Boianic Gardens Conservation International

RTZ
Supported by The RTZ Corporation PLC

April 1995

for Botanic Gard;nr on the

roduction of Plants to theWikl

royd and PeterWyse Jackson

'

SUP. .DO^^^^ bv

Cirporation PLC

red by Botanic Gardens Conservacion

ational, in association with IUCN Species
Survival Commission (Reintroductions Specialist

z
w

k t e r Wyse Jackson

I.o.

5
5
7
8
8
9
9

1.1.
I.2.
I.3.
I.4.
I.5.
I.6.

Introduction
Definitions of terms
IntenratedConservation Strateeies
"
The unique role of botanic gardens in plant reintroduction
Relevant recommendations and sets of guidelines on reintroductions
Justification for reintroduction
Reintroduction of trees: lessons from forestry

2.0.
2.1.
2.2.
2.3.
2.4.

Species Recovery Programmes

Structure of Species Recovery Plan
Cultivation and propagation considerations
Choosing species for reintroduction
The economics of reintroduction

I2

3.0.

Education. Environmental Awareness and Public Relations

18

4.0
4.1.
4.2.
4.3.
4.4.
4.5.
4.6.

Practical Steps Towards a Botanic Gatden's Involvement in Plant Reintroduction

Preliminary rash
Staff, resources and organization
Site seleaion and preparation
Other aspects
Horticultural activities
Monitoring after reintroduction

I9
19
20

5.0.

Sampling Procedures for Ex Situ Conrervation and Reintroduction

Suitabilii of material available or assembled for reintroduction
Collection of material from the wild
Ecological and geographical survey
Number of populations sampled
Sample size
0 Multiplication of small samples
0 Extent of populations to be sampled
Documentation of collections
Collecting techniques
0 Containers and bags
0 Cleaning and drying seed in the field
0 Temporary storage
0 Vegetative and clonal material

23
23
23
24
26
26
26
26
27
27
27
27
27
27
27

6.2.

National and International Communication

Links with other institutions
0 Choice of institutions for linkages
(a) National
(b) International
0 Practical considerations to ensure success of a link
Network links

28
28
28
28
28
29
29

7.0.

References

31

5.1.
5.2.
5.3.
5.4.

sampling
0
0

5.5.
= 5.

6.0.
6.1.

13
13
15
17

20
21
21
21

A Handbook for Botanic Gardens on the Relnrroduccion of Planfs CO the Wild

--

e!$%

The increasing loss of plant diversity worldwide has

made the development of a variety of new habitat
restoration techniques urgent. The successful
conservation of many plant communities, plant
species and populations will, in future, require
increasingly active management. Very few natural
areas remain that are not subject to increasing
human pressures. The
introduction
and
reintroduction of species to the wild, especially
those that have become rare and endangered, has
become an important tool for the conservation of
biodiversity. Although a large number of institutions
in many countries are becoming active in this field.
there are few adequate manuals available to guide
their work. Consequently it seems that many
unsuccessful, ill-advised or uncontrolled plant
reintroductions are raking place. This booklet is a
first attempt to explore the issues and challenges
facing botanic gardens in this field and to provide
them with some guidance in activities for which their
expertise i s increasingly being sought and their living
plant collections are being used more and more.
In
I99 I, Botanic Gardens Conservation
International (BGCI) began the preparation of this
handbook for botanic gardens. The first draft arose
from a meeting on 9-1 I April 1991 held in Las
Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain. There BGCl and the
Jardin BotAnico Canario hosted an international
workshop on the special role of botanic gardens in
plant reintroductions and habitat restoration. The
document was reviewed at a second international
workshop on 6-7 September 1991 at the Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew, U.K. The workshop was
organized jointly by BGCI. the Reintroductions
Specialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival
Commission and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew,
following a conference entitled From specimen to
habitat management held on September 1-5, I99 I.
A third workshop to continue work on the project
was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, during the 3rd
International Botanic Gardens Conservation
Congress organized by BGCI and the Jardim

Bothico do Rio de Janeiro 19-25 October 1992.

Following these workshops JohnAkeroyd and Peter
Wyse Jackson undertook the task of incorporating
the many comments. ideas and information into the
present published form.
We are grateful to all those, especially those listed

below, who contributed rex&gave many suggestions,

advice and assistance in the preparation of this
booklet: David Bramwell (Las Palmas, Spain), John
Clayton (Palabora, South Africa), Margarita Clemente
Muiioz (Cordoba. Spain), Quentin Cronk
(Edinburgh, U.K.), Donald A. Falk (Tucson, U.S.),Alan
Hamilton (WWF,U.K.), Dorothy Harris (RTZ. U.K.),
Esteban Hernandez-Bermejo (Cordoba, Spain),
Vernon Heywood (Reading, U.K.),Ailene lsaf (BGCI).
Manfred Jusaitis (Adelaide, Australia), Angela Leiva
(Havana, Cuba), Len E. Marrs (Utah, US.) Mike
Maunder (Kew, U.K.), Brien Meilleur (St Louis, US.),
Louis Olivier (Porquerolles, France), Esperanza Peiia
Carofa (Havana, Cuba).T$nia Sampaio Pereira (Rio
de Janeiro, Brazil), Alan Pottinger (Oxford. U.K.),
Tammera Race (Florida, US.), Mark Richardson
(Canberra, Australia), Rebecca Rowe (Oxford, U.K.)
and Susan Wallace (Florida, US.).

BGCl acknowledges with thanks the generous

support for this publication from The RTZ
Corporation PLC.
We hope that this Handbook will be a useful and
handy reference text for those working in plant
conservation. We welcome feedback from users t o
help us improve the Handbook for hture editions.
Peter S.Wyse Jackson lonuary 1995
Botanic Gardens Conservation International,
Descanso House, 199 Kew Road, Richmond, Surrey
T W 9 3BW. UK.
Tel: +44 (0)181 332 59531415
Fax: +44 (0)I 8 I 332 5956

I 1

Throughout the vrorfd,wild plants and their habitats

are under increasingthreat Clearly, the conservation
of habitats and SpCtcieJ in situ must be seen to be
preferable to w sitw measures, but the scale of
habitat desauctlon in many regions has too offsn
denied or &d
ths @on of extensive in ritu
conservstion.Th
mimroduction of individual
e wild (i.e. natlve OF
some cases, the
tion of whok
become essential
measures to c o n m e
ned plants. Maunder
(1992) has r w i d ths new science of plant
reintroduction and habitat restoration, citing
published accounts of the relatively few plant
reintroductions thar hwe been carried out so far.
There are many causes of depletion and extinction
summarized by Franlpal&
phasized the importance
of human imp&% md reproductive isolation h
e biotlc factors such as
nd disease; spatial or
ing to genetic erosion or
changes as a result of
was, climarlc change, natural
catastrophe or human activity.
Reintroduction as a means of restoring or increasing
the viability of pbra populations is not an easy
exercise. The procedures are long-term, timeconsuming and expensive, and, if their application is
to be considered as a valid conservation exercise,
they requim rigourous control, with the
establishment of strict guidelines and appropriate
national legislation.

It should be noted at the outset that it is better to

conserve existing plant and animal communities in
situ than t o try to recreate them.The abiiity to
reintroduce species and to restore habitats should
be used only to protect or enhance diversity. It must
never be allowed to provide an excuse t o hasten the

destruction of natural habitam or populations of

plana or animals.
The reintroduction of plant species to the wild will
become an increasingly imporrant tool for the
cor)oeTvBtlon and management of natural and seminatural habitats and wild populationsof plants.There
has been some reluctance among botanists to
embrace the concept of reintroduction, often on
spurious grounds of authenticlty, although
zoOioglsts have whieved successful results in this
fleld,especially with some birds and larger mammals.
A$ wild habmts come under even greater human
pressure, the implementation of restocking,
reintroduction and restoration programmes will be
seen to be both an essential management procedure
and a repeftable scientific technique.

I. I. DeClnitionr of tams
Defmitions of Introduction, Reintmduction and
related terms are given on page 7.

A variety of Reintroduction or Restfturion

techniques exist that may be used to restore or
establish populations of plants to enable them to
become self-sustaining in natural habitats. Such
techniques may include direct sowing of seed or the
planting of material raised in nurseries, or producing
conditlons that will encourage the growth of seed
already existing in the soil or introduced by birds
and other natural means.
These definitions of procedures do not describe the
full range of biological or technical considerations
necessary for their proper and successful
application. For instance, practitioners of
Reinforcement will have to take into account the
geographical origin and genetic make-up of the
source material. Botanic gardens and their
collaborators should carefully determina the proper

A Handbwk for h n i c Gardens on the Reimmducrion ofPlanrs m theWild

strategy and
perspective.

procedure from

biological

The ultimate objective of these restitution

techniques is to establish or reinforce viable, selfmaintaining populations that will persist for an
ecologically significant period of time. The
placement of plant material into the landscape is
thus undertaken with the goal of integrating these
plants and their progeny into a functioning
ecosystem. It should be noted that a project may
involve the application of several of the procedures.
For example, consider a situation commonly
encountered in which an existing plant population
has declined t o an unsustainable fragment. A
conservation plan may involve bringing plant
material from another site to augment the existing
population (Reinforcement). restoring its original
extent (Re-Establishment), and establishing plants
in appropriate habitats not known t o have been
previously colonized (Introduction).
Civil engineers and landscape architects increasingly
use native plant species for practical, amenity and

aesthetic planting, especially in Europe, North

America and Australasia. Their methods are
analogous to those of the conservationist, but they
are in general much less particular about the
identity and provenance of plant material.
Frequently sites for Revegetation or Reclamation
are urban and industrial wasteland or spoil-tips, or
landscaped road-verger. where safety and practical
considerations have to take priority. In Britain, the
use of the seeds of native plants is now an
important component of the landscaping of new
roads ([U.K.] Department of Transport 1993). and
on road verges and elsewhere there exist extensive
artifiqial plant communities analogous to former
species-rich grasslands.
These revegetated and reclaimed communities are
not designed to match existing wild habitats.
Although they do promote some biological
diversity, they may pose a threat to native and seminatural plant communities via competition and
hybridization between introduced and native plants.
More rigorous planning and selection of material
would make such planting schemes important and

Introduction

valuable examples of Rertomtion. Such is the case

in parts of the North American prairies, where
grassland communities have been restored by the
use of native species (Howel & Jordan 1991).The
techniques of the landseaper are nevertheless often
appropriate for reintroductions: for example, the
use of exotics as nurse crops in the intermediate
stages of a proiect

DetinltiOnS of t e r m s
lntmduction or Reintroduction
are general terms to describe the
controlled placement of plant material into
a natural or managed ecological setting.
They also have stricter definitions (see
below).

Corridors (linear. restored or protected fragments

of natural. vegetation) are Increasingly seen as a
solution to the severe fragmentation of habitats by
urbanization and intensive agriculture.They may be
artificially constructed or follow existing
topographical and ecdagical features such as rivers,
streams, roads, railway embankments or shelter
belts. It has been suggested that global climatic
the important
changes n q make h u m
agent of specias moperhaps through the
construction or m a i n w w c e of corridors to
connect natural vqeation fragments (Saunders &

Introduction

Establishment of a plant in an area in which

has never been known to occur.

eintmduction or Restitution

I.2. IntegratedConservation Strategies

The combination ofthe complementary approaches
of in situ and ex shtl conservation strategies to the
protection and matqpment of biological diversity
has been termed integrated conservation (Fak
1990).
Integrated consewation su;lregies seek
0

To combine research on individual species

(autecology) with the scientific management of
communities and ecosystems.

.To capture and maimain the genetic variation

present in pepulaci4ns, including distinct ecotypic
variants.

I
- .

nous ecologlcal system. Substantial

elemenu of the original habitat may persist,
but Reconstruction may be necessary
where the habitat has to be reconstituted
wholly o r from fragments. Where an
entirely artificial community or facsimile
habitat is created, perhaps for practical (e.g.
il engineering) or aesthetic reasons, the
terms Revegetation and Reclamation

=To draw together organizations using different

approaches and methodz for the conservation of
diversity.
As well as basic taxonomic, genetic and ecological
research, an integrated conservation strategy must
consider h e problems of habitat acquisition and
management, the legal protection of both land and
threatened species, the careful maintenance of ex
situ plant collections, and the rescue, reintroduction
and restoration of threatened plants. A significant
proportion of time and effort must be devoted to
the active management of habitats, communities and

In the commercial sector, for example when

land has been restored after mineral
extraction, the term Reinstatement is
used.

A Handbook for Botanic Gardens on the Reintroduction of H a m to the Wild

populations. Management practices require detailed

information about species biology and sources of
propagated plant material for use in any
reintroduction or restoration project.

management of populations of wild plants. In a I99 I

survey, BGCl noted that 394 botanic gardens
worldwide include areas of natural or semi-natural
vegetation within their boundaries.

Any perceived dichotomy between in situ and ex situ

plant conservation ought thus to be resolved.
Integrated conservation strategies are of particular
importance where the level of damage to natural
and semi-natural plant communities is such that
some degree of restoration is necessary, for
example in many parts of Europe (Wyse Jackson &
Akeroyd 1994).

Another trend within the botanic garden

community has been the creation of native plant
nurseries, alongside important protected natural
areas, to serve as both resource centres and to
provide material for public education.
Whilst botanic gardens can help to alleviate the
consequences of habitat destruction, by growing or
maintaining plants in a variety of ways, under no
circumstances should botanic gardens endorse the
initiation of destructive activities. Gardens should
avoid contributing to projects that encourage
gratuitious habitat destruction, and they should
never accept their ability or facilities to grow or
reintroduce plants as justification for the
destruction of any habitat or naturally occurring
population of plants.

I.3.The unique role of botanic gardens in

plant reintroduction
For several centuries, botanic gardens and arboreta
have maintained extensive EX situ plant collections.
Over the last two decades an increasing number of
botanic gardens have turned their attention to the
role that these collections may play in practical
conservation. Indeed, botanic gardens have become
involved t o a considerable degree in the
conservation of plants in situ, through the work of
their staff in plant exploration and collection,
scientific research and the management of natural
areas, frequently within or adjacent to the garden.
Recently there has been a trend to combine these
activities with their work on the conservation ex
situ of individual species through the development
of Species Recovery Programmes. These may
involve plant propagation, reintroduction, restocking
and relocation projects or the restoration of
destroyed or degraded habitats.

Every botanic garden should set out a statement of

ethical and professional standards regarding their
involvement in reintroduction activities and support
for conservation of natural areas and naturally
occurring populations.
Botanic gardens should commit themselves t o
working in close co-operation with the
conservation community to ensure that any
programme of local or regional reintroduction
furthers the ultimate objective of conserving global
biological diversity.

Botanic gardens are uniquely placed to undertake

reintroduction projects for planu.They are often
the only institutions to hold adequate and
accurately named collections of living plant
germplasm, including garden and arboreta
collections, field gene-banks, seed-banks and
micropropagated material. They have the requisite
infrastructure and propagation facilities, together
with the horticultural and other applied scientific
skills of their staff needed to undertake practical
aspects of a Species Reintroduction Programme.

I.4. Relevant recommendations and sets of

guidelines on reintroductions

The importance of appropriate environmental

studies as the basis of reintroduction projects has
been emphasised elsewhere, for example in the
Council of Europes Recommendation (R (85) 15)
concerning the reintroduction of wildlife species.
This document, adopted by the Committee of
Ministers in September 1985, sets out guidelines,
viz.:

Furthermore, an increasing number of botanic

gardens worldwide are acquiring natural areas
within or adjacent to their institutions for the
management and conservation of plant populations
and habitats in situ.This gains them both resources
and experience for the conservation and

Determine the causes of decline or extinction.

z Analyse past and present ecological characteristics

3

Submit proposals t o remedy any causes of decline

or extinction.

1.

lmmducrion

Delimit and indicate exactly the areas in which

introductions are to be carried out.

I.

Reintroduction of species into the wild is not cheap,

but may work out cheaper in the long-term than
their permanent maintenance in cultivation.
Reintroduction of a plant involves research,
planning, aftercare and monitoring, but also
envisages the ultimate survival and reproduction of
'
the species in the wild.

6.

Reintroduction is a very positive process.

Conservationists frequently emphasise the negative,
highlighting loss of species and overall biodiversity.
Reintroduction enhances or replaces something
that had previously diminished or disappeared an
imporrant consideration for public relations and
education policy.

s Enumerate planning, management and supervision

measures to be taken before, during and after the

implementation of the project.
6

Evaluate the probability of success and the possible

repercussions of reintroduction.
Establish which population or which of any
intraspecific taxa of the species should be
reintroduced into a given area.
The IUCN Species Survival Commission
(Reintroductions Specialkt Group) has produced
similar guidelines for plant reintroductions
worldwide; the Center for Plant Conservation, St
Louis, U.SA, is developing guidelines for
reintroductions in the United States.

1.5. Justification for Faintroduction

Reintroduction can be a controversial step, either
because of genuine fears of deleterious ecological
or genetic consequences, or through dogmatic
views on the authenticiry of natural communities.
Several arguments can be advanced in favour of
reintroductions:
i

Conservation in siac must always be the preferred

policy. Reintroduaion should be seen as an
acceptable compromise and safety-net.

There may be an identified. frequently practical,

need for reintroduction by a land-management
agency, especially where the species is a dominant
or significant element in the habitat. Reintroduction
may be part of a large-scale restoration of
vegetation or habits.

A successful reintroduction programme requires

detailed information on the species and its ecology,
providing scientific information in addition to that
directly applicable to the project.The ecology of a
rare species may indicate environmental conditions
that show why a habitat is special, why a rare
species occurs there, and why it (and perhaps other
species) may have declined.

Reintroductions can assist in habitat stabilizationand

rehabilitation. The study of individual species for
reintroduction focuses on all the factors that affect
them and how the species interact with their habitat

I .6. Relntrodudion of trees: lessons from

forestry
Foresters have applied on a large scale many of the
principles of reintroduction adopted by plant
conservationists.
Forestry involves the artificial management or
replacement of existing plant communities, usually
in order t o exploit or establish an economically
viable yield of timber.The conservation of natural or
semi-natural stands of vegetation has oken been a
secondary consideration of modern forestry
practice. Nevertheless, forestry has sought in some
areas to restore degraded vegetation. especially
where there is a need for shelter or to control soil
erosion, and to conserve certain tree species or
communities.
This may be achieved (Pottinger 1993) by:

Management that favours natural regeneration of

trees, based on their effective reproduction.
Enrichment planting, with manipulation of numbers
and density of particular species.
From the point of view of conservation, natural
regeneration should be encouraged, but may not be
feasible where the habitat has been severely
degraded. Planting or replanting, perhaps as a
complement to natural regeneration, produces a
quicker result and enables more manipulation ofthe
age-structure and genetic constitution of the
population. It can be achieved either by the use of
exotic species, sometimes as a nurse crop, or native
species. when it is effectively a conservation
exercise.Typically, one or several species are planted

A Handbook for Botanic Gardens on the Reintroduction of Plants to the Wild

into artificial gaps within the existing community.

Success, as in any transplant or reintroduction
scheme, relies on factors such as suitable age of
transplanted material, correct shading regimes,
genetic provenance and constitution of the trees,
and control of weeds and predators. It is expensive,
but ensures a good survival rate and helps to
stabilize the community. Further details of
procedures and examples of forest restoration are
given in Pottinger (1993).A useful technical manual
for the restoration of native forest has been
produced for New Zealand, but with wider practical
applications (Porteous 1993).

Appropriate modification of the site by landscaping,

planting and weed control: measures to combat
degradation of soil (especially in the tropics).
Management of a successional regime in the
community, perhaps using nitrogen-fixing legumes
or nurse crops.

Good propagation and nursery facilities, preferably

nearby, the site t o provide correct climatic regime
and ease of translocation.
Foresters are particularly aware of the importance
of genetic provenance.The reintroduced population
should have a broad genetic base, assessed both on
morphological and phenological characters and,
where possible, by molecular methods.The material
will preferably be of local provenance to ensure
adaptation, with the use of ex situ stocks if
necessary. The genetic history of the species,
especially locally, needs to be interpreted where
possible, examining population fluctuations (genetic
drift) and episodes of contamination by exotic
material (including any hybridization).

Reintroduction of forest trees requires:

Adequate knowledge of the ecology and genetics of
the species:
the reasons for loss of the species a t the site
the restoration of as much of the community, both
plants and animals, as possible
a wide, if possible'pre-degradation',genetic base for
introduced population
an adequate size of population based on genetic,
breeding and reproductive systems.

The involvement of local people is essential for the

success of any reintroduction project. Multiple use
of the site is one possibility for management.

Thorough knowledge of the ecology of the area,

notably biotic factors and any history of
management

An exemplary model of restoration of a complete

forest ecosystem is the reintroduction of Bermuda
Cedar uuniperus bermudiana) to Nonsuch Island off
Bermuda (D.B. Wingate, summarized in Pottinger.
1993).The vegetation of Bermuda has been much
degraded by centuries of human activity, and this
endemic species had been decimated by introduced
scale-insects.The reintroduction was carried out as
part of a programme of total environmental
wehabilitation based on a thorough ecological study.
All exotic species were removed (although two
others were planted as a nurse crop), and the new
population of the cedar, large and with a broad
genetic base, protected by virtue of being on an
island. Other native species were established before
the cedar was reintroduced. a strain tolerant to
scale insects was used and biological control of the
insects applied. Native birds were encouraged by
the provision of artificial habitats. Such a project t o
restore successfully a whole community provides a
model for reintroduction schemes worldwide.

Protection or isolation of the site, with long-term

monitoring and aftercare.

IO

lntmducdon

of the BrazilianAtlantic Rainforest

nal ErazilianAttantic Rainforest remains intact. It is unlikely that urban growth on the coast
, putting continued pressure on the small area of the forest that

deforestation proceeds and populations of endangered species are -h scientific study of the Atlantic Rainforest in recent decades, plant
collecuons are still not fully representative and knowledge of species ecology remains negligible.This lack of
oltcy, further threatening the future of the last remnants of this ecosystem

I
I
I

ary knowledgeas a basis for effective conservation and management polici~~.

een set up by Rio de Janeiro Botanic Garden and the private sector. Both believe that
eved through the training and establishment of a professional team, as well as the
ent for bioloeical studies and the development of laboratory and field techniques and

Garden

Programme for Reforestat

gh the Rio de Janeiro Botanic
collection and storage, nd setting up a plant nursery.

e National Reserves.

hips (feeding, roosting and nesting behaviour), combining field observation a..v
n with local people.

eld observations

of selected species from seed or

rowth conditionsfor each species
some sun species are also grown under shade ne

Laboratory seed germination tests, which have suggestedthat dormancy can be broken by soaking seed in
warm or cold water followinn
- a .period of moist heat.
aim to enhance knowled
rategies a t degraded sites Du
on a severely degraded area of low montane foresc M
scientific basis for the reforestation of National Reserves and also the management of the tree species of the
Atlantic Rainforest.
'
ma Mota AtlGntrca,&dim

I1

do Rm de ]nneim, Bra

A Handbook for Botanic Gardens on the Reintrcduction of plants to the Wild

It is important at the outset of a species

reintroduction project t o develop a comprehensive,
practical plan of action (Species Recovery Plan).This
will cover detailed research on the taxonomy,
genetics, reproduction, distribution and ecology of
the species, and practical aspects of propagation,
reintroduction and aftercare, together with
administration, financial conolderations and the
allocation of staff M the project It must be stressed
that, although there are well in excess of 20,000
threatened plant species worldwide, practical and
financial constraints have limited, and in the
foreseeable future will continue to limtt, Species
Recovery Programmes to just a small proportion of
them.

calocoma

on

Nevertheless, regional co-ordinated actions,

assessing the highest priorities for plant
conservation, may help to highlight the most urgent
target species. For example, the Center for Plant
Conservation in St Louis, Missouri, USA, has
developed regional task forces to plan, co-ordinate
and implement co-operative strategies between
organizations and agencies for the conservation of
plants in regions of heh species diversity within the
United States.
Institutions that undertake a Species Recovery
Progtamme should recognize that such work may
take many years and may be expensive. It is a
fundamental requirement that they consult and
work closely with other national and local
organizations and institutions, such as conservation
and land-management agencies, central government
ministries (who may be able to provide some
funding), local authorities and non-governmental
organisations, at each stage in the initiation and
implementation of a Species Recovery Plan. The
value of a botanic garden creating formal links with
National Parks and other Protected Areas in their
region should be emphasized.

Species Recovery Programmes are being developed

throughout Europe, North America and Australasia,
and new individual species conservadon and
reintroduction projects are increasingly being
initiated and implemented in developing countries.
Points to remember:
Botanic gardens should undertake a Species
Recovery Programme in co-operation with
appropriate land-management agencies and
conservation bo8ies.Whereas the botanic garden
partner may initiate the programme, it should be
emphasized that the primary responsibility for iu
implementation and long-term management should
h!l t o the land-management agency.

In many cases, especially in tropical or other regions

of high biological diversity, a pragmatic and practical

12

the exercise that need to be considered. It is

important to have tight project management and
adequate long-term staffing. The responsibility for
the various tasks should be given to individual
members of staff of the institution, ensuring
continuity over the whole period of the project.
Staff should also be involved in collaborative effort.

approach will have to be undertaken by the small

number of institutions with the resources to devote
to extensive plant conservation.They should aim t o
protect the greatest amount of plant diversity
possible within the limits of their resources and not
to feel bound by the rigid procedures and
sometimes impractical demands of a formal Species
Recovery Programme.
Botanic gardens should have a clear reintroduction
policy, linking projects t o existing collections,
research, horticultural expertise and contacts with
other bodies or individuals. Species of local interest
that are already grown in a botanic garden are, as a
general rule, that institutions most suitable subjects
for reintroduaion.

2.2. Cultivation and propagation

considerations
A major consideration in any Species Recovery
Programme is the practical work entailed for the
botanic garden.
A botanic garden that intends to carry out
reintroductions should have the necessary
horticultural and nursery techniques and expertise
available.

A useful CSlRO text on the theory and praaice of the consewadon

and managemem of SRdanpred p b t s in Aurvalia, with valuable
w e hismrias,UlumcesmanyOrthe prlnclples of Species Remvev
Pmgnrnrnes (Crupper 1993).
e

2. I. Structure of Species Recovery Plan

Projectr should be tailored to fit within the space

available at the garden
large amountS of plant
material may have to be propagated and maintained
over a long period.

Bear in mind that it may be necessary t o protect

plants after reintroduction and perhaps remove or
reduce the original causes of rarity.

A Species Recovery Programme needs first to be

set out as a comprehensive and carefully considered
Species Recovery Plan to document, rescue and
restore a particular species, including an outline of
steps that may be necessary to maximise, if
necessary, impoverished genetic variation. The Plan
will include some or all of the following headings:

A botanic garden should involve

its horticultural
staff at all stages of the project, including the
preparation of a Species Recovery Plan.

Good labelling and documentation is of special

importance in reintroduction projects, because the
use of mixed or unsuitable material will jeopardise
or at least diminish the value of the project and may
effect the genetic integrity of existing populations.

I5

Description of the species or taxon

Taxonomy, morphological and, where possible,
genetic variation of the species
Present and past distribution, as far as is known
Current numbers and status
Population and reproductive biology/life-history
Habitat description and ecolpgy
Limiting factors
Actual and potential threats
Conservation measures and actions required
Recovery objectives and scale of the project
Criteria to measure success of recovery
Implementation schedule
Horticultural and propagation techniques and
feasibility
Aftercare and monitoring
Staff requirements and work-plan

I6

COSU

Useful informarion on pmaical arpem of the restoration and

aftercare of plant cornrnunlries can be found in The wildflmwr

It is not just the suitability of the plant and the

chances of its survival, the planning and the cost of

handbook ([UK] D e p m e n t ofTransport 1993) and Nark forrst

3
I
5

6
7

U
9

IO
II
IZ

I3

14

Staff should be available at all stages of the work t o

carry out practical aspects of introduction:
preparing and planting the site, aftercare and shortand long- term monitoring.
It will be essential to prepare a list of resources
required and available, such as any new equipment
needed or the recruitment of staff or voluntary
helpers.

miomtion (Portems 1993).

A Handbook for Botanic Gardens on the Reintroductionof Plmm to the Wild

Wallace ( 1992) has suggested a series of Practical

Criteria that should be applied before any
reintroduction programme is initiated. These are
based for the most part on important questions of
hortlcultural and management feasibility rather than
botanical or threat assessmenu.They are:

2.3 Choosing speeies for reintroduction

Priority must be given to endangered species,
especially those that are of global rarity and are of
economic, cultural or biological importance. This
usually means:
Species exploited for agricultural, medicinal,
commercial or industrial purposes, or closely
related species and intraspecific taxa.
Wild populations of species formerly or currently
exploited in a sustainable manner by rural or
traditional communities; also plants of cultural,
religious and historical significance.
Species of significant biological value: for example,
morphologically or genetically isolated species,
monospecific genera and relict populations.
~

local legislation; plants which have special

propagation problems; local endemic or relict

Criterion I
Is an introduction really necessary for the survival
of the species?
Criterion 2
Is an introduction horticulturally feasible?
Criterion 3
Is an appropriate recipient site available?
Criterion 4
Are the goals and methods of the introduction
clearly spelled out?
Criterion 5
Is the paperwork in order?
Are effective administrative procedure

- Is there enough funding available?

- Is there a long-term institutional commitment to

A Handbook for Botanic Gardens on the Reintroduction of Rants to the Wild

In each case the particular need for specie

introduction should be identified in conjunction
with the land-management agency or landowner, the
partner responsible for the management of the
reintroduced populations. There should be longterm commitment to security of land-tenure and
funding for monitoring and management.

Broadly speaking, when undertaking a species

reintroduction, at least 50 years security of tenure
is advisable, and considerably more with species
such as forest trees or desert perennials that have a
long life-history or reproductive cycle.This must be
discussed at the earliest possible stage with the
land-management agency.
Consideration should also to be given to the
response and involvement of local people. For
example:
Has the plant a local economic use?
Has it cultural or religious significance?
Is it poisonous or in any way detrimental t o health?
Has it been recognized as a noxious weed?
In the case of the reintroduction of forest species,
either trees or herbaceous plants, especially in
tropical regions, Criterion 3 is of particular
significance. Appropriate shade and soil factors
must be re-established or conserved, perhaps by
means of nurse species, before any successful
reintroduction programme can be achieved.

16

I
9 rare Florida mint settles into a new homc
Much of northern Florida. U.S.A.. appears to be wild and natural, with long drives down rural highwa)flanked by pine f0rests.A closer look, however, reveals that these are not natural forests, but first or
second generation pine plantations. Periodic summer fires formerly kept these woods open and sunny.
with a rich mix of grasses and wildflowers on the forest floor.Today the dense stands of monoculture
pines and the exclusion of fire have diminished this diversity and many endemic species have dwindled
to low numbers, hanging on along fences and roads.
Apalachicola Rosemary (Conradina glabra) is one of these rare endemic species. It SI a semi-woody
subshrub of the mint family with aromatic. needle-like foliage and pale blue flowers.The common name
aptly suggests its resemblance to the common garden herb Rosemary and i t s native range on high
ground near the Apalachicola River. Florida has many endemics in the mint family, most of them critically
endangered, including three other species of Conrodino, which remain today only in small, isolated
populations.
The few surviving populations of C. glabra grow on land owned by a paper company. Floridas weak plant
protection laws do not compel private landowners to preserve rare species. Fortunately, however, this
plant is an ideal candidate for introduction.
Firstly, it has proved remarkably easy to propagate. Shoot-tip cuttings root readily and a collection of
48 clones was established a t BokTower Gardens. From these, more plants were readily produced for
an introduction project of 1,300 individuals.

The ideal recipient site was only 3 km away, on land owned by the Nature Conservancy.The site had
been clear-felled and severely degraded, but was now part of a comprehensive restoration project.
Nature Conservancy officials agreed to introduce C. gldbra and to provide long-term monitoring and
site management.The introduction was considered from the outset to be an experimental project, but
from its scale it was hoped to reproduce a sustainable population.
Another fortuitous factor was the region$ cool winter climate and frequent natural rainfall, which
resulted in a 95% survival rate.The plants more than doubled in size during the first summer.After the
first flowering, only nine seedlings were found, but by the second season many hundreds had appeared.
This robust natural reproduction is a reassuring signal that the plants have established successfully.

2 . 4 . h economics of reintroduction

To prevent raindurrion projeno becoming a

financial liability eo a boranic garden, it is ir[lportant
t o consider the following:
v

How many species can be managed adequately by a

single institution!
How many species should be the target of
reintroduction programmes nationally and
internationally!

lathe reintroduction of a particular cpedes chaaper,

and &.r. than the maintenance of material w situ?
v What ape the precise CMU of relnuoduction?

Are funds adable h m collabotatingagencies,

government departments or interested sociecfes
and individuals!

A Handbook for h i c Gardens on the Reinvoducrion ofP

Lam (0 the Wlld

How will the other partners in the Species

Recovery Programme be involved in the
reintroduction experiment, either through praccical
measures or through advice and consultation?

Itwill be useful t o create a checklist of such possible

problems for each accession being considered for
reintroduction to assess what is the best quality
material available.

Have studies been undertaken to determine the

genetic variation of surviving wild populations and
cultivated material?

4.2. Staff, resources and organisation

What is the provenance and genetic constitution of

available wiid-collected material? Is there anv
evidence for inbreeding depression or genetic
erosion?

One member of staff should have ultimate

responsibility for running a reintroduction project.
0

Is adequate accession information available on

cultivated holdings of the species being reintroduced?
If not, then is better documented material available
elsewhere?
What is the likelihood that genetic erosion,
inbreeding, hybridization, disease or other loss or
damage to the variation of the material has
occurred in cultivation?

What staff resources will be required during the

various phases of the project?
Which member of staff will be responsible for the
day-to-day management and administration of the
project? Will this individual be in a position to
direct other stafi!

What is the budget for the reintroduction project?

W h a t will be the financial requirements and
liabillties for maintaining, continuing or monitoring
the project in subsequent yean?

If wild material is t o be used for reintroduction, will

it be from the same population or localii as the
proposed reintroduction? If not, are there, or are
there likely to be. significant differences between the
plant material earmarked for reintroduction and any
surviving populations a t the intended site of
reintroduction?

From which source(s) will funding be obtained? If

special funds are obtained from a third-party agency,
what special requirements or reporting procedures
are specified?
What equipment will be required? Is it already
available for use within the institution? If not,what
am the financial implications, or where else may
equipment be obtained or borrowed?
a

Will voluntary labour be used and thus what special

conditions or obligations may arise? These may
include:
training needs of volunteen
technical ability of volunteers
security, insurance or supervisory considerations.

4.3. Site selection and preparation

What primary and secondary field research will be

needed to identify a suitable site?
What are the criteria that you are using to
determine a suitable site?
What threats to any existing or reintroduced
population are present at the proposed site? For
example, if the plants are to be reintroduced t o a
diminished or extinct population, what was the

20

Pncdcnl Steps T m d r a Bounlc Gardens InvolvamancIn Plant kinrfduction

4.5. Horticultural activities

cause of decline or local extinction of the species?

from human pressure (collecting, development,
agriculture)
from other plants (exotics or vigorous natives)
from animals @aznig,
disturbance, trampling)
from pests and diseases.

How many plants will be required for the

reintroduction project and how will these plants be
propagated, raised and maintained?
What is the expected germination of seeds, the
time cuttings will take t o root and the growth m e
of young plants?

What impact might the introduced plants have on

other plants or animals a t the site?

Will it be more efficient or feasible to consider

direct sowing of seeds a t the reintroduction site

Which management and conservation authorities

and agencies must be approached for involvement
or permission? Do licences or permits need to be
sought and obtained?

rather than to use whole plants or plugs?

0

What is the long-term security of the site and

current ownership!
What is the access to the site for those involved in
the reintroduction, for on-going monitoring
(presenting practical difficulties) or for the general
public (perhaps presenting further conservation
problems)?

4.4. Other mpects

Is the material correctly identinea and labelled?

A t what phase of the project, at what size and stage

of life-history and during which season, will plants
be introduced?
What nursery or garden space and facilities (e.g.
glasshouses or standing-out areas) are required or
available for the project?

What horticultural supplies will be needed for the

practical reintroduction work?
fertilizers. soils and composts
toolsand pots
stakes and ties
fencing materials
transport
watering apparatus in garden and field.

Which other botanic gardens (locally, nationally,

regionally and inretnatbn~lly)will provide any extra
expertise, plant material or other resourcesneeded?

4.6. Monitoringafter reintmduction

How does the reinweduction project flt in with the
overall Species Recovery Programme or other
action plan for the conservation or recovery of the
species?
What implications are there, or experiences to be
gained, which may be significant for the long-term
management of the species, both at re-established
sites and within surviving natural populations?
An agenda of related activities that will contribute
to the potential success of reintroduction
programmes might include the following topics:
Education and public awareness
. Funding for the institution and for each Species
- Recovery Programme
Efficient use of appropriate staff resources (eg.
ecologists. conservation officers) and additional staff
training
- Data management system development
- Efficient involvement of biological and horticultural
research capacity of collaborating institution(s).

What degree and frequency of monitoring will be

necessary?
Who will undertake the monitoring and how will it
be resourced?
0

What provision will be necessary, feasible or

desirable for the replacement of any plants that fail
t o establish?

What s o r t of data collection and analysis,

publication o r other forms of information
dissemination will be desirable or necessary?
What evaluation of methodology and overall review
of the Species Recovery Plan may be necessary or
desirable t o improve future projects?

: ., . . ,

ti

A Handbook for Botanic Gardens on the Reintroduction of Plants to the Wild

The Cordoba Botanic Garden and its conservation programme

The C6rdoba Botanic Garden was established in 1981 as an initiative of a research team with an
established conservation programme for endangered Iberian plants (germplasm banks and
reintroduction techniques).Thus, fmm the outset, the design, facilities and functions of the Botanic
Garden were geared to the protection of the plant genetic resoumes of its own region. Andalusia.
In 1982, the Andalusian Environmental Agenq (AMA) was created, in line with the progressive
the official institution responsible for nature conservation in
a Botanic Garden signed an agreement with this Agency to

and integrated conservation strategies,

e restitution of endangered species in

es of increasingthe network of natu

e Protection of the Andalus

out of an estimated

out in this work.

The C6rdoba Botanic Garden is

g action towards the restitution of 2 I of the 72 taxa at greatest
h is being carried o
determine their exact distribution and numbers. their biology,
th information on
pagation (including in ntro culture techniques), germplasm
conservation, obtaining cultivated material and field sampling of taxa that could be potentially
cultivated. Finally, their restitution in the wild, through introduction, reintroduction or reinforcement,
is carried out.
in the most advanced phase of study are:

pyrenaica subsp. cazorlensis,Artemrsia granatensis, Betula fontquerr, Cnearum

issus longrspahus, N. nevadensis, N. tartifalius and Rasrnarrnus tomentasus
The greatest success so far has been achieved in the restitution of Antrrrhrnum charidemi and Artemisia
granatensis.

22

Sampling Procedures for Ex SIUI Comervanon and Reintroduction

Adequate sampling is the cornerstone of sound

conservation and reintroduction policy.The narrow
genetic base of many botanic garden collections can
lead to genetic erosion through sampling error,
bottleneck effects (genetic drift), repeated selfing or
cloning, and poor maintenance or documentation.
Such holdings are rarely of value for conservation
projects, except as educational exhibits.

What is its level of genetic variation?

Sampling procedures for the conservation and

reintroddction of rare plants should aim to mairltain
and promote existing genetic variation &her than
t o erode it any further. In theory, at least 95% of the
genetic variation of a population or populations, or
as wide a range of genotypes as possible, should be
captured t o provide adequate material for
reintroduction. However, practical reality, especially
in a tropical region of high diversity, will often make
this difficult to achieve.

Proper assessment of genetic variation not only

ensures that existing stocks are adequate, but will
guide further sampling procedures.

5. I.Suitability of material available or

assembled for reintroductioh
It is important to assess the whole range of generic
variation of a species for reintroduction, both in the
wild and in cultivation. Botanic garden stocks are
especially important where a species, or one or
more populations, have become extinct in the wild,
and several examples of this sort of rescue have
been documented.

What is the genetic diversity of the surviving wild

populations?
Taking the above into account, IS there need for
further collection of material from the wild? Is this
feasible, ethical or sensible?

Sampling should follow the practices and techniques

outlined in sections 5.3-5.6 (below).The background
principles for sampling natural populations are given
in detail in Falk and Holsinger (1991). Points to
consider when sampling:
Samples should try t o capture 95% of the genetic
variation of a rare plant, which is usually possible
where populations are small and propagules easily
selected.
Sampling needs to take into account any data that
may be available on breeding systems, genetic
variation and reproductive biology.

A t an early stage of any reintroduction project, it is

important to check

Samples should be collected from across the whole

range of the species, although, wherever possible,
reintroduction should be ,based on genetic stock
from the same site or nearby.

What stocks are already held by your institution,

other botanic gardens and scientific institutions or
private individuals!

Priority should be given t o populations most

threatened by human or natural factors.

Is the material derived from seed or is it clonal?Seed

should be used whenever available, representing as it
does a broader sample of genetic diversity.

Avoid the collection of material showing evidence of

infertility or infection with pathogens, especially
viruses.

--&Y

A Handbook for Botanic Gardens on the Reintroduction of plants to theWild

Samples in storage or cultivation should be kept

separate from one another.

availab1e.A botanic garden that is considering a plant

reintroduction programme should

Documentation must be meticulous,

Investigate whether facilitles are available locally,

nationally or regionally. for screening the genetic
variation of the species concerned.

5.3. Ecological and geographical survey

Obtain the support or co-operation of institutes

maintainingthese facilities.

As full as possible a study should be made of

variation across the geographical and ecological
range of a rare species. This will involve literature,
garden, laboratory and field studies, and will provide
data on which to base sampling procedures and
number of samples.
Geographical distrlbution and genetic
variation
Collectors should consult available monographic
and floristic literature, herbarium specimens and
known experts to determine the distribution of a
species. Particular attention should be paid to any
morphological differences within or between
populations as evidence of genetic diversity,
especially where it can be related to ecological
gradients or discontinuities.
Where possible, an assessment can be made of
genetic variation on the basis of molecular
techniques, making full use of all material that is

Consider whether if is appropriate or possible for

such facilities t o be established at your own
institute.
Electrophoretic starch- or polyacrylamide-gel
analysis of isozymes (variants of the same enzyme)
is a cheap and relatively rapid procedure for
assessing genetic variation (Soltis & Sokis 1990).
Isozymes move at different rates across an electric
field, due to minute differences in electric charge,
and are then detected by the staining of a substrate
that they [email protected] technique gives a measure of
both the numbers of polymorphic loci and their
degree of heterozygosity. Analysis of m d o m
amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), a technique
that screens DNA nucleotide sequences as they are
amplified by DNA-polymerase, provides a more
direct assessment of genetic polymorphism
(Williams er of. 1990). It is quicker, but does not
reveal heterozygosity, as the W P D is usually a
dominant marker.

Genetic screening to conserve Trochetiopsis species (Sterculiaceae) on St Helena

Tmcheuopsis is an endangered woody genus endemic to the South Atlantic island of S t Helena.There are
two speciesSt Helena Redwood (T erythmxylon (Forst) Marais),extinct in the wild,and S t Helena Ebony
(T melonowlon IA1t.f.l Maraid. thoucrht to be extmct unul 1980, when two plants were found on a cl~ff
inaccessible to goats.
,

All Redwood plants now known are descended from a single individual and have been multiplied
through selfed seed. By I993,86 individuals had been reintroduced to six sites on S t Helena.
Ebony has been propagated from cuttings taken in 1980 from the upper of the two plants and in 1982
from the lower plant. By I993,2,000 plants of mixed seed and vegetative origin had been reintroduced
to one site and introduced to three others on the island.The lower plant genotype is probably underrepresented in the plantings.
Hybrids were produced when the two species, previously isolated geographically, were brought
together in the nursery. Four F I hybrids have provided seed for introductions at three sites, where in
1993 about 800 hybrids had been planted with either Redwood or Ebony.
Trochetiopsis is represented in the collections of at least seven botanic gardens. Confusion of records
during transfer of seed and cuttings between institutions has resulted in loss of provenance and
collection data. It is known that Ebony was represented in botanic gardens only by the upper plant until
1993.
The conservation of Tmchetiopsis has until recently been carried out without any genetic informatic
Current research is examining genetic diversity by means of isozyme and RAPD analysis, in order
answer the following questions:
I.What i s the present level of genetic variation within and between the two specii

2. What genotypes are represented in botanic garden collections; and can botanic gardens provide
additional source of genetic variation in the case of Redwood?

3 To what degree does Introgressive hybridization, which may hybridize the pure species out of
existence. occur in mixed planted populations?
4. Is representative sampling belng carried out for the benefit of future reintroductions?

Lack of variability in Trochetiopsis has already been shown at isozyme loci. and unique isozyme markers
have been found in both species. Preliminary RAPD data for 20 arbitrary primers (I0-base nucleotide
sequences) has detected several differences between the two original Ebony plants.This information
will be useful in analysing the degree to which each genotype is represented in the plantings on the
is1and.A greater level of genetic polymorphism has been detected using RAPD compared t o isozymes.
It is likely that RAPD may prove more useful in the study of the degree of introgressive hybridization
that is occurring at the planting sites.
Source. Rebecco Rowe ond Que

Oortment, University of Oxford,

UK

c:

. ..~

6. I Links with other institutions

Scientific links with other institutes or

universities

Links are to be encouraged between botanic

gardens involved in plant introductions and Species
Recovery Programmes. A link should aim:

Sharing of propagation and other conservation and

horticultural techniques.

To aid in the movement, exchange and, in some

Exchange of field and experimental, biological and

ecological information.

cases, repatriation of germplasm and to ensure coordination of reserves of germplasm as an insurance

against loss.

Advice on taxonomy and distribution, past and

present.

To divide the tasks involved in the conservation and

reintroduction of individual species or populations in
relation to the different skills and resources of the
participating institutions.

Help with the identification of plants that are

priority targets for reintroduction.
Links with other botanic gardens

To develop institutional capacities for plant

conservation through help with training (managerial,
technical, scientific, horticultural and educational),
strategic planning and project development; together
with the transfer of information and experience
through staff exchanges.

Exchange of plant material or propagules.

Exchange of horticultural information, techniques
and practical expertise.
Definition of geographical areas of mutual or
exclusive interest to maximize efficient use of
resources.

To encourage the work of conservation-orientated

smaller boranic gardens over larger, often older
institutions.

Sharing information, staff and technical resources

such as seed-bank facilities t o avoid expensive
duplication.

Choice of institutions for linkages

(a) National

Emphasis of cooperation in publicity and education

t o raise public awareness of the conservation issues.

Links with land management and

development agencies

Funding and implementing training programmes for

Staff.

Establish agreement for the reintroduction and longterm management of threatened plant populations.

(b) International

Liaise with local communities around the proposed

sites of reintroduction or existing populations.

Sister or twinned botanic gardens (these can also

operate nationally) can locate and share plant,
garden, human and technical resources and funding.

Publicise the project, emphasising ks practical,

economic and ethical importance.

International co-ordination can be achieved through

28

Nattorial and International Communication

. The IUCN Species Survival Commission

(Reintroductions Specialist Group), c/o Threatened
Species and Habitat Unit, Royal Botanic Gardens,
Kew. U.K. - holds an archive and database on plant
reintroduction projects.
Botanic Gardens Conservation International
(BGCI). Kew. U.K.;
- World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC),
Cambridge, UK;
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF-International),
Geneve. Switzerland;
- International Association of Botanic Gardens
(IABG), Cordoba, Spain;
- Center for Plant Conservation, S t Louis, U.S.A.
International co-operation between nations,
part of friendship treaties or aid
agreements.

as

Exchange or help with resources such as equipment

and technology (e.g. database development).
;i :
...>Commit financial resources in each institution to
the sole purpose of funding links, for travel,
exchange of data, equipment or plant material. Any
approach to a third party for funding will be
enhanced by a co-operative application. Funding for
long-term management and monitoring of project
sites may also require inter-institutional agreement
and commitment.
Ensure mutual agreement a t an early stage on
possible legal or ethical restriction of the
availability of germplasm or its transfer; also on the
exchange of related information and other data.This
should extend to ethical agreement on
conservation practices and the division of income in
commercial developments.

These links will assist with:

The identification of priority species for
reintroduction a t global, regional, national and local
levels.

Ensure that participating institutes are fully briefed

on the working of CITES and other international
agreements on plant trade.

.-

To identify and foster 'sister' links between

institutions.

6.2 Network links

To identify other resources available, including the

location of suitable plant material from the wild or
cultivation.

The establishment of national ana regional plant

conservation networks are an especially valuable
resource. They can highlight priorities for
reintroduction, arrange training, share resources
and data, and foster many activities between
twinned botanic gardens.They also provide a forum
and an 'umbrella' to bring together expertise in
plant conservation from different sectors: botanic
gardens and other scientific institutions, private and
commercial horticulture, NGOs and landmanagement agencies.

To raise awareness of conservation issues a t

international and, therefore, governmental levels.
The development and maintenance of suitable
databases to help co-ordinate worldwide efforts in
reintroduction and species recovery.
Practical considerations to ensure success of
a link
Define the purpose of the link, with a jointly
prepared, written statement and an agreement or
'Memorandum of Understanding'.
Define the period of time of the link, normally longterm, related to i t s purpose.
Develop good personal relationships between the
key staff members in each participating institution.
Personal commitments from the staff to such
linkages are essential.
Planning a schedule of visits and exchanges of staff
is important, especially when a link is international.

A wide range of national and regional botanic

garden networks has been established in all parts of
the world (Wyse Jackson 1993). Some of these are
national or regional organizations or groups closely
associated with Botanic Gardens Conservation
International. o r regional sections of the
International Association of Botanic Gardens such
as the Asociacion Latinoamericana y del Caribe de
Jardines Botanicos. Others are independent national
and international NGOs, such as the American
Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta, the
[US.] Centre for Plant Conservation, and the
Asociacion Mexicana de Jardines Botanicos, or
government sponsored organizations. such as the
National Botanical Institute of South Africa or the
Rede Cubana de Jardines Botanicos. Recently