Portal frame

An example of a portal frame steel building

Portal frame construction is a method of building and designing structures, primarily using
steel or steel-reinforced precast concrete although they can also be constructed using
laminated timber such as glulam. The connections between the columns and the rafters are
designed to be moment-resistant, i.e. they can carry bending forces.[1] "They were first
developed in the 1960s, and have now become the most common form of enclosure for spans
of 20 to 60 m"[2]
Because of these very strong and rigid joints, some of the bending moment in the rafters is
transferred to the columns. This means that the size of the rafters can be reduced or the span
can be increased for the same size rafters. This makes portal frames a very efficient
construction technique to use for wide span buildings.
Portal frame construction is therefore typically seen in warehouses, barns and other places
where large, open spaces are required at low cost and a pitched roof is acceptable.
Generally portal frames are used for single-story buildings but they can be used for low-rise
buildings with several floors where they can be economic if the floors do not span right
across the building (in these circumstances a skeleton frame, with internal columns, would be
a more economic choice). A typical configuration might be where there is office space built
against one wall of a warehouse.
Portal frames can be clad with all sorts of material but the most popular solution, for reasons
of economy and speed, is some form of lightweight insulated metal cladding with cavity
masonry work to the bottom 2m of the wall to provide security and impact resistance. The
lightweight cladding would be carried on sheeting rails spanning between the columns of the
portal frames.
Portal frames can be defined as two-dimensional rigid frames that have the basic
characteristics of a rigid joint between column and beam.
The main objective of this form of design is to reduce bending moment in the beam, which
allows the frame to act as one structural unit.
The transfer of stresses from the beam to the column results in rotational movement at the
foundation, which can be overcome by the introduction of a pin/hinge joint.
For warehouses and industrial buildings, sloping roof made of purlins and ac sheet roofing
between portals is provided. For assembly halls, portals with R.C slab roof cast
monolithically is used.
Portal frames are designed for the following loads:
roof load
wind load

While designing, care should be taken for proper

joints
foundation
bracing
If the joints at B, C, and D are not rigid, they will "open up" and the frame will be unstable
when subjected to loads. This is the pack of cards effect.
Vertical loading results in A and E pushed outwards. If the foundation cannot resist
horizontal push, outward movement will occur and the frame will lose strength.
Wind subjects the frame to uplift forces. Overturning forces on the sides and ends of
the building. Drag forces on the roof and sides.
These destabilizing forces are resisted essentially by the weight of the building and in
this regard, the foundations contribute significantly to this weight. The foundations
are regarded as the building's anchors.

Portal frames
Portal frames are generally low-rise structures, comprising columns and horizontal or pitched
rafters, connected by moment-resisting connections. Resistance to lateral and vertical actions
is provided by the rigidity of the connections and the bending stiffness of the members, which
is increased by a suitable haunch or deepening of the rafter sections. This form of continuous
frame structure is stable in its plane and provides a clear span that is unobstructed by bracing.
Portal frames are very common, in fact 50% of constructional steel used in the UK is in portal
frame construction. They are very efficient for enclosing large volumes, therefore they are
often used for industrial, storage, retail and commercial applications as well as for
agricultural purposes. This article describes the anatomy and various types of portal frame
and key design considerations.

Multi-bay portal frame during construction

[top] Anatomy of a typical portal frame

Principal components of a portal framed building

A portal frame building comprises a series of transverse frames braced longitudinally. The
primary steelwork consists of columns and rafters, which form portal frames, and bracing.
The end frame (gable frame) can be either a portal frame or a braced arrangement of columns
and rafters.
The light gauge secondary steelwork consists of side rails for walls and purlins for the roof.
The secondary steelwork supports the building envelope, but also plays an important role in
restraining the primary steelwork.
The roof and wall cladding separate the enclosed space from the external environment as well
as providing thermal and acoustic insulation. The structural role of the cladding is to transfer
loads to secondary steelwork and also to restrain the flange of the purlin or rail to which it is
attached.

Cross-section showing a portal frame and its restraints

Portal framed structures - overview

[top] Types of portal frames

Many different forms of portal frames may be constructed. Frame types described below give
an overview of types of portal construction with typical features illustrated. This information
only provides typical details and is not meant to dictate any limits on the use of any particular
structural form.
Pitched roof symmetric
portal frame
Generally fabricated from UB sections with
a substantial eaves haunch section, which
may be cut from a rolled section or
fabricated from plate. 25 to 35 m are the
most efficient spans.
Portal frame with internal
mezzanine floor
Office accommodation is often provided
within a portal frame structure using a
partial width mezzanine floor.
The assessment of frame stability must
include the effect of the mezzanine;
guidance is given in SCI P292.
Crane portal frame with column
brackets
Where a travelling crane of relatively low
capacity (up to say 20 tonnes) is required,
brackets can be fixed to the columns to
support the crane rails. Use of a tie member
or rigid column bases may be necessary to
reduce the eaves deflection.
The spread of the frame at crane rail level
may be of critical importance to the
functioning of the crane; requirements
should be agreed with the client and with
the crane manufacturer.
Tied portal frame
In a tied portal frame the horizontal
movement of the eaves and the bending
moments in the columns and rafters are
reduced. A tie may be useful to limit spread
in a crane-supporting structure.
The high axial forces introduced in the

frame when a tie is used necessitate the use

of second-order software when analysing
this form of frame.

Mono-pitch portal frame

A mono pitch portal frame is usually
chosen for small spans or because of its
proximity to other buildings. It is a simple
variation of the pitched roof portal frame,
and tends to be used for smaller buildings
(up to 15 m span).
Propped portal frame
Where the span of a portal frame is large
and there is no requirement to provide a
clear span, a propped portal frame can be
used to reduce the rafter size and also the
horizontal shear at the foundations.
Mansard portal frame
A mansard portal frame may be used where
a large clear height at mid-span is required
but the eaves height of the building has to
be minimised.
Curved rafter portal frame
Portal frames may be constructed using
curved rafters, mainly for architectural
reasons. Because of transport limitations
rafters longer than 20 m may require
splices, which should be carefully detailed
for architectural reasons.
The curved member is often modelled for
analysis as a series of straight elements.
Guidance on the stability of curved rafters
in portal frames is given in SCI P281.
Alternatively, the rafter can be fabricated as
a series of straight elements. It will be
necessary to provide purlin cleats of
varying height to achieve the curved
external profile.

Cellular beam portal frame

Rafters may be fabricated from cellular
beams for aesthetic reasons or when
providing long spans. Where transport
limitations impose requirement for splices,
they should be carefully detailed, to
preserve the architectural features.
The sections used cannot develop plastic
hinges at a cross-section, so only elastic
design is used.

[top] Design considerations

In the design and construction of any structure, a large number of inter-related design
requirements should be considered at each stage in the design process. The following
discussion of the design process and its constituent parts is intended to give the designer an
understanding of the inter-relationship of the various elements of the structure with its final
construction, so that the decisions required at each stage can be made with an understanding
of their implications.

[top] Choice of material and section

Steel sections used in portal frame structures are usually specified in grade S275 or S355
steel.
In plastically designed portal frames, Class 1 plastic sections must be used at hinge positions
that rotate, Class 2 compact sections can be used elsewhere.

[top] Frame dimensions

Dimensions used for analysis and clear internal dimensions

A critical decision at the conceptual design stage is the overall height and width of the frame,
to give adequate clear internal dimensions and adequate clearance for the internal functions
of the building.

[top] Clear span and height

The clear span and height required by the client are key to determining the dimensions to be
used in the design, and should be established early in the design process. The client
requirement is likely to be the clear distance between the flanges of the two columns the
span will therefore be larger, by the section depth. Any requirement for brickwork or
blockwork around the columns should be established as this may affect the design span.
Where a clear internal height is specified, this will usually be measured from the finished
floor level to the underside of the haunch or suspended ceiling if present.

[top] Main frame

The main (portal) frames are generally fabricated from UB sections with a substantial eaves
haunch section, which may be cut from a rolled section or fabricated from plate. A typical
frame is characterised by:

A span between 15 and 50 m

An clear height (from the top of the floor to the underside of the haunch) between 5
and 12 m

A roof pitch between 5 and 10 (6 is commonly adopted)

A frame spacing between 6 and 8 m

Haunches in the rafters at the eaves and apex

A stiffness ratio between the column and rafter section of approximately 1.5

Light gauge purlins and side rails

Light gauge diagonal ties from some purlins and side rails to restrain the inside flange
of the frame at certain locations.

[top] Haunch dimensions

Typical haunch with restraints

The use of a haunch at the eaves reduces the required depth of rafter by increasing the
moment resistance of the member where the applied moments are highest. The haunch also
adds stiffness to the frame, reducing deflections, and facilitates an efficient bolted moment
connection.
The eaves haunch is typically cut from the same size rolled section as the rafter, or one
slightly larger, and is welded to the underside of the rafter. The length of the eaves haunch is
generally 10% of the frame span. The haunch length generally means that the hogging
moment at the end of the haunch is approximately equal to the largest sagging moment close
to the apex. The depth from the rafter axis to the underside of the haunch is approximately
2% of the span.
The apex haunch may be cut from a rolled section often from the same size as the rafter, or
fabricated from plate. The apex haunch is not usually modelled in the frame analysis and is
only used to facilitate a bolted connection.

[top] Positions of restraints

General arrangement of restraints to the inside flange

During initial design the rafter members are normally selected according to their cross
sectional resistance to bending moment and axial force. In later design stages stability against
buckling needs to be verified and restraints positioned judiciously.

The buckling resistance is likely to be more significant in the selection of a column size, as
there is usually less freedom to position rails to suit the design requirements; rail position
may be dictated by doors or windows in the elevation.
If introducing intermediate lateral restraints to the column is not possible, the buckling
resistance will determine the initial section size selection. It is therefore essential to recognise
at this early stage if the side rails may be used to provide restraint to the columns. Only
continuous side rails are effective in providing restraint. Side rails interrupted by (for
example) roller shutter doors, cannot be relied on as providing adequate restraint.
Where the compression flange of the rafter or column is not restrained by purlins and side
rails, restraint can be provided at specified locations by column and rafter stays.

[top] Actions
Advice on actions can be found in BS EN 1991[1], and on the combinations of actions in BS
EN 1990[2]. It is important to refer to the UK National Annex for the relevant Eurocode part
for the structures to be constructed in the UK.

[top] Permanent actions

Permanent actions are the self weight of the structure, secondary steelwork and cladding.
Where possible, unit weights of materials should be obtained from manufacturers data.
Where information is not available, these may be determined from the data in BS EN 1991-11[3].

[top] Service loads

Service loads will vary greatly depending on the use of the building. In portal frames heavy
point loads may occur from suspended walkways, air handling units etc. It is necessary to
consider carefully where additional provision is needed, as particular items of plant must be
treated individually.
Depending on the use of the building and whether sprinklers are required, it is normal to
assume a service loading of 0.10.25 kN/m2 on plan over the whole roof area.