Hindawi Publishing Corporation

Journal of Botany
Volume 2012, Article ID 217037, 26 pages
doi:10.1155/2012/217037

Review Article
Reactive Oxygen Species, Oxidative Damage, and Antioxidative
Defense Mechanism in Plants under Stressful Conditions
Pallavi Sharma,1 Ambuj Bhushan Jha,2 Rama Shanker Dubey,1 and Mohammad Pessarakli3
1 Department

of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India

Development Centre, Department of Plant Sciences, College of Agriculture and Bioresources, University of Saskatchewan,
51 Campus Drive, Saskatoon SK, Canada SK S7N 5A8
3 School of Plant Sciences, The University of Arizona, Forbes Building, Room 303, P.O. Box 210036, Tucson, AZ 85721-0036, USA
2 Crop

Correspondence should be addressed to Mohammad Pessarakli, [email protected]

Received 6 August 2011; Revised 12 February 2012; Accepted 12 February 2012
Academic Editor: Andrea Polle
Copyright 2012 Pallavi Sharma et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are produced as a normal product of plant cellular metabolism. Various environmental stresses
lead to excessive production of ROS causing progressive oxidative damage and ultimately cell death. Despite their destructive
activity, they are well-described second messengers in a variety of cellular processes, including conferment of tolerance to various
environmental stresses. Whether ROS would serve as signaling molecules or could cause oxidative damage to the tissues depends
on the delicate equilibrium between ROS production, and their scavenging. Ecient scavenging of ROS produced during various
environmental stresses requires the action of several nonenzymatic as well as enzymatic antioxidants present in the tissues. In this
paper, we describe the generation, sites of production and role of ROS as messenger molecules as well as inducers of oxidative
damage. Further, the antioxidative defense mechanisms operating in the cells for scavenging of ROS overproduced under various
stressful conditions of the environment have been discussed in detail.

1. Introduction
An unavoidable consequence of aerobic metabolism is
production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS include
free radicals such as superoxide anion (O2 ), hydroxyl
radical ( OH), as well as nonradical molecules like hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ), singlet oxygen (1 O2 ), and so forth.
Stepwise reduction of molecular oxygen (O2 ) by high-energy
exposure or electron-transfer reactions leads to production
of the highly reactive ROS. In plants, ROS are always formed
by the inevitable leakage of electrons onto O2 from the electron transport activities of chloroplasts, mitochondria, and
plasma membranes or as a byproduct of various metabolic
pathways localized in dierent cellular compartments [1
5]. Environmental stresses such as drought, salinity, chilling,
metal toxicity, and UV-B radiation as well as pathogens
attack lead to enhanced generation of ROS in plants due
to disruption of cellular homeostasis [615]. All ROS are
extremely harmful to organisms at high concentrations.
When the level of ROS exceeds the defense mechanisms, a

cell is said to be in a state of oxidative stress. The enhanced

production of ROS during environmental stresses can pose
a threat to cells by causing peroxidation of lipids, oxidation
of proteins, damage to nucleic acids, enzyme inhibition, activation of programmed cell death (PCD) pathway and ultimately leading to death of the cells [68, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17].
Despite their destructive activity, ROS are well-described
second messengers in a variety of cellular processes including
tolerance to environmental stresses [1820]. Whether ROS
will act as damaging or signaling molecule depends on the
delicate equilibrium between ROS production and scavenging. Because of the multifunctional roles of ROS, it is necessary for the cells to control the level of ROS tightly to avoid
any oxidative injury and not to eliminate them completely.
Scavenging or detoxification of excess ROS is achieved by
an ecient antioxidative system comprising of the nonenzymic as well as enzymic antioxidants [21]. The enzymic
antioxidants include superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase
(CAT), guaiacol peroxidase (GPX), enzymes of ascorbateglutahione (AsA-GSH) cycle such as ascorbate peroxidase

2
(APX), monodehydroascorbate reductase (MDHAR), dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR), and glutathione reductase
(GR) [21]. Ascorbate (AsA), glutathione (GSH), carotenoids,
tocopherols, and phenolics serve as potent nonenzymic
antioxidants within the cell. Various workers have reported
increased activities of many enzymes of the antioxidant
defense system in plants to combat oxidative stress induced
by various environmental stresses. Maintenance of a high
antioxidant capacity to scavenge the toxic ROS has been
linked to increased tolerance of plants to these environmental
stresses [22, 23]. Considerable progress has been made in
improving stress-induced oxidative stress tolerance in crop
plants by developing transgenic lines with altered levels of
antioxidants [24, 25]. Simultaneous expression of multiple
antioxidant enzymes has been shown to be more eective
than single or double expression for developing transgenic
plants with enhanced tolerance to multiple environmental
stresses [26]. The present review focuses on types of ROS,
their site of production, and their role as messenger and
inducer of oxidative stress. Further, role of antioxidative
defense system in combating danger posed by overproduced
ROS under stresses has been discussed in detail.

2. Reactive Oxygen Species, Sites of

Production, and Their Effects
ROS are a group of free radicals, reactive molecules, and ions
that are derived from O2 . It has been estimated that about 1%
of O2 consumed by plants is diverted to produce ROS [27] in
various subcellular loci such as chloroplasts, mitochondria,
peroxisomes. ROS are well recognized for playing a dual role
as both deleterious and beneficial species depending on their
concentration in plants. At high concentration ROS cause
damage to biomolecules, whereas at low/moderate concentration it acts as second messenger in intracellular signaling
cascades that mediate several responses in plant cells.
2.1. Types of ROS. The most common ROS include 1 O2 ,
O2 , H2 O2 , OH. O2 itself is a totally harmless molecule as
in its ground state it has two unpaired electrons with parallel
spin which makes it paramagnetic and, hence, unlikely
to participate in reactions with organic molecules unless
it is activated [28]. Activation of O2 may occur by two
dierent mechanisms: (i) absorption of sucient energy to
reverse the spin on one of the unpaired electrons and (ii)
stepwise monovalent reduction (Figure 1). In the former,
1 O is formed, whereas in latter, O is sequentially reduced
2
2
to O2 , H2 O2 , and OH (Figure 1).
Electrons in the biradical form of oxygen have parallel
spin. Absorption of sucient energy reverses the spin of one
of its unpaired electrons leading to formation of singlet state
in which the two electrons have opposite spin. This activation
overcomes the spin restriction and 1 O2 can consequently
participate in reactions involving the simultaneous transfer
of two electrons (divalent reduction) [28]. In the light, highly
reactive 1 O2 can be produced via triplet chlorophyll (Chl)
formation in the antenna system and in the reaction centre
of photosystem II [29]. In the antenna, insucient energy

Journal of Botany
dissipation during photosynthesis can lead to formation of
chlorophyll (Chl) triplet state, whereas in the reaction centre
it is formed via charge recombination of the light-induced
charge pair [29]. The Chl triplet state can react with 3 O2 to
give up the very highly destructive ROS 1 O2 :
light

Chl 3 Chl,

(1)

Chl + 3 O2 Chl + 1 O2 ,

(2)

Further, limited CO2 availability due to closure of stomata

during various environmental stresses such as salinity,
drought favors the formation of 1 O2 . The life time of 1 O2
within the cell is probably 3 s or less [30, 31]. A fraction of
1 O has been shown to be able to diuse over considerable
2
distances of several hundred nanometers (nm). 1 O2 can last
for 4 s in water and 100 s in a nonpolar environment
[1]. 1 O2 reacts with most of the biological molecules
at near diusion-controlled rates [1]. It directly oxidizes
protein, unsaturated fatty acids, and DNA [32]. It causes
nucleic acid modification through selective reaction with
deoxyguanosine [33]. It is thought to be the most important
species responsible for light-induced loss of photosystem II
(PSII) activity which may trigger cell death [34]. 1 O2 can be
quenched by -carotene, -tocopherol or can react with the
D1 protein of photosystem II as target [29].
Due to spin restriction, molecular O2 cannot accept four
electrons at a time to produce H2 O. It accepts one electron at
a time and hence during reduction of O2 stable intermediates
are formed in the step-wise fashion [35]. O2 is the
primary ROS formed in the cell which initiates a cascade
of reactions to generate secondary ROS, either directly or
prevalently through enzyme- or metal-catalysed processes
[36] depending on the cell type or cellular compartment.
O2 is a moderately reactive, short-lived ROS with a halflife of approx. 1 s. O2 is a nucleophilic reactant with
both oxidizing and reducing properties [37]. Anionic charge
of O2 inhibits its electrophilic activity toward electronrich molecules. O2 has been shown to oxidize enzymes
containing the [4Fe-4S] clusters (aconitase or dehydratase
as examples) [38] and reduce cytochrome C [39]. O2 can
accept one electron and two protons to form H2 O2 . It is
easily dismutated to H2 O2 either nonenzymatically or by
SOD catalyzed reaction to hydrogen peroxide:
2O2 + 2H+ H2 O2 + O2 ,
SOD

2O2 + 2H+ H2 O2 + O2 ,

(3)
(4)

H2 O2 is generated in the cells under normal as well as

wide range of stressful conditions such as drought, chilling,
UV irradiation, exposure to intense light, wounding and
intrusion by pathogens. Electron transport chain (ETC)
of chloroplast, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum and
plasma membrane, -oxidation of fatty acid and photorespiration are major sources of H2 O2 generation in plant cells.
Photooxidation reactions, NADPH oxidase as well as xanthine oxidase (XOD) also contribute to H2 O2 production in
plants. It is also generated in tissues requiring it as a substrate

Journal of Botany

3
1O
2
Singlet
oxygen

H2 O
Water

e
e-

Energy absorption

CAT
GPX
APX

H+
O2
Molecular
oxygen

Spontaneous
dismutation

O2
Superoxide
anion

2H+

H2 O2
Hydrogen
peroxide

SOD

Fenton
reaction

H+

HaberWeiss
reaction

OH
Hydroxyl
radical

Figure 1: Schematic representation of generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in plants. Activation of O2 occurs by two dierent
mechanisms. Stepwise monovalent reduction of O2 leads to formation of O2 , H2 O2 , and OH, whereas energy transfer to O2 leads to
formation of 1 O2 . O2 is easily dismutated to H2 O2 either nonenzymatically or by superoxide dismutase (SOD) catalyzed reaction to H2 O2 .
H2 O2 is converted to H2 O by catalase (CAT), guaiacol peroxidase (GPX), and ascorbate peroxidase (APX).

for biosynthesis such as for lignification and suberization.

H2 O2 is moderately reactive and is relatively long-lived
molecule with a half-life of 1 ms [40]. H2 O2 has no unpaired
electrons, unlike other oxygen radicals, it can readily cross
biological membranes and consequently can cause oxidative
damage far from the site of its formation. Because H2 O2 is
the only ROS that can diuse through aquaporins in the
membranes and over larger distances within the cell [41] and
is relatively stable compared to other ROS, it has received
particular attention as a signal molecule involved in the
regulation of specific biological processes and triggering tolerance against various environmental stresses such as plantpathogen interactions at low concentration [19, 20, 42]. At
high concentration, H2 O2 can oxidize the cysteine (SH)
or methionine residues (SCH3 ), and inactivate enzymes by
oxidizing their thiol groups, such as enzymes of Calvin cycle,
Cu/Zn-SOD, and Fe-SOD [43]. When hydrogen peroxide
accumulates at levels of 10 M, the enzymes in the Calvin
cycle, such as fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, sedoheptulose1,7-bisphosphatase, and phosphoribulokinase, lose 50% of
their activity [44, 45]. It also oxidizes protein kinases,
phosphatases, and transcription factors containing thiolate
residues. At high concentrations, it orchestrates programmed
cell death [46].
Both O2 and H2 O2 are only moderately reactive.
The cellular damage by ROS appears to be due to their
conversion into more reactive species. The formation of OH
is dependent on both H2 O2 and O2 and, thus, its formation
is subject to inhibition by both SOD and CAT.
The Haber-Weiss reaction generates OH from H2 O2 and

O2 . It consists of the following two reactions:

Fe3+ + O2 Fe2+ + O2 ,

(5)

First, Fe(III) is reduced by O2 , followed by oxidation by

dihydrogen peroxide (Fenton reaction)
Fe2+ + H2 O2 Fe3+ + OH + OH,

(6)

and reaction:
O2 + H2 O2 OH + OH + O2 .

(7)

Metal catalysis is necessary for this reaction since the rate

of uncatalyzed reaction is negligible [47]. OH is the most
reactive among all ROS. It has a single unpaired electron,
thus, it can react with oxygen in triplet ground state. OH
interacts with all biological molecules and causes subsequent
cellular damages such as lipid peroxidation, protein damage,
and membrane destruction [48]. Because cells have no enzymatic mechanism to eliminate OH, its excess production
can eventually lead to cell death [49]. Under illumination,
formation of OH by the Fenton reaction at the active site
of the enzyme RbcL leads to its fragmentation in chloroplast
lysates [50, 51]. The oxidation of organic substrates by OH
may proceed by two possible reactions, either by addition
of OH to organic molecules or due to abstraction of a
hydrogen atom from it. Because of short lifetime and the
strongly positive redox potential (close to +2 V) of free

OH, its sites of reaction are close to its point of formation

[52]. In this context, organic oxygen radicals such as alkoxy,
peroxy, semiquinones, reduced hydrogen peroxide, and
hydrogen peroxide-electron donor complexes (crypto-OH),
as well as metallo-oxygen complexes, have been proposed
as the ultimately active species besides destructive free OH
[53].

Journal of Botany

Chloroplast
PSI: electron transport chain
Fd, 2Fe-2S, and 4Fe-4S clusters
PSII: electron transport chain
QA and QB
Chlorophyll pigments
Cell wall
Cell-wall-associated peroxidase
diamine oxidases

Mitochondria
Complex I: NADH dehydrogenase segment
Complex II: reverse electron flow to complex I
Complex III: ubiquinone-cytochrome region
Enzymes
Aconitase, 1-galactono-
lactone, dehydrogenase (GAL)
Plasma membrane
Electron transporting oxidoreductases
NADPH oxidase, quinone oxidase

ROS

Endoplasmic
reticulum
NAD(P)H-dependent
Apoplast
electron transport
involving Cyt P450
Cell-wall-associated
oxalate oxidase
Amine oxidases

Peroxisome
Matrix: xanthine oxidase (XOD)
Membrane: electron transport chain flavoprotein
NADH and Cyt b
Metabolic processes: glycolate oxidase,
fatty acid oxidation, flavin oxidases,
disproportionation of O2
radicals

Figure 2: Sites of production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in plants. ROS are produced at several locations in the cell-like chloroplast,
mitochondria, plasma membrane, peroxisomes, apoplast, endoplasmic reticulum, and cell wall.

2.2. Sites of Production of ROS. ROS are produced in both

unstressed and stressed cells at several locations in chloroplasts, mitochondria, plasma membranes, peroxisomes,
apoplast, endoplasmic reticulum, and cell walls (Figure 2).
ROS are always formed by the inevitable leakage of electrons
onto O2 from the electron transport activities of chloroplasts,
mitochondria, and plasma membranes or as a byproduct
of various metabolic pathways localized in dierent cellular
compartments.
2.2.1. Chloroplasts. In chloroplasts, various forms of ROS
are generated from several locations. ETCs in PSI and PSII
are the main sources of ROS in chloroplasts. Production of
ROS by these sources is enhanced in plants by conditions
limiting CO2 fixation, such as drought, salt, and temperature
stresses, as well as by the combination of these conditions
with high-light stress. Under normal conditions, the electron
flow from the excited PS centers to NADP which is reduced
to NADPH which, then, enters the Calvin cycle and reduces
the final electron acceptor, CO2 . In case of overloading of the
ETC, due to decreased NADP supply resulting from stress
conditions, there is leakage of electron from ferredoxin to
O2 , reducing it to O2 [54]. This process is called Mehler
reaction:
2O2 + 2Fdred 2O2 + 2Fdox

(8)

Leakage of electrons to O2 may also occur from 2Fe-2S and

4Fe-4S clusters in the ETC of PSI. In PSII, acceptor side of
ETC contains QA and QB. Leakage of electron from this site
to O2 contributes to the production of O2 [55].
The formation of O2 by O2 reduction is a rate-limiting
step. Once formed O2 generates more aggressive ROS.
It may be protonated to HO2 on the internal, lumen
membrane surface or dismutated enzymatically (by SOD) or

spontaneously to H2 O2 on the external stromal membrane

surface. At Fe-S centers where Fe2+ is available, H2 O2 may
be transformed through the Fenton reaction into the much
more dangerous OH .
2.2.2. Mitochondria. Mitochondria can produce ROS in
several sites of ETC. In mitochondria direct reduction of
oxygen to O2 occurs in the flavoprotein region of NADH
dehydrogenase segment (complex I) of the respiratory chain
[56]. When NAD+ -linked substrates for complex I are
limited, electron transport can occur from complex II to
complex I (reverse electron flow). This process has been
shown to increase ROS production at complex I and is
regulated by ATP hydrolysis [57]. Ubiquinone-cytochrome
region (complex III) of the ETC also produces O2 from
oxygen. It is believed that fully reduced ubiquinone donates
an electron to cytochrome C1 and leaves an unstable highly
reducing ubisemiquinone radical which is favorable for the
electron leakage to O2 and, hence, to O2 formation [58].
In plants, under normal aerobic conditions, ETC and ATP
syntheses are tightly coupled; however, various stress factors
lead to inhibition and modification of its component, leading
to over reduction of electron carriers and, hence, formation
of ROS [4, 59].
Several enzymes present in mitochondrial matrix can
produce ROS. Some of them produce ROS directly, for
example aconitase, whereas some others like 1-galactono lactone dehydrogenase (GAL), are able to feed electrons
to ETC [60, 61]. O2 is the primary ROS formed by
monovalent reduction in the ETC. It is converted quickly
either by the MnSOD (mitochondrial form of SOD) or APX
into the relatively stable and membrane-permeable H2 O2 .
H2 O2 can be further converted to extremely active hydroxyl
radical (OH ) in the Fenton reaction.

Journal of Botany
2.2.3. Endoplasmic Reticulum. In endoplasmic reticulum,
NAD(P)H-dependent electron transport involving Cyt P450
produces O2 [7]. Organic substrate, RH, reacts first with
Cyt P450 and then is reduced by a flavoprotein to form a
radical intermediate (Cyt P450 R ). Triplet oxygen can readily
react with this radical intermediate as each has one unpaired
electron. This oxygenated complex (Cyt P450 -ROO ) may be
reduced by cytochrome b or occasionally the complexes may
decompose releasing O2 .
2.2.4. Peroxisomes. Peroxisomes are probably the major
sites of intracellular H2 O2 production, as a result of their
essentially oxidative type of metabolism [3]. The main
metabolic processes responsible for the generation of H2 O2
in dierent types of peroxisomes are the glycolate oxidase
reaction, the fatty acid -oxidation, the enzymatic reaction of
flavin oxidases, and the disproportionation of O2 radicals
[62]. During photorespiration, the oxidation of glycolate by
glycolate oxidase in peroxisomes accounts for the majority of
H2 O2 production [63]. Like mitochondria and chloroplasts,
peroxisomes also produce O2 as a consequence of their
normal metabolism. In peroxisomes from pea leaves and
watermelon cotyledons, at least, two sites of O2 generation
have been identified using biochemical and electron spin
resonance spectroscopy (ESR) methods: one in the organelle
matrix, the generating system being XOD, which catalyses
the oxidation of xanthine or hypoxanthine to uric acid,
and produces O2 in the process and another site in
the peroxisomal membranes where a small ETC composed
of a flavoprotein NADH and Cyt b is involved. Three
integral peroxisomal membrane polypeptides (PMPs) with
molecular masses of 18, 29, and 32 kDa were found to be
involved in O2 production. While the 18- and 32-kDa
PMPs use NADH as electron donor for O2 production,
the 29-kDa PMP was clearly dependent on NADPH and
was able to reduce cytochrome c with NADPH as electron
donor [64]. Among the three integral polypeptides, the main
producer of O2 was the 18-kDa PMP which was proposed
to be a cytochrome possibly belonging to the b-type group.
The PMP32 very probably corresponds to the MDHAR,
and the third O2 -generating polypeptide, PMP29, could
be related to the peroxisomal NADPH:cytochrome P450
reductase [64]. The O
2 produced is subsequently converted
into H2 O2 by SOD.
2.2.5. Plasma Membranes. Electron transporting oxidoreductases are ubiquitous at plasma membranes and lead to
generation of ROS at plasma membrane. Production of ROS
was studied using EPR spin-trapping techniques and specific
dyes in isolated plasma membranes from the growing and
the nongrowing zones of hypocotyls and roots of etiolated
soybean seedlings as well as coleoptiles and roots of etiolated
maize seedlings [5]. NAD(P)H mediated the production of
O2 in all plasma membrane samples. It was suggested that
in soybean plasma membranes, O2 production could be
attributed to the action of at least two enzymes, an NADPH
oxidase, and, in the presence of menadione, a quinone
reductase [5]. NADPH oxidase catalyses transfer of electrons

5
from cytoplasmic NADPH to O2 to form O2 . O2 is
dismutated to H2 O2 either spontaneously or by SOD activity.
NADPH oxidase has been proposed to play a key role in the
production and accumulation of ROS in plants under stress
conditions [28, 42, 65].
2.2.6. Cell Walls. Cell walls are also regarded as active sites for
ROS production. Role of cell-wall-associated peroxidase in
H2 O2 generation has been shown. In horseradish, peroxidase
associated with isolated cell walls catalyzes the formation of
H2 O2 in the presence of NADH. The reaction is stimulated
by various monophenols, especially of coniferyl alcohol.
Malate dehydrogenase was found to be the sole candidate for
providing NADH [66]. The generation of ROS by cell-walllocated peroxidases has been shown during hypersensitive
response (HR) triggered in cotton by the bacterium Xanthomonas campestris pv. malvacearum [67] and potassium
(K) deficiency stress in Arabidopsis [68]. Diamine oxidases
are also involved in production of activated oxygen in the cell
wall using diamine or polyamines (putrescine, spermidine,
cadaverine, etc.) to reduce a quinone that autooxidizes to
form peroxides [54].
2.2.7. Apoplast. Cell-wall-located enzymes have been proved
to be responsible for apoplastic ROS production [5, 28]. The
cell-wall-associated oxalate oxidase, also known as germin,
releases H2 O2 and CO2 from oxalic acid [69]. This enzyme
was reported to be involved in apoplastic hydrogen peroxide
accumulation during interactions between dierent cereals
species and fungi [70]. Amine oxidase-like enzymes may
contribute to defense responses occurring in the apoplast
following biotic stress, mainly through H2 O2 production
[71]. Amine oxidases catalyze the oxidative deamination
of polyamines (i.e., putrescine, spermine, and spermidine)
using FAD as a cofactor [71]. Heyno and coworkers [5],
based on their study, concluded that apoplastic OH generation depends fully, or for the most part, on peroxidase
localized in the cell wall.
2.3. Role of ROS as Messengers. At low/moderate concentration, ROS have been implicated as second messengers in
intracellular signaling cascades that mediate several plant
responses in plant cells, including stomatal closure [19, 20,
65], programmed cell death [7, 72], gravitropism [73], and
acquisition of tolerance to both biotic and abiotic stresses
[42, 74]. Figure 3 shows the role of ROS as second messenger
in hormone mediated cellular responses in plants. Plants can
sense, transduce and translate ROS signal into appropriate
cellular responses with the help of some redox-sensitive
proteins, calcium mobilization, protein phosphorylation,
and gene expression. ROS can be sensed directly also by key
signaling proteins such as a tyrosine phosphatase through
oxidation of conserved cysteine residues (reviewed in [75]).
ROS can also modulate the activities of many components
in signaling, such as protein phosphatases, protein kinases
and transcription factors [76] and communicate with other
signal molecules and the pathway forming part of the
signaling network that controls response downstream of ROS

Journal of Botany

Hormones

ROS
at low concentration

Mediated

Plant responses

Abscisic acid

Stomata closure

Auxin

Root gravitropism

Gibberelic acid

Seed germination

Jasmonic acid

Lignin biosynthesis

Gibberelic acid

Programmed cell death

Salicylic acid

Hypersensitive responses

Salicylic acid

Osmotic stress

Messenger

Figure 3: Reactive oxygen species (ROS) as second messengers in several plant hormone responses, including stomatal closure, root
gravitropism, seed germination, lignin biosynthesis, programmed cell death, hypersensitive responses, and osmotic stress.

[19]. The strength, lifetime and size of the ROS signaling

pool depends on balance between oxidant production and
removal by the antioxidant. Using mutants deficient in
key ROS-scavenging enzymes, Miller and coworkers [74]
identified a signaling pathway that is activated in cells
in response to ROS accumulation. Interestingly, many of
the key players in this pathway, including dierent zinc
finger proteins and WRKY transcription factors, are also
central regulators of abiotic stress responses involved in
temperature, salinity and osmotic stresses.
ROS are considered second messengers in the abscisic
acid (ABA) transduction pathway in guard cells [19, 20].
ABA induced H2 O2 is an essential signal in mediating
stomatal closure to reduce water loss through the activation
of calcium-permeable channels in the plasma membrane
[77]. Jannat and coworkers [78] observed that ABAinducible cytosolic H2 O2 elevation functions in ABAinduced stomatal closure, while constitutive increase of
H2 O2 does not cause stomatal closure. Role of ROS as second
messenger in root gravitropism has been demonstrated.
Based on their work, Joo and coworkers [73] proposed
that gravity induces asymmetric movement of auxin within
60 min, and, then, the auxin stimulates ROS generation
to mediate gravitropism. Further, scavenging of ROS by
antioxidants (N-acetylcysteine, ascorbic acid, and Trolox)
inhibited root gravitropism [73]. ROS appear to be involved
in dormancy alleviation. In dormant barley grains under
control condition, gibberellic acid (GA) signaling and ROS
content are low, while ABA signaling is high, resulting in
dormancy. Exogenous H2 O2 does not appear to alter ABA
biosynthesis and signaling, but has a more pronounced eect
on GA signaling, inducing a change in hormonal balance
that results in germination [79]. ROS have been shown to
play a key role in PCD in barley aleurone cells, initiated
by GA. Bethke and Jones [72] observed that GA-treated
aleurone protoplasts are less tolerant to internally generated
or exogenously applied H2 O than ABA-treated protoplasts

and suggested that ROS are components of the hormonally

regulated cell death pathway in barley aleurone cells.
Plants have evolved a complex regulatory network to
mediate biotic and abiotic stress responses based on ROS
synthesis, scavenging, and signaling. Transient production of
ROS is detected in the early events of plant-pathogen interactions and plays an important signaling role in pathogenesis
signal transduction regulators. This production-called oxidative burst could be considered as a specific signal during the
interaction process [80]. In HR, SA is thought to potentiate
ROS signaling [81]. ROS are shown to act as a second
messenger for the induction of defense genes in tomato
plants in response to wounding [82]. ROS were generated
near cell walls of vascular bundle cells of tomato leaves
in response to wounding and resulted H2 O2 from woundinducible polygalacturonase acted as a second messenger for
the activation of defense genes in mesophyll cells, but not for
signaling pathway genes in vascular bundle cells [82].
Lignin is important for the plants response to environmental stress. Denness and coworkers [83] characterized a
genetic network enabling plants to regulate lignin biosynthesis in response to cell wall damage through dynamic interactions between Jasmonic acid and ROS. ROS have been shown
to play important roles in osmotic stress, low temperature,
and heavy metal signal transduction pathway [75, 84, 85].
Genes involved in osmotic stress signaling have been shown
to be upregulated by ROS, including the transcription factor
DREB2A and a histidine kinase [18]. In Arabidopsis culture
cells, it was reported that the MAPK AtMPK6 that can be
activated by low temperature and osmotic stress could also
be activated by oxidative stress [84]. Borsani and coworkers
[86] suggested that the increased osmotic stress tolerance
of transgenic Arabidopsis expressing a salicylate hydroxylase
(NahG) gene, might result from decreased SA-mediated ROS
generation. Zhao and coworkers [87] reported that ROS play
important roles in drought-induced abscisic acid synthesis
in plant and suggested that they may be the signals through

Journal of Botany

ROS
at high concentrations
Oxidative damage

Lipid
Chain breakage
Increase in membrane
fluidity and permeability

Protein
Site-specific amino acid
modification
Fragmentation of the
peptide chain
Aggregation of crosslinked reaction products
Altered electric charge
Enzyme inactivation
Increased susceptibility
of proteins to proteolysis

DNA
Deoxyribose oxidation
Strand breakage
Removal of nucleotides
Modification of bases
DNA-protein crosslinks

Figure 4: Reactive oxygen species (ROS) induced oxidative damage to lipids, proteins, and DNA.

which the plant can sense the drought condition. Using

pharmacological inhibitors, it is demonstrated that metals
Cd2+ and Cu2+ induce MAP kinase activation via distinct
ROS-generating systems [85].
2.4. ROS and Oxidative Damage to Biomolecules. Production
and removal of ROS must be strictly controlled in order to
avoid oxidative stress. When the level of ROS exceeds the
defense mechanisms, a cell is said to be in a state of oxidative
stress. However, the equilibrium between production and
scavenging of ROS is perturbed under a number of stressful
conditions such as salinity, drought, high light, toxicity due
to metals, pathogens, and so forth. Enhanced level of ROS
can cause damage to biomolecules such as lipids, proteins
and DNA (Figure 4). These reactions can alter intrinsic
membrane properties like fluidity, ion transport, loss of
enzyme activity, protein cross-linking, inhibition of protein
synthesis, DNA damage, and so forth ultimately resulting in
cell death.
2.4.1. Lipids. When ROS level reaches above threshold,
enhanced lipid peroxidation takes place in both cellular and
organellar membranes, which, in turn, aect normal cellular
functioning. Lipid peroxidation aggravates the oxidative
stress through production of lipid-derived radicals that
themselves can react with and damage proteins and DNA.
The level of lipid peroxidation has been widely used as an
indicator of ROS mediated damage to cell membranes under
stressful conditions. Increased peroxidation (degradation) of
lipids has been reported in plants growing under environmental stresses [8, 10, 12, 13]. Increase in lipid peroxidation
under these stresses parallels with increased production of
ROS. Malondialdehyde (MDA) is one of the final products
of peroxidation of unsaturated fatty acids in phospholipids
and is responsible for cell membrane damage [43]. Two
common sites of ROS attack on the phospholipid molecules
are the unsaturated (double) bond between two carbon
atoms and the ester linkage between glycerol and the fatty

acid. The polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) present in

membrane phospholipids are particularly sensitive to attack
by ROS. A single OH can result in peroxidation of many
polyunsaturated fatty acids because the reactions involved in
this process are part of a cyclic chain reaction. The overall
process of lipid peroxidation involves three distinct stages:
initiation, progression, and termination steps. The initial
phase of lipid peroxidation includes activation of O2 which is
rate limiting. O2 and OH can react with methylene groups
of PUFA forming conjugated dienes, lipid peroxy radicals
and hydroperoxides [88]:
PUFA H + X PUFA + X H.

(9)

PUFA + O2 PUFA OO .

(10)

The peroxy radical formed is highly reactive and able to

propagate the chain reaction:
PUFA OO +PUFA OOH PUFA OOH + PUFA
(11)
The formation of conjugated diene occurs when free radicals
attack the hydrogens of methylene groups separating double
bonds and, thereby, rearrangement of the bonds occurs
[89]. The lipid hydroperoxides produced (PUFA-OOH) can
undergo reductive cleavage by reduced metals, such as Fe2+ ,
according to the following reaction:
Fe2+ complex + PUFA OOH
Fe3+ complex + PUFA O

(12)

Several reactive species including: lipid alkoxyl radicals, aldehydes (malonyldialdehyde, acrolein and crotonaldehyde),
alkanes, lipid epoxides, and alcohols can be easily formed
by the decomposition of lipid hydroperoxide [90]. The lipid
alkoxy radical produced, (PUFA-O ), can initiate additional
chain reactions [91]:
PUFA O + PUFA H PUFA OH + PUFA (13)

8
Peroxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acid by ROS attack can
lead to chain breakage and, thereby, increase in membrane
fluidity and permeability.
2.4.2. Proteins. The attack of ROS on proteins may cause
modification of proteins in a variety of ways, some are direct
and others indirect. Direct modification involves modulation
of a proteins activity through nitrosylation, carbonylation,
disulphide bond formation, and glutathionylation. Proteins
can be modified indirectly by conjugation with breakdown
products of fatty acid peroxidation [92]. As a consequence
of excessive ROS production, site-specific amino acid modification, fragmentation of the peptide chain, aggregation
of cross-linked reaction products, altered electric charge
and increased susceptibility of proteins to proteolysis occur.
Tissues injured by oxidative stress generally contain increased
concentrations of carbonylated proteins which is widely used
marker of protein oxidation [93]. Enhanced modification of
proteins has been reported in plants under various stresses
[8, 11, 12, 94]. The amino acids in a peptide dier in their
susceptibility to attack by ROS. Thiol groups and sulphur
containing amino acids are very susceptible sites for attack
by ROS. Activated oxygen can abstract an H atom from
cysteine residues to form a thiyl radical that will cross-link
to second thiyl radical to form disulphide bridge. Several
metals, including Cd, Pb, and Hg have been shown to cause
the depletion of protein bound thiol groups [95]. Oxygen
also can be added to a methionine to form methionine
sulphoxide derivative [96]. Tyrosine is readily cross-linked to
form bityrosine products in the presence of ROS [97].
Oxidation of iron-sulphur centers by O2 is irreversible
and leads to enzyme inactivation [98]. In these cases, the
metal (Fe) binds to a divalent cation-binding site on the
protein. The metal (Fe), then, reacts in a Fenton reaction to
form a OH that rapidly oxidizes an amino acid residue at
or near the cation-binding site of the protein [99]. Oxidized
proteins serve as better substrates for proteolytic digestion. It
has been suggested that protein oxidation could predispose
it to ubiquitination, which, in turn, would be a target for
proteasomal degradation [100]. The incubation of pea leaf
crude extracts with increasing H2 O2 concentrations, Cdtreated plants and peroxisomes purified from pea leaves
showed increase in carbonyl content. Oxidized proteins
were more eciently degraded, and the proteolytic activity
increased 20% due to the metal treatment [94]. Several
studies have revealed that after a certain degree further
damage leads to extensively cross-linked and aggregated
products, which are not only poor substrates for degradation,
but also can inhibit proteases to degrade other oxidized
proteins [101].
2.4.3. DNA. ROS are a major source of DNA damage [102].
ROS can cause oxidative damages to nuclear, mitochondrial,
and chloroplastic DNA. DNA is cells genetic material and
any damage to the DNA can result in changes in the encoded
proteins, which may lead to malfunctions or complete inactivation of the encoded proteins. Oxidative attack on DNA
results in deoxyribose oxidation, strand breakage, removal

Journal of Botany
of nucleotides, variety of modifications in the organic bases
of the nucleotides, and DNA-protein crosslinks. Further,
changes in the nucleotides of one strand can result in the
mismatches with the nucleotides in the other strand, yielding
subsequent mutations. Enhanced DNA degradation has been
observed in plants exposed to various environmental stresses
such as salinity [103] and metal toxicity [17]. Both the
sugar and base moieties of DNA are susceptible to oxidation
by ROS. Oxidative attack to DNA bases generally involves

OH addition to double bonds, while sugar damage mainly

results from hydrogen abstraction from deoxyribose [104].
The hydroxyl radical is known to react with all purine and
pyrimidine bases and, also, the deoxyribose backbone [105].

OH generates various products from the DNA bases which

mainly include C-8 hydroxylation of guanine to form 8oxo-7,8 dehydro-2 - deoxyguanosine, hydroxymethyl urea,
urea, thymine glycol, thymine and adenine ring-opened,
and saturated products [106]. 8-Hydroxyguanine is the most
commonly observed product. 1 O2 only reacts with guanine,
whereas H2 O2 and O2 do not react with bases at all
[104, 107]. ROS-induced DNA damages include various
mutagenic alterations as well. For example, mutation arising
from selective modification of G:C sites, especially, indicates
oxidative attack on DNA by ROS. ROS attack DNA bases
indirectly through reactive products generated by ROS attack
to other macromolecules such as lipid [108].
ROS attack to DNA sugars leads to single-strand breaks.
ROS abstract hydrogen atom from the C4 position of
deoxyribose, leading to generation of a deoxyribose radical
that further reacts to produce DNA strand breakage [109].
Under physiological conditions, neither H2 O2 alone nor
O2 can cause in vitro strand breakage. Therefore, it was
concluded that the toxicity associated with these ROS in
vivo is most likely the result of Fenton reaction. When OH
attacks on either DNA or proteins associated with it, DNA
protein crosslinks are formed [110]. DNA protein crosslinks
cannot be readily repaired and may be lethal if replication or
transcription precedes repair. Mitochondrial and chloroplast
DNA are more susceptible to oxidative damage than nuclear
DNA due to the lack of protective protein, histones, and close
locations to the ROS producing systems in the former [111].
Even though repair system exists for damaged DNA, excessive
changes caused by ROS lead to permanent damage to the
DNA with potentially detrimental eects for the cell.

3. Antioxidative Defense System in Plants

Plants possess complex antioxidative defense system comprising of nonenzymatic and enzymatic components to scavenge ROS. In plant cells, specific ROS producing and scavenging systems are found in dierent organelles such as
chloroplasts, mitochondria, and peroxisomes. ROS scavenging pathways from dierent cellular compartments are coordinated [112]. Under normal conditions, potentially toxic
oxygen metabolites are generated at a low level and there is
an appropriate balance between production and quenching
of ROS. The balance between production and quenching of ROS may be perturbed by a number of adverse

Journal of Botany
environmental factors, giving rise to rapid increases in
intracellular ROS levels [63, 113], which can induce oxidative
damage to lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. In order to
avoid the oxidative damage, higher plants raise the level of
endogenous antioxidant defense [113]. Various components
of antioxidative defense system involved in ROS scavenging
have been manipulated, overexpressed or downregulated to
add to the present knowledge and understanding the role of
the antioxidant systems.
3.1. Nonenzymatic Components of Antioxidative Defense System. Nonenzymic components of the antioxidative defense
system include the major cellular redox buers ascorbate
(AsA) and glutathione (-glutamyl-cysteinyl-glycine, GSH)
as well as tocopherol, carotenoids, and phenolic compounds.
They interact with numerous cellular components and in
addition to crucial roles in defense and as enzyme cofactors,
these antioxidants influence plant growth and development
by modulating processes from mitosis and cell elongation
to senescence and cell death [114]. Mutants with decreased
nonenzymic antioxidant contents have been shown to be
hypersensitive to stress [115, 116].
3.1.1. Ascorbate. Ascorbate (AsA) is the most abundant, low
molecular weight antioxidant that has a key role in defense
against oxidative stress caused by enhanced level of ROS.
AsA is considered powerful antioxidant because of its ability
to donate electrons in a number of enzymatic and nonenzymatic reactions. AsA has been shown to play important
role in several physiological processes in plants, including
growth, dierentiation, and metabolism. The majority of the
AsA pool in plants is contributed by D-mannose/L-galactose
commonly called Smirno-Wheeler pathway which proceeds
via GDP-D-mannose, GDP-L- galactose, L-galactose, and
L-galactono-1,4-lactone [117]. AsA is also synthesized via
uronic acid intermediates, such as D-galacturonic acid
[118]. In this pathway D-galacturonic acid is reduced to
L-galactonic acid by galacturonic acid reductase, which
is subsequently converted to L-galactono-1,4-lactone. The
L-galactono-1,4-lactone is further oxidized to AsA by Lgalactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase (GALDH) enzyme. It
is synthesized in the mitochondria by L-galactono--lactone
dehydrogenase and is transported to the other cell components through a proton-electrochemical gradient or through
facilitated diusion. It is detected in the majority of plant
cell types, organelles and apoplast in plants [119] and is
found to be particularly abundant in photosynthetic tissues
[120]. Most of AsA, almost more than 90%, is localized in
cytoplasm, but unlike other soluble antioxidants a substantial
portion is exported to the apoplast, where it is present
in millimolar concentration. Apoplastic AsA is believed
to represent the first line of defense against potentially
damaging external oxidants [121]. AsA protects critical
macromolecules from oxidative damage. Under normal
physiological condition, AsA mostly exists in reduced state
in chloroplast where it also acts as a cofactor of violaxanthin
de-epoxidase, thus, sustaining dissipation of excess excitation
energy [122]. It provides membrane protection by directly

9
reacting with O2 , H2 O2 and regenerating -tocopherol
from tocopheroxyl radical and preserves the activities of
the enzymes that contain prosthetic transition metal ions
[21]. AsA has a key role in removal of H2 O2 via AsAGSH cycle [49]. Oxidation of AsA occurs in two sequential
steps, first producing monodehydroascorbate (MDHA) and
subsequently dehydroascorbate (DHA). In the AsA-GSH
cycle, two molecules of AsA are utilized by APX to reduce
H2 O2 to water with concomitant generation of MDHA.
MDHA is a radical with a short life time and can spontaneously dismutate into DHA and AsA or is reduced to AsA
by NADP(H) dependent enzyme MDHAR [123]. DHA is
also highly unstable at pH values greater than 6.0 and is
decomposed to tartarate and oxalate [21]. To prevent this,
DHA is rapidly reduced to AsA by the enzyme DHAR using
reducing equivalents from GSH [124].
AsA level has been reported to alter in response to various
stresses [8, 11, 13, 14, 125, 126]. The level of AsA under
environmental stresses depends on the balance between the
rates and capacity of AsA biosynthesis and turnover related
to antioxidant demand [127]. Overexpression of enzymes
involved in AsA biosynthesis confers abiotic stress tolerance
in plants. GDP-Mannose 3 ,5 -epimerase (GME) catalyses
the conversion of GDP-D-mannose to GDP-L-galactose,
an important step in the Smirno-Wheeler pathway of
AsA biosynthesis in higher plants. Overexpression of two
members of the GME gene family resulted in increased
accumulation of ascorbate and improved tolerance to abiotic
stresses in tomato plants [128]. Overexpression of strawberry
D-galacturonic acid reductase which participates in AsA
biosynthetic pathway involving D-galacturonic acid as intermediate and reduces D-galacturonic acid to L-galactonic
acid, leads to accumulation of AsA and enhanced abiotic
stress tolerance in potato plants [129]. Increased AsA content
has been shown to confer oxidative stress tolerance in
Arabidopsis [130]. The vtc-1 mutant, deficient in the activity
of GDP-mannose pyrophosphorylase, an enzyme found in
the initial part of the ascorbate biosynthetic pathway before
it becomes committed to ascorbate synthesis [117] was found
to be more sensitive to supplementary UV-B treatment than
wild type plants [115].
3.1.2. Glutathione. Tripeptide glutathione (-glutamylcysteinyl-glycine, GSH) is one of the crucial low molecular
weight nonprotein thiol that plays an important role in
intracellular defense against ROS-induced oxidative damage.
It has been detected virtually in all cell compartments such
as cytosol, chloroplasts, endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles,
and mitochondria [131]. GSH is synthesized in the cytosol
and chloroplasts of plant cells by compartment specific
isoforms of -glutamyl-cysteinyl synthetase (-ECS) and
glutathione synthetase (GS). The balance between the GSH
and glutathione disulfide (GSSG) is a central component in
maintaining cellular redox state. Due to its reducing power,
GSH plays an important role in diverse biological processes,
including cell growth/division, regulation of sulfate transport, signal transduction, conjugation of metabolites, enzymatic regulation, synthesis of proteins and nucleic acids,

10
synthesis of phytochelatins for metal chelation, detoxification of xenobiotics, and the expression of the stressresponsive genes [48]. GSH functions as an antioxidant in
many ways. It can react chemically with O2 , OH, H2 O2
and, therefore, can function directly as a free radical scavenger. GSH can protect macromolecules (i.e., proteins,
lipids, DNA) either by the formation of adducts directly
with reactive electrophiles (glutathiolation) or by acting as
proton donor in the presence of ROS or organic free radicals,
yielding GSSG [132]. It can participate in regeneration of
another potential antioxidant AsA, via the AsA-GSH cycle.
GSH recycles AsA from its oxidized to reduced form by
the enzyme DHAR [133]. GSH can also reduce DHA by
a nonenzymic mechanism at pH > 7 and at GSH concentrations greater than 1 mM. This may be a significant
pathway in chloroplasts, where in the presence of light, pH
remains around 8 and GSH concentration may be as high as
5 mM [134]. Generation and maintenance of reduced GSH
pool, either by de novo synthesis or via recycling by GR,
using NADPH as a cofactor and electron donor, is of vital
importance for the cell. The role of GSH in the antioxidative
defense system provides a rationale for its use as a stress
marker. When apple trees were subjected to progressive
drought, the initial response was a little oxidation of the
GSH pool, followed by increased GSH concentrations.
When the stress increased, GSH concentrations dropped
and redox state became more oxidized, which marked the
degradation of the system [135]. Similar to drought stress,
altered ratio of GSH/GSSG has been observed in plants
under various stresses like salinity [136], chilling [126],
and metal toxicity [11, 1315]. Overexpression of enzyme
glutathione synthetase involved in GSH biosynthesis showed
no eect on GSH level and was not sucient to improve
ozone tolerance [137] and resistance to photoinhibition
[138] in hybrid poplar (Populus tremula P. alba). However,
overexpression of -ECS showed reduced sensitivity towards
cadmium stress in Indian mustard [139] and enhanced
tolerance towards chloroacetanilide herbicides in poplar
plants [140]. Eltayeb and coworkers [141] observed greater
protection against oxidative damages imposed by various
environmental stresses in transgenic potato with higher level
of reduced glutathione.
3.1.3. Tocopherols. Tocopherols (, , , and ) represent a
group of lipophilic antioxidants involved in scavenging of
oxygen free radicals, lipid peroxy radicals, and 1 O2 [142].
Relative antioxidant activity of the tocopherol isomers in
vivo is > > > which is due to the methylation
pattern and the amount of methyl groups attached to the
phenolic ring of the polar head structure [143]. Hence,
-tocopherol with its three methyl substituents has the
highest antioxidant activity of tocopherols [144]. Tocopherols are synthesized only by photosynthetic organisms
and are present in only green parts of plants. The tocopherol
biosynthetic pathway utilizes two compounds homogentisic
acid (HGA) and phytyl diphosphate (PDP) as precursors. At least 5 enzymes 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase (HPPD), homogentisate phytyl transferases (VTE2),

Journal of Botany
2-methyl-6-phytylbenzoquinol methyltransferase (VTE3),
tocopherol cyclase (VTE1), -tocopherol methyltransferase
(VTE4) are involved in the biosynthesis of tocopherols,
excluding the bypass pathway of phytyl-tail synthesis and utilization [145]. Tocopherols are known to protect lipids and
other membrane components by physically quenching and
chemically reacting with O2 in chloroplasts, thus protecting
the structure and function of PSII [146]. Tocopherols prevent
the chain propagation step in lipid autooxidation which
makes it an eective free radical trap. Fully substituted benzoquinone ring and fully reduced phytyl chain of tocopherol
act as antioxidants in redox interactions with 1 O2 [105, 147].
1 O oxygen quenching by tocopherols is highly ecient,
2
and it is estimated that a single -tocopherol molecule can
neutralize up to 220 1 O2 molecules in vitro before being
degraded [143]. Regeneration of the oxidized tocopherol
back to its reduced form can be achieved by AsA, GSH [147]
or coenzyme Q [148]. Accumulation of -tocopherol has
been shown to induce tolerance to chilling, water deficit,
and salinity in dierent plant species [149152]. It was
found that metabolic engineering of tocopherol biosynthetic
pathway aected endogenous ascorbate and glutathione
pools in leaves. Further study suggested that expression levels
of genes encoding enzymes of Halliwell-Asada cycle were
up-regulated, such as APX, DHAR and MDHAR [145].
Mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana with T-DNA insertions in
tocopherol biosynthesis genes, tocopherol cyclase (vte1) and
-tocopherol methyltransferase (vte4) showed higher concentration of protein carbonyl groups and GSSG compared
to the wild type, indicating the development of oxidative
stress [116]. Transgenic rice plants with Os-VTE1 RNA
interference (OsVTE1-RNAi) were more sensitive to salt
stress whereas, in contrast, transgenic plants overexpressing
OsVTE1 (OsVTE1-OX) showed higher tolerance to salt stress
[153]. OsVTE1-OX plants also accumulated less H2 O2 than
control plants.
3.1.4. Carotenoids. Carotenoids also belong to the group
of lipophilic antioxidants and are able to detoxify various
forms of ROS [154]. Carotenoids are found in plants
as well as microorganisms. In plants, carotenoids absorb
light in the region between 400 and 550 nm of the visible
spectrum and pass the captured energy to the Chl [155].
As an antioxidant, they scavenge 1 O2 to inhibit oxidative
damage and quench triplet sensitizer (3Chl ) and excited
chlorophyll (Chl ) molecule to prevent the formation of
1 O to protect the photosynthetic apparatus. Carotenoids
2
also serve as precursors to signaling molecules that influence
plant development and biotic/abiotic stress responses [156].
The ability of carotenoids to scavenge, prevent or minimize
the production of triplet chlorophyll may be accounted for by
their chemical specificity. Carotenoids contain a chain of isoprene residues bearing numerous conjugated double bonds
which allows easy energy uptake from excited molecules
and dissipation of excess energy as heat [7]. Gomathi and
Rakkiyapan [157] observed that high carotenoids content
favors better adaptation of sugarcane plants under saline
condition.

Journal of Botany
3.1.5. Phenolic Compounds. Phenolics are diverse secondary
metabolites (flavonoids, tannins, hydroxycinnamate esters,
and lignin) which possess antioxidant properties. They are
abundantly found in plant tissues [158]. Polyphenols contain
an aromatic ring with OH or OCH3 substituents which
together contribute to their biological activity, including
antioxidant action. They have been shown to outperform
well-known antioxidants, AsA and -tocopherol, in in vitro
antioxidant assays because of their strong capacity to donate
electrons or hydrogen atoms. Polyphenols can chelate transition metal ions, can directly scavenge molecular species of
active oxygen, and can inhibit lipid peroxidation by trapping
the lipid alkoxyl radical. They also modify lipid packing order
and decrease fluidity of the membranes [159]. These changes
could strictly hinder diusion of free radicals and restrict
peroxidative reactions. Moreover, it has been shown that,
especially, flavonoids and phenylpropanoids are oxidized by
peroxidase, and act in H2 O2 -scavenging, phenolic/AsA/POD
system. There is some evidence of induction of phenolic
metabolism in plants as a response to multiple stresses [160].
Janas and coworkers [161] observed that ROS could serve as
a common signal for acclimation to Cu2+ stress and could
cause accumulation of total phenolic compounds in darkgrown lentil roots. A mutant Arabidopsis thaliana L., having
a single gene defect which led to a block in the synthesis of
a group of flavonoids, displayed a dramatic increase in sensitivity to UV-B radiation compared with wild-type plants
[162]. Transgenic potato plant with increased concentration
of flavonoid showed improved antioxidant capacity [163].
3.2. Enzymatic Components. The enzymatic components of
the antioxidative defense system comprise of several antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase
(CAT), guaiacol peroxidase (GPX), enzymes of ascorbateglutathione (AsA-GSH) cycle ascorbate peroxidase (APX),
monodehydroascorbate reductase (MDHAR), dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR), and glutathione reductase (GR)
[21]. These enzymes operate in dierent subcellular compartments and respond in concert when cells are exposed to
oxidative stress. Table 1 shows various antioxidant enzymes
that play important role in scavenging stress-induced ROS
generated in plants.
3.2.1. Superoxide Dismutase. Superoxide dismutase (SOD,
1.15.1.1) plays central role in defense against oxidative stress
in all aerobic organisms [175]. The enzyme SOD belongs to
the group of metalloenzymes and catalyzes the dismutation
of O2 to O2 and H2 O2 . It is present in most of the
subcellular compartments that generate activated oxygen.
Three isozymes of SOD copper/zinc SOD (Cu/Zn-SOD),
manganese SOD (Mn-SOD), and iron SOD (Fe-SOD) are
reported in plants [176, 177]. All forms of SOD are
nuclear encoded and targeted to their respective subcellular
compartments by an amino terminal targeting sequence
[178]. MnSOD is localized in mitochondria, whereas FeSOD is localized in chloroplasts [179]. Cu/Zn-SOD is present
in three isoforms, which are found in the cytosol, chloroplast,

11
and peroxisome and mitochondria [178, 180182]. Eukaryotic Cu/Zn-SOD is cyanide sensitive and presents as dimer,
whereas the other two (Mn-SOD and Fe-SOD) are cyanide
insensitive and may be dimer or tetramers [175, 182].
SOD activity has been reported to increase in plants
exposed to various environmental stresses, including
drought and metal toxicity [8, 13]. Increased activity of
SOD is often correlated with increased tolerance of the plant
against environmental stresses. It was suggested that SOD
can be used as an indirect selection criterion for screening
drought-resistant plant materials [22]. Overproduction of
SOD has been reported to result in enhanced oxidative stress
tolerance in plants [183].
3.2.2. Catalase. Among antioxidant enzymes, catalase (CAT,
1.11.1.6) was the first enzyme to be discovered and characterized. It is a ubiquitous tetrameric heme-containing enzyme
that catalyzes the dismutation of two molecules of H2 O2
into water and oxygen. It has high specificity for H2 O2 ,
but weak activity against organic peroxides. Plants contain
several types of H2 O2 -degrading enzymes, however, CATs are
unique as they do not require cellular reducing equivalent.
CATs have a very fast turnover rate, but a much lower anity
for H2 O2 than APX. The peroxisomes are major sites of
H2 O2 production. CAT scavenges H2 O2 generated in this
organelle during photorespiratory oxidation, -oxidation of
fatty acids, and other enzyme systems such as XOD coupled
to SOD [3, 184, 185]. Though there are frequent reports of
CAT being present in cytosol, chloroplast, and mitochondria,
the presence of significant CAT activity in these is less well
established [186]. To date, all angiosperm species studied,
contain three CAT genes. Willekens et al. [187] proposed a
classification of CAT based on the expression profile of the
tobacco genes. Class I CATs are expressed in photosynthetic
tissues and are regulated by light. Class II CATs are expressed
at high levels in vascular tissues, whereas Class III CATs are
highly abundant in seeds and young seedlings.
H2 O2 has been implicated in many stress conditions.
When cells are stressed for energy and are rapidly generating
H2 O2 through catabolic processes, H2 O2 is degraded by CAT
in an energy ecient manner [188]. Environmental stresses
cause either enhancement or depletion of CAT activity,
depending on the intensity, duration, and type of the stress
[8, 10, 189]. In general, stresses that reduce the rate of protein
turnover also reduce CAT activity. Stress analysis revealed
increased susceptibility of CAT-deficient plants to paraquat,
salt and ozone, but not to chilling [190]. In transgenic
tobacco plants, having 10% wild-type, CAT activity showed
accumulation of GSSG and a 4-fold decrease in AsA,
indicating that CAT is critical for maintaining the redox
balance during the oxidative stress [190]. Overexpression of
a CAT gene from Brassica juncea introduced into tobacco,
enhanced its tolerance to Cd induced oxidative stress [191].
3.2.3. Guaiacol Peroxidase. Guaiacol peroxidase (GPX, EC
1.11.1.7), a heme containing protein, preferably oxidizes aromatic electron donor such as guaiacol and pyragallol at the
expense of H2 O2 . It is widely found in animals, plants,

12

Journal of Botany
Table 1: Activation of antioxidant enzymes in response to oxidative stress induced by various environmental stresses.

Stresses
Drought

Antioxidant enzymes
SOD, GPX, APX, MDHAR,
DHAR and GR
SOD, CAT and GPX
SOD, APX and GR
SOD, CAT, GPX, APX, GR
CAT, SOD and GR
GPX
APX, MDHAR, DHAR, GR
and SOD

Plant species

References

Oryza sativa

[8]

MetalsAl

SOD, GPX and APX

Ni
As
Mn
UV-B

SOD, GPX and APX

SOD, GPX and APX
SOD, GPX, APX and GR
SOD, APX, CAT and GPX
GPX andAPX

Beta vulgaris
Triticum sativum
Oryza sativa
Olea europaea
Oryza sativa
Zea mays
Fragariaananassa
Oryza sativaGlycine
max
Oryza sativa
Oryza sativa
Oryza sativa
Picea asperata
Arabidopsis thaliana

GPX and CAT

Linum usitatissimum

[173]

POD, CAT, APX and SOD

Vicia faba

[174]

Salinity

Chilling

Pathogen Odium lini

fungus
Bean yellow mosaic
virus

and microbes. These enzymes have four conserved disulfide

bridges and contain two structural Ca2+ ions [192]. Many
isoenzymes of GPX exist in plant tissues localized in vacuoles,
the cell wall, and the cytosol [193]. GPX is associated with
many important biosynthetic processes, including lignification of cell wall, degradation of IAA, biosynthesis of ethylene,
wound healing, and defense against abiotic and biotic stresses
[194]. GPXs are widely accepted as stress enzyme. GPX
can function as eective quencher of reactive intermediary
forms of O2 and peroxy radicals under stressed conditions
[195]. Various stressful conditions of the environment have
been shown to induce the activity of GPX [6, 8, 10, 16, 166,
189, 196]. Radotic and coworkers [196] correlated increased
activity of GPX to oxidative reactions under metal toxicity
conditions and suggested its potential as biomarker for
sublethal metal toxicity in plants. Recently, Tayefi-Nasrabadi
and coworkers [197] also concluded that greater protection
of salt-tolerant saower plants from salt-induced oxidative
damage results, at least in part, through the increase of the
GPX activity, catalytic eciency and induction of specific
isoenzymes compared to salt-sensitive cultivar.
3.2.4. Enzymes of Ascorbate-Glutathione Cycle. The change in
the ratio of AsA to DHA and GSH to GSSG is crucial for the
cell to sense oxidative stress and respond accordingly. The
AsA-GSH cycle also referred to as Halliwell-Asada pathway
is the recycling pathway of AsA and GSH regeneration which
also detoxifies H2 O2 . The AsA-GSH cycle involves successive
oxidation and reduction of AsA, GSH, and NADPH catalyzed
by the enzymes APX, MDHAR, DHAR, and GR. The AsAGSH cycle is present in at least four dierent subcellular
locations, including the cytosol, chloroplast, mitochondria,

[164]
[165]
[166]
[167]
[168]
[169]
[170]
[15, 171]
[11]
[13]
[14]
[10]
[172]

and peroxisomes [198]. AsA-GSH cycle plays an important

role in combating oxidative stress induced by environmental
stresses [8, 199].
(1) Ascorbate Peroxidase. Ascorbate peroxidase (APX, EC
1.1.11.1) is a central component of AsA-GSH cycle, and
plays an essential role in the control of intracellular ROS
levels. APX uses two molecules of AsA to reduce H2 O2 to
water with a concomitant generation of two molecules of
MDHA. APX is a member of Class I super family of heme
peroxidases [200] and is regulated by redox signals and
H2 O2 [201]. Based on amino acid sequences, five chemically
and enzymatically distinct isoenzymes of APX have been
found at dierent subcellular localization in higher plants.
These are cytosolic, stromal, thylakoidal, mitochondrial
and peroxisomal isoforms [198, 202204]. APX found in
organelles scavenges H2 O2 produced within the organelles,
whereas cytosolic APX eliminates H2 O2 produced in the
cytosol, apoplast or that diused from organelles [205].
The chloroplastic and cytosolic APX isoforms are specific
for AsA as electron donor and the cytosolic isoenzymes
are less sensitive to depletion of AsA than the chloroplastic
isoenzymes, including stromal and thylakoid bound enzymes
[203, 206].
APX is regarded as one of the most widely distributed
antioxidant enzymes in plant cells and isoforms of APX
have much higher anity for H2 O2 than CAT, making APXs
ecient scavengers of H2 O2 under stressful conditions [207].
Many workers have reported enhanced activity of APX in
response to abiotic stresses such as drought, salinity, chilling,
metal toxicity, and UV irradiation [8, 10, 11, 15, 136, 208].
Overexpression of a cytosolic APX-gene derived from pea

Journal of Botany
(Pisum sativum L.) in transgenic tomato plants (Lycopersicon
esculentum L.) ameliorated oxidative injury induced by chilling and salt stress [209]. Similarly, overexpression of the tApx
gene in either tobacco or in Arabidopsis increased tolerance
to oxidative stress [210].
(2) Monodehydroascorbate Reductase. MDHA radical produced in APX catalyzed reaction has a short lifetime, and
if not rapidly reduced, it disproportionates to AsA and
DHA [211]. Monodehydroascorbate reductase (MDHAR,
1.6.5.4) is a FAD enzyme that catalyzes the regeneration
of AsA from the MDHA radical using NAD(P)H as the
electron donor [212]. It is the only known enzyme to
use an organic radical (MDA) as a substrate and is also
capable of reducing phenoxyl radicals which are generated by
horseradish peroxidase with H2 O2 [213]. MDHAR activity
is widespread in plants. The isoenzymes of MDHAR have
been reported to be present in several cellular compartments
such as chloroplasts [214], cytosol and mitochondria and
peroxisomes [198, 215]. In chloroplasts, MDHAR could
have two physiological functions: the regeneration of AsA
from MDHA and the mediation of the photoreduction of
dioxygen to O2 when the substrate MDHA is absent [216].
Characterization of membrane polypeptides from pea leaf
peroxisomes also revealed MDHAR to be involved in O2
generation [64].
Several studies have shown increased activity of MDHAR
in plants subjected to environmental stresses [8, 11, 15, 208].
Overexpression of Arabidopsis MDHAR gene in tobacco
confers enhanced tolerance to salt and polyethylene glycol
stresses [217]. Tomato chloroplastic MDHAR overexpressed
in transgenic Arabidopsis enhanced its tolerance to temperature and methyl viologen-mediated oxidative stresses [218].
(3) Dehydroascorbate Reductase. Dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR, EC 1.8.5.1) catalyzes the reduction of DHA to
AsA using GSH as the reducing substrate [211] and, thus,
plays an important role in maintaining AsA in its reduced
form. Despite the possibility of enzymic and nonenzymic
regeneration of AsA directly from MDHA, some DHA is
always produced when AsA is oxidized in leaves and other
tissues. DHA, a very short-lived chemical, can either be
hydrolyzed irreversibly to 2,3-diketogulonic acid or recycled
to AsA by DHAR. Overexpression of DHAR in tobacco
leaves, maize, and potato is reported to increase AsA content
suggesting that DHAR plays important roles in determining
the pool size of AsA [219, 220]. DHAR is a monomeric thiol
enzyme abundantly found in dry seeds, roots and etiolated
as well as green shoots. DHAR has been purified from
chloroplast as well as nonchloroplast sources in several plant
species, including spinach leaves [221] and potato tuber
[222].
Environmental stresses such as drought, metal toxicity,
and chilling increase the activity of the DHAR in plants
[8, 11, 15, 125, 208, 223]. Consistent upregulation of the
gene encoding cytosolic DHAR was found in L. japonicas,
which was found to be more tolerant to salt stress than
other legumes. This upregulation of DHAR was correlated

13
to its role in AsA recycling in the apoplast [224]. Transgenic potato overexpressing Arabidopsis cytosolic AtDHAR1
showed higher tolerance to herbicide, drought, and salt
stresses [225].
(4) Glutathione Reductase (GR). When acting as an antioxidant by participating in enzymic as well as nonenzymic
oxidation-reduction cycles, GSH is oxidized to GSSG. In
AsA-GSH cycle, GSH is oxidized in a reaction catalyzed
by DHAR. Glutathione reductase (GR, EC 1.6.4.2), a
NAD(P)H-dependent enzyme catalyzes the reduction of
GSSG to GSH and, thus, maintains high cellular GSH/GSSG
ratio. GR belongs to a group of flavoenzymes and contains
an essential disulfide group [226]. The catalytic mechanism
involves two steps: first the flavin moiety is reduced by
NADPH, the flavin is oxidized and a redox active disulfide
bridge is reduced to produce a thiolate anion and a cysteine.
The second step involves the reduction of GSSG via thioldisulfide interchange reactions [226]. If the reduced enzyme
is not reoxidized by GSSG, it can suer a reversible inactivation. Although it is located in the chloroplasts, cytosol,
mitochondria, and peroxisomes, around 80% of GR activity
in photosynthetic tissues is accounted for by chloroplastic
isoforms [227]. In chloroplast, GSH and GR are involved in
detoxification of H2 O2 generated by Mehler reaction.
Several authors have reported increased activity of GR
under environmental stresses [8, 11, 15, 125, 223]. Pastori
and Trippi [228] observed correlation between the oxidative
stress resistance and activity of GR and suggested that
oxidative stress caused by paraquat or H2 O2 could stimulate
GR de novo synthesis, probably at the level of translation by
preexisting mRNA. Antisense-mediated depletion of tomato
chloroplast GR has been shown to enhance susceptibility to
chilling stress [229]. Overexpression of GR in N. tabacum
and Populus plants leads to higher foliar AsA contents and
improved tolerance to oxidative stress [138, 230].
Due to the complexity of ROS detoxification system,
overexpressing one component of antioxidative defense
system may or may not change the capacity of the pathway
as a whole [231, 232]. Several studies have shown that
overexpression of combinations of antioxidant enzymes in
transgenic plants has synergistic eect on stress tolerance
[233, 234]. Kwon et al. [234] demonstrated that simultaneous expression of Cu/Zn-SOD and APX genes in tobacco
chloroplasts enhanced tolerance to methyl viologen (MV)
stress compared to expression of either of these genes alone.
Similarly, enhanced tolerance to multiple environmental
stresses has been developed by simultaneous overexpression
of the genes of SOD and APX in the chloroplasts [235,
236], SOD and CAT in cytosol [231] and SOD and GR in
cytosol [233]. Further, simultaneous expression of multiple
antioxidant enzymes, such as Cu/Zn-SOD, APX, and DHAR,
in chloroplasts has shown to be more eective than single
or double expression for developing transgenic plants with
enhanced tolerance to multiple environmental stresses [26].
Therefore, in order to achieve tolerance to multiple environmental stresses, increased emphasis is now given to produce
transgenic plants overexpressing multiple antioxidants.

14

4. Overproduction of ROS under

Stressful Conditions
The production of ROS in plants under normal growth
conditions is low. However, in response to various environmental stresses, ROS are drastically increased in plants
disturbing the normal balance of O2 , OH, and H2 O2 in
the intracellular environment [113]. The eects of various
environmental stresses such as drought, salinity, chilling,
metal toxicity, UV-B radiation, and pathogen attack on ROS
production are discussed below.

4.1. Drought. Under drought stress, ROS production is enhanced in several ways. Inhibition of carbon dioxide (CO2 )
assimilation, coupled with the changes in photosystem activities and photosynthetic transport capacity under drought
stress results in accelerated production of ROS via the
chloroplast Mehler reaction [237]. During drought stress,
CO2 fixation is limited due to stomatal closure which,
in turn, leads to reduced NADP+ regeneration through
the Calvin cycle. Due to lack of electron acceptor, over
reduction of the photosynthetic ETC occurs which leads to
a higher leakage of electrons to O2 by the Mehler reaction.
Biehler and Fock [238] reported 50% more leakage of
photosynthetic electrons to the Mehler reaction in drought
stressed wheat plants, compared to unstressed plants. Photosynthetic activity is inhibited in plant tissues due to an
imbalance between light capture and its utilization under
drought stress [239]. Dissipation of excess light energy in
the PSII core and antenna leads to generation of ROS which
are potentially dangerous under drought stress conditions
[1]. Under drought stress, the photorespiratory pathway
is also enhanced, especially, when RUBP oxygenation is
maximal due to limitation in CO2 fixation [63]). Noctor
and collaborators [63] have estimated that photorespiration
is likely to account for over 70% of total H2 O2 production
under drought stress conditions.
O2 initiates a chain reaction leading to the production
of more toxic radical species, which may cause damage far
in excess of the initial reaction products. Under drought
stress one of the real threats towards the chloroplast is the
production of the OH in the thylakoids through ironcatalysed reduction of H2 O2 by both SOD and AsA.
Increased production of ROS leads to oxidative stress in
growing plants. Rice seedlings subjected to drought showed
increased concentration of O2 , increased level of lipid
peroxidation, chlorophyll bleaching, loss of some antioxidants (AsA, GSH, -tocopherol, and carotenoids), total
soluble protein, and thiols [8, 208]. To combat danger posed
by ROS, plants possess dierent scavenging enzymes and
metabolites. Enhanced activity of enzymes of antioxidative
defense system has been reported under drought stress in
several plant species [8, 164, 165, 208]. Comparative study of
the antioxidant responses in drought tolerant and drought
sensitive genotypes revealed higher antioxidant capacity in
tolerant genotypes. In contrast to drought susceptible wheat
genotype HD 2329, drought tolerant wheat genotype C 306
had higher APX and CAT activity, higher AsA content and

Journal of Botany
lower H2 O2 and MDA content [240]. In another study,
the drought tolerant maize genotype Giza 2 was suggested
to be comparatively tolerant to water stress compared to
drought sensitive Trihybrid 321 owing to the lower increase
in H2 O2 and MDA content along with higher increase
in SOD, CAT, and POX activities [189]. Similarly, among
two apple rootstocks Malus prunifolia (drought-tolerant)
and M. hupehensis (drought-sensitive), M. hupehensis was
more vulnerable to drought than M. prunifolia, resulting in
larger increases in the levels of H2 O2 , O2 , and MDA. The
activities of SOD, POD, APX, GR, and DHAR and levels of
AsA and GSH increased to a greater extent in M. prunifolia
than in M. hupehensis in response to drought [241]. APX
serves as an important component of antioxidative defense
system under drought [8]. In rice plants, increase in the
capacity of AsA regeneration system by de novo synthesis of
MDHAR, DHAR, and GR has been shown to be one of the
primary responses to water deficit so as to mitigate oxidative
stress [8, 208].
4.2. Salinity. Salinity stress results in an excessive generation of ROS [12, 242]. High salt concentrations lead to
overproduction of the ROS- O2 , OH, H2 O2 , and 1 O2 by
impairment of the cellular electron transport within dierent
subcellular compartments such as chloroplasts and mitochondria, as well as from induction of metabolic pathways
such as photorespiration. Salt stress can lead to stomatal
closure, which reduces CO2 availability in the leaves and
inhibits carbon fixation which, in turn, causes exposure of
chloroplasts to excessive excitation energy and overreduction
of photosynthetic electron transport system leading to
enhanced generation of ROS and induced oxidative stress.
Low chloroplastic CO2 /O2 ratio also favors photorespiration
leading to increased production of ROS such as H2 O2 [242].
Elevated CO2 mitigates the oxidative stress caused by salinity,
involving lower ROS generation and a better maintenance of
redox homeostasis as a consequence of higher assimilation
rates and lower photorespiration [243]. Salinity-induced
ROS disrupt normal metabolism through lipid peroxidation,
denaturing proteins, and nucleic acids in several plant
species [12, 242, 244]. Dierential genomic and proteomic
screenings carried out in Physcomitrella patens plants showed
that they responded to salinity stress by upregulating a large
number of genes involved in antioxidant defense mechanism
[245] suggesting that the antioxidative system may play
a crucial role in protecting cells from oxidative damage
following exposure to salinity stress in P. patens. Salinityinduced oxidative stress and possible relationship between
the status of the components of antioxidative defense system
and the salt tolerance in Indica rice (Oryza sativa L.)
genotypes were studied by Mishra et al. [166]. Seedlings of
salt-sensitive cultivar showed a substantial increase in the
rate of O2 production, elevated levels of H2 O2 , MDA,
declined levels of thiol, AsA and GSH and lower activity
of antioxidant enzymes compared to salt-tolerant seedlings.
It was suggested that a higher status of antioxidants AsA
and GSH and a coordinated higher activity of the enzymes
SOD, CAT, GPX, APX, and GR can serve as the major

Journal of Botany
determinants in the model for depicting salt tolerance in
Indica rice seedlings [166]. Similarly, study of immediate
responses (enzymatic and nonenzymatic) to salinity-induced
oxidative stress in two major rice (Oryza sativa L.) cultivars,
salt sensitive Pusa Basmati 1 (PB) and salt-tolerant Pokkali
(PK), revealed a lesser extent of membrane damage (lipid
peroxidation), lower levels of H2 O2 , higher activity of
the ROS scavenging enzyme, CAT and enhanced levels of
antioxidants like ASA and GSH in PK compared to PB [246].
Comparative study using cultivated tomato Lycopersicon
esculentum Mill. cv. M82 (Lem) and its wild salt-tolerant
relative L. pennellii (Corr.) DArcy accession Atico (Lpa)
showed better protection of Lpa roots from salt-induced
oxidative damage, at least partially, from the increased
activities of the SOD, CAT, APX, MDHAR, and increased
contents of AsA and GSH [247]. In salt-stressed root of
Lem, a gradual increase in the membrane lipid peroxidation
was observed, whereas no change in lipid peroxidation was
observed in Lpa. Salt-tolerant Plantago maritima showed
a lower level of MDA and a better protection mechanism
against oxidative damage caused by salt stress by increasing
activities of SOD, CAT, GR, and APX than the salt-sensitive
P. media [248]. NADP-dehydrogenases and peroxidase have
been suggested as key antioxidative enzymes in olive plants
under salt stress conditions [167]. Mittal and Dubey [168]
observed a correlation between peroxidase activity and salt
tolerance in rice seedling.
4.3. Chilling. Chilling stress is a key environmental factor
limiting growth and productivity of crop plants. Chilling
leads to the overproduction of ROS by exacerbating imbalance between light absorption and light use by inhibiting
Calvin-Benson cycle activity [249], enhancing photosynthetic electron flux to O2 and causing overreduction of
respiratory ETC [9]. Chilling stress also causes significant
reductions in rbcL and rbcS transcripts, RUBISCO content
and initial RUBISCO activity, leading to higher electron
flux to O2 [250]. H2 O2 accumulation in chloroplast was
negatively correlated with the initial RUBISCO activity and
photosynthetic rate [250]. Chilling-induced oxidative stress
evident by increased accumulation of ROS, including H2 O2
and O2 , lipid peroxidation, and protein oxidation is a
significant factor in relation to chilling injury in plants
[169, 251, 252]. Protein carbonyl content, an indication of
oxidative damage, was increased 2-fold in maize seedlings
when exposed to chilling temperatures [251]. Lipoxygenase activity as well as lipid peroxidation was increased
in maize leaves during low temperatures, suggesting that
lipoxygenase-mediated peroxidation of membrane lipids
contributes to the oxidative damage occurring in chillstressed maize leaves [169]. Responses to chilling-induced
oxidative stress include alteration in activities of enzymes
of antioxidant defense system. The activities of antioxidative
enzymes APX, MDHAR, DHAR, GR, and SOD increased
during chilling periods in maize [169] and strawberry leaves
[170]. However, if the duration of chilling stress is too
long, the defense system may not remove overproduced
ROS eectively, which may result in severe damage or

15
even death [252]. Nonenzymic antioxidants (AsA, GSH,
carotenoids, and -tocopherol) also play important role in
cold response. Under cold stress conditions, low-molecular
weight antioxidants, especially, that of reduced AsA, have
been suggested to be an important component in plant
cell defense [126]. Many comparative studies using chillingtolerant and sensitive genotypes have shown greater antioxidant capacity in chilling-tolerant species compared to
sensitive ones [253255]. In rice, higher activities of defense
enzymes and higher content of antioxidant under stress were
associated with tolerance to chilling [255]. The responses of
antioxidative system of rice to chilling were investigated in
a tolerant cultivar, Xiangnuo-1, and a susceptible cultivar,
IR-50. The electrolyte leakage and malondialdehyde content
of Xiangnuo-1 were little aected by chilling treatment, but
those of IR-50 increased. Activities of SOD, CAT, APX, and
GR and AsA content of Xiangnuo-1 remained high, while
those of IR-50 decreased under chilling stress. GR activity
was also found to increase within 24 h in chilling-tolerant Zea
diploperennis, but it decreased slightly in chilling-susceptible
Z. mays cv. LG11 [253].
4.4. Metal Toxicity. The increasing levels of metals into the
environment drastically aect plant growth and metabolism,
ultimately, leading to severe losses in crop yields [256,
257]. One of the consequences of the presence of the toxic
metals within the plant tissues is the formation of ROS,
which can be initiated directly or indirectly by the metals
and, consequently, leading to oxidative damage to dierent
cell constituents [6, 11, 14, 15, 258]. Under metal stress
condition, net photosynthesis (Phn ) decreases due to damage
to photosynthetic metabolism, including photosynthetic
electron transport (Phet ) [259]. For example, copper has
been shown to negatively aect components of both the
light reactions (e.g., PSII, thylakoid membrane structure,
and chlorophyll content) [259] and CO2 -fixation reactions
[260]. These alterations in photosynthetic metabolism lead
to overproduction of ROS such as O2 , OH, and H2 O2 .
The induction of ROS production due to metals (cadmium
and zinc) in Nicotiana tabacum L. cv. Bright Yellow 2 (TBY2) cells in suspension cultures showed properties comparable to the elicitor-induced oxidative burst in other plant
cells [261]. Redox-active metals, such as iron, copper, and
chromium, undergo redox cycling producing ROS, whereas
redox-inactive metals, such as lead, cadmium, mercury, and
others, deplete cells major antioxidants, particularly thiolcontaining antioxidants and enzymes [6, 11, 1416, 262
264]. If metal-induced production of ROS is not adequately
counterbalanced by cellular antioxidants, oxidative damage
of lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids ensues [1315, 43, 46,
265, 266]. Significant enhancement in lipid peroxidation
and decline in protein thiol contents were observed when
rice seedlings were subjected to Al, Ni, and Mn toxicity
[11, 14, 15].
The increased activity of antioxidative enzymes in metal
stressed plants appears to serve as an important component
of antioxidant defense mechanism of plants to combat metalinduced oxidative injury [6]. Responses of metal exposure

16
to plants vary depending on plant species, tissues, stages of
development, type of metal and its concentration. One of
the key responses includes triggering of a series of defense
mechanisms which involve enzymatic and nonenzymatic
components [6, 11, 1316, 262]. Various groups of workers
have reported increased activities of antioxidant enzymes
like GPX, SOD, APX, MDHAR, DHAR, and GR as well
as nonenzymic antioxidants in metal-treated plants and
suggested involvement of antioxidant defense system in the
adaptive response to metal ions [6, 11, 1316, 171]. However,
results suggest that activation of antioxidant enzymes in
response to oxidative stress induced by metals is not enough
to confer tolerance to metal accumulation. Comparative
study of antioxidative response of two maize lines diering
in Al tolerance suggested that better protection of the Al
tolerant maize roots from Al-induced oxidative damage
results, at least partially, from the increased activity of their
antioxidative system. After 24 h of Al exposure, a gradual
increase in the membrane lipid peroxidation in Al-stressed
root of the susceptible maize line was accompanied by
decreased activities of the antioxidant enzymes SOD and
POD. In contrast, increased activities of the SOD and POD
were found in Al-treated roots of the tolerant maize line, in
which the level of membrane lipid peroxidation remained
almost unchanged [267]. Comparative antioxidant profiling
of tolerant (TPM-1) and sensitive (TM-4) variety of Brassica
juncea L. performed after exposure to arsenate [As(V)]
and arsenite [As(III)] showed in general, better response of
antioxidant enzymes and the level of glutathione in TPM1 than in TM-4 [268]. These responses presumably allowed
TPM-1 to tolerate higher As concentrations as compared
with that of TM-4 [268].
4.5. UV-B Radiations. UV-B radiation on plants is now
of major concern to plant biologists due to the threat to
productivity in global agriculture [269]. Enhanced UV-B
significantly inhibits net photosynthetic rate. It has been
shown that UV-B treatment results in decrease in the lightsaturated rate of CO2 assimilation, accompanied by decreases
in carboxylation velocity and RUBISCO content and activity
[270]. He and coworkers [271] observed marked decrease in
the ratios of variable to maximum chlorophyll fluorescence
yield and in the quantum yield of photosynthetic oxygen
evolution in pea and rice leaves. Limited CO2 assimilation
due to UV-B leads to excessive production of ROS which,
in turn, cause oxidative damage in plants [10, 272]. Rao
and coworkers [172] suggested that UV-B exposure generates
activated oxygen species by increasing NADPH-oxidase
activity. Plants must adapt to the deleterious eects of
UV-B radiation because they are dependent on sunlight
for photosynthesis and, therefore, cannot avoid exposure
to UV-B radiation. Plants possess antioxidative enzymatic
scavengers SOD, POD, CAT, and APX and nonenzymatic
antioxidants like AsA, GSH, and carotenoids to keep the balance between the production and removal of ROS. In Picea
asperata seedlings although enhanced UV-B (30%) increased
the eciency of antioxidant defense system consisting of
UV-B absorbing compounds, carotenoids, and antioxidant

Journal of Botany
enzymes SOD, APX, CAT, and GPX [10], it induced overproduction of ROS and oxidative stress eventually. Peroxidaserelated enzymes were found to be preferentially induced by
UV-B exposure in Arabidopsis [172]. Gao and Zhang [115]
observed that AsA-deficient mutant vtc1 was more sensitive
to supplementary UV-B treatment than wild-type plants and,
therefore, suggested that AsA could be considered as an
important antioxidant for UV-B radiation.
4.6. Pathogens. One of the earliest cellular responses following successful pathogen recognition is oxidative burst
involving production of ROS. Recognition of a variety of
pathogens leads to generation of O2 , or its dismutation
product H2 O2 in apoplast [273, 274]. Radwan and coworkers
[174] observed higher H2 O2 and MDA concentrations in
Vicia faba leaves infected with bean yellow mosaic virus than
those of the corresponding controls. Several enzymes have
been implicated in apoplastic ROS production following successful pathogen recognition. The use of inhibitors pointed
to plasma membrane NADPH oxidases and cell wall peroxidases as the two most likely biochemical sources [274]. The
expression of these enzymes is induced following recognition
of bacterial and fungal pathogens [275, 276]. Although
the primary oxidative burst following pathogen recognition
occurs in the apoplast, ROS can be produced in other cellular
compartments like mitochondria and chloroplast. Abdollahi
and Ghahremani [277] studied the role of chloroplasts in
the interaction between Erwinia amylovora and host plants
by using uracil as chloroplast ETC inhibitor. Uracil presence
significantly reduced ROS generation during pathogen-host
interaction, and ROS generation corresponded with the
appearance of necrosis in all cultivars [277]. Liu and coworkers [278] showed that activation of the SIPK/Ntf4/WIPK
cascade by pathogens actively promotes the generation of
ROS in chloroplasts, which plays an important role in the
signaling for and/or execution of HR cell death in plants.
They concluded that chloroplast burst occur earlier than
NADPH oxidase burst and mitochondria-generated ROS
might be essential in accelerating the cell death process.
Dierential regulation of antioxidant enzymes, in part
mediated by SA, may contribute to increases in ROS and
activation of defenses following infection [81, 279]. In
tobacco, the reduction of CAT and APX activities resulted
in plants hyperresponsive to pathogens [279]. Significant
increase in the activities of POD and CAT was observed
in leaves of flax lines infected with powdery mildew [173].
Increase in POD activity was much pronounced in tolerant
lines than susceptible lines. Enhanced activities of POD, CAT,
APX, and SOD were observed in Vicia faba leaves infected
with bean yellow mosaic virus indicating that the ROSscavenging systems can have an important role in managing
ROS generated in response to pathogens [174].

5. Concluding Remarks
ROS are unavoidable by products of normal cell metabolism.
ROS are generated by electron transport activities of
chloroplast, mitochondria, and plasma membrane or as

Journal of Botany
a byproduct of various metabolic pathways localized in
dierent cellular compartments. Under normal growth condition, ROS production in various cell compartments is low.
However, various environmental stresses such as drought,
salinity, chilling, metal toxicity, and UV-B, if prolonged over
to a certain extent, disrupt the cellular homeostasis and
enhance the production of ROS. ROS play two divergent
roles in plants; in low concentrations they act as signaling
molecules that mediate several plant responses in plant
cells, including responses under stresses, whereas in high
concentrations they cause exacerbating damage to cellular
components. Enhanced level of ROS causes oxidative damage
to lipid, protein, and DNA leading to altered intrinsic
membrane properties like fluidity, ion transport, loss of
enzyme activity, protein crosslinking, inhibition of protein
synthesis, DNA damage, ultimately resulting in cell death.
In order to avoid the oxidative damage, higher plants
possess a complex antioxidative defense system comprising
of nonenzymatic and enzymatic components. Although
rapid progress has been made in recent years, there are
many uncertainties and gaps in our knowledge of ROS
formation and their eect on plants mainly due to short
half-life and high reactivity of ROS. Study of formation and
fate of ROS using advanced analytical techniques will help
in developing broader view of the role of ROS in plants.
Future progress in genomics, metabolomics, and proteomics
will help in clear understanding of biochemical networks
involved in cellular responses to oxidative stress. Improved
understanding of these will be helpful in producing plants
with in-built capacity of enhanced levels of tolerance to ROS
using biotechnological approach.

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