GHOST

development and displacement in global china

P ROTO C O L

carlos rojas and ralph a. litzinger, editors

G H O S T P ROTO C O L
G H O S T
O C O L
T P R O
L G H O
O T O C
O S T P
C O L G
 T P R O T
G H
G H O S T P ROTO C O L
O S
T O development and displacement

C O
O S T in global china

P R
O L G
Carlos Rojas and Ralph A. Litzinger, editors
H
R O T
Duke University Press Durham and London 2016

O
H O S T
 © 2016 Duke University Press
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper ∞
Designed by Amy Ruth Buchanan
Typeset in Minion and Avenir by
Westchester Publishing Services

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Rojas, Carlos, [date] editor. | Litzinger, Ralph A., [date] editor.
Title: Ghost protocol : development and displacement in global
China / Carlos Rojas and Ralph A. Litzinger, editors.
Description: Durham : Duke University Press, 2016. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: lccn 2016004716 (print)
lccn 2016006130 (ebook)
isbn 9780822361770 (hardcover : alk. paper)
isbn 9780822361930 (pbk. : alk. paper)
isbn 9780822374022 (e-book)
Subjects: lcsh: China—Economic conditions—20th century. |
Economic Development—China. | China—Economic policy.
Classification: lcc hc427.95.g46 2016 (print) | lcc hc427.95
(ebook) | ddc 330.951—dc23 lc record available at
http://lccn.loc.gov/2016004716

Cover art: Lu Hao, Duplicated Memories (2008). Installation.

Courtesy of the artist. Photograph by Yomi Braester.
 CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS vii
“Specters of Marx, Shades of Mao,
I N T RO D U C T I O N

and the Ghosts of Global Capital”

Carlos Rojas 1

PA RT   I .
U R B A N I Z AT I O N

1. Traces of the Future: Beijing’s Politics of Emergence

Yomi Braester 15
2. The Chinese Eco-City and Suburbanization Planning:
Case Studies of Tongzhou, Lingang, and Dujiangyan
Robin Visser 36
3. Hegel’s Portfolio: Real Estate and Consciousness
in Contemporary Shanghai
Alexander Des Forges 62

PA RT I I .
S T R U C T U R A L R E C O N F I G U R AT I O N S

4. Dams, Displacement, and the Moral Economy

in Southwest China
Bryan Tilt 87
5. Slaughter Renunciation in Tibetan Pastoral Areas:
Buddhism, Neoliberalism, and the Ironies of Alternative
Development
Kabzung and Emily T. Yeh 109
6. “You’ve Got to Rely on Yourself . . . and the State!”:
A Structural Chasm in the Chinese Political Moral Order
Biao Xiang 131
7. Queer Reflections and Recursion in Homoerotic
Bildungsroman
Rachel Leng 150

PA RT I I I .
M I G R AT I O N A N D S H I F T I N G I D E N T I T I E S

8. Temporal-Spatial Migration: Workers in Transnational

Supply-Chain Factories
Lisa Rofel 167
9. Regimes of Exclusion and Inclusion: Migrant Labor,
Education, and Contested Futurities
Ralph A. Litzinger 191
10. “I Am Great Leap Liu!”: Circuits of Labor, Information,
and Identity in Contemporary China
Carlos Rojas 205

REFERENCES 225 C O N T R I B U TO R S 243 INDEX 247

 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The editors would like to acknowledge the support of the cck Foundation
Inter-University Center for Sinology and Duke’s Asia/Pacific Studies In-
stitute  for funding a conference at which earlier versions of several papers
in this volume were presented. We are also grateful to the staff at the Duke
Marine Lab for their hospitality in hosting our conference on their premises.
Because the scope of the conference was somewhat broader (and more explic-
itly transnational) than that of the present volume, we were ultimately not able
to include all of the papers, but we are very grateful to Andrea Bachner, Eileen
Cheng-yin Chow, Margaret Hu, and Yongming Zhou for their participation
and contributions, as well as to Michaeline Crichlow for her support in ab-
sentia. In developing the volume itself, we received some exceedingly helpful
readers’ reports. We are also indebted to Ken Wissoker for his advice and sup-
port throughout this process, and to the rest of the staff at Duke University
Press. Finally, Ralph Litzinger would like to acknowledge the support he re-
ceived during his diagnosis of and treatment for cancer during the final stages
of this project. In sum, we both appreciate the patience and hard work of all
of our contributors, as well as the multiple forms of care—and a good dose of
hope—that we never imagined would be required at the start of this project.
 I N T RO D U C T I O N

“Specters of Marx, Shades of Mao,

and the Ghosts of Global Capital”

Carlos Rojas

A specter, one might say, is haunting China.

In The Communist Manifesto, Marx and Engels famously use a spectral meta-
phor to describe the challenge that Europe’s mid-nineteenth-century subter-
ranean communist forces posed for the capitalist establishment. Faced with
an economic order that was increasingly predicated on the extraction of sur-
plus value from the labor of the proletariat, Marx and Engels called upon their
communist brethren to “meet this nursery tale of the specter of communism
with a manifesto of the party itself ” (Marx and Engels 1998). Here, the “spec-
ter of communism” carries a retrospective as well as an anticipatory valence,
connoting the past and current suppression of communism and the emanci-
patory promise that communism holds for the future.
Postsocialist China, meanwhile, may be seen as a mirror image of this vi-
sion of mid-nineteenth-century European communism. While The Commu-
nist Manifesto describes how communism arose in response to the exploit-
ative tendencies of industrial capitalism, in contemporary China it is instead
capitalism that is being offered as an antidote to the socioeconomic weak-
nesses resulting from a quarter century of communist rule. After a Maoist po-
litical economic system predicated on egalitarianism yielded widespread pov-
erty punctuated by periods of extreme famine, Mao Zedong’s successor, Deng
Xiaoping, instead took aggressive measures to encourage rapid economic
growth and privatization. Capitalism, in Deng’s view, offered contemporary
China an anticipatory promise similar to that which Marx and Engels had
previously found in communism.
At the same time, however, this “return” of capitalism to contemporary
China is itself haunted by the nation’s own enduring socialist legacy. Un-
like the Soviet Union and other Eastern European states, whose communist
regimes collapsed in rapid succession in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the
communist government that Mao Zedong established in China in 1949 was
never technically dissolved. Instead, under Deng Xiaoping, China developed
a hybrid political economy wherein an embrace of free-market principles was
qualified by a retention of many elements inherited from its socialist political
structure and social organization. For instance, the country continues to lack
open elections, freedom of speech, freedom of the press, or even a fully convert-
ible currency—as a support of capitalism is strategically counterbalanced by
a comparatively tight control over many socioeconomic factors (Kirby 2011).
Many socialist-era institutional structures persist in the modern period,
though their significance is often greatly transformed. For instance, the
household registration, or hukou, system was implemented in the 1950s under
Mao, and it was initially designed to limit the movement of citizens between
different communities and regions in China—and particularly from the coun-
tryside into urban areas. Many essential social services were only available to
residents of the communities to which they were assigned, and consequently
people had very little opportunity to relocate at will. Although the hukou sys-
tem has remained basically intact in the post-Mao era, it is now significantly
weakened, and for many rural Chinese the lure of increased earning potential
in China’s cities outweighs the risk of losing access to the social services ac-
corded them by their hukou. As a result, more than a hundred million rural
residents are currently living and working away from what were formerly their
official home locations. At the same time, however, while the hukou system
no longer prevents internal migration, its vestigial presence does continue to
carry significant social consequences, because it relegates China’s migrant
workers to the status of partially disenfranchised second-class citizens (Young
2013).
This interweaving of earlier socialist structures with newer capitalist ones
may be seen as an institutional version of a phenomenon that the historian
Geremie Barmé (1996) has memorably called “shades of Mao.” Barmé de-
scribes how, in the 1980s and 1990s, there was a veritable explosion of Maoist
images and icons in China, as Mao Zedong—who, during his reign as the
titular head of the People’s Republic, had encouraged a cult of personality

2 C A R L O S RO J A S
centered around himself while at the same time attempting to abolish both
organized and folk religious practice—ironically became transformed into a
virtual deity in his own right, and Maoist icons were treated as sacred relics.
The contemporary fascination with these icons, therefore, marks an uncanny
return of the Great Helmsman’s legendary cult of personality, while also em-
bodying the same religious iconography and commodity fetishism that Mao
had originally tried to abolish. By a similar token, the market capitalism that
emerged in China following Mao’s death is closely intertwined with his legacy,
as the social institutions he helped put in place have become potent symbols
of both China’s socialist past as well as its capitalist present.
Finally, the partial displacement of communism by the forces of global
capital has helped bring into sharper relief the Marxian critique of capitalism
that had inspired China’s communist system in the first place. That is to say,
China’s rapid economic growth in the post-Mao period has not only brought
hundreds of millions of Chinese out of poverty, but also generated yawning
disparities of wealth and earning potential. The resulting witch’s brew of state-
owned enterprises, joint-venture companies, wealthy investors, middle-class
consumers, and a vast floating population of migrant labor has yielded a
highly fluid relationship between capital and labor that virtually demands a
critical Marxian analysis.
In his influential study Specters of Marx, Jacques Derrida argues that, in
the wake of the collapse of most of the world’s communist states, the spirit of
Marx’s original critique remains more relevant than ever. He contends that
the spread of neoliberalism has contributed to an epidemic of “violence, in-
equality, exclusion, famine, and thus economic oppression” around the world,
and suggests that Marxian theory offers a productive response to these prob-
lems (Derrida 1994: 106). In particular, Derrida contrasts the way foreign debt
is mobilized to support the legitimacy of a neoliberal regime, on one hand,
and the way a logic of intellectual indebtedness to the critical tradition as-
sociated with Marxism necessarily underlies any contemporary attempt to
reappropriate a legacy of Marxian critique, on the other.
In this volume, we argue that in contemporary China the structural ten-
sions produced by overlapping socialist and capitalist regimes have the poten-
tial to open up a set of new emancipatory possibilities. In short, we argue that
present-day China is shadowed by three mutually imbricated sets of spectral
apparitions: (1) a capitalist order that promises to reverse the consequences of
China’s quarter century of Maoist rule; (2) the institutional legacy of this Mao-
ist regime, which continues to shape contemporary Chinese society in critical

I N T RO D U C T I O N 3
ways; and (3) a spirit of resistance and critique consonant with the underlying
principles of Marxist theory. Contemporary China, in other words, is haunted
by what we might call the ghosts of capital, shades of Mao, and specters of Marx.
Some of the implications of this tripartite haunting become more apparent
if we return to Derrida’s Specters of Marx. Despite having been written at a
time when the People’s Republic of China was one of the world’s few remain-
ing communist states, Derrida’s study makes virtually no mention of China,
though the work does carry traces of China’s latent presence in the form of
three allusions embedded in the margins of the text, each of which is associ-
ated with a different valence of contemporary China’s post-Maoist condition.
To begin with, China is mentioned only once in Specters of Marx, and this
reference is not even in Derrida’s own voice. Instead, it appears in Derrida’s
discussion of the famous analysis of commodity fetishism in Capital, in which
Marx posits that material commodities come to assume a mystical charac-
ter that occludes the human labor and social relations responsible for their
production. Marx cites as an example a wooden table, noting that as a com-
modity it comes to assume anthropomorphic qualities “far more wonderful
than ‘table-turning’ ever was,” and in a corresponding footnote he observes
that “one may recall that China and the tables began to dance when the rest
of the world appeared to be standing still” (Marx 1977: 163; cited in Derrida
1994: 153). Here, Marx is evidently alluding both to the fascination with spiri-
tualism (and specifically “table-turning”) that developed among the European
aristocracy following the failure of the continent’s revolutionary movements
of 1848 and 1849, as well as to China’s Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864), which
nearly toppled the Qing dynasty during the same midcentury period. Given
that the Taiping Rebellion embraced such progressive goals as gender equal-
ity, the abolition of private property, and the equal distribution of land, the
rebellion may be seen as a reflection of the objectives outlined in The Commu-
nist Manifesto itself, and therefore Marx’s image of midcentury China “danc-
ing” while “the rest of the world appeared to be standing still” positions the
Central Kingdom as a spectral obverse of European society—or what Marx
ironically calls here “the rest of the world.”
As with China, the word Chinese is also mentioned only once in Derrida’s
text, and this reference is not in Derrida’s own voice either. Rather, it appears in
his citation of Alexander Kojève’s postscript to the second edition of his Intro-
duction to the Reading of Hegel: Lectures on the Phenomenology of the Spirit, in
which Kojève proposes that “if Americans appear to be Sino-Soviets who have
gotten rich, it is because the Russians and the Chinese are still but impover-

4 C A R L O S RO J A S
ished Americans, moreover on a rapid road to wealth” (Kojève 1962: 436–437;
cited in Derrida 1994: 72). Writing in 1962, Kojève, in this eerily prescient
passage, sees the Soviet Union’s and Maoist China’s emphases on poverty and
the redistribution of wealth as an uncanny anticipation of the “rapid road to
wealth” on which he believes both nations will soon embark. He suggests, in
other words, that communism contains buried within itself a capitalist im-
perative against which it is nominally opposed.
A third allusion to China may be found not in Derrida’s text proper, but
rather in the work’s historical margins. When Derrida first published Specters
of Marx in 1993, many of Asia’s economies had been enjoying several years of
impressively robust economic growth, though only four years later a chain
reaction of currency collapses in several Asian countries temporarily brought
this growth to a virtual standstill. While the precise causes of this regional
crisis are complex and multifold, one important factor was a collective anxi-
ety surrounding the impending return of Hong Kong to Chinese control. The
Hong Kong Retrocession was perceived as having crucial implications not
only for Hong Kong but also for the region as a whole, insofar as much of
the region’s foreign investment was channeled through Hong Kong financial
institutions. It is telling, therefore, that the first widely recognized symptom of
the Asian financial crisis—the abrupt devaluation of the Thai baht as a result
of aggressive selling on the international currency markets—occurred on July
2, 1997, just one day after the July 1 return of Hong Kong to China. In the follow-
ing weeks, several other Asian countries similarly suffered runs on their cur-
rencies, as the entire region quickly found itself mired in an acute recession.
China, however, remained largely unaffected—in part because its currency
was not fully convertible and, hence, was shielded from the international cur-
rency market. To the extent that the Asian miracle may be seen as an expres-
sion of a capitalist logic, China’s role in helping to provide the catalyst for the
resulting crisis—together with the nation’s own subsequent immunity from
the most serious consequences of the crisis itself—illustrates the role that the
nation’s vestigial communist institutions and policies continue to play in the
nominally postsocialist world.
One of the international community’s primary responses to the Asian fi-
nancial crisis, meanwhile, was to arrange for the International Monetary Fund
(imf) to grant large bailout packages to help stabilize the currencies of the coun-
tries most severely affected by the crisis. The imf, following a practice initially
developed in the 1950s, made the loans contingent on the countries’ agreements
to reform their macroeconomic and monetary policies in accordance with imf

I N T RO D U C T I O N 5
demands. This practice of “conditionality,” however, has been criticized for being
insufficiently attuned to the specific needs of each individual country or re-
gion. The imf has been accused, in other words, of serving as a vehicle for the
export of a tacitly imperialistic model of Western capitalism, and the Asian
financial crisis dramatizes the tension between the global spread of capitalism
and economic growth, on one hand, and Western-centered financial institutions’
attempts to circumscribe this proliferation of capitalist models, on the other.
Just as Derrida’s seminal study Of Grammatology characterizes the Chinese
script as “a sort of European hallucination” for Enlightenment-era thinkers at-
tempting to critique the perceived limits of European writing systems (Derrida
1998: 80), in Specters of Marx China itself functions as a hallucinatory mirror
image of Western capitalism. In each of the three preceding allusions ensconced
in the margins of Derrida’s text, China—either in its precommunist, high com-
munist, or “postcommunist” incarnations—is viewed as not only an antithesis
of capitalism but also an ironic embodiment of capitalism’s own underlying
logic. In particular, and to use the conceptual shorthand introduced above,
Marx’s “dancing China” allusion to the Taiping Rebellion articulates a desire for
an alternate expression of Marx’s own communist ideals—which is to say, the
rebellion functions as an ironic anticipation of what Derrida calls the specters
of Marx. Kojève’s “road to wealth” discussion of the People’s Republic, mean-
while, describes how even Maoist China was haunted by a suppressed desire
for wealth, or what we might call the ghosts of capital. Finally, contemporary
China’s partial complicity in—and its subsequent immunity from—the 1997
Asian financial crisis may be seen as an illustration of the institutional legacy
of communism, or what we are calling here the shades of Mao.
To the extent that Derrida’s Specters of Marx argues that the contemporary
neoliberal order has produced a set of socioeconomic relations that invite a
Marxian critique, the preceding reading of the virtual absence of China from
Derrida’s own text suggests instead that the nation’s peculiar historical trajec-
tory in the post-Mao era may offer an alternate entry point into an assessment
of the relationship between capitalism and communism. Here, accordingly,
we are interested in the way contemporary China illustrates some of the con-
cerns that haunt the margins of Derrida’s text.
In this volume, we take as our starting point China’s rapid transformation
from an impoverished communist state into the world’s largest economy, and
we approach economic development as the result not of a set of ineluctable
historical imperatives (as imagined within Marxism) or deliberate economic
strategies (as imagined within capitalism), but rather as discrete practices and

6 C A R L O S RO J A S
procedures, or what we call here “protocols.” The product of overlapping institu-
tional strategies, political procedures, legal regulations, religious rituals, and
everyday practices, these protocols are significant for their real-world impli-
cations as well as for the ways they may help shape a public imaginary. They
not only have a potentially normalizing function, helping interpellate subjects
into a national political economy, but they may also encourage a pattern of
disruptive, counterhegemonic tendencies that may in turn help generate new
subject positions that potentially stand at cross-purposes with the nominal
objectives of the national political economy. We are particularly interested
in the way these protocols may help constitute national subjects and the na-
tion itself, while at the same time they may also create a space wherein this same
national imaginary may be interrogated. Drawing from methodologies asso-
ciated with both the humanities and the interpretive social sciences, we seek
to situate contemporary China’s dialectic of development and displacement at
the juncture of society and ideology—between the world as experienced and
the world as imagined.

When Deng Xiaoping emerged as China’s de facto leader following Mao Ze-
dong’s death in 1976, he found himself at the helm of a nation that was predomi-
nantly poor and rural, and was comparatively isolated from the West. Deng’s
Reform and Opening Up campaign in 1978 was designed to help jump-start the
country’s economy, and it succeeded in a spectacular fashion. Over the following
three and a half decades, China’s gdp increased more than a hundredfold, and
in 2014 the nation passed the United States to become the world’s largest econ-
omy. During the same period, China’s foreign exchange reserves increased by
a factor of more than two thousand, from $1.6 billion to more than $3.2 tril-
lion, giving it the largest store of foreign exchange reserves in the world (and
more than its four closest rivals—Japan, the European Union, Saudi Arabia,
and Russia—combined).1 The result is a peculiar hybrid—a capitalist jugger-
naut retaining elements of a socialist planned economy—that has proven par-
ticularly adept at weathering the global financial crises that have rocked many
of the world’s other economies.
Our goal, however, is not to celebrate contemporary China’s rapid growth,
but rather to critically examine its structural contradictions. While China’s
economy has grown rapidly since the early 1980s, this new wealth has been
very unevenly distributed. Indeed, at the beginning of the Reform Era, Deng
Xiaoping famously declared that a minority of the population should be allowed

I N T RO D U C T I O N 7
to “get rich first,” and sure enough the nation’s Gini coefficient—a standard
measure of income inequality—has subsequently ballooned from an impres-
sively low 0.16 to a dangerously high 0.47. The result is a nation marked by
a set of profound contradictions. China has one of the world’s largest and
fastest-growing markets for high-end luxury products, but it also has one of
the world’s largest pools of cheap labor. It has many of the world’s largest and
fastest-growing metropolises, yet as many as a third of the residents of its larg-
est cities are migrant laborers with little legal standing. It has one of the world’s
largest and fastest-growing telecommunications industries, yet it is notorious
for its attempts to exercise political control over public and private expression.
Contemporary China, in short, represents a hyperbolic expression of both
global capitalism and its putative communist antithesis, and it is within the in-
terstices between these two nominally antithetical political-economic regimes
that one finds an array of new structural possibilities.
To explore these tensions, we offer a series of case studies examining the
relationship between contemporary China’s economic development and its
ramifications—particularly the relationship between capital and labor, gov-
ernmentality and biopolitics, regionalism and globalism. Through the lens of
various social and cultural phenomena, we consider some of the ways China’s
growth has been perceived and experienced by those most immediately af-
fected by it, arguing that an attention to these perceptual realities offers the
possibility of a more nuanced understanding of the political and economic
protocols that help shape this growth.
This volume is divided into three parts, focusing on interrelated themes of
urbanization, transformation, and migration. In part I, we begin by examin-
ing the figure of the city, as both a material place and an imaginary entity.
According to official census figures, between 1982 and  2010 the percentage
of China’s population living in urban areas expanded from 20.6  percent to
49.7  percent. Given that the nation’s overall population grew by more than a
third of a billion during the same period, the total increase in urban residents
was more than 450 million people. The result has been a rapid increase in
the size and number of the nation’s urban centers, to the point that China
currently has more than 120 cities with populations of greater than a million,
including several in excess of 10 million. One consequence of China’s rapid
urbanization, however, is that many of its cities now find themselves wedged
between memories of their past and anticipatory visions of the metropolises
that they are on the verge of becoming. The significance of the city, accord-
ingly, lies in its status as not merely a material entity and a lived space, but also

8 C A R L O S RO J A S
as a symbolic space conditioned both by a collective recollection of the past
and an anticipation of the future.
The three chapters in part I—by Yomi Braester, Robin Visser, and Alexan-
der Des Forges—examine processes of urbanization in contemporary China.
Focusing on themes of urban construction, the construction of “new cities”
at the geographic peripheries of existing metropolises, and the relationship
between cities and their residents, these three authors reflect on some of the
implications of the rapid growth and transformation of urban regions in con-
temporary China. They argue that cities are frequently viewed through the
lens of a future that they have not yet become and that this future-oriented
perspective has complex—and often quite problematic—implications for the
politics of urbanization discourses and their corresponding practices.
Next, we turn our attention to the ways in which ordinary citizens position
themselves within a contemporary landscape characterized by competing so-
cialist and neoliberal orders. Under Mao, the state was often quite up front in
its attempts to shape the opinions and beliefs of its citizens, and while these
efforts have continued in the post-Mao era they often overlap with sociopoli-
tical, cultural, and religious forces that have the potential to interpellate subjects
in different ways.
The four chapters in part II—by Bryan Tilt, Kabzung and Emily  T. Yeh,
Biao Xiang, and Rachel Leng—examine different communities and demo-
graphic groups positioned at the outer borders of China’s contemporary social
order. From ethnic minorities in Southwest China’s Sichuan Province to yak-
herding communities in Tibet, and from economically depressed communities
in China’s far northeast to queer subjects positioned at the symbolic margins
of its major cities, these four case studies focus on groups that find them-
selves at the interstices of these conflicting developmental imperatives. Each
of these analyses, however, contends that these overlapping configurations
can potentially generate new possibilities for individual self-positioning and
self-constitution, as these subjects may leverage different sociopolitical forces
to create new positionalities.
Finally, we turn to China’s sea of migrant workers. The growing economic
disparities between urban and rural areas have produced a set of powerful
incentives drawing workers from the countryside to the cities. Overwhelming
the Maoist-era hukou system, this wealth gap has generated a vast floating
population of rural-to-urban migrants. China’s 2010 census found that more
than 220 million people had spent at least six months of the preceding year
living away from their hometowns, including approximately 130 to 160 million

I N T RO D U C T I O N 9
rural-to-urban migrant workers. In fact, this floating population of migrant
workers is currently so large that if it were a nation unto itself, it would be the
tenth most populous country in the world. It is, however, a population that lacks
many of the rights and privileges enjoyed by official urban residents, and the re-
sult is a situation in which migrant workers provide much of the cheap labor on
which the nation’s continued economic growth is predicated, even as many of
them are condemned to a precarious existence and enjoy only limited benefits
from the growth they helped make possible in the first place (Lee 1998, 2007).
Rather than treat this floating population of migrant workers as a strictly de-
mographic phenomenon, however, we focus instead on how these workers
are classified by the socioeconomic systems within which they are positioned
and how they themselves appear to understand their own position within these
same systems. Looking at workers in Italian-owned garment factories, at the
school-aged children of migrant workers, and at fictional migrants caught up
in complicated confidence schemes, the final three chapters in this volume—by
Lisa Rofel, Ralph Litzinger, and Carlos Rojas—examine different populations
of migrants whose subjectivities are shaped by the overlapping sociopolitical
structures within which they are embedded. In particular, each of these groups
is driven by a set of aspirational dreams of what they hope to become, though
often this optimism may well have a counterproductive—or, as Lauren Berlant
(2011) calls it, a “cruel”—dimension, in that their dreams of the future may in
fact directly undermine their ability to thrive in the present.
Unlike socioeconomic processes that are perceived as being rooted in
either Marxist historical determinism or capitalist imperatives, the protocols
that we examine in this volume are often highly contingent and provisional.
To the extent that these protocols derive out of the institutional and ideo-
logical fractures that open up between the ostensibly antithetical regimes of
Maoism and neoliberalism, we contend that they are inflected both by a logic
of global capitalism and by a set of institutional structures developed during
the socialist period, while at the same time they have generated a set of condi-
tions that invite a neo-Marxian critique. We are interested, in other words,
in a body of protocols, haunted by the ghosts of capital, shades of Mao, and
specters of Marx, that collectively suture China’s future to its past and present
and also help to negotiate the nation’s relationship with the rest of the world.

In the 2011 blockbuster film Mission Impossible—Ghost Protocol (directed by

Brad Bird), the members of a special ops team are unexpectedly implicated in

10 C A R L O S RO J A S
a mysterious terrorist bombing of the Kremlin. In response, the U.S. president
activates a top secret policy referred to as “Ghost Protocol,” whereby the team
is officially disbanded while simultaneously instructed to continue working
in an unofficial capacity to track down those responsible for the bombing.
The result is a delicate dance of deception and duplicity, in which the team is
stripped of its legitimacy, authority, and even its very identity so that it may
attempt to locate the covert enemy that had framed it.
Although Bird’s film is obviously fantasy, it nevertheless resonates with con-
temporary concerns in suggestive ways. For instance, the covert team is called
imf, which is short here for Impossible Missions Force but is, of course, also the
acronym for the International Monetary Fund whose function, like Hunt’s fic-
tional team, is to diffuse existing crises and prevent new ones. Also, Bird’s film
revolves around a set of Cold War themes that include covert Russian agents,
stolen missiles, and the threat of nuclear war. By resurrecting the former So-
viet Union to serve as a worthy antagonist, the film tacitly acknowledges the
continued relevance of the communist ideology that the USSR represented.
Furthermore, the two years preceding the release of Ghost Protocol coincided
with emerging concerns that Greece, one of Europe’s most rapidly develop-
ing economies in the early 2000s, was having trouble financing its growing
debt. Despite repeated bailout attempts, Greece’s economy has continued to
spiral out of control, precipitating a financial crisis that threatens the very
existence of the European Union itself. Hidden in the margins of Bird’s film,
accordingly, we find allusions to the International Monetary Fund, the former
Soviet Union, and contemporary Europe’s sovereign debt crisis, suggesting
the degree to which the contemporary world remains haunted by the ghosts
of capital, the shades of communism, and the specters of Marx.
The circumstances surrounding Europe’s contemporary debt crisis mirror
those of the 1997 Asian financial crisis, in that, in both cases, a combination
of debt and inflation threatened to destabilize an entire region’s economy. If
the Asian financial crisis was largely rooted in the fact that the currencies of
the various countries were too independent of one another (thereby permit-
ting speculators to play one currency against the other), however, the Euro-
pean sovereign debt was instead a product of the continent’s decision to unify
behind a single currency. While the imf’s intervention in the Asian financial crisis
was criticized as a form of financial imperialism, in the European instance we
find an inverse situation, in that in June 2012 China announced that it was lead-
ing the so-called brics nations (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa)
and about fifteen other developing nations in making new funding pledges to

I N T RO D U C T I O N 11
help the imf address Europe’s debt crisis. In return the countries demanded
greater representation and influence within the fund itself. In this way, China was
attempting to capitalize on Europe’s economic crisis in order to leverage a greater
voice for itself within the imf, thereby figuratively colonizing the European-
centered global monetary institution from within.
This mutual invagination of capitalism and its spectral Other, meanwhile,
captures the analytical logic of our volume, which focuses on a set of ghostly
protocols haunted by intersecting and conflicting ideological and program-
matic imperatives. Just as the specific contours of post-Mao China’s embrace of
capitalism continue to be shaped by the country’s vestigial socialist institutions
and ideologies, those same socialist institutions are themselves inflected by the
shadowy presence of capitalism and capital (either in the form of a historical
legacy, à la Marx, that communism was originally attempting to displace, or as
an optimistic anticipation, à la Kojève, of the hyperbolic consumerism against
which communism is theoretically opposed).

Note

1 See the cia’s “World Factbook: Reserves of Foreign Exchange and Gold,” and the
imf’s “Data Template on International Reserves and Foreign Currency Liquidity—
Reporting Countries.”

12 C A R L O S RO J A S