Explicating The Role of Emotion Dysregulation in Risky Behaviors

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Curr Opin Psychol. 2015 June 1; 3: 2229. doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.01.013.
Explicating the role of emotion dysregulation in risky behaviors:

A review and synthesis of the literature with directions for future
research and clinical practice
Nicole H. Weiss, Ph.D.,
Yale University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry 389 Whitney Avenue, New Haven,
CT, 06511
Tami P. Sullivan, Ph.D., and
Yale University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry 389 Whitney Avenue, New Haven,
CT, 06511 [email protected]
Matthew T. Tull, Ph.D.

University of Mississippi Medical Center, Department of Psychiatry 2500 North State Street,
Jackson, MS, 39216 [email protected]
Abstract
Extant literature provides support for emotion dysregulation as a transdiagnostic construct with
relevance to the pathogenesis and treatment of numerous psychiatric difficulties and maladaptive
behaviors, including risky, self-destructive, and health-compromising behaviors (e.g., substance
use, risky sexual behavior). The aim of the present review is to synthesize theory and empirical
research on the relationship between emotion dysregulation and risky behaviors. In addition, we
highlight cutting-edge approaches for investigating the emotion dysregulation-risky behavior,
including examination of the role of positive emotional experiences and inclusion of contextdependent and physiological assessments. Finally, we note the relevance of the emotion
dysregulation-risky behavior relation to intervention efforts aimed at reducing risky behaviors.
Keywords
emotion dysregulation; risky behaviors; difficulties regulating positive emotions; contextdependent assessment; physiological assessment
2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Correspondence concerning this article should be sent to Nicole H. Weiss, Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of
Medicine, 389 Whitney Avenue, New Haven, CT, USA 06511; Voice: 603-759-4747; [email protected].
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Weiss et al.
Page 2
Introduction
Over the past decade, researchers have become increasingly interested in identifying factors
that underlie or maintain risky behaviors (i.e., any behavior that puts one at risk for a
negative outcome, be it physical, emotional, social, or financial), with a particular focus on
such behaviors that heighten risk for negative health or safety outcomes, such as substance
use, risky sexual behavior, deliberate self-harm, aggressive behavior, and disordered eating.
These risky, self-destructive, and health-compromising behaviors have been linked to a wide
range of deleterious societal costs, including disease, injury, and healthcare usage; crime and
criminal justice system costs; educational attainment; and worker productivity [1,2].
A growing body of research suggests that risky behaviors may be driven by deficits in
emotion regulation. Emotion regulation is a foundational skill considered to be integral to
normative development and adaptive functioning across multiple domains [3,4].
Developmental researchers have defined emotion regulation as the intrinsic and extrinsic
processes involved in monitoring, evaluating, and modulating emotional reactions to
accomplish one's goals [5]. Drawing upon this definition, KL Gratz and L Roemer [6]
proposed an integrative conceptualization of emotion regulation in adulthood as a
multidimensional construct involving the awareness, understanding, and acceptance of
emotions; ability to control impulsive behaviors and engage in goal-directed behaviors when
experiencing negative emotions; and flexible use of situationally-appropriate strategies to
modulate the intensity and duration of emotional responses, rather than to eliminate
emotions entirely. Conversely, deficits in any of these areas are considered indicative of
emotion dysregulation. A substantial body of research provides support for the role of
emotion dysregulation in various forms of psychopathology and maladaptive behaviors [7],
including behaviors that were traditionally thought to be driven primarily by impulsivity,
disinhibition, or risk-taking propensity, such as risky sexual behavior [8,9].
The aim of the present review is to synthesize research on the relationship between emotion
dysregulation and risky behaviors to inform future research and clinical practice in this area.
First, we provide a theoretical account relating emotion dysregulation to risky behaviors. We
then describe empirical support for the role of emotion dysregulation in risky behaviors,
with an emphasis on novel approaches to the study of the emotion dysregulation-risky
behavior relation. Finally, we discuss the relevance of these findings to intervention efforts
aimed at reducing risky behaviors.
Theory Linking Emotion Dysregulation and Risky Behaviors
Extant research suggests that risky behaviors are most likely to occur in the context of
intense emotion states [10,11], suggesting that engagement in risky behaviors is contextdependent. A growing body of literature indicates that heightened emotion dysregulation
may increase the likelihood of engaging in risky behaviors in the presence of intense
emotions. For example, it has been theorized that individuals who exhibit greater emotion
dysregulation may be more likely to engage in risky behaviors in an attempt to alleviate or
distract themselves from emotional states perceived as aversive [12]. Alternatively, the
short-term pleasure that may be associated with certain risky behaviors may function to
counter or distract from unpleasant emotional states that an individual is unwilling to
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approach, tolerate, or accept. Notably, however, although risky behaviors may result in an
immediate (short-term) reduction in emotional distress and/or an increase in pleasurable
emotion states, they are likely to have paradoxical consequences in the long-term. For
example, studies show that engagement in emotionally-avoidant regulation strategies can
result in the exacerbation of distress [13]. Moreover, the negative consequences associated
with risky behaviors may contribute to the experience of more negative emotions (e.g., guilt,
shame) that further drive emotionally-avoidant regulation strategies. Further, because risky
behaviors provide immediate reinforcement, individuals may be more likely to use these
behaviors to escape emotional distress in the future, reducing experiences in which adaptive
modulation of emotions is reinforced [14].
It is also possible that heightened levels of emotion dysregulation may reduce one's capacity
to control risky behaviors in the context of urges or cues (e.g., drugs, food) for such
behaviors. For example, according to the ego-depletion model [15], the capacity for selfregulation is a limited resource. Thus, situations that require self-regulation will deplete this
resource, temporarily limiting one's capacity in this regard [15,16]. Low emotional clarity or
the nonacceptance of emotions (i.e., secondary emotional responding) may increase
emotional intensity and/or reactivity, depleting self-regulation resources. These forms of
emotion dysregulation may also increase the likelihood that an individual attempts to avoid
their emotions, an emotion regulation strategy that requires effort and may further deplete
self- regulation resources [16]. As a result, an individual may have fewer self-regulation
resources available to adequately control impulses to engage in rash or risky behaviors when
faced with cues for these behaviors.
Empirical Investigations of Emotion Dysregulation and Risky Behaviors
A burgeoning body of empirical research highlights the role of emotion dysregulation in

risky behaviors. Emotion dysregulation has been found to be positively associated with
overall risky behaviors [17], as well as specific risky behaviors, including substance use
[18,19], risky sexual behavior [8,9], deliberate self-harm [20,21], aggressive behavior
[22,23], and disordered eating [24,25]. Importantly, many of these aforementioned studies
highlight the unique role of emotion dysregulation in risky behaviors above and beyond
other risk factors for these behaviors [9,21,25]. For example, in one study of substance
dependent inpatients, emotion dysregulation significantly predicted risky sexual behavior
above and beyond demographics, depression, sensation seeking, traumatic exposure, and
substance use severity [9]. While much of the extant research in this area is cross-sectional,
initial prospective investigations also underscore the role of emotion dysregulation in risky
behaviors. For example, NH Weiss, et al. [26**] found that improvements in emotion
regulation fully accounted for reductions in risky behaviors one month post-manipulation
among African American women with sexual assault-related posttraumatic stress disorder.
This preliminary research has provided a foundation for more complex investigations of the
emotion dysregulation-risky behavior relation. The following section will highlight cuttingedge approaches for broadening our understanding of the role of emotion dysregulation in
risky behaviors. Specifically, we have chosen to focus on (1) positive emotional
experiences; (2) context-dependent assessment; and (3) physiological markers.
Weiss et al.
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Difficulties regulating positive emotions and risky behaviorsResearch on the

regulation of emotions has overwhelmingly focused on negative (versus positive) emotional
experiences (with the exception of mania) [27]. Yet, dysregulation can occur across both
positive and negative emotional systems. For example, individuals have been found to
regulate positive emotional experiences [28], and the use of putatively maladaptive
strategies to regulate positive emotions increases sympathetic nervous system activation
[29], suggesting that the regulation of positive emotions is cognitively taxing [30]. Further,
difficulties in specific domains of positive emotion dysregulation (i.e., nonacceptance and/or
avoidance of positive emotional states) have also been observed among individuals with
psychiatric disorders, including borderline personality disorder, major depressive disorder,
panic disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder [31-34]. Regarding the role of positive
emotions in risky behaviors, positive emotional states in particular have been found to
increase distractibility [35] and lead to less discriminative use of information [36], which
may result in disadvantageous decision-making focused on immediate (vs. long-term) goals
[37]. Indeed, research indicates that positive urgency (i.e., behavioral dyscontrol in the
context of positive emotions) is associated with a range of risky behaviors, including
substance use, gambling, and risky sexual behavior [10].
Notably, however, a dearth of research has explicated the role of other dimensions of
positive emotion dysregulation outside of urgency in risky behaviors. In one such study, KL
Dixon-Gordon, et al. [38**] utilized ecological momentary assessment to identify the roles
of negative and positive emotion differentiation (i.e., the ability to distinguish between
distinct emotions of similar valence) in the relation between borderline personality
pathology and urges for risky behaviors. Participants high and low in borderline personality
pathology responded to questions regarding emotions and impulses to engage in risky
behaviors eight times over one day using handheld computers. The relationship between
borderline personality pathology group (high versus low) and urges for risky behaviors was
found to increase in magnitude as positive (but not negative) emotion differentiation moved
from high to low. These findings suggest that difficulties distinguishing among positive
emotions may confer risk for risky behaviors among individuals high in borderline
personality pathology.
Although recent advances have further elucidated the role of positive emotion dysregulation
in risky behaviors, several important questions remain. Likely contributing to the relative
lack of research in this area has been the absence of a comprehensive measure assessing
positive emotion dysregulation. To address this limitation, NH Weiss, et al. [39*] recently
developed and validated a measure of positive emotion dysregulation (the Difficulties in
Emotion Regulation Scale Positive [DERS-Positive]). Results of this study revealed the
presence of three dimensions of positive emotion dysregulation, including (1) nonacceptance
of positive emotions, (2) difficulties engaging in goal-directed behavior when experiencing
positive emotions, and (3) difficulties controlling behaviors when experiencing positive
emotions. Consistent with the multidimensional conceptualization of emotion dysregulation
on which this measure is based [6], the DERS-Positive subscales evidenced differential
associations with relevant emotional and behavioral constructs. These findings highlight the
importance of assessing responses to positive emotions beyond simply the ability to inhibit
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risky behaviors in their presence. Given that difficulties regulating positive emotions are
often overlooked in clinical settings, it is critical that future research explicate the role of
these additional dimensions of positive emotion dysregulation in risky behaviors.
Finally, it warrants mention that research on positive emotion dysregulation has focused
almost exclusively on heightened positive emotion states, despite theoretical evidence to
suggest that emotion dysregulation may also occur in response to low positive emotion
states. Individuals who report low levels of positive affect have been found to exhibit greater
difficulties with goal-directed behavior (40). Further, nonacceptance of low levels of
positive affect has been found to result in paradoxical effects, such that telling individuals to
increase their levels of positive affect results in reductions in positive affect (41,42). Finally,
difficulties identifying (43), describing (44), and modulating (45) both low and high positive
emotion states have been reported in the literature. Importantly, initial evidence suggests
that emotion dysregulation stemming from low levels of positive affect may also contribute
to risky behaviors. For example, the four-function model (FFM) of self-harm purports that
self-harm may function to generate positive emotion states or stimulation (46). Likewise,
positive reinforcement motives for alcohol use have been described by the motivational
model of alcohol use (47). Consistent with this theory, research provides support for the
positive emotion-regulating function of risky behaviors, such that low levels of positive
affect have been cited as an antecedent to risky behaviors (48,49), and engagement in risky
behaviors has been found to result in an increase in positive affect (48-50). This
aforementioned literature highlights the need for future research on the regulation of both
low and high intensity positive affective states. For example, empirical literature has
explored positive emotion intensity as an antecedent and consequence of risky behaviors;
however, the role of individual's responses to diminished positive affective states in risky
behaviors is unclear. Further, in a recent review, Bentley, Nock, and Barlow (51) suggested
the need for laboratory-based and experience sampling methodologies to determine whether
positive and negative reinforcement processes underlying risky behaviors are distinct.
Context-dependent assessment of emotion dysregulation and risk-taking in

the labThe vast majority of research on the emotion dysregulation-risky behavior
relation has relied on correlational designs and self-report data, thus assessing dispositional
tendencies towards emotion dysregulation (i.e., average or typical experiences) and
retrospective reports of risky behaviors. Importantly, however, literature suggests that
emotion dysregulation and risky behaviors are context-dependent. Indeed, levels of emotion
dysregulation and risky behaviors may vary in response to external [52*,53] and internal
[12,54] events. For example, emotion dysregulation and risky behaviors may be related to
the presence of specific emotional experiences (e.g., shame) or intensities, or occur only
when confronted with specific stressors (e.g., interpersonal).
Although limited, what research has been done supports the context-dependent nature of
both emotion dysregulation and risky behaviors. For example, MA Cyders, et al. [55**]
explored the role of dispositional tendencies towards positive urgency in both risk-taking
propensity (using the Balloon Analog Risk Task [BART]) [56] and alcohol consumption
following both neutral and positive mood inductions among college students. They found
that positive urgency predicted greater risk-taking propensity following a positive (but not
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neutral) mood induction. Similarly, higher positive urgency was associated with greater
alcohol consumption only after a positive mood induction. In a second study, JM Lavender,
et al. (unpublished) assessed the relation between state levels of emotion dysregulation
(assessed using the State Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale) following a laboratory
stressor and retrospective reports of alcohol and drug problems in a sample of community
women. State emotion dysregulation (overall and many of the specific dimensions) was
found to be significantly positively associated with alcohol and drug problems. Finally,
empirical evidence suggests that negative affect and trauma cue exposures are associated
with an increase in risky behavior-related outcomes in the laboratory (e.g., attentional bias to
drug cues and cravings) [57-59]. Taken together, these findings suggest that levels of
emotion dysregulation and risky behaviors following emotionally-evocative tasks are
important correlates of self-reported risky behaviors and emotion dysregulation,
respectively. Notably, however, we are not aware of any investigations that have utilized
state-dependent measures of both emotion dysregulation and risky behaviors to assess their
relation to one another. Elucidating the specific external and internal states related to risktaking is a critical step in this body of research, as such findings might highlight the utility
of targeted interventions focused on teaching strategies for reducing risky behaviors in
particular contexts.
Physiological markers of emotion dysregulation and risky behaviors in the lab

In addition to focusing primarily on the regulation of negative affective states and
dispositional tendencies towards emotion dysregulation, extant research is also limited
through its reliance on subjective assessments of in vivo emotional experiences. Notably,
however, a growing body of literature highlights physiological processes underlying the
ability to regulate emotions. For example, reduced autonomic nervous system flexibility,
and heart rate variability (HRV) in particular, is considered a central physiological index of
emotion regulation capacity [60]. HRV provides an index of cardiac vagal tone, or
parasympathetic nervous system influences on the heart, such that higher HRV is related to
flexible and adaptive responding to environmental demands [60,61], whereas lower HRV is
a marker of worse emotion regulation ability [60,62]. Additionally, pre-ejection period
(PEP), an index of central sympathetic nervous system activation, has been linked to reward
sensitivity [63]. Specifically, shortened PEP has been associated with greater sympathetic
nervous system activation, and this attenuated sympathetic nervous system activation has
been linked to reward insensitivity [63]. Other research highlights the hypothalamicpituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis as an important index of emotion dysregulation [5,64,65].
Specifically, use of putatively maladaptive strategies following exposure to stress- inducing
stimuli has been found to be associated with increases in cortisol reactivity and delayed
recovery (65).
Consistent with findings from studies that have utilized subjective reports of emotion
dysregulation, evidence suggests that physiological markers of emotion dysregulation are
related to involvement in risky behaviors. In general, this research has found risky behaviors
to be positively associated with HRV [66, 67**,68], PEP [63], and cortisol reactivity
[66,69*]. However, because this research is still in its infancy, several important questions
remain. First, given evidence to suggest that the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
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Page 7

systems and the HPA axis can have antagonistic, synergistic, or independent effects [70,71],
it is essential that research assess the role of multiple physiological indices of emotion
dysregulation (and their interactions) in risky behaviors. Indeed, recent research suggests
that concurrently low or high autonomic nervous system and HPA axis activation is
associated with the highest levels of involvement in risky behaviors [72*,73]. It may be
particularly important to explicate the role of physiological markers of emotion
dysregulation in response to specific emotions (versus aggregating negatively and positively
valenced emotions), as autonomic nervous system and HPA axis reactivity have been shown
to be uniquely associated with anger and sadness, respectively [74]. Second, much of the
research to date has focused on resting and/or peak levels of emotional responding and
reactivity in risky behaviors; however, AK Santucci, et al. [75*] found that longer duration
of autonomic nervous system activation following a frustrating task, but not autonomic
nervous system reactivity, was associated with emotion dysregulation. This finding suggests
that (a) the inability to down-regulate autonomic nervous system activity may be a better
marker of emotion dysregulation than simply the level of autonomic arousal, and (b) the
need for investigations of the role of autonomic nervous system recovery in risky behaviors.
Finally, as previously noted, it will be important for future research to identify the contextdependent role of physiological processes related to emotion dysregulation and their relation
to risky behaviors. Indeed, initial evidence suggests that autonomic nervous system
reactivity differs as a function of the stressor (cognitive versus interpersonal) [76*].
Implications for Treatment
While more nuanced investigations of the emotion dysregulation-risky behavior relation are
needed, including those that elucidate the role of positive emotional experiences and include
context-dependent and physiological assessments of emotion dysregulation and risky
behaviors, existing research highlights the potential utility of targeting emotion
dysregulation in treatments aimed at reducing risky behaviors. Consistent with the
aforementioned basic research findings, results of clinical outcome studies suggest that
treatments targeting emotion dysregulation result in reductions in risky behaviors. For
instance, Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) [77] incorporates a wide range of skills (e.g.,
emotion regulation, distress tolerance, mindfulness) that target emotion dysregulation and
has been shown to result in reductions in risky behaviors, including deliberate self-harm
[78], disordered eating [79], and substance use [80]. Likewise, KL Gratz and MT Tull [81]
have found that a brief, adjunctive emotion regulation group therapy (ERGT) for women
with borderline personality disorder can reduce deliberate self-harm, as well as various
forms of risky behaviors (e.g., binge eating, substance use, risky sex), by focusing
specifically on improving emotion regulation [82]. Future research would benefit from
exploring the effect of treatments targeting emotion dysregulation, such as DBT and ERGT,
in reducing risky behaviors among more diverse populations.
Conclusions
Theoretical and empirical literature provide growing support for the underlying role of
emotion dysregulation in a wide range of risky behaviors. While advancing our
understanding of the emotion dysregulation-risky behavior relation, findings from extant
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Page 8
investigations have largely been limited through the use of correlational designs and selfreport data to identify the role of difficulties regulating negative emotions in risky behaviors.
However, emerging research has begun to address these limitations. First, while research on
the regulation of emotions has overwhelmingly focused on negative emotional experiences,
recent investigations have begun to provide support for the role of specific domains of
difficulties regulating positive emotions (i.e., positive urgency and emotion differentiation)
in risky behaviors, suggesting the utility of targeting difficulties regulating positive emotions
in interventions aimed at reducing risky behaviors. Second, research to date has generally
assessed dispositional tendencies towards emotion dysregulation and retrospective reports of
risky behaviors; however, there is evidence for the context-dependent nature of both
emotion dysregulation and risky behaviors. Finally, growing research highlights the role of
physiological processes underlying the ability to regulate emotions, such as HRV and
cortisol reactivity, in risky behaviors. These advancements can improve our understanding
of the ways in which emotion dysregulation may increase motivations to engage in risky
behaviors, as well as inform the development and refinement of more efficacious
interventions for reducing risky behaviors.
Acknowledgments
The research described here was supported, in part, by a grant from the National Institutes of Health
(T32DA019426).
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computers, and emotion differentiation was calculated by averaging the intraclass correlations
with absolute agreement across ratings of negative and positive affect adjectives. Participants
high in BP pathology reported greater emotion-related impulsivity as well as daily urges to
engage in risky behaviors. Positive (but not negative) emotion differentiation moderated the
relation between BP pathology and both emotion-related impulsivity and urges for risky
behaviors, such that emotion-related impulsivity and urges to engage in risky behaviors were
strongest among individuals with high BP pathology who had low levels of positive emotion
differentiation. Among individuals high in BP pathology, the ability to differentiate between
positive emotions may be an important target for reducing risky behaviors.]
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difficulties in the regulation of positive emotions (DERS-Positive). Findings revealed the
presence of three separate (albeit related) dimensions of positive emotion regulation difficulties,
including (1) nonacceptance of positive emotions, (2) difficulties engaging in goal-directed
behavior when experiencing positive emotions, and (3) difficulties controlling behaviors when
experiencing positive emotions. The DERS-Positive subscales evidenced differential associations
with relevant emotional and behavioral constructs. Greater overall difficulties in regulating
positive emotions and the specific dimensions of difficulties controlling behaviors and engaging
in goal-directed behavior when experiencing positive emotions were associated with greater
difficulties regulating negative emotions, greater intensity/reactivity of positive emotions, and
greater use of maladaptive emotion regulation strategies (i.e., experiential avoidance and
Weiss et al.
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dissociation). Further, overall difficulties in regulating positive emotions and difficulties

controlling behavior when experiencing positive emotions were negatively correlated with
emotional expressivity, and difficulties engaging in goal-directed behavior when experiencing
positive emotions was positively associated with the expression of negative emotions. Finally,
greater nonacceptance of positive emotions was associated with greater difficulties regulating
negative emotions, greater emotional neglect, and lower levels of general emotional expressivity.
Taken together, findings provide evidence for the validity of the DERS-Positive total and
subscales scores.]
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Emot. in press. [This laboratory-based study aimed to explicate repertoires of emotion regulation
strategies following social-oriented and achievement-related stressors, and their relation to
psychopathology. Participants recalled six situations under which they experienced moderate and
high levels of anxiety, sadness, and anger for both achievement-related and social-oriented
stressors, following which they reported their use of seven emotion regulation strategies (i.e.,
acceptance, cognitive reappraisal, problem solving, experiential avoidance, expressive
suppression, self-criticism, and worry/rumination), as well as their levels of psychopathology
symptoms (i.e., mood, anxiety, borderline personality disorder, social anxiety, and disordered
eating symptoms). Using latent class analysis, a seven-class solution provided the best fit for
social-related emotion regulation (i.e., Low Regulators, High Regulators, Adaptive Regulators,
Worriers, Self-Criticizers, Avoiders, and Acceptors), whereas a four-class solutions provided the
best fit for achievement-related emotion regulation (i.e., Adaptive Regulators, Low Regulators,
Maladaptive Regulators, and High Regulators). For social-related classes, Avoiders reported
lower overall psychopathology compared with all other groups, and Low Regulators reported
lower psychopathology compared with High Regulators and Self-Criticizers. For achievementrelated classes, Adaptive Regulators reported lower overall psychopathology compared with
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High Regulators, whereas both Adaptive and Low Regulators reported lower psychopathology
than the Maladaptive Regulators. Findings of this study provide support for the contextdependent role of repertoires of emotion regulations strategies.]
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consumption. Psychol Addict Behav. 2010; 24:367375. [PubMed: 20853921] [This laboratorybased study explored the role of dispositional tendencies towards positive urgency in both risktaking propensity (using the Balloon Analog Risk Task) and alcohol consumption following
neutral and positive mood inductions among college students. In Study 1, participants completed
a measure of positive urgency and the BART (risk-taking propensity during a neutral mood
state); underwent a combined positive mood induction procedure; and were again administered
the BART (risk-taking propensity during a positive mood state). Positive urgency was found to
predict greater risk-taking propensity on the BART following a positive (but not a neutral) mood
induction. In Study 2, participants underwent two experimental sessions (one positive mood
induction and one neutral mood induction) on separate days, following which they had 90
minutes to drink an unlimited amount of beer. Consistent with findings for Study 1, higher
positive urgency predicted greater alcohol consumption following a positive (but not neutral)
mood induction. Findings highlight the context-dependent nature of risk-taking propensity and
alcohol consumption, such that risk-taking propensity and alcohol consumption among
participants was greatest during a positive mood state.]
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residential treatment for alcohol dependence. Participants were inpatients with an alcohol use
disorder who were randomly assigned to participate in 10 weeks of either a mindfulness-oriented
therapy or an addiction support group. Following treatment, attentional bias for alcohol cues and
affect-modulated cue-reactivity (i.e., induced using IAPS alcohol-related pictures) were assessed
while heart rate was recorded. Relapse (yes/no) was assessed 6-months post-treatment. HFHRV
cue-reactivity and alcohol attentional bias were found to predict the occurrence and timing of
relapse. HFHRV reactivity to alcohol cues was significantly higher among inpatients who
relapsed compared with inpatients who did not relapse. Findings of this study highlight the role
of HFHVR and attentional bias to alcohol cues in alcohol use following treatment for alcohol
dependence.]
68. Quintana DS, Guastella AJ, McGregor IS, Hickie IB, Kemp AH. Moderate alcohol intake is related
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gender in an economically disadvantaged sample. Dev Psychopathol. 2009; 21:579591.
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antisocial behaviors among adolescents from economically disadvantaged families. Adolescents
and their caregivers participated in two 5-minute conflict discussions. Salivary samples were
taken before the adolescent-caregiver interaction and 20 minutes post-conflict discussion.
Antisocial behaviors were associated with lower pre-task cortisol levels and greater cortisol
response to the conflict discussion. Gender moderated the relationship between antisocial
behaviors and cortisol reacitivty, such that girls who reported more antisocial behaviors showed
an elevated cortisol response. Results of this study provide support for the role of cortisol
reactivity in antisocial behaviors, particularly among girls.]
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interactive effects of cortisol and markers of sympathetic nervous system activity (i.e., salivary
alpha-amylase and skin conductance) in children's internalizing and externalizing problems.
Children listened to an interadult argument and completed a star-tracing task. Salivary cortisol
and alpha amylase were collected 20 minutes after arrival to the lab and two hours later,
following the interadult argument. Skin conductance was assessed before and during the
interadult argument and star-tracing task. Parents completed self-report measures assessing
children's internalizing and externalizing problems. Sympathetic nervous system activity was
found to moderate the relation between children's internalizing and externalizing problems and
their cortisol levels. Specifically, higher cortisol levels were associated with higher internalizing
and externalizing problems among children with higher (versus lower) sympathetic nervous
system activity. Results underscore the importance of accounting for the interaction between
HPA axis and sympathetic nervous system activity in internalizing and externalizing behaviors.]
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216. [PubMed: 18335488] [This laboratory-based study investigated the roles of vagal tone,
effortful control, and negative affectivity in children's use of adaptive and maladaptive emotion
regulation strategies. Childrens use of emotion regulation strategies were observed during a
frustrating task (i.e., delay of gratification). Children also completed an emotional challenge.
Weiss et al.
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Vagal tone was assessed pre-, during-, and post-emotional challenge. Mother's rated children's
levels of effortful control and negative affectivity. Post-challenge vagal tone and negative
affectivity were associated with children's maladaptive strategies during the frustrating task.
Results of this study provide support for the role of emotional recovery, but not reactivity, in
maldaptive emotion regulation strategies.]
76*. Obradovi J, Bush NR, Boyce WT. The interactive effect of marital conflict and stress reactivity
on externalizing and internalizing symptoms: The role of laboratory stressors. Dev and
Psychopathol. 2011; 23:101114. [This laboratory-based study investigated whether the
interaction effect of marital conflict and autonomic nervous system reactivity on externalizing
and internalizing symptoms differs as a function of the nature of the laboratory challenge task
among children. Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system responsivity were measured
using preejection period and respiratory sinus arrhythmia reactivity to interpersonal (i.e., film
clip depicting a boy being bullied on the playground) and cognitive (i.e., digit span recitation)
challenges. The interaction between autonomic nervous system reactivity and marital conflict
significantly predicted children's externalizing and internalizing symptoms. Marital conflict was
associated with externalizing symptoms for children who exhibited higher respiratory sinus
arrhythmia reactivity to the cognitive stressor, whereas marital conflict was associated with
externalizing symptoms for children who demonstrated lower respiratory sinus arrhythmia
reactivity to the interpersonal stressor. Marital symptoms were negatively associated with
internalizing symptoms for children who exhibited lower reejection period reactivity to the
cognitive task, whereas this interaction was non-significant for the interpersonal task. Results of
this study highlight the impact of a cognitive versus interpersonal on the relations among marital
conflict, autonomic nervous system reactivity, and internalizing and externalizing symptoms.]
77. Linehan, MM. Cognitive behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder. Guilford Press;
New York, NY: 1993.
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79. Telch CF, Agras WS, Linehan MM. Dialectical behavior therapy for binge eating disorder. J
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81. Gratz KL, Tull MT. Extending research on the utility of an adjunctive emotion regulation group
therapy for deliberate self-harm among women with borderline personality pathology. Personality
Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment. 2011; 2:316326.
82. Gratz KL, Levy R, Tull MT. Emotion regulation as a mechanism of change in an acceptance-based
emotion regulation group therapy for deliberate self-harm among women with borderline
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Highlights
Emotion dysregulation has been implicated in the pathogenesis of risky

behaviors
Difficulties regulating negative and positive emotions are related to risky

behaviors
Emotion dysregulation and risky behaviors are context-dependent
Physiological markers of emotion dysregulation are related to risky behaviors
Treatments targeting emotion dysregulation result in a reduction in risky

behaviors


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