Assignment no.

: 1
Health psychology
Endocrine gland

INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY,

ISLAMABAD

SUBMITTED TO:
SUBMITTED BY:

MADAM ANUM KHAN

AISHA ZEBA
NIDA BADAR
SYEDA MAHNOOR HASSAN
FAIZA KANWAL
SABA ABBASSI
WAJIHA HUSSAIN

Definition of health:
Health is define as it is the condition of the body and the
degree to which it is free from illness, or the state of being well.
Or It can be define as a relative state in which one is able to
function well physically, mentally, socially, and spiritually in
order to express the full range of one's unique potentialities
within the environment in which one is living.
Although it is commonly accepted that the basic concepts of
Health Promotion have been developed in the last two
decades, they have their roots in ancient civilizations and in
particular in Greek antiquity. As evident from medical and
philosophical documents of the sixth to fourth centuries B.C.,
the ancient Greeks were the first to break with the supernatural
conceptions of health and disease that had
so far dominated human societies.In this
context, they defined health as a state of
dynamic equilibrium between the internal
and the external environment.
Health is the level of functional or metabolic
efficiency of a living organism. In humans it is the ability of
individuals or communities to adapt and self-manage when
facing physical, mental or social challenges. The World Health
Organization (WHO) defined health in its broader sense in its
1948 constitution as "a state of complete physical, mental, and
social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or
infirmity." This definition has been subject to controversy, in
particular as lacking operational value and because of the
problem created by use of the word "complete"
Other
definitions have been proposed, among which a recent
definition that correlates health and personal satisfaction.
Classification systems such as the WHO Family of International
Classifications, including the International Classification of
Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) and the International

Classification of Diseases (ICD), are commonly used to define

and measure the components of health. Health is that balanced
condition of the living organism in which the integral,
harmonious performance of the vital functions tends to the
preservation of the organism and the normal development of
the individual.Systematic activities to prevent or cure health
problems and promote good health in humans are undertaken
by health care providers. Applications with regard to animal
health are covered by the veterinary sciences. The term
"healthy" is also widely used in the context of many types of
non-living organizations and their impacts for the benefit of
humans, such as in the sense of healthy communities, healthy
cities or healthy environments. In
addition
to
health
care
interventions and a person's
surroundings, a number of other
factors are known to influence the
health
status of individuals,
including their background, lifestyle, and economic, social
conditions, and spirituality; these are referred to as
"determinants of health." Studies have shown that high levels
of stress can affect human health.

Definition of Illness:

Illness can be defined as it is adisease or period of sickness

affecting the body or mind. Illness is a condition of being
unhealthy in your body or mind. Under the definition of illness
two important components of human comes first is
Physicalillness, second is Mental illness. The physical illness
is defined as when the body parts not functioning properly, this
type of illness is related to body, while the Mental illness is
related to the mind, it is a condition which causes serious
disorder in a person's behavior or thinking.
In humans, "Illness" is often used more broadly to refer to any
condition that causes pain, dysfunction, distress, social
problems, or death to the person afflicted, or similar problems
for those in contact with the person. In this broader sense, it
sometimes includes injuries, disabilities, disorders, syndromes,
infections,
isolated
symptoms,
deviant
behaviors,
and
atypical
variations of structure and function,
while in other contexts and for other
purposes these may be considered
distinguishable categories.

Illness usually affect people not only physically, but also

emotionally, as contracting and living with a disease can alter
one's perspective on life, and one's personality.Death due to
illness is called death by natural causes.The deadliest disease
in humans is ischemic heart disease (blood flow obstruction),
followed by cerebrovascular disease and lower respiratory
infections respectively.

Definition of Health Psychology:

Health psychology specializes in exploring biological,
psychological, cultural, societal, and environmental factors of
life, and how each of these affects physical health.The central
strategy practiced within health psychology is the bio-psychosocial design. The British Health Society
explains that health and disease is the effects of a
blending of biological, psychological and social
factors.

Biological determinants consist of genetic

conditions and inherited personality traits.
Psychological factors are anxiety levels, personality features
and lifestyle. Social determinants consist of cultural views,
family relationships and support systems.

Health psychologys roots are in the belief that everyone

deserves proper medical and psychological care even when
daily habits, career, or family life problems contribute to the
decrease in physical health and/or psychological well-being.
The bio-psycho-social model views health, wellness and illness
as being a result of several different inter-related factors
effecting a persons life from biological characteristics, to
behavioral and social conditions (Belloc, N. & Breslow,
1972).

Psychological determinants in health have been a focus since

the beginning of the 20th century and results explain that
people who eat regular meals, maintain a healthy weight, do
not smoke, drink little alcohol, receive adequate sleep and
exercise regularly are in better health and live longer. Scientists
are also discovering associations between psychological and
physiological processes.

These include the influence of anxiety on the cardiovascular

and immune systems and finding that the functioning of the
immune system could be modified by training. There is also a
growing awareness of the importance of sound communication
skills during office visits.

The American Psychological Associations

division 38 is health psychology and they focus
on understanding the relationship between health
and illness. This division concentrates on
examining the psychological determinants that
influence health, and they contribute information
to the health care policy system.Health psychologists
conduct research to identify behaviors and experiences that
promote health, give rise to illness, and influence the
effectiveness of health care. They also recommend ways to
improve health-care policy.Health psychologists have worked on
developing ways to reduce smoking and improve daily nutrition
in order to promote health and prevent illness. They have also
studied the association between illness and individual
characteristics. For example, health psychology has found a
relation between the personality characteristics of thrill
seeking, impulsiveness, hostility/anger, emotional instability,
and depression, on one hand, and high-risk driving, on the
other.
Health psychology is also concerned with contextual factors,
including economic, cultural, community, social, and lifestyle
factors that influence health. The biopsychosocial model can
help in understanding the relation between contextual factors
and biology in affecting health. Physical addiction impedes
smoking cessation. Some research suggests that seductive
advertising also contributes to psychological dependency on
tobacco, although other research has found no relationship
between media exposure and smoking in youth.

OHP research indicates that people in jobs that combine little

decision latitude with a high psychological workload are at
increased risk for cardiovascular disease. Other OHP research
reveals a relation between unemployment and elevations in
blood pressure. Epidemiologic research documents a relation
between social class and cardiovascular disease.

Health psychologists also aim to change health behaviors for

the dual purpose of helping people stay healthy and helping
patients adhere to disease treatment regimens (also see health
action process approach).

Glands & its Structure

Glands are the mass of tissues, an aggregate of epithelial cells

in animals, specialized for the elaboration of secretion useful to
the organism.It is an organ in the human or animal body which
secretes particular chemical substances for use in the body or
for discharge into to surroundings.Every gland is formed by an
ingrowth from an epithelial surface. This ingrowth may in the
beginning possess a tubular structure, but in other instances
glands may start as a solid column of cells which subsequently
becomes tabulated.
As growth proceeds, the column of cells may divide or give off
offshoots, in which case a compound gland is formed. In many
glands, the number of branches is limited, in others (salivary,
pancreas) a very large structure is finally formed by repeated
growth and sub-division. As a rule, the branches do not unite
with one another, but in one instance, the liver, this does occur
when a reticulated compound gland is produced. In compound
glands the more typical or secretory epithelium is found
forming the terminal portion of each branch, and the uniting

portions form ducts and are lined with a less modified type of
epithelial cell.

Structure of Glands:
Glands in the human body are classified as exocrine or
endocrine. The secretions of exocrine glands are released
through ducts onto an organ's surface, while those of endocrine
glands are released directly into the blood. The secretions of
both types of glands are carefully regulated by the body.
Exocrine glands are glands whose secretions pass into a
system of ducts that lead ultimately to the exterior of the body.
So the inner surface of the glands and the ducts that drain
them are topologically continuous with the exterior of the body
(the skin).Exocrine glands contain a glandular portion and a
duct portion, the structures of which can be used to classify the
gland.
The duct portion may be branched (called compound) or
unbranched (called simple).
The glandular portion may be tubular or acinar, or may be
a mix of the two (called tubuloacinar). If the glandular
portion branches, then the gland is called a branched
gland.
Endocrine Glandsof the endocrine system that secrete their
products, hormones,directlyintothe blood rather than through a
duct.Blood levels of hormones reflect a balance between
secretion and degradation/excretion. The liver and kidneys are
the major organs that degrade hormones; breakdown products
are excreted in urine and feces.

Endocrine Gland &its Importance

Endocrine gland system is a system

of ductless glands well supplied
with blood vessels.They pass the
secretions called hormones directly
in to blood stream.The main
function of endocrine glands is to
secrete hormones directly into the
bloodstream.
Hormones
are
chemical substances that affectthe
activity of another part of the
body(target
site).Inessence,
hormones serve as messengers, controlling and coordinating
activities throughout the body. The various endocrine glands
work together in order to maintain equilibrium and coordination
in the body functions or behavior. If one gland's function is
low,another gland may stimulate its function.If one gland's
function is very fast, another gland may slow it down.
The endocrine system affects many aspects of our lives from
growth to reproduction from metabolism to mood, keeping
everything balance in response to stress, exertion and internal
thoughts.The endocrine system is in charge of body processes
that happen slowly, such as cell growth. Faster processes like
breathing and body movement are controlled by the nervous
system. But even though the nervous system and endocrine
system are separate systems, they often work together to help
the body function properly.

Types of Endocrine Glands

Pituitary gland:
The major endocrine gland, a pea-sized body attached to the
base of the brain that is important in controlling growth and
development and the functioning of the other endocrine
glands.It is composed of three lobes: anterior, intermediate,

and posterior. This is behind the bridge of the nose and below
the base of the brain, close to the optic nerves.
It is often considered the most important part of the endocrine
system because it produces hormones that control many
functions of other endocrine glands.
Thyroid Gland:
A large ductless gland in the neck which secretes
hormones regulating growth and development
through the rate of metabolism. It is found in the
anterior neck.The thyroid gland takes the shape of
a butterfly with the two wings being represented by
the left and right thyroid lobes which wrap around
the trachea. The sole function of the thyroid is to
make thyroid hormone. This hormone hasan effect
on nearly all tissues of the body where it increases cellular
activity.

Para Thyroid Gland:

The parathyroid glands are small endocrine glands in the neck
of humans and other tetrapods that produce parathyroid
hormone. Humans usually have four parathyroid
glands, variably located on the back of the thyroid
gland,
although
considerable
variation
exists.
Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin (one of the
hormones made by the thyroid gland) have key roles in
regulating the amount of calcium in the blood and
within the bones.
Pancreas:
The pancreas is a glandular organ in the digestive system and
endocrine system of vertebrates. In humans, it is located in the
abdominal cavity behind the stomach. It is an endocrine gland
producing several important hormones, including insulin,
glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide which

circulate in the blood. The

pancreas is also a digestive
organ, secreting pancreatic
juice
containing
digestive
enzymes that assist digestion
and absorption of nutrients in
the small intestine.
Adrenal Gland:
The adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) are
endocrine glands that produce a variety of hormones including
adrenaline and the steroids aldosterone and cortisol.They are
found above the kidneys. Each gland has an outer cortex which
produces steroid hormones and an inner medulla.
Sex Glands or Gonads:
A gonad or sex gland or reproductive gland is an endocrine
gland that produces the gametes (germ cells) of an organism.
In the female of the species the reproductive cells are
the egg cells, and in the male the reproductive cells are
the sperm. Gonad or sex gland are important in the
normal growth and development of male and female.
Gonads starts secreting their hormones at the age of
puberty and adolescences. Male sex hormones are
secreted in the testis and female hormones are
secreted in ovaries.
Pineal Gland:
A pea-sized conical mass of tissue behind the third ventricle of
the brain, secreting a hormone-like substance in some
mammals.It produces melatonin, a serotonin derived hormone,
which affects the modulation of sleep patterns in both seasonal
and circadian rhythms.

PITUITARY GLAND
Endocrine glands are glands of the endocrine system that
secrete their products, hormones, directly into the blood rather
than through a duct. The pituitary gland is called the
MASTER GLAND as it controls all the major functions necessary
for human survival. It also controls other glands and their
secretions. It is also termed as hypophysis.

SIZE:
pituitary gland, or hypophysis, is an endocrine gland about
the size of a pea.

WEIGHT:
It weighs about 0.5 grams (0.018 oz) in humans.

LOCATION:
It is a protrusion off the bottom of the hypothalamus at the
base of the brain.

LOBES OF PIYUITARY GLAND:

Pituitary gland have 3 lobes.
i.
ii.
iii.

Posterior lobe
Anterior lobe
Median lobe

POSTERIOR LOBE:

The posterior lobe develops as an extension

hypothalamus. It is also termed as neurohypophysis.

of

the

The posterior lobe donot manufacture its own hormones.

Instead, the neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus
synthesizes and secretes two hormones anti dieuretic hormone
and oxytocin, which move down nerve axons into the
neurohypophysis, where they are stored in the axon terminals
until released.
HORMONES OF POSTERIOR LOBE:
Two hormones are stored in it:
ADH ( ANTI DIURETIC HORMONES)
OXYTOCIN
FUNCTIONS OF HORMONES:
ADH:
also known as vasopressin and arginine vasopressin AVP, the
majority of which is released from the supraoptic nucleus in
the hypothalamus.
Diuretics stimulate urine excretion, whereas anti diuretics
decrease urine secretion. When a mammal begins to lose water
and becomes dehydrated, ADH is released and increases water
absorption in the kidneys so that less urine is secreted.
Because less urine is secreted, water is retained. This negative
feedback system thus restores water and solute homeostasis.
OXYTOCIN:
Oxytocin plays its role in mammalian reproduction by its effect
on smooth muscles. It stimulated contraction of the uterus or
uteri to aid in expulsion of the offspring and promotes the
ejection of milk from the mammary gland to provide
nourishment to the new born.
ANTERIOR LOBE:

The anterior pituitary synthesizes and secretes hormones.

The anterior pituitary (or adenohypophysis) is a lobe of the
gland that regulates several physiological processes (including
stress, growth, reproduction, and lactation).

Hormones released by anterior pituitary are:

Human growth hormone (HGH), also referred to as 'growth

hormone' (GH), and also as somatotropin

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Prolactin (PRL)

Luteinizing hormone

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

FUNCTIONS OF HORMONES
HUMAN GROWTH HORMONE:
It is also termes as SOMATOTROPIN. It does not influence a
particular target tissue, rather, it affects all the parts of the
body that are concerned with growth. It directly induces the cell
division necessary for growth and protein synthesis in most
types of cells by promoting and stimulating the uptake of
amino acids, RNA synthesis and ribosome activity.
THYROID STIMULATING HORMONE:
Also termed as thyrotropin, stimulates the thyroid gland
synthesis and secretion of thyroxin.
ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE:

It stimulates the adrenal gland to secrete and produce steroid

hormone called as glucocorticoids .
PROLACTIN:
It plays an essential role in reproduction. It stimulates
reproductive migration among many mammals. It also
enhances mammary gland development and milk production in
female mammals.
LUTEINIZING HORMONE:
It receives its name from corpus luteum, a temporary endocrine
tissue in the ovaries that secretes the female sex hormones
estrogen and progesterone. In the female, an increase in LH in
the blood stimulates ovulation. In the male, the target cells of
LH are cells in the testes that secretes the male hormone
testosterone.
FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE:
In the female FSH stimulates the follicular cells in the ovaries to
develop into mature eggs and to produce estrogen. In the
male, FSH stimulates the cells of the testes to produce sperms.

MEDIAN LOBE:
It is also termed as intermediate lobe. It secretes melanophore
stimulating hormone in response to external stimuli, and
induces changes in the coloration of the body surface.

Thyroid gland
The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped organ located in the
base of your neck. It releases hormones that control
metabolismthe way your body uses energy. The thyroid's
hormones regulate vital body functions, including

Breathing

Heart rate

Central and peripheral nervous systems

Body weight

Muscle strength

Menstrual cycles

Body temperature

Cholesterol levels

Much more!
The thyroid gland is about 2-inches long and lies

in front of your throat below the prominence of thyroid cartilage

sometimes
called
the
Adams
apple.

The thyroid has two sides called lobes that lie on either side of
your windpipe, and is usually connected by a strip of thyroid
tissue known as an isthmus. Some people do not have an
.isthmus, and instead have two separate thyroid lobes

How
the
Thyroid
Gland
Works
The thyroid is part of the endocrine system, which is made up
of glands that produce, store, and release hormones into the
bloodstream so the hormones can reach the body's cells. The
thyroid gland uses iodine from the foods you eat to make two
:main hormones
Triiodothyronine (T3)
Thyroxine (T4)
It is important that T3 and T4 levels are neither too high nor too
low. Two glands in the brainthe hypothalamus and the
.pituitary communicate to maintain T3 and T4 balance

The hypothalamus produces TSH Releasing Hormone (TRH) that

signals the pituitary to tell the thyroid gland to produce more or
less of T3 and T4 by either increasing or decreasing the release
.of a hormone called thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
When T3 and T4 levels are low in the blood, the pituitary
gland releases more TSH to tell the thyroid gland to produce
more thyroid hormones.

If T3 and T4 levels are high, the pituitary gland releases

less TSH to the thyroid gland to slow production of these
hormones.
Why
You
Need
a
Thyroid
Gland
T3 and T4 travel in your bloodstream to reach almost every cell

in the body. The hormones regulate the speed with which the
cells/metabolism works. For example, T3 and T4 regulate your
.heart rate and how fast your intestines process food

Listed below are other symptoms of too much T3

and T4 in your body hyperthyroidism is the medical term
for an overactive thyroid, which produces too much thyroid
hormone. Symptoms may include: Anxiety, rapid heart rate,
diarrhea, weight loss.

Anxiety

Irritability or moodiness

Nervousness, hyperactivity

Sweating or sensitivity to high temperatures

Hand trembling (shaking)

Hair loss

Missed or light menstrual periods

Goiter
A goiter is an abnormally large thyroid gland. A goiter
develops either because the whole gland is swollen or the
gland has multiple growths or nodules on it. While some
people with a goiter have no symptoms, others may have
symptoms of an overactive or underactive thyroid.

The following is other symptoms of too little T3 and

T4 in your body hypothyroidism: refers to an underactive
thyroid, which products too little thyroid hormone. Symptoms
may include: Depression, fatigue, constipation, weight gain

Trouble sleeping

Tiredness and fatigue

Difficulty concentrating

Dry skin and hair

Depression

Sensitivity to cold temperature

Frequent, heavy periods

Joint and muscle pain

The parathyroid glands are small endocrine glands in the

neck of humans and other tetrapodsb that produce parathyroid
hormone . Humans usually have four parathyroid glands,
variably located on the back of the thyroid gland although
considerable variation exists. Parathyroid hormone and
calcitonin (one of the hormones made by the thyroid gland)
have key roles in regulating the amount of calcium in the blood
.and within the bones
Structure
The parathyroid glands are two pairs of glands usually
positioned behind the left and right lobes of the thyroid. Each
gland is a yellowish-brown flat ovoid that resembles a lentil
seed, usually about 6 mm long and 3 to 4 mm wide, and 1 to

2 mm anteroposteriorly.There are typically four parathyroid

glands. The two parathyroid glands on each side which are
positioned higher are called the superior parathyroid glands,
while the lower two are called the inferior parathyroid glands.
Healthy parathyroid glands generally weigh about 30 mg in
men and 35 mg in women.These glands are not visible or able
to be felt during the examination of neck.

BLOOD SUPPLY
The blood supply, drainage, and lymphatic drainage of the
.parathyroid glands correspond to the thyroid overlying gland
The superior parathyroid glands receive their blood from the
inferior thyroid arteries.The inferior parathyroid glands receive
a variable blood supply, from either the ascending branch of
the inferior thyroid arteries. The parathyroid glands are named
for their proximity to the thyroid but serve a completely
different role than the thyroid gland. The parathyroid glands are
quite easily recognizable from the thyroid as they have densely
packed cells, in contrast with the follicular structure of thyroid
:. Two unique types of cells are present in the parathyroid gland
Chief cells , which synthesize and release parathyroid
hormone. These cells are small, and appear dark when
loaded with parathyroid hormone, and clear when the
hormone has been secreted, or in their resting state.
Oxyphil cells, which are lighter in appearance and
increase in number with age,have an unknown function.
Functions
The major function of the parathyroid glands is to maintain the
body's calcium and phophate levels within a very narrow range,
so that thenervous and muscular system can function properly.
The parathyroid glands do this by secreting parathyroid
.hormone
Parathyroid hormone (PTH, also known as parathormone) is a
small protein that takes part in the control of calcium and
phosphate homeostasis , as well as bone physiology.
Parathyroid hormone has effects antagonistic to those of
.calcitonin

 calcium. PTH increases blood calcium levels by

stimulating osteoclats to break down bone and release
calcium. PTH also increases gastrointestinal calcium
absorption by activating vitamin Dand promotes calcium
conservation (reabsorption) by the kidneys.
Phosphate . PTH is the major regulator of serum
phosphate concentrations via actions on the kidney. It is
an inhibitor of proximal tubular reabsorption of
phosphorus. Through activation of vitamin D the
absorption of Phosphate is increased
Hypoparathyroidism
Hypoparathyroidism may present with symptoms associated
with decreased calcium and is generally treated with vitamin D
analogues.

Pancreas
The pancreas is a glandular organ in the digestive system and
endocrine system of vertebrates. In humans, it is located in
the abdominal cavity behind the stomach. It is an endocrine
gland producing
several
important hormones,
including insulin, glucagon, somato statin, and pancreatic
polypeptide which circulate in the blood. The pancreas is also a
digestive
organ,
secreting pancreatic
juice containing digestive enzymes that assist digestion and
absorption of nutrients in the small intestine. These
enzymes help
to
further
break
down
the carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids
The pancreas is about 6 inches long and sits across the back of
the abdomen, behind the stomach. The head of the pancreas is
on the right side of the abdomen and is connected to the
duodenum (the first section of the small intestine) through a
small tube called the pancreatic duct. The narrow end of the
.pancreas, called the tail, extends to the left side of the body
The pancreas contains tissue with
an endocrine and exocrine role, and this division is also visible
when the pancreas is viewed under a microscope. The tissues
with an endocrine role can be seen under staining as lightlystained clusters of cells, called pancreatic islets

Functions

The pancreas is involved in sugar control and metabolism

within the body, and also in the secretion of substances which
help digestion. Classically, these are divided into an
"endocrine" role, relating to the secretion of insulin and other
substances within pancreatic islets and helping control blood
sugar levels and metabolism within the body, and an "exocrine"
role, relating to the secretion of enzymes involved in digesting
.substances from outside of the body

Pineal gland
Pineal gland pea-sized conical mass of tissue behind the third
ventricle of the brain, secreting a hormone-like substance in
some mammals. Located near the center of the brain, the
pineal gland is a very small organ shaped like a pine cone
(which is where it gets its name). Its reddish-gray and about
1/3 inch long. Pineal cells and neuroglial cells (which support
.the pineal cells) mainly comprise the gland
It produces melatonin, a serotonin derived hormone, which
affects the modulation of sleep patterns in both seasonal
.and circadian rhythms
The
pineal
body
consists
in
humans
of
a
lobular parenchyma of pinealocytes surrounded by connective
.tissue spaces. The gland's surface is covered by a pialcapsule

The pineal gland consists mainly of pinealocytes, but four

.other cell types have been identified
Pinealocytes
The pinealocytes consist of a cell body with 46 processes
emerging.
They
produce and secrete melatonin.
The
pinealocytes can be stained by special silver impregnation
methods. Their cytoplasm is lightly basophilic. With special
stains, pinealocytes exhibit lengthy, branched cytoplasmic
processes that extend to the connective septa and its blood
.vessels
Interstitial cells
Interstitial cells are located between the pinealocytes. They
have elongated nuclei and a cytoplasm that is stained darker
than that of the pinealocytes
Perivascularphagocyte
Many capillaries are present in the gland, and perivascular
phagocytes are located close to these blood vessels. The
.perivascular phagocytes are antigen presenting cells
Pineal neurons
In higher vertebrates neurons are usually located in the pineal
.gland. However, this is not the case in rodents
Peptidergicneuron-like cells
In some species, neuronal-like peptidergic cells are present.
These cells might have a paracrine regulatory function

:ADRENAL GLAND
:LOCATION

.They are located at the top of kidneys

:PARTS
:It has 2 parts
Adrenal medulla

(1

Adrenal cortex

(2

:ADRENAL MEDULLA
Its the inner grayish part of the adrenal gland. It is directly
:under the control of ANS. It secretes two hormones
Adrenaline: it works under sympathetic nervous system. It
is secreted in the situations of stress, anxiety and anger. It
increases heart beats, blood pressure, blood sugar, body
temperature, perspiration and energizes the muscles to
.face the emergency
Non adrenaline: secreted under the condition of rest and
peace. Its function is opposite to adrenaline. It lowers the
heart beat and blood pressure, mediates the blood to
stomach for digestion, reserves the energy and moderates
the physiological changes. It works under para
.sympathetic nervous system

(1

(2

:ADRENAL CORTEX
It is the outer reddish brown part. It secretes cortisone which
:affects
Carbohydrate and protein metabolism .I
Balance of salts .II
Accelerates the conversion of glucose to protein

.III

.IV

Regulates the concentration of mineral ions

:GONADS OR SEX HORMONES

These are important in the normal growth and development of
male and female. Gonads start secreting their hormones at the
.age of puberty and adolescence
:MALE SEX HORMONES
Male sex hormones are called androgens and they are
produced in the testis and produces sperms. The most
important of androgens is the testosterone, which produces the
sec sex characteristics like moustache, beard and low pitch of
.voice etc
These hormones are also important for sexual desires and
.reproduction
:FEMALE SEX HORMONES
:These are secreted in the ovaries. These hormones are
:Estrogen: its function is to
of
sec
sex
characteristics

Thickening of uterus lining

Ovulation

Conception and maintenance of pregnancy

Control

the

development

(1

Progesterone: it is secreted in the later half of the

:menstrual cycle by corpus luteum. its function is to
Further thickening the uterus

Maintaining pregnancy

Prevents uterus to contract till labour pain

(2

References
illiams, S. Jacob ; dissections by David J. Hinchcliffe ;
photography by Mick A. Turton ; illustrated by Amanda (2007).
Human anatomy: a clinically-orientated approach (New ed.).
Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.

llustrated Anatomy of the Head and Neck, Fehrenbach and

Herring, Elsevier, 2012, p. 159

Young, Barbara; Heath, John W.; Stevens, Alan; Burkitt, H.

George (2006). Wheater's functional histology: a text and
colour atlas (5th ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier.
p. 337.

ZOOLOGY ( a book written by STEPHEN A. MILLER and john P.

HARLEY)

https://www.google.com.pk/search?
q=PITUITARY+GLAND+WIKIPEDIA

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/health.

http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/health.

http://heapro.oxfordjournals.org/content.

http://merriam-webster.com/dictionary/illness.

http://wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease.

http://healthpsychology.org/what-is-health-psychology.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gland.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exocrine_gland.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocrine_gland.

http://www.pituitary.org.uk/information/what-is-the-pituitarygland.

http://www.endocrineweb.com/conditions/thyroid/your-thyroidgland.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parathyroid_gland.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pancreas.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenal_gland.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonad.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pineal_gland.