DEWATERING

SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT

CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT

Assignment Report
Submitted by
AJIT KUMAR K

203515025

National Institute of Technology Trichy

Introduction
Ground water conditions play an important part in the stability of foundations. If the
water table lies very close to the base of footings, the bearing capacity and settlement
characteristics of the soil would be affected. The level of the water table fluctuates with
season. The difference in levels between the maximum and the minimum may fluctuate from
year to year.

In many big projects, it is sometimes very essential to know these fluctuations.
Piezometers are therefore required to be installed in such areas for measuring the level of
water table for one or more years. In some cases, the ground water flows under pressure
through a pervious layer of soil confined from its top and bottom between impermeable
geological formations.

If the water flows from a higher elevation to a lower level, an artesian pressures
created and such a ground water is termed as artesian water. It is essential to investigate the
possibility of existence of artesian water in a project area.

Permeability of soils is another important factor, which needs to be known in many of
the major projects. Selection of pumps for pumping out water from excavated trenches or
pits depends on the permeability of soils. The settlement and stability of foundations also
depend on the permeability of soils.

Construction of buildings, powerhouses, dams, locks and many other structures
requires excavation below the water table into water-bearing soils. Such excavations require
lowering the water table below the slopes and bottom of the excavation to prevent raveling
or sloughing of the slope and to ensure dry, firm working conditions for construction
operations.

Groundwater can be controlled by means of one or more types of dewatering systems
appropriate to the size and depth of the excavation, geological conditions, and characteristics
of the soil.
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Definition
Dewatering or construction dewatering are terms used to describe the action of
removing groundwater or surface water from a construction site. Normally dewatering
process is done by pumping or evaporation and is usually done before excavation for footings
or to lower water table that might be causing problems during excavations. Dewatering can
also be known as the process of removing water from soil by wet classification. This leads to
concepts like pre-drainage of soil, control of ground water, and even the improvement of
physical properties of soil.

The term Dewatering means the separation of water from the soil, or perhaps
taking the water out of a particular construction problem completely. Many excavations
are carried below groundwater level. Techniques for dealing with the problems that result
depend on the excavation dimensions, the soil type, and the groundwater control
requirements, among other factors.

Purpose of dewatering

To provide a dry excavation and permit construction to proceed efficiently.

Reduce lateral loads on sheeting and bracing in excavations.

Stabilize quick bottom conditions and prevent heaving and piping.

Improve supporting characteristics of foundation materials.

Increase stability of excavation slopes and side-hill fills.

Cut off capillary rise and prevent piping and frost heaving in pavements.

Reduce air pressure in tunneling operations.

Reduce or eliminate uplift pressures on bottom slabs and permit economics from the
reduction of slab thicknesses fro basements, buried structures, canal linings, spillways,
dry docks, etc.

Provide for dry basements.

Reduce lateral pressures on retaining structures.

Control embankment seepage in all dams.

Control seepage and pore pressures beneath pavements, side-hill fills, and cut slopes.

Types of dewatering systems

Common dewatering methods are

Sumps, trenches, and pumps

Well points

Deep wells with submersible pumps

The other available methods include:

Electro-osmosis. Used in low permeability soils (silts, silt clays, some peats) when no
other method is suitable. Direct current electricity is applied from anodes (steel rods)
to cathodes (well-points, i.e. small diameter filter wells)

Ground freezing (ammonium brine refrigeration or liquid nitrogen refrigeration). All

types of saturated soils.

Surface water control like ditches, training walls, embankments. Simple methods of
diverting surface water, open excavations. Simple pumping equipment.

Gravity drainage. Relatively impermeable soils. Open excavations especially on

sloping sites. Simple pumping equipment.

Eductor system.

Impervious soil barrier. All soils. Relatively shallow applications (5-6m max.). Backhoes
form the clay filled barriers some distance from the excavation boundaries.

Sheet piling. All soils except soils with large boulders.

Secant (interlocked) piling or tangent piling with grouting in between. All soils except
boulders.

Compressed air. All types of saturated soils and rock. Applications in tunnels, shafts
and caissons.

Grouted cut-offs (jet grouting, cementations grouts, chemical grouts etc.)

Drainage galleries. Removal of large quantities of water for dam abutments, cut-offs
landslides etc. Large quantities of water can be drained into gallery (small diameter
tunnel) and disposed of by conventional large scale pumps.

Slurry trench cut-off walls with betonies or native clay and Diaphragm concrete walls.
All soils. Curtain walls around excavations with flat buckets.

Factors affecting the selection of dewatering system

The method most suitable for dewatering an excavation depends upon the location,
type size, and depth of the excavation; thickness, stratification, and permeability of the
foundation soils below methods the water table into which the excavation extends or is
underlain; potential damage resulting from failure of the dewatering system; and the cost of
installation and of the system.

The cost of a dewatering method or system will depend upon:

Type, size, and pumping requirements of project

Type and availability of power

Labor requirements

Duration

Factors controlling selection

Type of Excavation

Geological and Soil Conditions

Depth of Groundwater Lowering

Reliability Requirements

Required Rate of Pumping

Intermittent Pumping

Effect of Ground Water Lowering on Adjacent Structures and Wells

Dewatering Cutoffs and Other Procedures

Method of Dewatering

Suitability of Soil

Sump pumping

Gravel or well graded sandy gravel, partially

cemented material , porous rock formation

etc.

Well point systems

Sandy soil Drawdown limit 15 ft.

Ejector system

Fine sand condition Dewater up to depth of

100 ft.

Ground freezing

groundwater cutoff, stabilization of earth for

tunnel excavation, arrest landslides and to

stabilize mineshafts

Deep (bored) wells

Artesian water Pumping capacity (3000 to

60,000 gallons/min)Dewater up to depth of

300 ft.

Few types in detail

Dewatering bags
Dewatering bags are made of durable geotextile fabric used to filter water by removing
sediments. Dewatering bags are used on dredging operations, construction sites or places
with high water table near the shoreline. These bags should be sized accordingly based on the
pump flow rate and type of sediment. When using dewatering bags avoid multiple pipe
discharges as it may cause the filter bag to fail. Remember to manage water runoff properly
by guiding it to the nearest storm inlet.

Sumps and sump pumping
A sump is merely a hole in the ground from which water is being pumped for the
purpose of removing water from the adjoining area as shown in fig. They are used with ditches
leading to them in large excavations. Up to maximum of 8m below pump installation level;
for greater depths a submersible pump is required. Shallow slopes may be required for
unsupported excavations in silts and fine sands. Gravels and coarse sands are more suitable.
Fines may be easily removed from ground and soils containing large percent of fines are not
suitable.

If there are existing foundations in the vicinity pumping may cause settlement of these
foundations. Subsidence of adjacent ground and sloughing of the lower part of a slope (sloped
pits) may occur. The sump should be preferably lined with a filter material which has grain
size gradations in compatible with the filter rules. For prolonged pumping the sump should
be prepared by first driving sheeting around the sump area for the full depth of the sump and
installing a cage inside the sump made of wire mesh with internal strutting or a perforating
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pipe filling the filter material in the space outside the cage and at the bottom of the cage and
withdrawing the sheeting. Two simple sumping.

Sump Well Method of Dewatering

Advantages of Open Sump and Ditches

Widely used method.

Most economical method for installation and maintenance.

Can be applied for most soil and rock conditions.

Most appropriate method in situation where boulders or massive obstructions are

met Within the ground. Greatest depth to which the water table can be lowered by
this method is about 8 m below the pump.

Disadvantages of Open Sump and Ditches

Ground water flows towards the excavation with high head or a steep slope and hence
there is a risk of collapse of sides.

In open or timbered excavations there is risk of instability of the base due to upward.

Well-point systems
A well-point is 5.0-7.5 cm diameter metal or plastic pipe 60 cm 120 cm long which is
perforated and covered with a screen. The lower end of the pipe has a driving head with water
holes for jetting as shown in fig.2.2. Well-points are connected to 5.0-7.5 cm diameter pipes
known as riser pipes and are inserted into the ground by driving or jetting. The upper ends of
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the riser pipes lead to a header pipe which, in turn, connected to a pump. The ground water
is drawn by the pump into the well-points through the header pipe and discharged as shown
in fig. The well-points are usually installed with 0.75m 3m spacing.

This type of dewatering system is effective in soils constituted primarily of sand
fraction or other soil containing seams of such materials. In gravels spacing required may be
too close and impracticable. In clays it is also not used because it is too slow. In silts and silt
clay mixtures the use of well points are aided by upper (0.60m 0.90m long) compacted clay
seals and sand-filtered boreholes (20cm 60cm diameter). Upper clay seals help to maintain
higher suction (vacuum) pressures and sand filters increase the amount of discharge.

Filtered boreholes are also functional in layered soil profiles approximate time
required for effective drawdown The header pipe (15-30 cm diameter, connecting all wellpoints) is connected to a vacuum (Suction assisted self priming centrifugal or piston) pump.
The well-points can lower a water level to a maximum of 5.5 m below the centerline of the
header pipe. In silty fine sands this limit is 3-4 m.

Multiple stage system of well-points are used for lowering water level to a greater
depth. Two or more tiers (stages) are used as shown in fig. More pumps are needed and due
to the berms required the excavation width becomes wider. A single well-point handles
between 4 and 0.6 m3/hr depending on soil type. For a 120 m length (40 at 3 m centers) flow
is therefore between 160 and 24 m3/hr.

Nomograms for selecting preliminary well-point spacing in clean uniform sand and
gravel, and stratified clean sand and gravel are shown in horizontal well-points are used
mainly for pipeline water. They consist of perforated pipes laid horizontally in a trench and
connected to a suitable pump.


Single Stage Well-Point System

Multi Stage Well-Point System


Cross Section of Well-Point System
When designing a well point system, it is necessary to give first consideration to the physical
conditions of the site to be dewatered.

Following is the list of information to be collected:

The physical layout

Adjacent areas

Soil conditions

Permeability of the soil

The amount of water to be pumped

Depth to imperviousness

Stratification

Advantages of Well Point System

Installation is very rapid

Requires reasonably simple and less costly equipment

Water is filtered and carries little or no soil particles.

There is less danger of subsidence of the surrounding ground than with open-sump
pumping
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Limitations of Well Point System

A lowering of about 6 m (20 ft) below pump level is generally possible beyond which
excessive air shall be drawn into the system through the joints in the pipes, valves,
etc., resulting in the loss of pumping efficiency.

If the ground is consisting mainly of large gravel, stiff clay or soil containing cobbles or
boulders it is not possible to install well points.

Spacing of Well-Points According to Type of Soil
Soil Type

Spacing of well-points (in m)

Silty sand

1.5-2.0

Sandy gravel

1.0-1.5

Fine to coarse gravel

0.5-1.0

Ejector wells
Ejector wells work on the same principle as a well point system but allow water to be
drawn from deeper in the ground. An ejector dewatering system consists of an array of wells
pumped by jet pumps installed at the base of each well up to depths of 150 metres.

Advantages

Operating depth is not limited by suction lift; ejectors are available with an operating
depth down to 150m (groundwater control systems usually operate at depths of 30 to
50m).

Ejectors will pump air and water; this means that at low flows, if the well head and
annulus is sealed, the ejector will develop a vacuum in the well, which can provide
vacuum assisted drainage in fine grained soils.

Single pipe ejectors can be installed in the well liners as small as 50mm internal
diameter. This leads to a lower unit cost per well, allowing cost effective installation
of wells at a close spacing if required

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Limitations

The capacity of individual ejectors is limited

Ejectors have relatively low energy efficiency and for large flow rates the power
consumption be prohibitive

Ejector systems can be susceptible to loss of performance from biofouling or nozzle

and venture wear. Regular monitoring and maintenance is needed to identify any
reduction in performance.

Certain types of ground condition require alternative techniques such as ground where the
permeability is very low or where the depth and nature of the excavation precludes the use
of wellpoints and centrifugal pumps. One of the techniques commonly used then is the high
pressure ejector system. This system works on the principle of forcing water at high pressure
down the well and through a nozzle to create a venture effect, which in turn creates a vacuum
of sufficiently high level to draw up the water surrounding the bottom of the well and return
it to the surface.

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Eductor system
This system also known as the jet eductor system or ejector system or eductor wellpoint system is similar to the well-point system. Instead of employing a vacuum to draw
water to the well-points, the eductor system uses high pressure water and riser units, each
about 30-40mm in diameter. A high pressure supply main feeds water through a venturi tube
immediately above the perforated well screen, creating a reduction in pressure which draws
water through the large diameter rise pipe. The high pressure main feeds off the return water.
The advantage of the eductor system is that in operating many wellpointsfrom a single pump
station, the water table can be lowered in one stage from depths of 10-45 m. This method
becomes economically competitive at depth in soils of low permeability.

Installed Eductor Well-Point System

Working of Eductor Dewatering System
Supply pumps at ground level feed high-pressure water to each Eductor well head via
a supply main. The supply flow passes down the well and through a nozzle and venturi in the
Eductor. The flow of water through the nozzle generates a vacuum in the well and draws in
groundwater. The supply flow and extracted groundwater mix, return to the surface and feed
back to the pumping station via a return main. The return flow is used to prime the supply
pumps and the excess water extracted is discharged by overflow from the priming tank. A
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single pumping station can be used to operate up to about 75 Eductor wells installed in an
appropriate array around the works.

Advantages of Eductor Dewatering System
1) They are flexible in level and layout
2) Stable in operation
3) Able to run dry without damage
4) Not limited by depth. Also effective to greater depths
5) Best in low-yielding wells
6) Energy intensive
7) Venturi in base of well creates vacuum

Ground Freezing
The principle of ground freezing is to change the water in the soil into a solid wall of
ice. This wall of ice is completely impermeable. The chemical used for freezing of ground is
ammonium brine refrigeration or liquid nitrogen refrigeration. Ground freezing is used for
groundwater cutoff, for earth support, for temporary underpinning, for stabilization of earth
for tunnel excavation, to arrest landslides and to stabilize abandoned mineshafts. The
principals of ground freezing are analogous to pumping groundwater from wells. To freeze
the ground, a row of freeze pipes are placed vertically in the soil and heat energy is removed
through these pipes. Isotherms (an isotherm is a line connecting locations with equal
temperature) move out from the freeze pipes with time similar to groundwater contours
around a well. Once the earth temperature reaches 32 F (0 C), water in the soil pores turns
to ice. Then further cooling proceeds. The groundwater in the pores readily freezes in granular
soils, such as sands.
For instance, saturated sand achieves excellent strength at only a few degrees below
the freezing point. If the temperature is lowered further, the strength increases marginally.
In cohesive soils, such as clays, the ground water is molecularly bonded at least in part to the
soil particles. If soft clay is cooled down to freezing temperature, some portions of its pore
water to begin to freeze and it causes the clay to stiffen. With further reduction in
temperature, more pore water freezes and consequently more strength gain is achieved.
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When designing for frozen earth structures in cohesive soils, it may be necessary to specify
substantially lower temperatures to achieve the required strength, than in cohesion less soils.
A temperature of +20 F may be sufficient in sands, whereas temperatures as low as 20 F
may be required in soft clays.
The design of a frozen earth barrier is governed by the thermal properties of the
underlying soils and related response to the freezing system. Formation of frozen earth
barrier develop sat different rates depending on the thermal and hydraulic properties of each
stratum. Typically, rock and coarse-grained soils freeze faster than clays and silts as shown in
fig.

Formation of Frozen Earth Barrier in Different Soils

Freeze Pipes
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When soft clay is cooled to the freezing point, some portion of its pore water begins
to freeze and clay begins to stiffen. If the temperature is further reduced, more of the pore
water freezes and the strength of the clay markedly increases. When designing frozen earth
structures in clay it may be necessary to provide for substantially lower temperatures to
achieve the required strengths. A temperature of +20 F may be adequate in sands, whereas
temperatures as low as 20 F may be required in soft clay.

If the heat extraction is continued at a high rate, the thickness of the frozen wall will
expandwith time. Once the wall has achieved its design thickness, the freeze plant is operated
at a reduced rate to remove the heat flowing toward the wall, to maintain the condition as
shown in fig.

Freezing Applications
The freezing method is remarkably versatile, and with ingenuity it can be adapted to a great
many project conditions. The penetration of a freeze does not vary greatly with permeability,
so it is much more effective as a cutoff than grout. In stratified soils, cutoff by freezing
encounters fewer problems than drainage by dewatering. Freezing can perform the dual
function of water cutoff and earth support, eliminating sheeting and bracing.

DEEP-WELL DEWATERING
Deep well systems consist of one or more individual wells, each of which has its own
Submersible pump at the bottom of the well shaft. Such systems are particularly suitable.
Where large volumes of water in highly permeable sand and gravel areas permitting Rapid
recharging of ground water from surrounding areas exist. The Range of permeability under
which the deep well system is applicable.

Deep Well System
A typical deep well consists of a drilled hole within which is a lower screened casing
which admits water to the pump; an upper casing which prevents soil from reaching the pump
and, within the casing, the pump and its discharge pipe. The discharge pipe supports the
pump to which it is attached. Electrical wiring for the pump motor runs between the discharge
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pipe and the casing. The space between the drilled hole and the casing is normally packed
with filter material (for example, coarse sand and/or gravel) to minimize the pumping of solid
material from the soil surrounding the well.

Spacing of deep well point system
Normally, individual wells are spaced at an approximate distance of 15 m (50 feet)
apart. However, depending upon soil conditions and the dewatering plan the spacing may
need to be just a few meters apart.

Dewatering Capacity of Deep Well Point System
Individual well capacities are from 21 to 3000 gallons per minute and with total
systems the capacities can be as high as 60 000 gallons per minute. Deep well pumps can lift
water 30 m (100 feet) or more in a single stage and the variation of the typical deep well
system is a pressure within an aquifer. Deep well points require no pump as the water is
forced to the surface by its own pressure. To boost the water flow a vacuum pump is
frequently used.

Details of A Deep Well
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Installed Deep Well Point

Design Considerations of Deep Well-Point System of Dewatering
When designing a deep well point system, it is necessary to take into consideration the
Following:

The soil investigation report

The grain size analysis and permeability tests

The hydrology of the area

The topography

The space limitations of the site and surrounding structure.

The projected method of excavation and shoring if any

The construction schedule

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