thus
enabling a broader range of photosensitizer drugs. However, most demonstrations have been on cell plates in a
microscopic environment and further studies are certainly
required to investigate the applicability of deep-tissue PDT
using UCNPs.
6.5.1. Dosimetry
For deep-tissue PDT with the currently available photosensitizers, it is of utmost importance to understand the lighttissue interaction in order to provide a useful dosimetry
[288290]. Various kinds of photosensitizers are available,
and we do not intend to review the current state-of-theart photosensitizers. Instead, using simple calculations, we
would like to highlight the importance of understanding
light-tissue interaction in order to estimate the outcome of
a treatment.
For simplicity, we will assume an infinite homogeneous
medium and a conservative light-dose threshold of 1 J/cm2
to reach a satisfactory treatment. The distribution of light
for a source of power P0 for steady state diffusion is given

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by [291]
P0 eff r
e
(r ) =
,
4 Dr
(6)
where D = 1/3(a + s ) is the diffusion coefficient, a

the absorption coefficient, s the reduced scattering coefficient, eff = (a /D)1/2 , and r denotes the distance from
the source. Using this well-known and simple relationship,
we will show that the time needed to reach a threshold dose
for various r , i.e., distances or depths from the source, can
be estimated.
We assume that the photosensitizer drug is excited in
the red wavelength region ( 660 nm), which coincides
well with the emissions of the commonly used activators.
By knowing the tissue optical properties at this excitation wavelength, it is thus possible to calculate the light
distribution and hence the time needed to reach a threshold dose. In the following, we assume PDT treatment of
human prostate tissue with a (660 nm) = 0.5 cm1 and
s (660 nm) = 9 cm1 [292]. The treatment time needed
when using UCNPs will be determined by the absorbed
fraction, the QY of the UCNPs as well as the energy transfer
efficiency from the UCNPs to the photosensitizers. These
numbers are difficult to assess in a general manner, and we
assume in these quick estimates that all excitation light is
absorbed, an energy transfer efficiency of 1 and a QY that
is similar of that presented in Fig. 5. The UC fluence rate
can thus be expressed as
em = ex (ex )
em
,
ex
(7)
where denotes the QY, and the subscripts ex and em denote the excitation light and the emission light, respectively.
Furthermore, we can estimate the optical properties at the
excitation wavelength of UCNPs at 975 nm [245,292] to be
a (975nm) = 0.7 cm1 and s (975nm) = 5 cm1 . Using
these values we can then again calculate the treatment time
needed to reach a threshold dose for UCNP-mediated PDT.
Figure 26(a) shows the calculated fluence rates of the
excitation light at 660 nm and 975 nm, with the inset showing the corresponding QYs for each excitation depth for the
UCNPs. The strength of the source was chosen to be 500
mW and the QY of the UCNPs was obtained by a linear
fit (in a log-log scale) of the low-intensity values from previously published work [151]. The time needed to reach a
threshold dose for direct excitation of the photosensitizer
and UCNP-mediated PDT is shown in Fig. 26(b). A few
conclusions can be immediately drawn from these results.
Firstly, for prostate tissue, the attenuation factor of light at
660 nm and 975 nm is similar. This certainly depends on
the tissue type, with prostate tissue being relatively rich of
hemoglobin and water. However, even for tissue types with
less amount of water and hemoglobin, the difference in the
fluence rates between the two excitation wavelengths will
still be relatively negligible for depths less than 1 cm. Perhaps the most remarkable result is the treatment time that
will be needed if UCNPs are used to excite the photosensi-
tizer drugs. From Fig. 26, it can be seen that the treatment
time while using UCNPs will be at least 4 orders of magnitude longer. This treatment time can be shortened by either
increasing the excitation fluence rates (for instance by employing a pulsed excitation source) or by increasing the QY
of the UCNPs. However, it is quite clear that it is unrealistic to increase either of these factors by several orders of
magnitudes directly, especially since the excitation power
is already chosen to be very high. It may be possible to use a
pulsed light source to keep the average power down, while
using the peak power to excite the UCNPs. Pulsed light
will allow higher fluence rates in the tissue without causing
tissue heating. Ideally one would like to work with fluence
rates well above the saturation of the UCNPs, meaning that
the QY ideally would be in a region where it is not power dependent. For tissue regions with such high fluence rates, the
PDT efficiency will not decrease with depth as quickly, and
would have a depth profile more similar to the case of direct excitation of a photosensitizer. However, this approach
most probably cannot fully close the gap between direct
excitation and UCNP-mediated excitation, as the highest
reported QY (obtained under very high intensities) for UCNPs are still on the order of a few percents [50, 151]. Thus,
the treatment time while using UCNPs will still be longer
than direct excitation for most practical cases.
The efficiency with depth depends on two things, attenuation of the excitation light (in favor for long excitation
wavelengths) and the fact that the excitation is a two-photon
process for UCNPs and a linear process for conventional
PDT drugs (in favor for the linear excitation process). Our
simulations clearly indicate that the non-linear excitation
process hampers the excitation efficiency more than the
gain in better light penetration. This is a very similar observation as for molecular two-photon PDT sensitizers. The
calculations above are performed under extremely simplified conditions. Clearly, they are not meant to serve as an
accurate representation of the reality, but rather to highlight
the trends and needs in order to make UCNP-mediated PDT
feasible. The quality and efficiency of UCNPs have been
increasing in a very rapid fashion over the last years. Even
though the results above may indicate that it is difficult to
perform PDT with UCNPs directly, with the ever-increasing
knowledge of the UCNPs, and the use of properly pulsed
light sources, UCNP-mediated PDT may still be feasible
within the foreseeable future.
6.6. Multimodality imaging

Multimodality imaging is a research field that has been explored extensively in the last few decades. Until recently,
efforts have mainly been invested into the modalities such
as X-ray computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI), single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), positron emission tomography (PET), and
ultrasonography [293296], mainly aiming for molecular
imaging. In recent years, the availability of a large numbers
of photoluminescent molecules has catalyzed a growing

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Figure 26 (online color at: www.lpr-journal.org) (a) Calculated fluence rates within human prostate tissue under excitation by 660 nm
and 975 nm, respectively, based on the assumptions given in the text. The inset shows the corresponding QY for the UCNPs (the QY
for the photosensitizer at 660 nm is constant) as a function of depth. (b) The treatment time needed to reach the light threshold dose
of 1 J/cm2 .
interest of enabling optical molecular imaging for multimodal contrast agents [297,298]. The high sensitivity, compactness and speed of optical imaging systems have made
luminescence molecular imaging extremely attractive as a
compliment to the more established modalities. However,
luminescent contrast agents that are optically bright and
stable are difficult to find. Thus the luminescent probes on
the multimodal contrast agents tend to degrade and bleach,
making it difficult to perform truly longitudinal studies in
parallel with other modalities. UCNPs, on the other hand,
are extremely stable and do not in general suffer from
bleaching and aging effects. In addition, since UCNPs are
based upon crystal hosts, multimodality imaging can, in
some cases, be enabled by modifying the crystal host.
Diffuse optical imaging is often associated with poor
spatial resolution, although the use of UCNPs can significantly improve this characteristic [151]. The spatial resolution of CT and MRI are in general higher, however, the
information obtained is quite different. While CT and MRI
can provide detailed anatomical information, for molecular
imaging, luminescent optical contrast agents usually have
a much higher sensitivity, comparable with PET. However,
while PET can provide detailed pre-operative data, they
are not practical for acquiring intra-operative data due to
both complexity and the relatively short half lives of the radioactive tracers. In this section, the current state-of-the-art
multimodality imaging agents which are based on UCNPs
will be discussed.
laxation agent. Indeed Kumar et al. [299] co-doped Gd3+

ions into the NaYF4 crystal host of UCNPs, while Park
et al. [72] used the NaGdF4 crystal host, with both approaches showing magnetic properties under T1 -weighted
MRI (r1 = 0.14 s1 mM1 for the co-doping approach and
r1 = 1.4 s1 mM1 for the NaGdF4 crystal host approach).
The QY of NaGdF4 UCNPs is expected to be comparable to that of NaYF4 UCNPs, however, absolute numbers
are seldom reported, which makes it difficult to draw final
conclusions on the effects upon the optical efficiency.
Another strategy that can be employed is to use a core
shell structure. For example, Li et al. [300] used NaYF4
cores coated with Si-DTTA-Gd3+ shells to generate multifunctional UCNPs for multimodal imaging. This design
was motivated as it should yield the most UC efficient core,
while high Gd3+ payload is achieved on the surface which
is suitable for functionalization. Using this approach they
report r1 = 20.1 s1 mM1 and r2 = 55 s1 mM1 . However, the lack of reports upon the QY makes it once again
difficult to obtain absolute numbers in terms of the efficiency.
For in-vivo studies, Zhou et al. [183] have shown that
NaGdF4 :Yb3+ ,Er3+ ,Tm3+ UCNPs can be accurately imaged, using both MRI and optical imaging, inside white
Kunming mice following an intravenous injection. As expected, the UCNPs were found to accumulate mainly inside
the spleen and liver of the animal.
6.6.2. Nuclear-optical imaging
6.6.1. Magnetic-optical imaging
UCNPs have been demonstrated for both T1 -and T2 weighted MRI. For T1 imaging, the UCNP crystal can be
modified to provide contrast in an MR system directly. For
MRI, gadolinium (Gd) has been an extensively used re-
www.lpr-journal.org
Nuclear imaing is extensively used within the field of biology and medicine. PET imaging, for example, can achieve
sensitivities down to picomolar range. Recently, the use
of multimodal UCNPs for PET imaging was demonstrated
[206, 301], thereby the commonly used 18 F isotope was

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chosen as the PET agent and very promising in vivo experiments were conducted. In addition, Zhou et al. used
a gadolinium-based crystal host, thus simultaneously enabling tri-modal imaging (further discussed below). Such
multimodal agents may prove to be very useful in future
clinical development. However, due to the limited half-lives
of the radioactive tracers, it is important to develop reaction
processes with high yield. Another aspect that is worth to
consider is information orthogonality. It is obvious that the
largest gain from a certain contrast agent can be obtained
if each modality provides independent information as compared with the other modalities. For the case of PET and UC
emission, although the information space may overlap, the
time window for acquiring PET data is much more limited
as compared with UC emission, however, PET may be able
to provide more detailed data.
6.6.3. CT- and trimodal imaging
The high-atomic number associated with the RE elements

in the host crystal of UCNPs can lead to effective attenuation of X-rays. Thus, very recently several groups have proposed the use of UCNPs for X-ray CT imaging [302306].
Ytterbium (Yb) and lutetium (Lu) have received most attention due to their high atomic numbers that match the
operating conditions found in CT systems. For the case of
Yb, the host material NaYbF4 has been demonstrated to
provide contrast superior to iobitridol [302, 304]. Due to
the nature of the electron structure within the RE elements,
Lu in a similar fashion provides an enhanced CT contrast
[304, 306].
Since the attenuation of X-rays is an inherent property of the most efficient crystal hosts, the application of
tri-modal imaging (CT/MRI/optical) is often discussed and
proposed. Similar to the discussion in section 6.6.1, this
can be accomplished either by co-doping the host crystals with Gd or by using a core-shell structure that provides the MRI contrast, such as a Gd shell or an iron shell
[303, 305, 306].
It is well known that optical systems are generally compact, fast, inexpensive and easy to operate. Thus, the possibility to perform imaging in multiple modalities can provide
new opportunities in the understanding of biological systems. Perhaps even more importantly, the fast screening
process enabled by optical imaging systems can lead to a
more rapid development of new contrast agents as well as
new drugs.
7. Challenges and Outlook

As clearly illustrated in this review article, UCNPs have
many potential advantages and are extremely interesting for
microscopy and in vivo applications of diffuse light imaging. Consequently, the use of UCNPs as improved contrast
agents for optical bioimaging has grown enormously in just
a few years. A main remaining challenge is obviously to
make these particles compatible with currently used labeling and imaging technology and to be employed in important biomedical studies. This will require reproducible and
commercially available nanoparticles in user-friendly kits
and in large quantities. Also corresponding imaging systems must be developed for such applications. Apart from
these obvious technical aspects, a few research challenges
remain to be solved in order to fully explore the potential
of these very promising particles as contrast agents. These
challenges as well as ideas about how these could be addressed will be discussed below.
One challenge despite the strong and rapid development of the particles is their still relatively low QYs.
We believe that this can be partly overcome by utilizing
pulsed excitation with pulse lengths that match the relatively long lifetimes of UCNPs, as indicated in our discussion about QY in section 3. A similar case is the use of
femtosecond pulsed excitation in two-photon fluorescence
microscopy. Since it is known that the QY is power density
dependent as clearly illustrated in Fig. 5 consequently,
a high QY could be achieved by increasing the fluence rate
of the excitation light. In order to limit the heating of the
tissue to acceptable levels, strictly speaking, the only possibility is to utilize pulsed excitation with an acceptable
average power. A difference from the two-photon fluorescence microscopy is that the excitation of UCNPs relies
on long-lived intermediate states, which mean that pulses
shorter than a few milliseconds do not improve the QY
substantially. By utilizing pulsed excitation we foresee that
improved sensitivity of deep tissue targets could be accomplished without much side-effects in terms of heating.
This is a simple improvement which could be realized with
off-the-shelf diode lasers, thereby drastically increasing the
applicability of UCNPs for diffuse imaging.
For PDT applications, the potential of using UCNPs
would also be drastically improved by pulsed excitation.
The presented UCNP-PDT approaches seem to be severely
limited by the relatively low efficiency in generating cytotoxic agents in the PDT process. The low efficiency in
the excitation process using UCNP is here a limiting factor.
The possibility to produce a sufficient PDT effect could
probably be drastically improved by utilizing millisecond
pulsed excitation. We suggest to further study this approach
and to investigate its potential for improved efficiency. It
seems more feasible to reach the threshold dose with improved QY of the production of cytotoxic agents in the PDT
process via pulsed excitation.
The commonly used UCNPs employ Yb3+ ions as sensitizers, which have a strong absorption band at 975 nm.
However, this absorption band coincides with that of water which causes light attenuation and heating. To improve
the penetration depth and reduce the heating of tissue in
imaging applications, it is possible to shift the excitation
wavelength to the 920-nm absorption band of Yb3+ . Although this absorption band is significantly weaker than
the 975-nm band, excitation at this wavelength has been
demonstrated to be very feasible and motivated for in
vitro cell imaging, and imaging of very deeply embedded
targets within tissues. The conditions determining which

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excitation wavelength to use is not immediately trivial and

relates to the optical properties of the studied tissue and the
imaging depth of interest, and thus consideration must be
taken based on the experimental conditions.
Development of protocols for improved synthesis of
UCNPs with optimized properties for bioimaging would
be highly desirable. Several aspects relate to this issue. A
main issue is to develop reproducible and scalable production procedures here the microfluidic approach may be a
possibility. The use of other sensitizer ions, with an excitation wavelength better suitable for bioimaging applications
would also provide a great advancement. In this respect, it
would be more optimal with a slightly shorter or slightly
longer excitation wavelength to decrease the attenuation
caused by water absorption. This would provide a better
penetration depth in tissue and at the same time avoid some
of the side-effect of heating the tissue.
Another future challenge for diffuse optical imaging is
to characterize the particles well enough to allow for direct
comparison of results between different studies. In particular an absolute value of the efficiency of UCNPs needs to
be provided, so that data can be directly inter-compared,
thereby promoting the development in the field. A recommendation would be to measure the QY for a number of
power densities, and also for different pulse lengths, at least
if pulsed excitation is considered.
A further aspect of vital importance for the future utilization of UCNPs is to fully understand the health issues
connected to these particles, in particular considering possible clinical applications that may develop. For cell or
small animal studies, the toxicity may be slightly more
relaxed, as the long-term effect may not be of critical
importance.
Finally, multimodality approaches could become important in some clinical specialities of UCNP-based diagnostics. This could in particular be of interest as various
modalities could provide different diagnostic information
as well as employment in different clinical situations. Multimodality approaches have been explored a lot to gain
complementary diagnostic information. The various tools
could also be used in different conditions for instance, one
technique could be utilized in the initial diagnostic preparation phase and another technique could be used later as a
bedside tool during a therapeutic procedure or as a monitoring device. For the latter cases simple optical techniques
could present obvious benefits.
Appendix
List of abbreviations
AFM
atomic force microscopy
CR
cross relaxation
CS
cooperative sensitization
CT
computed tomography
CTAB cetyltrimethylammonium bromide
CTX
chlorotoxin
DOI
diffuse optical imaging
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ED
EDC
EDTA
ESA
ETU
FA
FDOT
FRET
FTIR
GFP
GSA
IR
LDOT
LRET
LSS
MD
MPR
MRI
MTT
NADH
NHS
OA
ODE
OM
PA
PAA
PAH
PBS
PCI
PDT
PEG
PEI
PET
QD
QY
RE
RET
RGD
SNR
SPECT
TEOS
TOP
TOPO
TSC
UC
UCL
UCNP
UV
electric dipole
ethyl dimethylaminopropyl carbodiimide
ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid
excited state absorption
energy transfer upconversion
folic acid
fluorescence diffuse optical tomography
Forster resonance energy transfer
fourier transform infrared
green fluorescent protein
ground state absorption
infrared
luminescence diffuse optical tomography
luminescence resonance energy transfer
liquid-solid-solution
magnetic dipole
multiphonon relaxation
magnetic resonance imaging
methylthiazol tetrazolium
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
N-hydroxysulfosuccinimide
oleic acid
octadecene
oleylamine
photon avalance
polyacrylic acid
polyallylamine hydrochloride
phosphate buffer solution
photochemical internalization
photodynamic therapy
polyethylene glycol
polyethylenimine
positron emission tomography
quantum dot
quantum yield
rare-earth
resonance energy transfer
arginineglycineaspartic acid
signal-to-noise ratio
single-photon emission computed tomography
tetraethyl orthosilicate
trioctyphosphine
trioctylphosphine oxide
trisodium citrate
upconversion
upconversion luminescence
ultraviolet
Acknowledgements. The authors would like to thank any collaborator in this field for nice and fruitful collaboration, including Pontus Svenmarker, Johan Axelsson, Dan Wang, Fuhong
Cai, Ola Jakobsson, Thomas Laurell, Maria Messing, Reine Wallenberg, Bjorn
Dumlupinar and the dedi Thomasson, Gokhan
cated scientists at Genovis AB. This work was supported by the

Linneaus grant for Lund Laser Centre, the Swedish Research
Council (grant No. 621-2011-4265), the National Nature Science
Foundation of China (grant No. 60978063), the Science and Technology Department of Zhejiang Province (grant No. 2010R50007)

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690
and Guangdong Innovative Research Team Program (grant no.

201001D0104799318).
Received: 2 July 2012, Revised: 18 October 2012,
Accepted: 2 November 2012
Published online: 15 January 2013
Key words: Upconversion, quantum yield, photodynamic therapy, pulsed excitation.
Can T. Xu received his M.Sc. degree

in Engineering Physics from Lund University, Lund, Sweden, in 2008. He is
currently working towards the Ph.D. degree at the Atomic Physics division, Lund
Laser Centre, Department of Physics,
Lund University. His research interests include diffuse optical imaging and tomography of turbid materials for the use of
in-vivo applications as well as fundamental research involving high-resolution spectroscopy of gases
confined within nanoporous materials.
Qiuqiang Zhan was born in Nanchang,
China. He received the B. Eng. degree
in optical information science and technology from Shandong University, Jinan,
China, in 2007 and the Ph.D. degree from
the Department of Optical Engineering,
Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China,
in 2012. He is currently a young faculty member at the ZJU-SCNU Joint Research Center of Photonics, South China
Normal University, Guangzhou, China. His current research
interests include nanoparticle-assisted bionanophotonics and
nonlinear optical biomedical imaging.
Haichun Liu received his M.Sc. degree
in Optics from Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, China, in 2008. Since then
he has been working as a Ph.D. candidate under the supervision of Prof. Stefan Andersson-Engels at the Lund Laser
Centre, Department of Physics, Lund
University. His current research interest
focuses on the bioapplications of upconverting nanoparticles based on their nonlinear photoluminescence property.
environmental sensing, biophotonics, and the study of gases

in scattering media.
Jun Qian was born in Zhejiang, China,
in 1981. He received the B. Eng. and
the Ph.D. degrees from the Department
of Optical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China, in 2004 and 2009,
respectively. During 20092011. He was
a Postdoctoral Fellow at the Center for
Optical and Electromagnetic Research,
Zhejiang University. He is currently an
Associate Professor at the Department
of Optical Engineering, Zhejiang University. His main research activities are focused on nano-bio-photonics, including
nanoparticle-assisted bioimaging and biotherapy.
Sailing He received the Licentiate of
Technology and the Ph.D. degrees from
the Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden, in 1991 and 1992, respectively.
Since then he has worked at the Royal
Institute of Technology as an Assistant
Professor, an Associate Professor, and a
Full Professor. He is currently the Director for Joint Research Center of Photonics of the Royal Institute of Technology
(Sweden), Lund University (Sweden) and Zhejiang University,
China. He is a Fellow of OSA and SPIE, and a Topical Editor
for Optics Letters.
Stefan Andersson-Engels received his
M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees from Lund
University in Engineering Physics 1985
and Physics 1990, respectively. He was
a postdoc at McMasters University in
Canada 19901991. He has since been
at Lund University, and became a full professor in 1999. He is presently the director of the Lund University Medical Laser
Centre and the deputy head of Atomic
Physics Division at Lund University. He is also a topical editor
for J. Biomed. Optics and an editorial board member for J. Biophotonics. His reseach interest include tissue optics as well as
applications of light in biomedical diagnostics and treatments.
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Associate Professor in 2007. Currently,
he is the Vice Director of the Joint Research Center of Photonics between the Royal Institute of
Technology, Zhejiang University and Lund University. His current research interests include applied spectroscopy towards
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Paper III
163
Paper IV
Balancing power density based quantum yield
H. Liu, C. T. Xu, D. Lindgren, H. Xie, D. Thomas, C. Gundlach,
Nanoscale 5, 4770-4775 (2013).
Paper IV
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PAPER
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Cite this: Nanoscale, 2013, 5, 4770
Balancing power density based quantum yield

Haichun Liu,*a Can T. Xu,a David Lindgren,b Haiyan Xie,a Diana Thomas,c
Carsten Gundlachc and Stefan Andersson-Engelsa
Upconverting nanoparticles (UCNPs) have recently shown great potential as contrast agents in biological
applications. In developing dierent UCNPs, the characterization of their quantum yield (QY) is a crucial
issue, as the typically drastic decrease in QY for low excitation power densities can either impose a
severe limitation or provide an opportunity in many applications. The power density dependence of the
QY is governed by the competition between the energy transfer upconversion (ETU) rate and the linear
decay rate in the depopulation of the intermediate state of the involved activator in the upconversion
Received 26th January 2013

Accepted 15th March 2013
process. Here we show that the QYs of Yb3+ sensitized two-photon upconversion emissions can be well
characterized by the balancing power density, at which the ETU rate and the linear decay rate have
equal contributions, and its corresponding QY. The results in this paper provide a method to fully
DOI: 10.1039/c3nr00469d
describe the QY of upconverting nanoparticles for arbitrary excitation power densities, and is a fast and
www.rsc.org/nanoscale
simple approach for assessing the applicability of UCNPs from the perspective of energy conversion.
Introduction
Upconverting nanoparticles (UCNPs) doped with rare-earth ions

have been rapidly developing during the last decade,15 and
their unique properties together with very promising results
suggest that they have the potential to become a major class of
contrast agents in the eld of biophotonics.610 This is mainly
due to their ability to convert low energy excitation photons into
emission photons with higher energy,11 even under broadband
excitation.12 This upconversion (UC) ability provides advantages
including autouorescence rejection,13 better light penetration
and improved spatial image resolution.7,14,15 So far, UCNPs have
been successfully used in diverse biological applications such as
photodynamic therapy (PDT),8 microscopy,9,10 bioanalytical
assays,16,17 diuse optical imaging,7,15,18,19 and multimodality
imaging.20 Although UCNPs have many benecial properties for
biological applications, a major challenge of their use is the
power density dependent and relatively low QYs at the low
excitation intensities required for these applications.21 It has
a
Division of Atomic Physics, Department of Physics, Lund University, P. O. Box 118,

S-221 00 Lund, Sweden. E-mail: [email protected]; Fax: +46 46 222 4250;
Tel: +46 46 222 7471
Division of Solid State Physics, Department of Physics, Lund University, P. O. Box 118,
S-221 00 Lund, Sweden
MAX IV Laboratory, Lund University, P. O. Box 118, S-221 00 Lund, Sweden
Electronic supplementary
10.1039/c3nr00469d
information
(ESI)
available.
See
DOI:
Present address: Department of Physics, Technical University of Denmark, 2800

Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark.
4770 | Nanoscale, 2013, 5, 47704775
been reported that UCNPs could have QYs on the order of a few
percent at high excitation intensities where the UCNPs are
saturated,14 while the QYs could decline by many orders of
magnitude when they are used at low excitation intensities.14
Obviously, such power density dependent QYs need to be
properly evaluated in order to assess the applicability of UCNPs
in specic biomedical areas. In spite of the interest, this crucial
issue has not been addressed in any satisfactory manner,
neither theoretically nor experimentally.22 To date, the reports
on the QYs of UCNPs are surprisingly scarce in the literature,14,2326 and even in the few publications available, the QY
data are usually provided at a specic excitation intensity,
ignoring their power density dependency.2326 Although full QY
information can be obtained by extensive measurements at all
excitation intensities, obviously this approach is not ideal
because of the accompanying burden of such measurements. In
addition, large errors would be also introduced in the
measurements at high excitation intensities due to saturation
eects of the optical equipment, such as the attenuator and the
power meter typically needed for such measurements. This will
ruin the accuracy of the QY data. Hence, a better understanding
of the power density dependency of the QY for a particular
design of UCNPs and thus characterizing this in a convenient
way is highly desirable, and will be of major importance for the
future development and applications of UCNPs in general. This
is addressed in this paper.
The power density dependence of the QY is governed by the
competition between the two major relaxation mechanisms
involved at the intermediate energy state in the UC process, i.e.,
This journal is The Royal Society of Chemistry 2013
167
Balancing power density based quantum yield characterization of upconverting nanoparticles for arbitrary
excitation intensities
View Article Online
Paper
the energy transfer upconversion (ETU) and the linear decay.27,28

In this paper, the dependence of the QY of Yb3+ sensitized twophoton UC emission on the excitation intensity is modeled
using steady-state rate equation analysis, with the activator
described by a quasi-three-level structure (including the
ground, intermediate and emitting states). It is found that the
power density dependent QY can be well characterized by
the balancing power density, at which the ETU rate and the
linear decay rate equally contribute to the depopulation of the
intermediate state of the activator, and the QY at this balancing
point. This is experimentally exemplied using near infrared
(NIR) emitting Yb3+/Tm3+ codoped NaYF4 UCNPs. Thus, the
determination of the balancing power density and its corresponding QY is suggested as a fast approach for characterizing
the power density dependent QYs of UCNPs, for the sake of
assessing the applicability of UCNPs in biological applications
from the perspective of energy conversion.
Experimental
2.1
Synthesis of the UCNPs
All the chemicals were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich and used

without further purication. The core nanoparticles were
synthesized through a recently reported approach.29 In a typical
synthesis procedure, 0.75 mmol YCl3, 0.25 mmol YbCl3 and
0.003 mmol TmCl3 were mixed with 6 mL oleic acid and 17 mL
octadecene in a 250 mL ask and heated to 160 C for 30 min to
form a clear solution. Aer cooling down to room temperature,
10 mL of a methanol solution containing 4 mmol NH4F (0.1482 g)
and 2.5 mmol NaOH (0.1 g) was added, followed by a stirring of
the mixture for 30 min at 50 C. By slowly heating the solution,
the methanol was removed and the resulting solution was heated
to 300 C for 1.5 h under an argon atmosphere, and then cooled
to room temperature. The nanoparticles were precipitated with
ethanol and washed with an ethanolwater mixture for three
times, and then collected aer centrifugation and redispersed in
a nonpolar solvent. The coreshell nanoparticles were produced
by slightly modifying the above procedure through incorporating
the prepared core nanoparticles as the seeds in the synthesis.30
1 mmol YCl3 was solely used to provide rare-earth ions for the
coating layer. Due to the presence of the capping ligand, both the
core and coreshell nanoparticles could be well dispersed in
commonly used nonpolar solvents, such as hexane, cyclohexane,
chloroform, and toluene, and are colloidally stable for months
without visible agglomeration.
2.2
(PL) measurements, a Thorlabs L975P1WJ laser diode at 975 nm

was utilized as the excitation source driven by a Thorlabs
benchtop laser diode current controller LDC220C, with the
temperature stabilized at 25 C. The downconversion infrared
luminescence was collected by a 20 objective lens with an NA
of 0.45 and further directed through two pieces of Spectrogon
LP-1000 nm long-pass lters in order to minimize any inuence
of reected laser light. The luminescence light was then diffracted in a monochromator by a 150 gr mm1 grating blazed at
1200 nm and nally detected by a liquid N2-cooled NIR HgCdTe
camera. The UC luminescence spectra were measured on a
sensitive spectrouorometer setup using the same 975 nm laser
diode as the excitation source.14 The emissions were recorded
using a grating spectrometer Ocean Optics QE65000 with a slit
width of 50 mm. The excitation power was measured using an
Ophir Nova II laser power meter equipped with a photodiode
sensor (PD300), while the spot size of the excitation beam was
measured using a Hamamatsu ORCA-ER C4742-80 camera. For
QY measurements, the system utilized standard uorophores as
a reference, calibrated using the integrating-sphere based
Hamamatsu C9920 QY measurement system. The principle of
the QY measurement was described in detail in our previously
published work.14 All optical measurements were carried out at
room temperature.
Results and discussion
3.1
Quantitative analysis using rate equations
The mechanism of Yb3+ sensitized two-photon UC emission is

simplied and schematically depicted in Fig. 1. Here the activator is described by a quasi-three-level model: the ground state
0, the intermediate state 1, and the emitting state 2. States 1 and
2 may represent coupled energy levels rather than a single level
for specic two-photon UC emissions. As shown, the activator
ion at the ground state is rst excited to state 1 through a
phonon-assisted energy transfer from an excited Yb3+ ion
(ETU1), and further excited to state 2 through a second energy
transfer process (ETU2). Subsequently, the UC emission is
generated by the transition 2 / 0.
Characterization of the UCNPs
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images were recorded

on a JEOL model 3000F microscope. X-ray diraction (XRD)
measurements of UCNP hexane suspensions were performed
on the crystallography beamline I711 at the synchrotron facility
was employed
MAXlab, Lund, Sweden.31 A wavelength of 1.01 A
in the measurements. The samples were placed in glass capillaries with a diameter of 0.5 mm which rotated during data
acquisition. The data were recorded using a Titan CCD camera
placed 70 mm from the sample. For the photoluminescence
168
Nanoscale
Fig. 1 Schematic energy level diagrams of the Yb3+ and activator ions and the
proposed UC mechanism following laser diode excitation at 975 nm. The variables
used in the text for the population densities of dierent levels are indicated within
the parentheses.
Nanoscale, 2013, 5, 47704775 | 4771
Paper IV
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Nanoscale
Paper
The power density dependent behavior of the UC emission

intensity under continuous wave (CW) excitation can be
described by the following steady-state rate equations:
dNYb1
NYb1
0;
srNYb0
dt
sYb1
(1a)
dN1
N1
C0 N0 NYb1 C1 N1 NYb1
0;
dt
s1
(1b)
dN2
N2
C1 N1 NYb1
0;
dt
s2
(1c)
where s is the absorption cross-section of Yb ions; r is the

excitation photon ux, which is linearly related to power
density; s1 and s2 are the lifetimes of activator ions at states 1
and 2, respectively, including both the contributions of radiative and non-radiative relaxation mechanisms, while sYb1 is the
lifetime of Yb3+ ions at 2F5/2 state; C0 and C1 are the rate
constants for the energy transfer processes ETU1 and ETU2,
respectively. In this model, the depletion of the population of
2
F5/2 (Yb3+) state due to ETU processes is omitted because the
ETU rates at 2F5/2 (Yb3+) state are much lower than its linear
decay rates.32,33 For the same reason, the contribution to the
depletion of state 2 due to ETU to even higher states is not
considered either. Under these assumptions, an expression for
the population density of 2F5/2 (Yb3+) state can be obtained
3+
NYb1 sYb1sNYb0r,
(2)
and the power density dependence of the UC steady-state

emission from state 2 can be derived as by rearranging
eqn (1ac)

C0 C1 sYb1 2 s2 =srad
N0 hns2 NYb0 2 r2
N2
2
I rad hn
;
(3)
1
s2
C1 sYb1 sNYb0 r
s1
is the radiative lifetime of state 2, h is the Plancks
where srad
2
constant and n is the frequency of the UC emission light. The
slope eciency of the UC PL intensity with respect to the excitation intensity can be extracted by a linear t of the data in a
double-logarithmic scale, and indicates the multi-photon excitation nature of the UC emission.27,28 Mathematically, this slope
eciency is described by the derivative of log I over log r, i.e.,
kh
dlog I
1
:
1
dlog r
1 s1 $C1 sYb1 sNYb0 r
(4)
The details of the derivation of the above equation are described

in Section S4 in the ESI. According to eqn (4), the excitation
intensity will determine the shape of the power density dependence curve. Under low excitation intensities, where the
linear decay rate is dominating over the ETU rate, i.e.,
1
[ C1 sYb1 sNYb0 r, the power density dependence curve will
s1
appear with a slope of 2.0, indicating a quadratic dependence
on the excitation intensity; while under high excitation intensities, where the ETU rate plays a signicantly more important
role, the curve will appear with a slope of 1.0, i.e., exhibiting
a linear dependence on the excitation intensity. In the
4772 | Nanoscale, 2013, 5, 47704775
intermediate range, the slope eciency changes gradually from

2.0 to 1.0 as the excitation intensity is increased. It is noteworthy
to point out that, at the balancing point
rb
1
;
s1 $C1 sYb1 sNYb0
(5)
where the ETU rate and linear decay rate equally contribute to
1
the depopulation of state 1, i.e., C1 sYb1 sNYb0 rb , the power
s1
density dependence curve has a slope eciency of 1.5.
Based on eqn (3), the QY, h, of the two-photon UC emission
at any power density can be dened by
hh

C0 C1 sYb1 2 s2 =srad
N0 sNYb0 r
I
2
:
1
sNYb0 rhn
C1 sYb1 sNYb0 r
s1
(6)
The maximum, hs, is reached when the pump power density is

at the saturation level so that the contribution of the term 1/s1
can be neglected,
hs C0N0sYb1s2/srad
2 .
(7)
By inserting eqn (5) and (7) into eqn (6), we obtain

r
rb
h
r:
1
rb
hs $
(8)
Particularly, when the excitation intensity is at the balancing

power density, rb, the QY is the half of the maximum QY, hs, i.e.,
hb hr rb
hs
:
2
(9)
Thus, full QY information can be obtained by determining the

balancing power density, rb, and the corresponding QY, hb,
because rb characterizes the power density dependence of the
QY while twofold hb determines the maximum attainable QY.
The UC mechanisms of most Yb3+ sensitized two-photon UC
emissions of major activators (Er3+, Ho3+ and Tm3+) of UCNPs,
including the green emissions of Er3+ ions (2H11/2/4S3/2 / 4I15/2)
and Ho3+ ions (5S2/5F4 / 5I8), and the NIR emission of Tm3+
ions (3H4 / 3H6), have been well determined in the literature.11,34,35 The simplied model and the corresponding
conclusions above are valid for all these two-photon UC emissions, as veried by the detailed rate equation analysis based on
more reliable and sophisticated models in Sections S1S3 in the
ESI. When describing the green UC emission of Er3+ ions, state
2 corresponds to the coupled levels 4F7/2/2H11/2/4S3/2, achieved
by fast non-radiative decay from state 4F7/2 to states 2H11/2/4S3/2,
while for the NIR UC emission of Tm3+ ions, the states 1 and 2
correspond to the coupled levels 3H5/3F4 and 3F2,3/3H4, respectively. It is notable that in some special cases the UC emissions
mentioned above exhibit cubic power density dependence, e.g.,
the green UC emission of Er3+ ions.36 In such cases, the
proposed approach needs to be modied. In addition, the
simplied model does not cover the red UC emissions of Er3+
and Ho3+ ions, where a more sophisticated model is required
due to their slightly dierent mechanisms.
169
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Paper
Nanoscale
3.2 Morphology, crystalline structure and UC luminescence

property of UCNPs
The validity of this approach for QY characterization was tested

by investigating the NIR UC emission of two dierent Yb3+/Tm3+
codoped samples: core (NaYF4:Yb3+,Tm3+) and coreshell
(NaYF4:Yb3+,Tm3+@NaYF4) nanoparticles, synthesized through
recently reported approaches.29,30 Fig. 2a and b show the TEM
images of the synthesized UCNPs. As is seen, the core and core
shell nanoparticles appear monodisperse and nearly spherical
in shape, and have average diameters of approximately 33 and
43 nm, respectively. The thickness of the shell in coreshell
nanoparticles is thus estimated to be 5 nm. The growth of a
NaYF4 layer did not change the morphological uniformity. In
addition, the phase of the nanoparticles also remained
unchanged. Both the core and coreshell nanoparticles have the
same phase, veried by the XRD results shown in Fig. 2c. All the
peaks can be well indexed in accordance with the data reported
in JCPDS standard card (28-1192), indicating the pure hexagonal phase of the nanoparticles.
The PL result of the core nanoparticles under excitation of a
CW 975 nm laser diode, shown in Fig. 3, conrms that this NIR
UC emission can be treated with the proposed model. As is
seen, the emission peaks resulting from states 3F2,3 and 3H5 at
696 nm (3F2,3 / 3H6), 1170 nm (3F2,3 / 3F4), 1650 nm (3F2,3 /
3
H5) and 1220 nm (3H5 / 3H6) are absent or signicantly
weaker compared with those originating from states 3H4 and 3F4
at 800 nm (3H4 / 3H6), 1470 nm (3H4 / 3F4) and 1850 nm
(3F4 / 3H6),37,38 indicating fast non-radiative decays,
3
F2,33H4 and 3H53F4.38,39 The strong emission peak
centered at 1035 nm in Fig. 3b originates from the transition of
Fig. 3 (a) The upconversion and (b) the infrared PL spectra of the core NaYF4:Yb3+,Tm3+ nanoparticles. The insets in (a) and (b) present the zoomed-in
spectra in order to visualize the emission peaks around 700 nm and 1200 nm,
respectively. Both spectra were recorded at a power density of 125 W cm2 under
excitation of a CW 975 nm laser diode.
Yb3+: 2F5/2 / 2F7/2,4042 while the emissions in Fig. 3a at 450 nm,

474 nm and 646 nm are generated by the transitions of Tm3+:
1
D2 / 3F4, 1G4 / 3H6 and 1G4 / 3F4, respectively. The core
shell nanoparticles have very similar PL spectra, thus not
shown. It should be noted that the UC emissions in the blue and
red spectral regions originating from the states 1D2 and 1G4 are
much weaker than the NIR UC emission, even at an excitation
power density as high as 125 W cm2. This supports the treatment of omitting the ETU rate from state 2 to higher energy
levels in the theoretical model.
3.3 Power density dependence and quantum yield
characterization of UCNPs
Fig. 2 TEM images of (a) the core NaYF4:Yb3+,Tm3+ nanoparticles and (b) the
coreshell NaYF4:Yb3+,Tm3+@NaYF4 nanoparticles. (c) XRD patterns of the
synthesized core and coreshell UCNPs.
170
In order to determine the balancing power density, the power

dependence curves for the core and coreshell nanoparticles
were measured in a power density span of 0.027130 W cm2, as
shown in Fig. 4. At the lowest power densities (below 0.05 W
cm2), both the samples appear with a slope of 2.0, indicating
two-photon excitation processes. When the excitation power
density is increased, the power dependence curves start to
deviate, with the curve for coreshell nanoparticles deviating
earlier than that for core nanoparticles. By tting the power
dependence data with eqn (3) followed by the calculation of the
power density giving a slope of 1.5 using eqn (4), the balancing
power densities were determined to be approximately 3.8 W
cm2 and 1.3 W cm2 for the core and coreshell nanoparticles,
respectively. As no obvious phase change is found in the XRD
patterns of these two samples as shown in Fig. 2c, the smaller
value for coreshell nanoparticles could be explained by the
Nanoscale, 2013, 5, 47704775 | 4773
Paper IV
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Nanoscale
Fig. 4 The power density dependencies of the NIR UC emission band at 800 nm
of the core NaYF4:Yb3+,Tm3+ nanoparticles (red diamonds) and the coreshell
NaYF4:Yb3+,Tm3+@NaYF4 nanoparticles (blue circles). The black solid lines
represent the tangents of the power density dependence curves.
Paper
quantitative QY measurements can be dramatically reduced.
Especially, measurements under harsh pump conditions (in a
saturating range) can be avoided because the balancing power
density is signicantly lower than the saturation power density.
Noticing that the QY starts to decline dramatically when the
excitation intensity decreases to below the balancing point
according to eqn (8), a low balancing power density implies that
a considerable QY can be achieved under mild pump conditions. In this sense, the determination of the balancing power
density can be used as a fast and simple approach to evaluate
the applicability of UCNPs in applications where low excitation
intensities are required, such as deep tissue imaging in biological applications. The merit by doing so is that no absolute
measurements on luminescence intensities need to be performed, since the balancing power density depends on the
trend of the luminescence intensity change instead of absolute
intensities.
4
longer lifetimes s1 and sYb1, caused by the protection of the
shielding layer epitaxially grown on the core nanoparticles.38,43
The QYs of the synthesized UCNPs were measured in a power
density range of 0.02720 W cm2 on a spectrouorometerbased setup reported in our previous work,14 as shown in Fig. 5.
At the balancing power density, the core and coreshell nanoparticles have QYs of approximately 0.45% and 1.2%, respectively. The ttings of the QY data with eqn (8) were subsequently
implemented with the parameter rb locked to the experimentally obtained values. As is seen, the QY data can be well tted
both for the core and coreshell nanoparticles, with the tted
maximum attainable QY of 0.91% for the core and 2.6% for
coreshell nanoparticles, which can be well estimated by the
twofold QY at the balancing power density.
One main advantage of the proposed approach for QY
characterization by providing (rb, 2hb) is that the number of
Conclusions
To conclude, the QY of Yb3+ sensitized two-photon UC emission

is theoretically investigated based on a simplied steady-state
rate equation model. It is found that the QY can be well characterized by the balancing power density and its corresponding
QY. The former describes the power density dependent
behavior of the QY, while the latter determines the maximum
attainable QY. This is exemplied by experimental measurements on the QYs of core and coreshell Yb3+/Tm3+ codoped
NaYF4 UCNPs prepared in our lab. Currently, no simple
approach exists to characterize the power density dependent QY
of UCNPs and thus to assess their applicability in biological
applications from the perspective of energy conversion. The
determination of the balancing power density and its corresponding QY of the proposed method can be used as a fast and
simple approach for such purposes.
Acknowledgements
M. E. Messing and L. R. Wallenberg are gratefully acknowledged
for the help with the TEM measurements. J. Larsson is
acknowledged for the help with the XRD measurements.
D. Hessman is acknowledged for the help with infrared PL
measurements. We thank S. Fredriksson, F. Olsson, A. Gisselsson, G. Dumlupinar and X. Wu for the help with the
synthesis of the nanoparticles. This work was supported by a
grant from the Swedish Research Council (grant no. 621-20114265) and a Linneaus grant to the Lund Laser Centre.
References
Fig. 5 The quantum yields of the NIR UC emission band at 800 nm of the core
NaYF4:Yb3+,Tm3+ nanoparticles (red diamonds) and the coreshell NaYF4:Yb3+,Tm3+@NaYF4 nanoparticles (blue circles) at various excitation power
densities. The black solid lines stand for the tted data.
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Nanoscale, 2013, 5, 47704775 | 4775
Paper V
Deep tissue optical imaging of upconverting
H. Liu, C. T. Xu, G. Dumlupinar, O. B. Jensen, P. E. Andersen,
Nanoscale 5, 10034-10040 (2013).
Paper V
Nanoscale
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Cite this: Nanoscale, 2013, 5, 10034
Deep tissue optical imaging of upconverting

quantum yield through use of millisecond single pulse
excitation with high peak power
khan Dumlupinar,a Ole B. Jensen,b Peter E. Andersenb
Haichun Liu,*a Can T. Xu,a Go
and Stefan Andersson-Engelsa
We have accomplished deep tissue optical imaging of upconverting nanoparticles at 800 nm, using
millisecond single pulse excitation with high peak power. This is achieved by carefully choosing the
pulse parameters, derived from time-resolved rate-equation analysis, which result in higher intrinsic
quantum yield that is utilized by upconverting nanoparticles for generating this near infrared
upconversion emission. The pulsed excitation approach thus promises previously unreachable imaging
Received 17th April 2013

Accepted 22nd July 2013
depths and shorter data acquisition times compared with continuous wave excitation, while
simultaneously keeping the possible thermal side-eects of the excitation light moderate. These key
results facilitate means to break through the general shallow depth limit of upconverting-nanoparticle-
DOI: 10.1039/c3nr01917a
based uorescence techniques, necessary for a range of biomedical applications, including diuse
www.rsc.org/nanoscale
optical imaging, photodynamic therapy and remote activation of biomolecules in deep tissues.
Introduction
During the last decade, upconverting nanoparticles (UCNPs)

have developed rapidly,16 and show great promise as contrast
agents in biological applications.711 Despite tremendous
improvements of UCNPs, their limited quantum yield (QY),
especially at a low excitation light level, is still a major concern
for most potential biological applications.12 Two interesting and
powerful techniques under development are deep tissue optical
imaging13 and photodynamic therapy (PDT),14 both of which
require high QY. The present low QY thus hinders the potential
of these techniques to be unleashed due to prolonged data
acquisition and treatment times, and shallow applicable
depths.12,15 Although low QY to some extent can be overcome by
increasing the excitation light level, such improvements are
fundamentally restricted for continuous wave (CW) excitation
due to risks of tissue damage, regulated by the ANSI
standards.16
Instead, the opportunity to break through the low power
density limit of upconversion (UC) emission while limiting
thermal eects of the excitation light is proposed here by
employing pulsed excitation.12,17,18 In addition, we realize that
a
Department of Physics, Lund University, P.O. Box 118, S-221 00 Lund, Sweden.
E-mail: [email protected]; Fax: +46 46 222 4250; Tel: +46 46 222 7471
Department of Photonics Engineering, Technical

Frederiksborgvej 399, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark
Electronic supplementary
10.1039/c3nr01917a
information
10034 | Nanoscale, 2013, 5, 1003410040
(ESI)
University
available.
of
Denmark,
See
DOI:
the applicability of UCNPs could be further boosted by utilizing

single-shot excitation schemes, i.e., short single pulse excitation
with high peak power. Similar to multiphoton microscopy,
pulsed excitation would provide high photon density during the
pulse, while keeping the average power (i.e., the deposited
energy responsible for the heating) moderate. Due to the nonlinear power density dependence of UC emission, pulsed excitation would be highly benecial. However, two important
dierences exist between the UC emission and direct twophoton uorescence. Firstly, the QY is much higher for UCNPs
at low photon density rates, which constitutes one main reason
for the interest in them and removes the reliance of and
restriction to focal volume excitation, thus broadening their
eld of application.19,20 Secondly, the excitation for UC emission
relies on intermediate energy levels,21 complicating the process.
This has led to some less successful attempts to utilize pulsed
excitation for UCNPs in the past.22,23 It is thus necessary to
carefully consider the excitation dynamics of UC emissions
under pulsed excitation in order to utilize higher intrinsic QY of
UCNPs.
In this paper, through investigation of the excitation
dynamics of UC emission, we prove through simulations and
experiments that signicant QY increase can be achieved by
using pulsed excitation with wisely selected pulse characteristics, i.e., with suciently long pulse width and non-saturated
energy transfer transitions. Our proposed scheme renders
pulsed excitation an ideal excitation approach for UCNPs,
especially for deeply located tissue volumes. In fact, the net QY
175
Deep tissue optical imaging of upconverting nanoparticles enabled by exploiting higher intrinsic quantum
yield through use of millisecond single pulse excitation with high peak power
View Article Online
Paper
increase enables us to implement single-shot imaging of
UCNPs, shortening data acquisition time by orders of magnitude while simultaneously improving imaging depth as
compared to CW excitation. These results have the potential to
fundamentally broaden the applicability of UCNPs in deep
tissue regions relying on diuse light excitation, breaking the
shallow-depth limitation in UCNP-based imaging.
light was detected using a grating spectrometer (Ocean Optics

QE65000) with a slit width of 50 mm. The rise prole of the
800 nm emission was recorded by an oscilloscope (Tektronix
TDS520A) coupled to the output of a photomultiplier tube
(Hamamatsu R928), using excitation at 975 nm from a laser
diode operating in the pulsed mode. All measurements were
carried out at room temperature.
Experimental
2.3
2.1
Synthesis of UCNPs
Diuse optical imaging of UCNPs in a liquid tissue phantom was

performed either in trans-illumination or in epi-illumination
mode. A capillary tube with an inner diameter of 2 mm, lled with
a UCNP suspension, was immersed within the tissue phantom to
simulate the luminescent target. Excitation of the UCNPs was
accomplished either by a Thorlabs L975P1WJ laser diode running
in the CW mode, or by a broad area laser (Eagleyard Photonics,
EYP-BAL-0980-10000-4020-CDL02-0000) operating in the pulsed
mode driven by a laser diode driver (LIMO LDD50). The excitation
power was measured using an Ophir Nova II laser power meter
equipped with a medium power thermal laser sensor [Ophir
L40(150)A-SH-V2]. A charge-coupled device (CCD) camera (Andor
iXon) was used to acquire uorescence images.
Coreshell NaYF4:Yb3+,Tm3+@NaYF4 nanoparticles, synthesized through a recently reported protocol,24 are used as a
representative of UCNPs in this work.
All the chemicals were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich and
used without further purication. The core nanoparticles
NaYF4:Yb3+,Tm3+ were rst synthesized using the protocol
reported in ref. 25. In a typical synthesis, anhydrous powders of
YCl3 (0.75 mmol), YbCl3 (0.25 mmol) and TmCl3 (0.003 mmol)
were dissolved in 6 mL oleic acid and 17 mL octadecene in a
250 mL ask at 160 C for 30 min. Aer the clear solution cooled
down to room temperature, 10 mL of a methanol solution containing 4 mmol NH4F and 2.5 mmol NaOH was added, and the
mixture was stirred for 30 min at 50 C. The methanol was
removed from the system by slowly heating it, and the resulting
solution was heated to 300 C for 1.5 h under argon atmosphere.
Aer the mixture cooled to room temperature, the nanoparticles
were precipitated with ethanol and washed with an ethanol
water mixture several times, and then redispersed in hexane to
form a nanoparticle suspension. The coreshell nanoparticles
were subsequently produced by slightly modifying the above
procedure through incorporation of the prepared core nanoparticles as the seeds in the synthesis.24 1 mmol YCl3 was solely
used to provide rare-earth ions for the shielding layer. Other steps
were kept the same as the synthesis of core nanoparticles.
Nanoscale
Diuse optical imaging using UCNPs
Results and discussion
3.1 Numerical simulations on the QY increase by the pulsed

excitation
The feasibility of increasing the QY of UCNPs using pulsed
excitation is rst investigated through numerical simulations.
The Yb3+/Tm3+ codoped nanoparticles are used as a representative of UCNPs in this work. The UC dynamics of their major
UC emission band, i.e., the NIR UC emission band at around
800 nm, is modeled using the following time-resolved rate
equations based on its well veried UC pathway under excitation of 975 nm light,21,29 as shown in Fig. 1,
2.2 Characterization and photoluminescence

measurements on the UCNP suspension
The as-prepared coreshell UCNPs were dispersed in hexane
and used as the sample. Transmission electron microscopy
(TEM) images and the density of the UCNPs were measured on a
JEOL 3000F microscope equipped with an X-ray energy dispersive spectroscopy (XEDS) facility. The molar concentrations of
rare earth ions were measured on a PerkinElmer Optima 8300
inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometer (ICPOES). The photoluminescence measurements were performed
on a sensitive spectrometer setup. A CW laser diode at 975 nm
(Thorlabs L975P1WJ) was employed as the excitation source
driven by a benchtop laser diode current controller (Thorlabs
LDC220C), with the temperature stabilized at 25 C. Pulsed laser
light output was achieved by modulating the current controller
using a function generator (Philips PM5139). The excitation
power was measured using an Ophir Nova II laser power meter
equipped with a photodiode sensor (Ophir PD300), while the
spot size of the excitation beam was measured using a laser
beam proler (DataRay Inc. WinCamD-UCD23). The emission
176
Fig. 1 Schematic energy level diagrams of Yb3+ and Tm3+ ions and the proposed
UC mechanism following the excitation at 975 nm. The variables used in the text
for the population densities of dierent levels are indicated within the
parentheses.
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dNYb1 sr
NYb1
NYb0 C0 N0 C1 N1 C2 N2 NYb1
;
hn
dt
sYb1
(1a)
dN10
C0 N0 NYb1 b01 N10 ;
dt
(1b)
dN1
N1
b01 N10 C1 N1 NYb1
;
dt
s1
(1c)
dN20
C1 N1 NYb1 b02 N20 ;
dt
(1d)
dN2
N2
b02 N20 C2 N2 NYb1
;
dt
s2
(1e)
where s is the absorption cross-section of Yb ions; r is the

excitation power density; h is Planck's constant; n is the
frequency of the excitation light; C0, C1 and C2 are the energy
transfer upconversion (ETU) rates from excited Yb3+ ions to the
Tm3+ ions in states 0, 1 and 2, respectively; s1 and s2 are the
radiative lifetimes of Tm3+ ions in states 1 and 2 (non-radiative
de-excitation neglected for these levels), while sYb1 is the lifetime of Yb3+ ions in the 2F5/2 state; b10 and b20 represent the nonradiative decay rates for 10 1 and 20 2, respectively. A power
density dependent and temporally cumulative QY for the NIR
UC emission in the time interval [0, t], h(r,t), is dened as
t
N2 t=s2 dt
hr; th t 0
;
(2)
sNYb0 r=hndt
3+
which can be calculated by numerically solving eqn (1ae). The

QY in the steady state following CW excitation is given by
h(r,N).
In the modeling, we used parameter values which were
measured or calculated for the UCNPs used in the experimental
work. The ion concentrations were calculated based on the
TEM, ICP-OES and XEDS measurements on the UCNPs (see the
ESI for the calculation of ion concentrations), and the lifetimes
sYb1 and s2 were measured experimentally. s, s1, b10 and b20 were
taken from the literature. The power density dependent steadystate QY of the used UCNPs has been measured and reported
recently in our previous work.30 The ETU rates were thus
selected based on the principle of giving the best tting of the
simulated power density dependency of steady-state QY with the
measured results (see the ESI for the selection of the ETU
rates). Table 1 summarizes the parameter values used in the
simulations. Fig. 2a shows the simulated QY under steady-state
conditions following CW excitation of dierent power densities.
As seen, the QY increases with the excitation power density in a
Table 1
Fig. 2 (a) Simulated power density dependence of the QY of the NIR UC emission in the steady state under CW excitation. (b) The temporally cumulative QYs
under CW excitation and under pulsed excitation in the rst pulse period. The
pulsed excitation had a duty cycle of 4% and a repetition rate of 2 Hz. Both the
CW and pulsed excitation approaches provided an average power density of 1 W
cm2. (c) The temporally cumulative QYs under CW excitation and under pulsed
excitation in multiple periods. The pulsed excitation had a xed duty cycle of 4%
and various repetition rates. All the excitation approaches provided the same
average power density of 0.1 W cm2.
complex manner with a constant steady-state level (saturation

level) at high power densities, which is consistent with experimental observations reported in the literature.31,32
Fig. 2b presents the simulated time dependent QY under CW
excitation and under pulsed excitation in the rst pulse period.
The CW excitation has a constant power density of 1 W cm2.
The pulsed excitation, having a 2 Hz repetition rate and a 4%
duty cycle, has power densities of 25 W cm2 and 0 W cm2 in
the on and o states, respectively, thus resulting in the
same average power density as that of CW excitation. As shown
in Fig. 2b, under CW excitation, the UC emission has a constant
QYCW except that at the very early stage when the energy levels
start to be populated due to the eect of the excitation. This
constant QYCW is associated with the steady state of the UC
system, and is given by the QY at the power density of 1 W cm2
in Fig. 2a. Under pulsed excitation, the QYpulsed is very small at
the start of the laser pulse, and then increases with time. If the
length of the pulse duration allows, the QYpulsed will surpass the
QYCW, and asymptotically approach a maximum. This
maximum is restricted to the steady-state QY at the power
density of 25 W cm2 in Fig. 2a. Clearly, the advantage of using
pulsed excitation to replace the equivalent CW excitation is that
the late excitation photons can be potentially used with higher
energy conversion eciency, while the disadvantage is that the
Summary of general parameter values used in the simulations
s (cm )
N0 (cm3)
NYb0 (cm3)
sYb1 (ms)
s1 (ms)
s2 (ms)
C0 (cm3 s1)
C1 (cm3 s1)
C2 (cm3 s1)
b10 (s1)
b20 (s1)
1.69 1020a
1.25 1019b
1.52 1021b
1.32c
7.43d
1.49c
1.6 1018e
6.2 1016e
1.6 1018e
1.7 104d
1 105d
a
e
From Jiang et al.26 b Calculated (see the ESI for the calculation of ion concentrations). c From measurement (see Fig. S2). d From Ivanova et al.27
Estimated from Braud et al.28 and Ivanova et al.27 (see the ESI for the selection of the ETU rates).
10036 | Nanoscale, 2013, 5, 1003410040
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early excitation photons in each pulse period are used with

lower eciency than those in the CW excitation. Through
balancing the increased power density and decreased excitation
duration under the same amount of energy, an overall UC signal
gain (dened as the ratio of the QYpulsed/QYCW) can be expected.
Cumulative QY in multiple periods under pulsed excitation
was investigated in order to estimate the inuence of the pulse
width on the signal gain, compared to the equivalent CW excitation. The average power density was kept at 0.1 W cm2 in the
simulations. The pulsed excitation used throughout this study
had the same duty cycle of 4% unless otherwise specied, and its
repetition rate was adjusted in order to achieve dierent pulse
widths. As illustrated in Fig. 2c, a signicant UC signal gain is
obtained by using pulsed excitation when the repetition rate is
well below 50 Hz. For example, the signal gain by the 2 Hz square
wave in the time interval of [0, 500] ms is approximately 8. The
signal gain decreases with the repetition rate, i.e., increases with
pulse width as expected. When the repetition rate is even higher,
e.g., up to 100 Hz, the signal generated by the pulsed excitation
becomes slightly smaller than that generated by equivalent CW
excitation. In addition, it should be noted that the signal gain
decreases with the applied power density. When the average
power density is increased to 1 W cm2, the signal gain decreases
to 2, as shown in Fig. S3. This can be ascribed to the gradual
saturation property of UC emission, indicated in Fig. 2a.
Although the parameter values were carefully calculated or
modied in the simulations so that they gave the best tting
between the measured and simulated steady-state QY power
density dependency, the modeling is not an accurate description
of the real UC system. Due to the lack of accuracy and precision
data for such values, it is dicult to evaluate the uncertainty of
the simulated results. However, the inuence of the variation of
parameter values on the simulated signal gain was investigated,
with the results for the change of ETU rates shown in Fig. S4. In
each comparison, one ETU rate among others was adjusted
across the two orders of magnitude around the value listed in
Table 1, while two other ETU rates remained unchanged. All
simulated results conrm that the UC emission enhancement
eect can be achieved by using pulsed excitation with a considerably long pulse duration when the energy transfer transitions
are not saturated by the applied power density, as long as the
emission originates from a multi-stepwise photon upconversion
process. The only dierence exists in the extent of the signal gain.
It is worth mentioning that the simulated signal gain has a strong
dependence on the change of the ETU rate C1 rather than C0 and
C2, as shown in Fig. S4. This can be explained by the fact that the
balancing power density of UCNPs is highly dependent on C1.30
Above this power density, the UCNPs would behave more linearly
in emitting upconverted photons upon NIR excitation,30 leading
to decreased signal gain by using pulsed excitation.
3.2 Quantum yield increase by pulsed excitation in the

UCNP suspension
In order to experimentally validate the gain in the UC signal due
to the pulsed excitation predicted by the simulations in Section
3.1, experiments were carried out on colloidal stable UCNPs.
178
Nanoscale
Fig. 3 The upconversion spectrum of coreshell NaYF4:Yb3+,Tm3+@NaYF4

nanoparticles under excitation of a CW 975 nm laser diode, measured at a power
density of 125 W cm2. The inset shows the TEM image of the prepared coreshell
UCNPs.
Coreshell NaYF4:Yb3+,Tm3+@NaYF4 UCNPs were dispersed in

hexane and used as the sample. The prepared UCNPs emit the
major UC emission bands at around 800 nm under excitation of
975 nm light, as shown in Fig. 3, assigned to the transition 3H4
/ 3H6 of Tm3+ ions.29 Other weaker UC emission bands at
around 450 nm, 474 nm and 644 nm originate from the transitions of Tm3+ ions: 1D2 / 3F4, 1G4 / 3H6 and 1G4 / 3F4,
respectively.29 The inset of Fig. 3 shows the TEM image of the
prepared coreshell UCNPs. The nanoparticles were spherical
in shape with an average diameter of 42 nm. The core nanoparticles prior to coating had an average diameter of 32 nm (see
Fig. S1 in the ESI).
The intensities of the NIR UC emission under CW excitation
and pulsed excitation (square wave) were measured. The pulsed
excitation had a xed duty cycle of 4% and dierent pulse
widths. The average power density of the excitation light was
kept at 0.12 W cm2. As shown in Fig. 4a, a signal gain,
monotonically increasing with pulse width, was obtained by
using the pulsed excitation even with a pulse duration as short
as 0.8 ms. When the pulse width reaches 20 ms, the gain is as
high as 8.7. It is noteworthy to point out that the required pulse
width for the UC signal gain in the present case (0.8 ms) is
much shorter than the rise time of the UC emission (i.e.,
approximately 10 ms, as shown in the inset of Fig. 4a), dominated by the lifetime of the intermediate level 3F4 of Tm3+ ions.
This is dierent from previous predictions reported in the
literature,12,18 and makes the pulsed excitation approach even
more exible to use due to a broader pulse width window for QY
increase.
The dependence of the gain in the UC signal on the applied
power density was also investigated using a square-wave excitation with a 20 ms pulse width and 2 Hz repetition rate. Fig. 4b
shows the UC signal gain by the pulsed excitation at various
average excitation power densities, where a decreasing trend
with increasing excitation power densities is clearly seen. At the
minimum power density investigated (0.12 W cm2), the
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Fig. 5 The dependency of the blue (at 474 nm) and red (at 644 nm) UC signal
gains by the pulsed excitation on the average power density. The pulsed excitation was set to have a pulse width of 20 ms and a repetition rate of 2 Hz.
Fig. 4 (a) The NIR UC signal gain by the pulsed excitation with dierent pulse
widths. The data were measured with an average excitation power density of
0.12 W cm2. Inset: the response of the NIR UC emission to a square-wave excitation with IRF denoting the instrument response function. (b) The dependence
of the NIR UC signal gain by the pulsed excitation on the average power density.
The pulsed excitation was set to have a 20 ms pulse width and 2 Hz repetition
rate. Inset: the average power density dependence of the NIR UC emission
intensity under CW and pulsed excitations.
signal gain is approximately 8.7, while at the maximum power

density (4.65 W cm2), the UC signal generated by the pulsed
excitation is slightly weaker than that generated by the CW
excitation. The UC emission intensity dependence on the excitation power density under pulsed excitation exhibits a smaller
slope than that under the CW excitation, as shown in the inset
of Fig. 4b, which could explain the signal-gain trend above.
The amplication eect of increasing the excitation power
density here essentially originates from the non-linear power
density dependence of the UC emission. Thus, a higher-order
power density dependence would result in a larger UC signal
gain. This is conrmed by the measurements on the blue (at
474 nm) and red (at 644 nm) UC emissions, both generated
through a three-photon excitation process. They exhibit significantly larger signal gains than the NIR UC emission at any
given average power density, as shown in Fig. 5. In view of this,
we foresee that pulsed excitation can be employed to increase
the applicability of recently implemented migration-mediated
UC emissions from ions such as Eu3+ and Tb3+ in biological
applications, due to their high-order multi-stepwise excitation
nature via excited Tm3+ ions.33 At present, their applications in
such areas are challenged due to their low QYs.
It is worth mentioning that the usefulness of pulsed excitation for increasing the QY of UC emissions is not merely limited
to Yb3+/Tm3+ codoped UCNPs. Instead, it is a general scheme for
enhancing UC emissions and would work in diverse UCNPs
with dierent dopants if the characteristic of the pulsed excitation light is wisely tailored. In addition, as dierent UCNPs
exhibit dierent optical characteristics, proper characterization
10038 | Nanoscale, 2013, 5, 1003410040
will make it possible to accurately predict the performance of

UCNPs in general under pulsed excitation.
3.3
Single-shot imaging of UCNPs
When UCNPs are used as contrast agents in diuse optical

imaging, the imaging depth is usually shallow due to the very
low QY of UC emissions at the low uence rates found in deep
tissues.12 The pulsed excitation constitutes an ideal approach
for exciting deeply located UCNPs, since the UC emissions can
be enhanced without consuming more excitation energy than
an equivalent CW source, thus not increasing the thermal sideeects of the excitation light. This would in turn lead to higher
image quality and larger imaging depth.
The merit of using pulsed excitation light to image deeply
located UCNPs was subsequently tested in a liquid tissue
phantom. The phantom, made of water, intralipid and ink, was
characterized by photon time-of-ight spectroscopy (pTOFS)34
and determined to have reduced scattering coecient ms0
10.1 cm1 and absorption coecient ma 0.52 cm1 at 975 nm,
hence mimicking skin tissue properties. Its thickness was
17 mm. A glass tube with an inner diameter of 2 mm, containing the colloidal coreshell UCNPs (c 1 wt%), was inserted
into the phantom as the luminescent inclusion to mimic a
UCNP-labeled target, e.g., a tumor inside real tissue. CW excitation and pulsed excitation, having 20 ms pulse duration and
2 Hz repetition rate, at 975 nm were applied, respectively. The
average power density impinging on the surface of the tissue
phantom was 1.2 W cm2 for both excitation approaches. The
excitation source and the detector were positioned in a transillumination geometry. A more detailed description of the
experimental setup is found in ref. 32. When buried at a depth
of 10 mm from the source, the luminescent inclusion was barely
detectable under CW excitation even with an exposure time of
10 s, as shown in Fig. 6a. However, by using pulsed excitation,
the signal-to-background ratio was signicantly increased by a
factor of approximately 7 under the same detection conditions,
as illustrated in Fig. 6b. An obvious implication is that the data
acquisition time can be drastically reduced whilst maintaining
the signal quality equivalent to CW excitation. Moreover, it is
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Fig. 6 The NIR UC emission images taken for a luminescent inclusion located at a
depth of 10 mm under the (a) CW and (b) pulsed excitation, detected in a transillumination geometry. The average power density was 1.2 W cm2, and the
exposure time was 10 s for both excitation approaches. The NIR UC emission
images taken for a luminescent inclusion located at a depth of 13 mm under the
(c) CW and (d) 50 ms single pulse excitation, detected in an epi-illumination
geometry. Both excitation sources provided the maximum permissible power
density allowed by the ANSI standard for exposure to human skin. The exposure
time was 10 s for the CW excitation and 1 s for the single pulse excitation.
notable that the maximum imaging depth can be increased to

15 mm for pulsed excitation (data not shown).
The QY of UC emission can be further optimized by using
single pulse excitation, through which even higher power
density can be achieved. For instance, the maximum permissible power density for exposure to human skin at 975 nm is
17.4 W cm2 for a repetitive pulse excitation with a pulse width
of 20 ms and a repetition rate of 2 Hz, while the number for a
50 ms single pulse is as high as 36.9 W cm2,16 referring to
Section 8 in the ESI. Such a strong single pulse with a pulse
width longer than the rise time of the UC emission enables the
UCNPs to be used in a very ecient way in terms of energy
conversion. This excitation approach would improve the
imaging ability of using UCNPs without violating the ANSI
standard, which is a fundamental limit for bio-imaging.
The feasibility of single-shot imaging was experimentally
investigated. A 50 ms single pulse providing an excitation power
density of 36.9 W cm2 was used. When the luminescent
inclusion was placed at a depth of 13 mm into the phantom, it
could be relatively well detected using the single pulse excitation with a detector integration time of 1 s, even using an epiillumination imaging setup described in ref. 17, as shown in
Fig. 6d. Nevertheless, when the CW laser was used for excitation, also outputting the maximum permissible power density
by the ANSI standard on the same illumination area, i.e.,
709.6 mW cm2, referring to Section 8 in the ESI, the inclusion
was not detectable at all even with a much longer integration time
of 10 s, as shown in Fig. 6c. Obviously, the integration time for the
single pulse excitation can be shortened to 50 ms still without loss
in the UC signal quality, as long as the excitation source and the
detector are synchronized. The results demonstrated here,
although preliminary, show great potential of single-shot excitation in UCNP-guided deep tissue optical imaging.
180
Conclusions
In conclusion, signicant QY increase in UCNPs is achieved by

using pulsed excitation. This is supported theoretically by the
study of the UC dynamics based on time resolved rate equations. Such QY increase enables us to implement single-shot
imaging of UCNPs in deep tissues. Pulsed excitation thus
constitutes an ideal excitation approach for UCNPs, as the
shallow imaging limit can be overcome and data acquisition
time can be drastically shortened by applying this excitation
scheme. The pulsed excitation approach will greatly increase
the applicability of UCNPs not only in diuse optical imaging
but also in many other biomedical applications, such as
photodynamic therapy and remote activation of biomolecules
in deep tissues.35,36 It is worth mentioning that metallic nanostructures are reported to be eective in enhancing UC emissions owing to their local eld enhancement eect by surface
plasmonic coupling.37 We envisage that the combination of the
pulsed excitation approach and metallic nanostructures could
become a major scheme of using UCNPs in the diuse light
regime, due to the synergistic eect in increasing the excitation
power density. In addition, this study provides a general
method for promoting the applications of nonlinear uorophores (including UCNPs and triplettriplet annihilation
based upconverters38) under low light conditions by increasing
the excitation uence rate through a limited illumination area.
Acknowledgements
S. Fredriksson, F. Olsson, A. Gisselsson, and P. Kjellman are
gratefully acknowledged for the help with the synthesis of the
UCNPs and ICP-OES measurement. M. E. Messing and L. R.
Wallenberg are acknowledged for the help with the TEM and
XEDS measurements. B. Thomasson is acknowledged for the
help in the single-shot imaging experiment. S. Johansson and A.
Shaharin are acknowledged for the help with the pTOFS
measurements. We thank D. Kroon and D. Guenot for the
assistance in the laser power measurement, and J. Axelsson and
P. Svenmarker for their helpful discussions. This work was supported by a grant from the Swedish Research Council (grant no.
621-2011-4265) and a Linneaus grant to the Lund Laser Centre.
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37 S. Schietinger, T. Aichele, H.-Q. Wang, T. Nann and
O. Benson, Nano Lett., 2010, 10, 134139.
38 S. Baluschev, T. Miteva, V. Yakutkin, G. Nelles, A. Yasuda
and G. Wegner, Phys. Rev. Lett., 2006, 97, 143903.
181
Paper VI
Autofluorescence insensitive imaging using
C. T. Xu, N. Svensson, J. Axelsson, P. Svenmarker, G. Somesfalean,
G. Chen, H. Liang, H. Liu, Z. Zhang, S. Andersson-Engels.
Applied Physics Letters 93(17), 171103-1 - 171103-3 (2008).
Paper VI
APPLIED PHYSICS LETTERS 93, 171103 2008
Autofluorescence insensitive imaging using upconverting nanocrystals

in scattering media
Can T. Xu,1,a Niclas Svensson,1 Johan Axelsson,1 Pontus Svenmarker,1
Gabriel Somesfalean,1 Guanying Chen,2 Huijuan Liang,2 Haichun Liu,2 Zhiguo Zhang,2
and Stefan Andersson-Engels1
1
Department of Physics, Lund University, P.O. Box 118, S-221 00 Lund, Sweden
Department of Physics, Harbin Institute of Technology, P.O. Box 3025, Harbin 150080,
Peoples Republic of China
Received 27 August 2008; accepted 1 October 2008; published online 27 October 2008
Autofluorescence is a nuisance in the field of fluorescence imaging and tomography of exogenous
molecular markers in tissue, degrading the quality of the collected data. In this letter, we report
autofluorescence insensitive imaging using highly efficient upconverting nanocrystals
NaYF4 : Yb3+ / Tm3+ in a tissue phantom illuminated with near-infrared radiation of 85 mW/ cm2.
It was found that imaging with such nanocrystals leads to an exceptionally high contrast compared
to traditional downconverting fluorophores due to the absence of autofluorescence. Upconverting
nanocrystals may be envisaged as important biological markers for tissue imaging purposes. 2008
American Institute of Physics. DOI: 10.1063/1.3005588
In recent years, the interest for fluorescence diffuse optical imaging and tomography has grown tremendously.13
Much of the work has been focused on developing inexpensive and compact systems for macroscopic imaging of fluorophores embedded in small animals. The systems could, for
example, be used to monitor the effects from drugs on cancer
tumors over a period of time, without sacrificing the animals.
Extensive research has been performed both on the practical
and the theoretical side in this area. Currently, mainly traditional dyes are used as fluorophores. These dyes emit Stoke
shifted light upon excitation, and can be very effective with
quantum efficiencies close to unity. However, since tissue
itself autofluoresces due to several endogenous fluorophores
mainly in the skin, a background fluorescence from the bulk
tissue will always exist.4,5 In the presence of tissue autofluorescence, different spectral unmixing algorithms can also be
used to extract the signal. These algorithms utilize the spectral characteristics of the fluorophores and the
autofluorescence.6 However, the measurement procedure can
be quite complex since one needs to acquire the emission at
multiple wavelengths. To suppress the effects of autofluorescence, several approaches have been suggested. The two
most promising ones are based on quantum dots and upconverting markers.
Quantum dots have been used as fluorophores in a great
number of studies.79 Their large Stoke shift and narrow
emission spectra allow the emission to be detected in a spectral band with low tissue autofluorescence. Quantum dots are
very bright fluorophores due to their high absorption, mainly
in the UV region. Their emission wavelength is dependent on
the core size and can be selected over a wide range while the
same excitation wavelength can be used.7 The main drawback at this stage for these fluorophores is their toxicity,
together with the fact that penetration of the UV light is low
in tissue. Typical quantum dots are based on CdSe due to the
well established fabrication technology.10 Recent studies
have shown that these quantum dots are potentially harmful
a
Electronic mail: [email protected].
0003-6951/2008/9317/171103/3/$23.00
to organisms.11,10 The quantum dots tend to destabilize when

exposed to biological environments. Adding the fact that
they can easily penetrate into cells, the damage can be quite
substantial. Research, however, is underway to produce less
harmful quantum dots, as well as enhancing their
biocompatibility.12
Upconverting nanoparticles have been proposed as a
fluorophore in biomedical imaging applications due to their
unique property to efficiently emit anti-Stoke shifted light
upon near-infrared excitation.13,14 The main challenge has
been to develop upconverting markers with high-quantum
yield in the wavelength region above 650 nm where tissue is
relatively transparent.
In this letter, we demonstrate autofluorescence insensitive imaging with novel high-quantum yield upconverting
nanoparticles emitting at 800 nm. The study is performed in
a controlled environment within tissue phantoms in which
autofluorescence is simulated, and comparison with ordinary
Stoke shifted fluorophores emitting at the same wavelength
is made.
Efficient upconverting phosphors of nanometer size have
been fabricated.14 The particles are doped with Yb3+, which
acts as sensitizer, and another rare earth ion, which acts as
activator.15 By using different activators, various emission
wavelengths can be accomplished with the same excitation
wavelength. It has been shown that NaYF4 is the most efficient host known for upconverting phosphorous crystals.16 In
this study, highly efficient NaYF4 crystals doped with Yb3+
and Tm3+ were used, which were prepared according to the
procedure described in detail in Ref. 17. The particles absorb
light at 980 nm and emit upconverted light at 800 nm. The
process involves absorption of two or more photons with an
intermediate metastable state.15 Figure 1 shows the emission
spectrum for the nanoparticles, the blue emission line at
477 nm is only visible for higher pump intensities. The
pump-power dependence of the 800 nm line was measured
to be quadratic slope= 2.0 using low intensities, as seen in
the inset of Fig. 1, suggesting a two-photon process.
93, 171103-1
2008 American Institute of Physics
Downloaded 27 Oct 2008 to 130.235.188.55. Redistribution subject to AIP license or copyright; see http://apl.aip.org/apl/copyright.jsp
185
Autofluorescence insensitive imaging using upconverting nanoparticles in scattering media
171103-2
Appl. Phys. Lett. 93, 171103 2008
Xu et al.
1600
Counts (arb. units)
1400
1200
1000
800
Counts (arb. units)
1800
10
Slope = 2.0
10
10
10
1
600
10
Intensity (mW/cm)
400
200
0
500
600
700
Wavelength (nm)
800
FIG. 1. Emission spectrum recorded for the nanoparticles under 980 nm

excitation with an intensity of 6 W / cm2. The inset shows the pump-power
dependence of the interesting 800 nm line measured under low intensities.
A tissue phantom consisting of water, intralipid, and ink

was prepared. The optical properties of the tissue phantom
were measured with a time-of-flight spectroscopy system,18
and determined to have a reduced scattering coefficient s
= 6.5 cm1 and an absorption coefficient a = 0.44 cm1 for
= 660 nm. The parameters were chosen to have a good correspondence to real tissue in small animals.19 Two capillary
tubes with inner diameters of 2.4 mm were used as containers for the fluorophores.
The imaging system is schematically shown in Fig. 2.
The tubes were submerged into the tissue phantom to a depth
of 5.0 mm, where the depth was taken as the distance from
the front surface of the tubes to the surface of the phantom.
Fiber-coupled lasers were used to illuminate the phantom
with a slightly divergent beam. The spot sizes of the lasers
on the phantom were approximately 1 cm2. An air cooled
charge coupled device CCD camera captured the images
through a set of dielectric bandpass filters centered at
800 nm.
The first tube was filled with a solution of the nanocrystals dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide DMSO with a concentration of 1 wt %. To excite the nanoparticles, a 978 nm laser
diode was used, with a power of approximately 85 mW on
FIG. 2. Color online Schematic of the imaging setup. Light from a fibercoupled laser is scanned in an array on the surface of the phantom. An air
cooled CCD camera is used to capture an image for every scanned position.
FIG. 3. Images comparing the DY-781 dye and the nanoparticles with and
without autofluorescence, along with plots showing the sums in the vertical
directions. The white dots have been added artificially and represent the
positions used for the excitation light. The left column shows the results
using DY-781, and the right column shows the results using upconverting
nanoparticles. a and b are taken without any added autofluorophores. c
and d are taken with a background autofluorophore concentration of
40 nM.
the surface of the tissue phantom. The second tube was filled
with a solution of ordinary fluorophores DY-781, Dyomics
GmbH dissolved in ethanol with a concentration of 1 M.
The fluorophores were excited with a 780 nm laser diode
with a power of 40 mW on the surface of the phantom. The
concentration of the nanoparticles is reasonably consistent
with studies performed using quantum dots in vivo. In those
studies, approximately 1 nmol of CdSe quantum dots were
injected into a mouse 18 g, giving an approximate concentration of 0.01 wt % if distributed homogeneously.8,9
With functionalized quantum dots, selective accumulation in
tumors can be achieved. Taking this into consideration and
the fact that the nanoparticles have molar mass of the same
order of magnitude as the quantum dots, the concentration of
1 wt % used in this study seems acceptable.
The lasers were raster scanned in a 4.4 4.4 cm2 array
consisting of 121 positions, and an image was acquired for
every laser position. In order to minimize the effects of random bright pixels, a median filter with a mask of 3
3 pixels was applied to all images. The individual images
were then summed, and a representation of the photon distribution on the surface was obtained. Even if this does not
accurately reflect the fluorophore distribution, it enables detection of fluorescent inclusions. To mimic tissue autofluorescence, a small amount of DY-781 was also added into the
phantom.
Figure 3 shows images taken with and without autofluorescence. As expected, the autofluorescence effectively hides
the signal from the inclusion with the ordinary fluorophores
Fig. 3c, while no background appears on the images using
the upconversion scheme Fig. 3d. It is worth to notice
that using traditional fluorophores, even without any artificial
186
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171103-3
Appl. Phys. Lett. 93, 171103 2008
Xu et al.
autofluorophores added, the autofluorescence introduced by

the intralipid within the phantom is visible, see the cross
section profile in Fig. 3a.
As seen in Fig. 3, the signal-to-background contrast is
superior for upconverting nanoparticles emitting in a wavelength region where no Stoke shifted tissue autofluorescence
is present. Higher excitation power can increase the signalto-noise ratio, without sacrificing the high contrast. Increasing the signal-to-noise ratio, however, will not boost the image quality using traditional fluorophores since they are
limited by a lower signal-to-background contrast due to
the ubiquitous autofluorescence. Even with the lower quantum efficiency of the nanoparticles compared to traditional
fluorophores the image quality is therefore expected to be
better.
Background caused by autofluorescence is very prominent when working with an epifluorescence imaging setup in
comparison to a fluorescence transmission imaging setup. In
the latter setup, it is possible to suppress the autofluorescence
signal fairly effectively.20 However, such a system can be
very ineffective when used to detect and image a superficial
signal.
The particles used for this study were still in the development stage. For example, they were in bulk state without
any kind of coating, and thus not soluble in water and therefore not biocompatible. However, improved fabrication
methods can make them water soluble.21,22 In addition, there
are also reports suggesting that coating the particles with an
undoped layer reduces the nonradiative losses at the surface,
thus effectively enhancing their upconversion efficiency.22,23
Using a pulsed light source with a higher peak power should
further increase the signal tremendously, due to the quadratic
pump-power dependence of the upconverting process. Such
a light source should still be harmless in terms of tissue
heating and damaging, since the mean power can still be kept
low.
Future work will involve the use of nanocrystals for diffuse optical tomography. With their unique features in emitting a signal that is insensitive to the downconverting autofluorescence, they have the potential to become an important
biological marker. In a longer perspective we hope to functionalize the particles with tumor seeking properties. Early
studies by other groups have already been performed, and
the prospects are very promising.24
We gratefully acknowledge Erik Alerstam and Tomas

Svensson for their assistance with the time-of-flight measurements. This work was supported by the EC integrated
projects Molecular Imaging LSHG-CT-2003-503259 and
Brighter 1ST-2005035266, as well as by VR-SIDA 3482007-6939.
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A. O. Choi, S. E. Brown, M. Szyf, and D. Maysinger, J. Mol. Med. 86,
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K. Kramer, D. Biner, G. Frei, H. Gdel, M. Hehlen, and S. Luthi, Nano
Lett. 16, 1244 2004.
17
G. Yi, H. Lu, S. Zhao, Y. Ge, W. Yang, D. Chen, and L.-H. Guo, Nano
Lett. 4, 2191 2004.
18
E. Alerstam, S. Andersson-Engels, and T. Svensson, J. Biomed. Opt. 13,
041304 2008.
19
V. Ntziachristos, E. Schellenberger, J. Ripoll, D. Yessayan, E. Graves, A.
Bogdanov, L. Josephson, and R. Weissleder, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.
101, 12294 2004.
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1
2
187
Paper VII
High-resolution fluorescence diffuse optical
nanoparticles
L. R. Wallenberg, S. Andersson-Engels.
ACS Nano 6(6), 4788-4795 (2012).
Paper VII
Can T. Xu,,* Pontus Svenmarker, Haichun Liu, Xia Wu, Maria E. Messing, L. Reine Wallenberg, and
Stefan Andersson-Engels
ARTICLE
High-Resolution Fluorescence Diuse

Optical Tomography Developed with
Nonlinear Upconverting Nanoparticles
Department of Physics, Lund University, Box 118, S-221 00 Lund, Sweden, Division of Solid State Physics, Lund University, Box 118, S-221 00 Lund, Sweden, and
Polymer and Materials Chemistry/nCHREM, Lund University, Box 124, S-221 00 Lund, Sweden
anostructure contrast agents have

become very important and versatile assets for optical imaging of
biomedical systems. Nanostructures, such
as quantum dots, carbon nanotubes, nanodiamonds, gold nanoparticles, and rare-earthdoped nanoparticles, have, for example, been
explored for cancer targeting and treatment,1,2 deep-tissue anatomical imaging of
mice,3 and background-free deep-tissue imaging of small animals.47 For in vivo optical
imaging of deeply situated uorescent agents
in biomedical systems, an emerging method
of uorescence diuse optical tomography
(FDOT) has recently been employed with an
increasing interest.812 FDOT is a compact,
fast, and highly sensitive technique for threedimensional deep-tissue imaging of uorescent targets. These properties and the noninvasive nature of FDOT have made it very
attractive for longitudinal studies of small
animals, where it has been applied to follow
the development in time of, for example,
cancer tumors,13 proteases,10 Alzheimer's
disease,14 and dierent drug eects.12
Traditionally, the contrast agents used in
FDOT are based on dierent types of Stokesshifting uorophores, such as molecular
dyes or quantum dots. The linear powerdensity dependence of the emission from
these uorophores results in poor spatial
resolution in the reconstructed images,
as sharp spatial features are inevitably
smeared out during diuse light propagation. Several approaches have been employed to increase the spatial resolution,
including multispectral methods,15 the use
of a priori information,16,17 and structured
illumination methods.18 Although these approaches all have positive eects on the
spatial resolution of the reconstructed
images, ultimately they cannot circumvent
the resolution-limiting factor originating
XU ET AL.
ABSTRACT
Fluorescence diuse optical tomography (FDOT) is an emerging biomedical imaging technique that
can be used to localize and quantify deeply situated uorescent molecules within tissues. However, the
potential of this technique is currently limited by its poor spatial resolution. In this work, we
demonstrate that the current resolution limit of FDOT can be breached by exploiting the nonlinear
power-dependent optical emission property of upconverting nanoparticles doped with rare-earth
elements. The rare-earth-doped coreshell nanoparticles, NaYF4:Yb3/Tm3@NaYF4 of hexagonal
phase, are synthesized through a stoichiometric method, and optical characterization shows that the
upconverting emission of the nanoparticles in tissues depends quadratically on the power of excitation.
In addition, quantum-yield measurements of the emission from the synthesized nanoparticles are
performed over a large range of excitation intensities, for both core and coreshell particles. The
measurements show that the quantum yield of the 800 nm emission band of coreshell upconverting
nanoparticles is 3.5% under an excitation intensity of 78 W/cm2. The FDOT reconstruction experiments
are carried out in a controlled environment using liquid tissue phantoms. The experiments show that
the spatial resolution of the FDOT reconstruction images can be signicantly improved by the use
of the synthesized upconverting nanoparticles and break the current spatial resolution limits of FDOT
images obtained from using conventional linear uorophores as contrast agents.
KEYWORDS: upconversion nanoparticles . bioimaging . quantum yield .
resolution . diuse imaging
from the use of linear uorophores in diusive tissues. In this work, we report on the
exploration of rare-earth-doped coreshell
nanoparticles with upconverting optical
properties as contrast agents for FDOT and
demonstrate that the spatial resolution of
FDOT can be signicantly improved by exploiting their nonlinear power-dependent
optical properties. The experiments were
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* Address correspondence to
[email protected].
Received for review December 19, 2011
and accepted May 7, 2012.
Published online May 08, 2012
10.1021/nn3015807
C 2012 American Chemical Society
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High-resolution fluorescence diffuse optical tomography developed with nonlinear upconverting

nanoparticles
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Coreshell NaYF4:Yb3/Tm3@NaYF4 nanoparticles
were utilized as contrast agents in this study. The core
NaYF4:Yb3/Tm3 nanoparticles were synthesized
through an ecient stoichiometric method,38 and
nonradiative losses caused by surface eects were
reduced by coating the nanoparticles with an undoped
layer of NaYF4.28,3941 Due to the presence of the
capping ligand (oleate), the NaYF4:Yb3/Tm3@NaYF4
nanoparticles could be dispersed in nonpolar solvents
and were colloidally stable for months without visible
agglomeration. Figure 1a and b show transmission
electron microscope (TEM) images of the synthesized
XU ET AL.
ARTICLE
performed in a well-controlled environment using

liquid tissue phantoms. Comparisons with FDOT reconstruction images obtained from an optically similar
system employing linear uorophores show that the
spatial resolution of the reconstruction images obtained using the upconverting nanoparticles can go
much beyond the current limits of conventional FDOT
images. Using simulations, the mechanism behind the
improved spatial resolution is described through a
theoretical model. Furthermore, through careful optical characterization, we report, for the rst time, the
quantum yield of the 800 nm emission band and
compare the quantum yield of core and coreshell
particles. In addition to being a highly relevant material
parameter, knowledge of the quantum yield enables
the possibility to perform quantitative imaging of
deeply situated targets within tissues.
Upconverting materials in bulk form have existed for
decades.19 However, only recently has it been possible
to synthesize upconverting nanoparticles with quantum eciencies high enough to be used as biological
markers for microscopy and deep-tissue diuse
imaging.4,2030 Upconverting nanoparticles possess
the unique property of being able to emit antiStokes-shifted light. This is accomplished by doping a
host crystal with a sensitizer, typically Yb3, and an
activator, for example, Tm3, Er3, or Ho3. The sensitizer can, through mainly energy transfer upconversion, excite an activator in a stepwise manner, leading
to the emission of anti-Stokes-shifted light.23,31,32 This
unique property has made upconverting nanoparticles
very attractive for imaging and labeling of biological
samples, yielding images that are virtually background
free since the endogenous tissue autouorescence is
Stokes-shifted.46,28 Furthermore, these particles are
not susceptible to photobleaching and aging eects, in
contrast to the commonly used dye molecules,27 have
a very low toxicity,33,34 and can be used for multimodality
imaging by carefully designing the synthesization
process.35,36 Recently, it has also been demonstrated that
unwanted emission bands can be suppressed, which can
be used for simplifying the instrumentation and enhancing the contrast.37
Figure 1. (a) TEM image of the monodisperse coreshell

NaYF4:Yb3/Tm3@NaYF4 nanoparticles. The inset shows
the core NaYF4:Yb3/Tm3 nanoparticles prior to coating
with the undoped NaYF4 layer. The mean diameters of the
coreshell nanoparticles and the core nanoparticles were
determined to be 43 and 31 nm, respectively. (b) Highresolution TEM image of the coreshell NaYF4:Yb3/
Tm3@NaYF4 nanoparticles. (c) XRD pattern of the synthesized coreshell NaYF4:Yb3/Tm3@NaYF4 nanoparticles
(top panel) and residual of t for the hexagonal crystal
phase (bottom panel).
coreshell NaYF4:Yb3/Tm3@NaYF4 upconverting

nanoparticles. The nanoparticles were spherical in
shape with a mean diameter of 42 nm and had a
dominant lattice spacing of 0.52 nm. The inset in
Figure 1a shows the core nanoparticles, which through
a comparison with the coreshell nanoparticles show
that the thickness of the undoped NaYF4 shell was
6 nm. The X-ray diraction (XRD) pattern of the synthesized coreshell NaYF4:Yb3/Tm3@NaYF4 nanoparticles is shown in the top panel of Figure 1c with the
residual of t for the hexagonal crystal phase42 shown
in the bottom panel. The cell parameters of a =
5.976 nm, b = 0.599 nm, and c = 0.350 nm are
consistent with the pure hexagonal NaYF4 crystal in
the JCPDS 16-0334 data.
Optical characterization of the synthesized core
shell nanoparticles was carried out using a spectrouorometer setup under excitation by a laser diode at
975 nm. As shown in Figure 2, the excitation generated
one strong emission band at 800 nm and two weak
ones around 470 and 650 nm. These emission bands
can be assigned to the transitions of Tm3.43 The
eective attenuation spectrum of a typical murine
muscle tissue44 is also presented in Figure 2, where it
can be seen that light in the near-infrared region has
considerably lower attenuation than light in the visible
region. Thus, the emissions at the shorter wavelengths
(470 and 650 nm) were ltered out and only the
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emission at 800 nm was used for the experimental

study in this work. The excitation at 975 nm and the
emission at 800 nm are both highly suitable wavelengths residing around the optimal regions in the
tissue optical window,44 i.e., a region where tissue is
relatively translucent and light penetration depths of
several centimeters can be achieved. The inset in
Figure 2 shows the power dependence of the
800 nm emission band of the nanoparticles. Since the
uence rate within scattering materials is in general
small, the power dependence of the emission band
was measured using weak excitation intensities, well
below saturation limits.20 From the slope of the linear
t (loglog scale), it can be seen that in contrast to the
traditionally used uorophores, which have a linear
power dependence, the emission from the upconverting nanoparticles has a quadratic power dependence,
consistent with the fact that the upconversion is a
two-photon process.
The results from the quantum-yield measurements
of both the synthesized coreshell and the core
upconverting nanoparticles are shown in Figure 3. As
seen, the synthesis produced ecient hexagonal core
shell NaYF4:Yb3/Tm3@NaYF4 upconverting nanoparticles with a quantum yield of 3.5% under an
excitation intensity of 78 W/cm2. At the lower excitation intensity of 21.7 mW/cm2, the quantum yield was
determined to be 3.8 104. Evidently, in this powerdensity regime, coreshell nanoparticles are, due to
their protective shell layer, about 6 times brighter than
unshielded particles.45 Under low excitation intensities, the slope of the quantum yield is close to 1,
consistent with the expected behavior for quadratic
XU ET AL.
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Figure 2. Emission spectrum (blue solid line) for the synthesized NaYF4:Yb3/Tm3@NaYF4 nanoparticles of hexagonal
phase under excitation at 975 nm and attenuation spectrum
(green solid line) of typical murine muscle tissue. The
excitation intensity was 1 W/cm2, leading to a strong
emission band at 800 nm. The weak emission bands around
470 and 650 nm are less suitable for use within tissues, since
the attenuation at those wavelengths is signicantly higher,
as shown. The inset shows the power dependence of the
emission band at 800 nm, demonstrating that the emission
originates from a two-photon process.
uorophores. As the excitation intensity is increased,

the power dependence factor of the upconverting
nanoparticles will begin to decrease due to saturation
of the energy levels in the rare-earth ions,20 resulting in
a quantum yield that approaches a constant for large
excitation intensities. For comparison, the quantum
yields for the most ecient two-photon dyes were
simulated under identical experimental conditions and
are also shown in Figure 3. It can be seen that even for
the very ecient dyes,4648 such as those based on
uorene derivatives,49,50 the required excitation intensity is clearly too high to be used in scattering tissues.
The reason is that these dyes require simultaneous
absorption of two photons via a virtual state, in contrast to upconverting nanoparticles, which possess real
long-lived intermediate states.
Reports on the absolute quantum yield of NaYF4
upconverting nanoparticles in the literature are very
scarce.5153 For bulk NaYF4:Yb3/Tm3 material, Page
et al.51 have determined the power conversion factor
of the blue emission band to be 2 104, for the most
ecient material studied at an excitation intensity of
1 W/cm2. The corresponding power conversion factor for
the synthesized coreshell NaYF4:Yb3/Tm3@NaYF4
upconverting nanoparticles in this work was determined
to be 5.8 105. However, it is important to point out
that since bulk material was used, direct comparisons
with our results is nontrivial, without considering sizedependent eects. The size-dependent eects of NaYF4:
Yb3/Er3 crystals have, however, been examined by
Boyer et al.,53 where a 10 times lower quantum yield of
coreshell nanoparticles (30 nm) as compared with bulk
material under an excitation intensity of 150 W/cm2 was
found. Accounting for the size dependency, a more
realistic power eciency conversion factor that can be
expected from the material used by Page et al.51 should
be 2 105, which is in reasonable agreement with the
results obtained in this work. However, as this is an
indirect comparison, the results should be interpreted
with caution and further studies of the eciency of
upconverting nanoparticles are certainly needed.
To evaluate the spatial resolution of FDOT with the
use of the quadratically power-dependent upconverting nanoparticles and linearly power-dependent uorophores as contrast agents, two 17 mm thick liquid
phantoms consisting of water, intralipid, and ink were
prepared. The concentrations of intralipid and ink were
chosen to provide optical properties typically found in
small animals.44 Since the upconverting nanoparticles
emit at 800 nm, DY-781 (Dyomics GmbH) dye molecules were chosen as the linear uorophores, as they
also emit at 800 nm. To further ensure a proper
comparison between the FDOT images obtained using
the linear uorophores and the upconverting nanoparticles, the two phantoms were prepared to have
identical optical properties at their respective excitation wavelengths of 785 and 975 nm. The phantom for
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Figure 3. Quantum yield of the 800 nm emission band for the synthesized hexagonal coreshell NaYF4:Yb3/Tm3@NaYF4
nanoparticles and hexagonal core NaYF4:Yb3/Tm3 nanoparticles. It can be seen that the quantum yield increases linearly
(slope of 1) with the excitation intensity until a saturation point, from which the quantum yield approaches a constant value,
which is the expected behavior for a linear uorophore. Solid lines show simulated corresponding quantum yields for highly
ecient two-photon dyes under identical experimental conditions, which in contrast to upconverting nanoparticles require
two photons to be simultaneously absorbed. Compared with upconverting nanoparticles, even two-photon dyes with cross
sections on the order of 100 kGM will be 108 times less bright.
the linear uorophores had a reduced scattering coecient of 0 s(785 nm) = 10.1 cm1 and an absorption
coecient of a(785 nm) = 0.51 cm1, while the phantom
for the upconverting nanoparticles had a reduced scattering coecient of 0 s(975 nm) = 10.1 cm1 and an
absorption coecient of a(975 nm) = 0.52 cm1, determined by a time-of-ight spectroscopy (TOFS) system.54
The experimental setup is schematically illustrated in
Figure 4, where two capillary tubes with inner diameters
of 2.0 mm, lled with either the DY-781 uorophores or
the synthesized upconverting nanoparticles, were used
to simulate uorescent targets. By adjusting the centerto-center distance of the two uorescent tubes and
performing one tomographic reconstruction for each
separation distance, the obtainable spatial resolution in
the reconstruction images could be evaluated. It is
important to note that autouorescence can cause severe artifacts in the reconstructions for linear Stokesshifting uorophores.5 Thus, a phantom material with
low autouorescence was selected, and any remaining
autouorescence eects or other background signals
were removed by subtracting from each image its corresponding image obtained from a scan without any
uorescent targets.
Cross-sectional slices from the tomographic reconstructions for dierent center-to-center distances of the uorescent tubes are shown in Figure 5. The reconstructions
for the linearly power-dependent DY-781 uorophores
XU ET AL.
Figure 4. Schematic of the transilluminating experimental

setup used for FDOT. An excitation beam was scanned from
below in an 8 8 grid pattern with each excitation spot
separated from its neighbor spots by 2 mm (see the bottom
view). A CCD camera was used to capture one image for
each scanned position. Two uorescent tubes, containing
either the DY-781 uorophores or the rare-earth-doped
coreshell NaYF4:Yb3/Tm3@NaYF4 upconverting nanoparticles, were mounted on a stage within the liquid phantom 10 mm from the top surface (see the side view). The
separation distance between the two tubes was varied in
discrete steps of 1 mm, and an FDOT reconstruction was
performed for each separation distance.
are shown in Figure 5a to e, with decreasing tube separations from 10 mm in Figure 5a to 6 mm in Figure 5e.
The corresponding reconstructions for the quadratically
power-dependent NaYF4:Yb3/Tm3@NaYF4 upconverting nanoparticles are shown in Figure 5f to m, with
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Figure 5. Cross-sectional slices (two-dimensional plots) of the FDOT reconstructions with the linearly power-dependent
DY-781 uorophores and the quadratically power-dependent NaYF4:Yb3/Tm3@NaYF4 upconverting nanoparticles as
contrast agents and their corresponding intensity proles (line plots). The true depth was z = 7 mm. The separation distance
between the uorescent tubes was varied from 10 to 6 mm (step sizes of 1 mm) for the case of the linear uorophores, shown
in (a)(e). The use of quadratic upconverting nanoparticles clearly leads to reconstructions with higher spatial resolutions
and qualities. Thus, the separation distance between the uorescent tubes was varied from 10 to 3 mm (stepsizes of 1 mm),
shown in (f)(m). Using the linear uorophores, already at a separation distance of 8 mm (c), the two uorescent tubes can no
longer be separated. However, in the images obtained with the use of the quadratic upconverting nanoparticles, besides the
signicantly higher qualities of the reconstructions, the two uorescent tubes can still be separated at a separation distance of
5 mm (k).
decreasing tube separations, from 10 mm (Figure 5f) to 3

mm (Figure 5m). As can be seen, in all cases, the depth of
the uorescent tubes (z = 7 mm) can be correctly
retrieved. However, the dierence in spatial resolution
between the images with the use of the DY-781 uorophores and the upconverting nanoparticles, in particular
along the lateral dimension (x-axis), is immense. In the
images obtained with the use of the upconverting nanoparticles, the two tubes can be retrieved from the reconstructions for separation distances down to 5 mm
(Figure 5k). However, in the images obtained with the
DY-781 uorophores, retrieval of the two tubes breaks
down already at 8 mm (Figure 5c). A comparison of the
reconstructions in Figure 5h and c shows that the obtainable reconstruction quality by using the upconverting
nanoparticles is exceedingly superior to what one could
obtain with the use of traditional linear uorophores.
Furthermore, it is important to point out that although
the optical properties of the phantom at the excitation
wavelengths (785 and 975 nm) were chosen to be
identical to ensure proper comparisons, this, inevitably
resulted in slightly diering optical properties at the
emission wavelength of 800 nm. Using TOFS, the optical
properties of the phantom for the linear DY-781 uorophores were determined to be 0 s(800 nm) = 9.95 cm1
and a(800 nm) = 0.49 cm1, while the optical properties
of the upconverting nanoparticles were 0 s(800 nm) =
11.5 cm1 and a(800 nm) = 0.041 cm1. Thus, the
XU ET AL.
phantom for the upconverting nanoparticles, due to its

higher scattering relative absorption ratio, is actually
much more penalizing in terms of resolution as compared
with the phantom for the DY-781 uorophores.
The experimental results presented in this work
clearly demonstrate that the spatial resolution of FDOT
can be signicantly improved by employing upconverting nanoparticles as contrast agents due to their
nonlinear power-dependent optical properties. This
improvement can be explained as follows by considering the eective light propagation proles and the
corresponding sensitivity proles. For a given source
detector pair, the sensitivity prole describes the
most probable origin of any detected emission light.
Thus, a conned and sharp sensitivity prole results
in a higher spatial resolution. Figure 6 shows simulated
sensitivity proles of traditionally used linear uorophores and the quadratically power-dependent
upconverting nanoparticles. The simulations were performed for three dierent source positions, with the
detector position xed. The circles within the slices
indicate the positions of two uorescent tubes
separated by 5 mm. Comparing the sensitivity proles of the linear uorophores (Figure 6ac) and
the sensitivity proles of the quadratically powerdependent upconverting nanoparticles (Figure 6df),
it is evident that the gradient for the quadratic case,
in particular close to the source, is much larger than
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nonlinear upconverting nanoparticles that leads to

selective excitation should be applicable to arbitrary
geometries and will in all cases excel linear uorophores in terms of spatial resolution. Furthermore,
since the resolution enhancement can be attributed
to an intrinsic property of the upconverting nanoparticles, it is possible and straightforward to implement
the previously mentioned approaches, such as multispectral methods, incorporation of a priori information,
and other mathematical formulations of the problem,
to further improve the spatial resolution.
CONCLUSIONS
Figure 6. Simulated sensitivity proles of linearly powerdependent uorophores and quadratically power-dependent
upconverting nanoparticles for three source positions and a
xed detector position. The circles represent the experimental
case of two uorescent tubes with a center-to-center separation of 5 mm. (ac) Sensitivity proles of linear uorophores.
(df) Sensitivity proles of the upconverting nanoparticles.
From the gure, it is clear that the quadratic power dependence of the emission results in sensitivity proles that are
much more conned and sharply dened as compared with
linear uorophores. Thus, the two uorescent targets can
eectively be selectively excited if upconverting nanoparticles
are employed as contrast agents.
the gradient for the linear case. Therefore, here selective

excitation of the individual uorescent targets can be
achieved if upconverting nanoparticles are employed.
The large excitation volumes resulting from employing
traditional linear uorophores, on the other hand, severely
limit the spatial selectivity.
The resolution in the lateral dimension was experimentally investigated in this study. However, since the
resolution enhancement originates from the connement of the sensitivity prole for the upconverting
nanoparticles, it is clear that the axial resolution will
certainly also exhibit a higher spatial resolution as compared with linear uorophores. This intrinsic property of
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
Synthesis and Characterization of the Nanoparticles. In the synthesis of the core NaYF4:Yb3/Tm3 nanoparticles, stoichiometric
amounts of YCl3 (0.75 mmol), YbCl3 (0.25 mmol), and TmCl3
(0.003 mmol) were mixed with 6 mL of oleic acid (OA) and 17 mL
of octadecene (ODE) in a 250 mL flask. The mixture was heated
to 160 C for 30 min, forming a clear solution. Then, 4 mmol of
NH4F (0.1482 g) and 2.5 mmol of NaOH (0.1 g) dissolved in 10 mL
of methanol was aspirated into a syringe and added into the
solution by a syringe pump using a flow rate of 200 L/min. The
obtained solution was first slowly heated to evaporate the
methanol and degassed at 100 C for 10 min, followed by a
second step of heating to 300 C for 1.5 h under an argon
atmosphere. After the solution had cooled to room temperature, the nanoparticles were precipitated and washed with
100 mL of ethanol/water mixture (1:1 v/v) three times and
centrifuged at 5100 rpm for 10 min before being collected
and redispersed in 6 mL of n-hexane. In order to reduce the
nonradiative losses caused by surface effects, the nanoparticles
XU ET AL.
In summary, coreshell NaYF4:Yb3/Tm3@NaYF4

upconverting nanoparticles of hexagonal phase have
been synthesized and employed as contrast agents
in the demonstration of FDOT with high spatial resolution. The optical characterization shows that the
emission from the coreshell nanoparticles depends
quadratically on the power of excitation in tissues and
that the quantum yield of the synthesized upconverting nanoparticles is 3.5% under a more intense excitation intensity of 78 W/cm2. It is demonstrated that the
spatial resolution of FDOT can be signicantly improved by exploiting the nonlinear optical emission
properties of the upconverting coreshell nanoparticles as compared with the traditionally used uorophores. In contrast to previously employed approaches
to improve the spatial resolution of FDOT, which
mainly aim to utilize and optimize the available data,
our approach attacks the limiting factor directly by
instead tailoring the shape of the sensitivity proles.
This fundamentally dierent approach, which
exploits the unique nonlinear power-dependent
emission property of upconverting nanoparticles, signicantly improves the current spatial-resolution limit
of FDOT, enabling deep-tissue optical imaging of
targets in biomedical systems with unprecedented
resolutions.
were further coated with an undoped layer of NaYF4 through a

similar procedure to that above. A clear solution containing 1.00
mmol of Y3 was first obtained by dissolving YCl3 in 6 mL of oleic
acid and 17 mL of ODE in a 200 mL flask. NaYF4:Yb3/Tm3
nanoparticles (1 mmol) in 6 mL of hexane was then added to the
solution. Using a syringe pump, with the above-mentioned flow
rate, 4 mmol of NH4F (0.1482 g) and 2.5 mmol of NaOH (0.1 g) in
10 mL of methanol was added. The following steps, including
degassing, reaction, precipitation, washing, centrifugation, and
collection, were identical to the synthesis of the core nanoparticles. TEM images were obtained using a JEOL 3000F analytical
transmission electron microscope.
Optical characterization of the coreshell nanoparticles was
performed using a sensitive spectrouorometer setup. Excitation of the synthesized coreshell nanoparticles was performed
using the Thorlabs L975P1WJ laser diode with the temperature
stabilized at 25 C. The emission was measured using a grating
spectrometer with a slit width of 50 m (Ocean Optics QE65000).
For the quantum-yield measurements, the system employed
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NP
As FNP
s
ANP Fs
(1)
where A denotes the fraction of absorbed photons, is the

quantum yield, F is the collected photons, and the subscripts s
and NP denote the standard and the upconverting nanoparticles, respectively.
FDOT Imaging System. Imaging of the phantom was performed
in a transmission mode. Four capillary tubes with inner diameters of 2.0 mm were used to simulate fluorescent targets.
The first two tubes were filled with a solution of DY-781 (c = 1 M),
and the last two tubes were filled with a solution of the NaYF4:
Yb3/Tm3@NaYF4 nanoparticles (c = 1 wt %). For each type of
fluorophores, two tubes were mounted in parallel (in the lateral
direction) on a 7 mm tall stage immersed within the tissue
phantom. The center-to-center distance of the two tubes had an
initial value of 10 mm and was gradually decreased with a step
size of 1 mm. A tomographic reconstruction was performed for
each separation distance. Excitation of the fluorophores was
accomplished using a laser diode at 785 nm for the linear
fluorophores and at 975 nm for the upconverting nanoparticles,
illuminating the phantom from below with spot sizes of 1 mm.
The excitation intensities at the surface of the phantoms were
moderate (95 mW/cm2 for the 785 nm laser and 800 mW/cm2
for the 975 nm laser), well below the thresholds for tissue
damage. For each reconstruction, the excitation beam was
scanned over an area of 14 14 mm2 in an 8 8 grid using
two computer-controlled translation stages. A charge-coupled
device (CCD) camera (Andor iXon) was used to acquire one
image for every scanned position. After background and autofluorescence subtraction, the signal-to-noise ratios of the resulting images for the DY-781 fluorophores and the upconverting
nanoparticles were very similar and were determined to be 52:1
for the DY-781 fluorophores and 62:1 for the upconverting
nanoparticles.
FDOT Model. The FDOT technique is a model-based inverse
approach that aims to find the fluorophore or the nanoparticle
number density, (r), within a scattering material. Using a set of
fluence measurements on the surface of the media and a
forward model, the problem was formulated as an optimization
problem where is optimized to minimize the residual between
a predicted set of measurement data, cf (), and a set of
experimentally retrieved measurement data, m
f . In this study,
the excitation field, e(r), and the emission field, f(r), were
modeled using two coupled diffusion equations,
(ea Ke (r)r2 )e (r) S(r)
(2)
(fa Kf (r)r2 )f (r) (r) e (r)
(3)
where is a constant denoting the efficiency of a fluorophore

and describes the power dependence of a fluorophore, i.e., = 1
for a linear fluorophore and = 2 for a quadratic fluorophore
such as the upconverting nanoparticles employed in this study;
e,f
a and e,f denote the absorption and diffusion coefficient at
the excitation and fluorescence wavelengths, respectively. The
diffusion equations were solved using the finite-element method,
and Robin boundary conditions were used to account for the
refractive index mismatch between the phantom material and
the surrounding air. Since the problem is highly ill-posed,
Tikhonov regularization was used in the optimization process
to obtain a stable solution, and the regularization parameter
was derived by gradually decreasing an initially large value, until
a plateau in the residual was reached.5
Conflict of Interest: The authors declare no competing
nancial interest.
Acknowledgment. E. Alerstam is gratefully acknowledged
for the help with the TOFS measurements. S. Lidin and C. Mller
are acknowledged for the help with the XRD measurements.
XU ET AL.
S. Fredriksson and F. Olsson are acknowledged for the help with

synthesizing the nanoparticles. This work was supported by
grants from the Swedish Research Council, the Crafoord Foundation, a Linnaeus grant to the Lund Laser Centre, and a
Linnaeus grant for Nanoscience and Quantum Engineering.
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Size-Controlled Nanocrystalline NaYF4:Yb,Er Infrared-toVisible Up-Conversion Phosphors. Nano Lett. 2004, 4,
21912196.
33. Lim, S. F.; Riehn, R.; Tung, C. K.; Ryu, W. S.; Zhuo, R.; Dalland,
J.; Austin, R. H. Upconverting Nanophosphors for Bioimaging. Nanotechnology 2009, 20, 405701.
34. Nam, S. H.; Bae, Y. M.; Il Park, Y.; Kim, J. H.; Kim, H. M.; Choi,
J. S.; Lee, K. T.; Hyeon, T.; Suh, Y. D. Long-Term Real-Time
Tracking of Lanthanide Ion Doped Upconverting Nanoparticles in Living Cells. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2011, 50,
60936097.
35. Zhou, J.; Yu, M. X.; Sun, Y.; Zhang, X. Z.; Zhu, X. J.; Wu, Z. H.;
Wu, D. M.; Li, F. Y. Fluorine-18-Labeled Gd3/Yb3/Er3 CoDoped NaYF4 Nanophosphors for Multimodality PET/MR/
UCL Imaging. Biomaterials 2011, 32, 11481156.
36. Liu, Q.; Chen, M.; Sun, Y.; Chen, G. Y.; Yang, T. S.; Gao, Y.;
Zhang, X. Z.; Li, F. Y. Multifunctional Rare-Earth SelfAssembled Nanosystem for Tri-Modal Upconversion Luminescence/Fluorescence/Positron Emission Tomography Imaging. Biomaterials 2011, 32, 82438253.
37. Wang, J.; Wang, F.; Wang, C.; Liu, Z.; Liu, X. G. Single-Band
Upconversion Emission in Lanthanide-Doped KMnF3
Nanocrystals. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2011, 50, 10369
10372.
38. Li, Z. Q.; Zhang, Y. An Ecient and User-Friendly Method
for the Synthesis of Hexagonal-Phase NaYF4:Yb, Er/Tm
Paper VIII
Multibeam fluorescence diffuse optical tomography
H. Liu, C. T. Xu, S. Andersson-Engels.
Optics Letters 35(5), 718-720 (2010).
Paper VIII
718
OPTICS LETTERS / Vol. 35, No. 5 / March 1, 2010
Multibeam fluorescence diffuse optical tomography

Haichun Liu,* Can T. Xu, and Stefan Andersson-Engels
Department of Physics, Lund University, P.O. Box 118, S-221 00 Lund, Sweden
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Received November 2, 2009; revised December 18, 2009; accepted January 11, 2010;
posted January 12, 2010 (Doc. ID 119223); published February 25, 2010
Fluorescence diffuse optical tomography (FDOT) is a biomedical imaging modality that can be used for localization and quantification of fluorescent molecules inside turbid media. In this ill-posed problem, the reconstruction quality is directly determined by the amount and quality of the information obtained from the
boundary measurements. Regularly, more information can be obtained by increasing the number of excitation positions in an FDOT system. However, the maximum number of excitation positions is limited by the
finite size of the excitation beam. In the present work, we demonstrate a method in FDOT to exploit the
unique nonlinear power dependence of upconverting nanoparticles to further increase the amount of information in a raster-scanning setup by including excitation with two beams simultaneously. We show that the
additional information can be used to obtain more accurate reconstructions. 2010 Optical Society of
America
OCIS codes: 170.3880, 170.6960, 170.7050, 100.3190.
Fluorescence diffuse optical tomography (FDOT) is a

relatively new modality that seeks to reconstruct the
spatial distribution of fluorescent probes inside turbid materials [1]. As an imaging tool, it has good
prospects in biomedical studies to image, for example, tumors [2], proteases [3], and drug effects [4].
FDOT is a numerically very ill-posed problem. In
this problem, the quality of the reconstructions for
the fluorescent target is directly determined by the
amount and quality of fluorescence information obtained from boundary measurements [5]. Instrumental noise and tissue autofluorescence are the main
perturbations of the measurements, resulting in poor
signal quality, and can cause severe artifacts in the
reconstructed results [6]. To overcome this, one could,
for example, employ low-noise equipment, use background subtraction [7], or use spectral unmixing [8].
However, such methods cannot resolve all problems,
since they essentially are only utilizing the present
information in a better way rather than adding new
constraints for the reconstructions, i.e., adding new
independent information, which is critical to improve
the quality of the reconstructions.
In a noncontact CCD-based FDOT system, one preferred way to gain more information is by increasing
the number of excitation positions [9]. However, in
order to keep the intensity of the excitation beam
within reasonable levels, there is a limit on the minimum size of the excitation beam. This implies a practical upper limit to the highest excitation-position
density, since distinct, i.e., nonoverlapping, excitation
positions are desired in the reconstructions. It is
also possible to employ an anatomical imaging modality such as magnetic-resonance imaging to provide a priori structural information [10]. However,
this is at the cost of significantly increased complexity and reduced flexibility of the system.
Upconverting nanoparticles have been proposed as
fluorophores in biomedical imaging [11,12] as well as
0146-9592/10/050718-3/$15.00
in FDOT [13]. These nanoparticles can emit antiStokes shifted light when excited at 980 nm [14],
which enables the signal to be detected in an
autofluorescence-free environment [15]. This leads to
a significant reduction of artifacts in the reconstructions. In addition, owing to the quadratic power dependence of the nanoparticles, the reconstructions
are more sharply defined compared with the reconstructions of a linear fluorophore [13].
In this Letter, we present an approach to exploit
the quadratic power dependence of upconverting
nanoparticles to gain additional information by utilizing two beams simultaneously for excitation in
FDOT. The effect of the images taken with dual-beam
excitation (named type-D images) on the reconstructions of the nanoparticle number density distribution, n, is demonstrated. In addition, comparisons of
reconstructed results between the linear rhodamine
6G and the quadratic upconverting nanoparticles are
made.
The excitation and emission fields can be modeled
by two coupled diffusion equations [13]. For quadratic fluorophores, the fluorescence signal detected
at a fixed detector position under excitation of the kth
beam, k, can be described by the forward model
N
k = Uf*rd,rinriUersk,ri2Vi ,
i=1
where N denotes the number of voxels; rs,d,i denotes

the coordinates for source, detector, and voxel, respectively; and Vi is the volume of voxel i. The forward solution of the excitation light is represented by
Uersk , ri2, while the adjoint solution to the forward
fluorescence problem is represented by Uf*rd , ri.
When exciting the medium using two beams simultaneously, the detected signal is given by
2010 Optical Society of America
201
Multibeam fluorescence diffuse optical tomography using upconverting nanoparticles
March 1, 2010 / Vol. 35, No. 5 / OPTICS LETTERS
719
10
k&j = Uf*rd,rinriUersk,ri + Uersj,ri2Vi

N
= 2 Uf*rd,rinriUersk,riUersj,riVi
i=1
+ k + j ,
which reveals the involvement of cross terms. In a

raster-scanning setup, if two images are taken sequentially with one excitation beam scanning over
two positions (named type-S images), and a third image is taken with dual-beam excitation (type-D)
above the previous two positions, the involvement of
cross terms implies that the type-D image cannot be
obtained by any mathematical manipulation from
the existing type-S images, indicating that it is independent and contains additional information. However, for linear fluorophores, e.g., rhodamine 6G, the
type-D image is only a linear combination of the existing type-S images and will not add more constraints for the inverse problem. For nonlinear fluorophores, it is obvious that Eq. (2) can be generalized
to include more simultaneous excitation beams.
The significance of the measurements with dualbeam excitation in the reconstructions was confirmed
by the singular-value analysis of the weight matrix,
W, whose elements are given by [13]
Ws,d,i = Uf*rd,riUers,riVi ,
with = 1 for linear fluorophores and = 2 for quadratic fluorophores. Calculations were performed using the NIRFAST package implementing the finiteelement method [16]. W was factorized according to
W = UV* ,
where U and V are unitary matrices containing the

left and right singular vectors of W, respectively, and
is a diagonal matrix containing the singular values
of W. The column space of V is spanned by the imagespace modes, while the column space of U is spanned
by the detection-space modes. The singular values of
W denote how effectively a given image-space mode
can be detected by an experimental setup [17].
Figure 1 shows the normalized singular-value distribution of W. For clarity, only every second singular
value is shown. The circle and plus signs represent
the linear fluorophore, the former for the single-beam
excitation, while the latter for the combined singlebeam excitation and dual-beam excitation. As seen,
the normalized intensities of the additional singular
values due to dual-beam excitation have dropped to
machine precision, which indicates that the measurements with dual-beam excitation will not alleviate
the ill-posedness of FDOT. In other words, the type-D
images cannot provide more information than the existing type-S images. Hence, it will not improve the
quality of the reconstructions. However, for the quadratic fluorophore (denoted by asterisk and dot signs
in Fig. 1), the intensities of the additional singular
202
Normalized singularvalue intensity
i=1
10
10
10
Singlebeam, = 1
Singlebeam, = 2
Singleanddualbeam, = 1
15
Singleanddualbeam, = 2
10
20
10
20
40
60
80
Singularvalue index
100
120
140
Fig. 1. (Color online) Singular-value distribution of W.
values are still significant. This implies that type-D

images will contribute to the quality of the reconstructions.
The experiments were carried out in a gelatin
phantom with optical properties of a = 0.29 cm1 and
s = 10.0 cm1 at 660 nm, measured with a time-offlight spectroscopy system [18]. Two glass tubes with
inner diameters of 2.4 mm, filled with aqueous solutions of rhodamine 6G c = 0.1 M and ultrasoundagitated
dimethyl
sulfoxide
colloidal
of
NaYF4 : Yb3+ / Tm3+ nanoparticles c = 1 wt%, respectively, were used to simulate the fluorescent lesions.
The spot sizes of the lasers were 2.6 mm in diameter,
which gave optical power densities of 480 mW/ cm2
for the 980 nm laser and 85 mW/ cm2 for the 532 nm
laser, well below the damage thresholds of continuous human-skin exposure. The experimental setup
and corresponding running parameters were similar
with those used in our previous work [13]. Owing to
the limited area of the phantom under investigation,
only nine excitation positions (3 3 grid) were used
in the present work. The separation of two nearestneighboring positions was 3.5 mm. During the experiments, a single excitation beam was first used to
scan over the 3 3 grid, and one image was captured
for each scanned position by a CCD camera. In the
next step, two excitation beams, located at two
nearest-neighboring sites of the same grid, were simultaneously employed to illuminate the phantom,
giving six extra type-D images.
Figure 2 shows the three-dimensional rendering of
the reconstructed upconverting nanoparticles. The
cylinders in the subfigures are identical and represent the true fluorescent lesions. In the reconstruction of Fig. 2(a), only type-S images were used. As can
be seen, the shape of the fluorescent lesion is overestimated. This overestimation may be explained by
the ill-posedness of the inverse problem. When adding type-D images, the reconstruction of the fluorescent lesion shape is improved remarkably, as shown
in Fig. 2(b). In order to emphasize the difference between the two reconstructions, cross-sectional slices
of the reconstructed relative fluorophore distribution
are shown in Fig. 3. Although the depth is relatively
Paper VIII
720
OPTICS LETTERS / Vol. 35, No. 5 / March 1, 2010
Fig. 2. (Color online) Three-dimensional reconstruction of

upconverting nanoparticles. (a) Reconstruction using only
type-S images. (b) Reconstruction using the combined data
from type-S and type-D images.
well reconstructed at the center of the fluorescent lesion (represented by the circles) for both reconstructions, the reconstructed fluorescent lesion is more
confined for the case of using both type-S and type-D
images. This result confirms that the images of type
D indeed contribute to the inverse problem and lead
to better reconstructions for the quadratic upconverting nanoparticles. The corresponding reconstructions
for the linear rhodamine 6G were also carried out,
whose cross-sectional slices are presented in Fig. 4.
Compared with the results for the nanoparticles, the
reconstructions for rhodamine 6G do not benefit from
adding the type-D images, which is in agreement
with the theory. The true depth of the fluorescent lesion is also poorly reconstructed.
In summary, based on previous work regarding the
employment of upconverting nanoparticles in FDOT,
we propose and demonstrate an additional unique
advantage of the nonlinear power dependence of upconverting nanoparticles. This advantage enables the
possibility to obtain additional information for the inverse problem by using images taken with two or
more excitation beams simultaneously. We found that
this resulted in improved reconstructions. The same
advantage could not be found when using linear fluorophores, e.g., rhodamine 6G.
This work was supported by a Swedish Research
Council grant (VR 2007-4214) and a Linnaeus grant
for the Lund Laser Centre. The authors thank Prof.
Zhiguo Zhang and his group from the Harbin Institute of Technology and Dr. Gabriel Somesfalean for
their collaboration work.
Fig. 4. (Color online) Cross-sectional slices of the reconstructed relative rhodamine 6G distribution at x = 17 mm.
(a) Reconstruction with only type-S images. (b) Reconstruction with both type-S and type-D images.
References
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11. S. F. Lim, R. Riehn, W. S. Ryu, N. Khanarian, C.-K.
Tung, D. Tank, and R. H. Austin, Nano Lett. 6, 169
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12. C. Vinegoni, D. Razansky, S. A. Hilderbrand, F. Shao,
V. Ntziachristos, and R. Weissleder, Opt. Lett. 34, 2566
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Phys. Lett. 94, 251107 (2009).
14. H. J. Liang, G. Y. Chen, L. Li, Y. Liu, F. Qin, and Z. G.
Zhang, Opt. Commun. 282, 3028 (2009).
15. C. T. Xu, N. Svensson, J. Axelsson, P. Svenmarker, G.
Somesfalean, G. Y. Chen, H. J. Liang, H. C. Liu, Z. G.
Zhang, and S. Andersson-Engels, Appl. Phys. Lett. 93,
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16. H. Dehghani, M. E. Eames, P. K. Yalavarthy, S. C.
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Fig. 3. (Color online) Cross-sectional slices of the reconstructed relative nanoparticle distribution at x = 17 mm. (a)
Reconstruction with only type-S images. (b) Reconstruction
with both type-S and type-D images.
203
Paper IX
Multispectral guided fluorescence diffuse optical
P. Svenmarker, C. T. Xu, H. Liu, X. Wu, S. Andersson-Engels.
(2013) Accepted for publication by Applied Physics Letters.
Paper IX
Multispectral Guided Fluorescence Diffuse Optical Tomography using Upconverting Nanoparticles
Pontus Svenmarker,1, 2, 3, a) Can T. Xu,1 Haichun Liu,1 Xia Wu,1 and Stefan Andersson-Engels1
1)
Department of Physics, Lund University, P.O. Box 118, SE-221 00 Lund,
Sweden
2)
Department of Physics, Ume
a University, SE-901 87 Ume
a Sweden
3)
Centre for Mircobial Research (UCMR), Ume
a University, SE-901 87 Ume
a Sweden
(Dated: 7 October 2013)
We report improved image detectability for fluorescence diffuse optical tomography using upconverting
nanoparticles doped with rare-earth elements. Core-shell NaYF4 : Yb3+ /Er3+ @NaYF4 upconverting nanoparticels were synthesized through a stoichiometric method. The Yb3+ /Er3+ sensitizer-activator pair yielded
two anti-Stokes shifted fluorescence emission bands at 540 nm and 660 nm, here used to a priori estimate the
fluorescence source depth with sub-millimeter precision. A spatially varying regularization incorporated the
a priori fluorescence source depth estimation into the tomography reconstruction scheme. Numerically it is
fast, simple and direct to implement. Tissue phantom experiments showed both an improved resolution and
contrast in the reconstructed images as compared to not using any a priori information.
been proposed as an alternative.13 They offer a wider
excitation band, which may extend over a few hundreds
of nanometers, while being accompanied by large Stokes
shifted narrow band emission. Quantum dots, however,
typically suffers from limited imaging depth, since their
excitation band in the ultra-violet to the blue part of the
spectrum coincides with strong tissue attenuation. Upconverting nanoparticles, on the other hand, enable deep
tissue imaging due to a combination of NIR excitation
and large anti-Stokes shifted NIR and visible emission
bands.18
In this letter, we report improved image detectability
for fDOT using core-shell NaYF4 : Yb3+ /Er3+ @NaYF4
upconverting nanoparticles.
By the use of the
Yb3+ /Er3+ sensitizer-activator pair, two anti-Stokes
shifted emission bands (540 nm and 660 nm) upon 980
nm excitation, were available for fluorescence source
depth estimation. An advantageous approach of incorporating the a priori fluorescence source depth information
into the fDOT image reconstruction is through a spatially
varying regularization.15 To evaluate the performance
gained, a comparison between a multispectral guided spatially varying regularization and a non-spatially varying
Tikhonov regularization were made in a well controlled
tissue phantom experiment.
The method used for reconstructing the fluorescence distribution follows the procedure undertaken by
Zacharopoulos et al..12 In brief, it involves modeling the
photon migration as a set of diffusion equations expressed
as
During the last decade, in vivo fluorescence imaging has

grown to become the most commonly used pre-clinical
imaging modality.1 Alongside the instrument and algorithm development, a rich flora of fluorescent contrast agents has emerged.2 One contrast agent class with
unique properties is upconverting nanoparticles.3 Upon
near-infrared (NIR) excitation, they are able to emit antiStokes shifted fluorescence, thereby allowing for autofluorescence insensitive detection.4,5 Further, they have a
non-linear excitation power-dependence, due to successive absorption of two or more photons, which can be exploited to increase the resolution in diffuse fluorescence
imaging and tomography.68 Upconverting nanoparticles
are photo-stable even under intense irradiation, hence facilitating prolonged experiments. Additionally, the availability of narrow multi-color emission bands with large
anti-Stokes shifts is a key feature, which will be exploited
in this letter.9
In fluorescence diffuse optical tomography (fDOT), a
fair amount of attention has been directed towards multispectral approaches.1013 It is well understood that spectra provides information on source depth, and that such
spectral encoded source depth information can be accessed through reading multiple emission or excitation
wavelengths, or a combination of the two.10,1417 The
key lay in covering a spectral region with large tissue
attenuation differences, which for biological samples is
typically manifested at the blue end of the tissue-opticalwindow. To access the necessary spectral coverage requires a fluorophore that either has a wide emission or
excitation band, and at the same time, spectrally overlap
with a large tissue attenuation difference. Available fluorescent dyes emit and absorb photons across the whole
visible and part of the NIR spectrum, but exhibit a limited emission and excitation band width (100 nm) and
only small Stokes shifts (30 nm). Still they are used
for source depth estimation.10,1416 Quantum dots have
a) Electronic
Dx (r)x (r) + xa x (r) = q(rq )
(1)
Df (r)f (r, ) + fa f (r, ) = (r)[x (r)] (2)

x/f
where Dx/f is the diffusion coefficient, a is the absorption coefficient at the excitation/fluorescence wavelength,
respectively; q(rq ) is the excitation source at position rq
and is the power-dependence exponent ( = 2 for the
upconverting nanoparticles used in this work ). A Robin
mail: [email protected]
207
z (mm)
(a)
17
4 mm
z=0
(b)
(c)
regularization matrix, and thereby allow for a more

sophisticated smoothing.
The procedure for calculating the multispectral regularization was inspired by the work of Axelsson et al..15
By taking advantage of that the fluorescence photons
at different wavelengths will encounter a wavelengthdependent attenuation while escaping the imaging volume, the relative loss between different emission bands
can be used to calculate the distance between the position
where the fluorescence emission takes place and where it
is detected.14 An estimation of this distance, r, can be
found by solving the following expression,
17 mm
(d)
10
0
-10
10
-10
10
-10
10
y (mm)
FIG. 1. (a) A cross-sectional view of the imaging geometry

with two fluorescent inclusions on axis (4 mm in diameter).
Open circles indicate source positions and crosses detector
positions. The gray arc describes the estimated distance, as
given by the fluorescence ratio, between one particular detector and the emitting fluorescent inclusion. (b) A visualization
of the three-step process involved for calculating the spatially
varying multispectral guided regularization. The estimated
distance, as given by the fluorescent ratio, for a single detector located at the position indicated by the cross. (c)
Each voxel is thereafter weighted by the intensity recorded
by its closest detector, for a given source, here exemplified
by a source at the position of the circle. This will act as a
triangulation. (d) Repeating this procedure for every source
and detector, and summing the contributions yields the multispectral guided regularization.

q,m (1 ) fm (r, 1 )

q,m (2 ) f (r, 2 ) < .
m
In two dimensions, r describes an arc (see Fig. 1b), and

in three dimensions a spherical surface with its origin at
the detector position. The precision of the estimated distance is controlled by a user defined threshold . To further pinpoint the location of the fluorophore, each voxel
is weighted by the fluorescence intensity of its closest detector. This will act as a weighted triangulation, where
r provides the depth position and the boundary fluorescence emission profile gives the lateral positioning (see
Fig. 1c). To receive the final regularization (see Fig.
1d), a weighted triangulation is performed for every projection and the collective response is summed to give the
diagonal elements of the spatially varying multispectral
regularization matrix. The implementation was straightforward, only requiring direct calculations for solving
Eq.4 and performing the weighted sum.
Core-shell NaYF4 : Yb3+ /Er3+ @NaYF4 upconverting
nanoparticles were synthesized through a stoichiometric
method and dispersed in a non-polar solution to a concentration of 1 wt% to act as the fluorescent inclusions.7
Figure 2a shows the size distribution measured with dynamic light scattering (DLS) together with a transmission electron microscopy (TEM) image confirming the
size of the particles. The average particle size measured
with DLS including the coating was 28 nm in diameter.
The fluorescence spectrum of the particles following excitation at 975 nm is displayed in Fig. 2b showing two
emission bands at 540 nm and 660 nm, respectively. Figure 1a depicts the layout of the measurement geometry
with two fluorescent inclusions on axis. Two glass tubes
(2 mm inner diameter) filled with the suspension were
submerged in a tissue phantom with a thickness of 17
mm consisting of water, intralipid and bovine blood. The
phantom was characterized with photon time-of-flight
spectroscopy (TOFS)19 and steady-state spectroscopy to
determine its optical properties. Fig. 2b presents the effective attenuation coefficient eff as a function of wavelength measured with steady-state spectroscopy, together
with the reduced scattering coefficient 0s values obtained
from TOFS. By extrapolating the reduced scattering coefficient on the form 0s = ab , the absorption coefficient
boundary condition is used to account for reflection and

refraction at the tissue surface. The sought parameter is
the fluorescence yield (r) = np
a (), which can be written as the product of the nanoparticle absorption coefficient np
a and its slope efficiency () at wavelength . In
the reconstruction, the difference between the measured
and calculated projections is minimized with respect to
the fluorescence yield distribution in a least-square manner.
2
kJ(r) bk + kL(r)k
(3)
Here the elements in the Jacobian J = [xq (r)] fm (r, )

equal
the
product
of
the
excitation
fluence rate and the emission fluence rate and
b = [q1 ,m1 (1 ) . . . q1 ,m1 (2 ) . . . ] contains the measured projections. A regularization term L is added for
stabilizing minimization and thus making it possible to
find an estimated solution to an otherwise ill-conditioned
inverse problem. In the simplest case, L is chosen as the
identity matrix, which gives the Tikhonov regularization. In practice, it will add an offset, with its strength
determined by the regularization hyper-parameter ,
giving rise to the effect of smoothing the resulting
image towards the shape of the regularization matrix a featureless flat image. Since we can estimate the fluorescence yield distribution by the fluorescence emission
ratio, it can be used to calculate a spatially varying
2
208
(4)
Paper IX
to be measured and the conjugate view (symmetrically
mirror the phantom at z = 0 mm, see Fig. 1a) could be
obtained by duplicating the data.
The first row in Fig. 3 displays the reconstructed images when using the multispectral regularization to guide
the reconstruction process. Each image shows an x-z
slice at y = 0 mm together with a cross-sectional plot.
For comparison, reconstructed images using Tikhonov
regularization are presented in the second row. Both
the resolution and the contrast were higher when using the multispectral regularization compared to the use
of Tikhonov regularization, leading to an increased detectability for the multispectral regularization guided reconstructions. The rods spaced 4 mm apart could be
resolved by the multispectral regularization guided reconstructions, while the Tikhonov regularization guided
reconstructions could only resolve the rods at an 8 mm
center-center distance. A comparison of the image contrast, defined as IC = (Imax Imin )/Imax , for the case
when the rods were placed at an 8 mm center-center distance gave 0.46 compared to 0.24, for the multispectral
regularization and the Tikhonov regularization, respectively.
For creation of a successful multispectral regularization, accurate and a large difference in optical properties
between the two wavelengths detected are crucial. In
a simplistic analysis, assuming an infinite homogeneous
geometry, the fluorescence ratio depth dependence can
be written as; log(1 /2 ) = log(D2 /D1 ) r(1eff 2eff ).
From this expression, it is clear that the difference in
effective attenuation coefficients between wavelengths 1
and 2 sets the depth sensitivity. A large difference, typically achieved by utilizing the sharp absorption profile
of haemoglobin, gives a high sensitivity and hence facilitates precise depth localization. An error in the deduced
optical properties will naturally lead to an inaccurate estimated depth.17 Any autofluorescence present will further misguide the depth localization.
In conclusion,
we reported improved image
detectability
for
fDOT
using
core-shell
NaYF4 : Yb3+ /Er3+ @NaYF4 upconverting nanoparticles, while guiding the reconstruction procedure with
a priori fluorescence source depth estimations, here
implemented through a spatially varying regularization.
Numerically it was fast, simple and direct to implement.
The use of NaYF4 : Yb3+ /Er3+ @NaYF4 upconverting
nanoparticles as contrast agent, with two emission bands
experiencing drastically different tissue attenuation,
yielded a multispectral regularization with precise depth
localization. Careful characterization of the tissue attenuation by time-of-flight and steady-state spectroscopy
resulted in an accurate depth localization. Autofluorescence insensitive measurements achieved through the use
of upconverting nanoparticles ensured contamination
free data, which otherwise may misguide the source
depth estimation and also the fDOT reconstruction.
The authors would like to acknowledge Erik Alerstam
for assisting with the TOFS measurements.
(a)
20
15
10
5
100rnm
0
10
(b)
s (cm-1)
eff (cm-1)
100
diameterr(nm)
1000
1
15
10
5
500 600 700 800 900
0.5
1
0
500
600
700
800
wavelengthr(nm)
900
fluorescencerintensityr(-)
numberr(d)
25
FIG.
2.
Characterization
of
the
core-shell
NaYF4 : Yb3+ /Er3+ @NaYF4 nanoparticles and optical
properties of the tissue phantom. (a) Nanoparticle size
distribution measured with DLS (diameter average equals
28 nm) together with an inset containing a corresponding
TEM image with a median particle diameter of 22 nm. (b)
A Fluorescence emission spectrum of the nanoparticles upon
975 nm excitation is given by the dotted line. The solid
line indicates the effective attenuation of the liquid phantom
measured with steady-state spectroscopy and the red crosses
give the same quantity measured by TOFS. The inset show
the reduced scattering coefficient obtained by TOFS together
with an extrapolation.
and the reduced scattering coefficient for all wavelengths

of interest could be determined. Transillumination imaging was performed for a set of 7 7 source positions
spaced 2 mm apart. Excitation was performed by a diode
laser emitting at 975 nm and delivering an intensity of 1
W/cm2 . An image was acquired for each source position
using an EMCCD camera equipped with a 30 mm/0.95
lens. A combination of two filters, a short-pass cut-off
filter at 900 nm together with either a 660 nm or 540 nm
interference filter, were used to block the excitation light
and extract the desired emission band. Each image was
cropped and binned to give 8 12 detectors.
To evaluate the performance of the spatially varying
multispectral regularization, a series of fDOT reconstructions with varying tube center-center distances were performed. Each step in the series displaced the tubes 1 mm
further apart while preserving the axial symmetry, starting at a center-center distance of 4 mm and ending at
8 mm. The axial positions of each fluorescent inclusion
were independently controlled within an accuracy of 125
m through the use of micrometer translation stages. By
enforcing symmetry, only one side of the phantom needed
3
209
4 mm
17
5 mm
6 mm
7 mm
8 mm
IC = 0.10
IC = 0.19
IC = 0.37
IC = 0.37
IC = 0.46
IC = 0
IC = 0
IC = 0
IC = 0
IC = 0.24
z (mm)
10
0
17
10
0
-10
10
-10
10
-10
0
x (mm)
10
-10
10
-10
10
FIG. 3. Reconstructed fluorescence diffuse optical tomography images for different center-center distances of the fluorescent
contrast agent. All images show a x-z slice at y=0 mm together with a cross-section plot along the z-direction. The first row
displays multispectral regularization guided reconstructions and the second row Tikhonov regularization guided reconstructions.
raphy using upconverting nanoparticles. Optics Letters, 35(5):718720, MAR 1 2010.

9
Z. Q. Li, Y. Zhang, and S. Jiang. Multicolor core/shellstructured upconversion fluorescent nanoparticles. Advanced Materials, 20(24):4765+, December 2008.
10
G Zavattini, S Vecchi, G Mitchell, U Weisser,
RM Leahy, BJ Pichler, DJ Smith, and SR Cherry. A
hyperspectral fluorescence system for 3d in vivo optical
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2043, APR 21 2006.
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Abhijit J. Chaudhari, Sangtae Ahn, Richard Levenson,
Ramsey D. Badawi, Simon R. Cherry, and Richard M.
Leahy. Excitation spectroscopy in multispectral optical
fluorescence tomography: methodology, feasibility and
computer simulation studies. Physics in Medicine and
Biology, 54(15):46874704, AUG 7 2009.
12
Athanasios D. Zacharopoulos, Pontus Svenmarker, Johan Axelsson, Martin Schweiger, Simon R. Arridge,
and Stefan Andersson-Engels. A matrix-free algorithm
for multiple wavelength fluorescence tomography. Optics Express, 17(5):30253035, MAR 2 2009.
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A. D. Klose. Hyperspectral excitation-resolved fluorescence tomography of quantum dots. Optics Letters,
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J Swartling, J Svensson, D Bengtsson, K Terike, and
S Andersson-Engels. Fluorescence spectra provide information on the depth of fluorescent lesions in tissue.
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15
Johan Axelsson, Jenny Svensson, and Stefan
Andersson-Engels.
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in fluorescence molecular tomography. Optics Express,
15(21):1357413584, OCT 17 2007.
16
F Leblond, Z Ovanesyan, S C Davis, P A Valds, A Kim,
A Hartov, B C Wilson, B W Pogue, K D Paulsen,
and D W Roberts. Analytic expression of fluorescence
ratio detection correlates with depth in multi-spectral
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Advancing upconversion

emissions for biomedical imaging

Advancing upconversion emissions for biomedical imaging

2014 Haichun Liu

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Popular science description

Upconverting nanoparticles (UCNPs) composed of rare earth

V Deep tissue optical imaging of upconverting

Related publications not included in this thesis:

excited state absorption

energy transfer upconversion

fluorescence diffuse optical tomography

maximum permissible exposure

magnetic resonance imaging

radiative transport equation

Light-tissue interactions and photon migration theory

Fluorescence diffuse optical tomography based on upconverting nanoparticles

Comments on the Papers

Drug quantification in turbid media by fluorescence

Autofluorescence insensitive imaging using upconverting

High-resolution fluorescence diffuse optical tomography

VIII Multibeam fluorescence diffuse optical tomography using

Multispectral guided fluorescence diffuse optical tomography using upconverting nanoparticles

1.1 Nonlinearity and quantum yield characterization of upconverting nanoparticles

table sensitizer-activator pairs include Yb3+ /Er3+ , Yb3+ /Tm3+

Nonlinearity and quantum yield

Upconversion emission is generated by accumulating the energy

Excitation scheme optimization of

A major limitation of the use of UCNPs in biological applications

1.3 Aims and outline of this thesis

light excitation. Until now, the advantages of pulsed excitation

Aims and outline of this thesis

The general aims of the work presented in this thesis were:

CW excitation are demonstrated experimentally in Paper V,

Light-tissue interactions and

Light is scattered, i.e., being forced to deviate from a straight

2.1.1 Tissue scattering

ondary waves is impracticable, due to the extremely large number

As for Mie scattering, the wavelength dependence of the scattering

Light-tissue interactions and photon migration theory

In the case of Rayleigh scattering, the phase function is isotropic,

Figure 2.1. Mie scattering phase

which describes the scattering probability per unit length.

Figure 2.2. Henyey-Greenstein

Here, g is the anisotropy factor, defined as the average of the cosine

2.1.2 Tissue absorption

dependence on the wavelength. However, the reduced scattering

In addition to scattering, another important process may occur

where Nabs [cm3 ] denotes the number density of the absorbers.

Light-tissue interactions and photon migration theory

Figure 2.3 shows the absorption spectra of a few chromophores

where I [Wcm2 ] is the transmitted intensity, I0 [Wcm2 ] is the

Figure 2.4. Schematic Jablonski diagram depicting the luminescence

Light-tissue interactions and photon migration theory

Radiative transport theory

A central issue in tissue optics is the modeling of the propagation

p(s0 , s)N (s0 )d 0 dV +

Figure 2.5. Events considered in

where c [ms1 ] is the speed of light in the medium, and q(r, s, t)

2.2 Radiative transport theory