Adverse Weather Operations

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

Windshear Awareness

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

Adverse Weather Operations
Windshear Awareness

Introduction
Flight crew awareness and alertness are key factors in the successful application of
windshear avoidance and escape / recovery techniques.
This Flight Operations Briefing Note provides an overview of operational
recommendations and training guidelines for aircraft operation in forecast or suspected
windshear or downburst conditions.

II

Background Information

II.1 Statistical Data

Adverse weather (other than low visibility and runway condition) is a circumstantial
factor in nearly 40 percent of approach-and-landing accidents.
Adverse wind conditions (i.e., strong cross winds, tailwind and windshear) are involved
in more than 30 percent of approach-and-landing accidents and in 15 percent of events
involving CFIT.
Windshear is the primary causal factor in 4 percent of approach-and-landing accidents
and is the ninth cause of fatalities.
These statistical data are summarized in Table 1.

Page 1 of 15

Adverse Weather Operations

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

Windshear Awareness

Factor

% of Events

Adverse weather

40 %

Adverse wind (all conditions)

33 %

Windshear

4%

(Source: Flight Safety Foundation - Flight Safety Digest - Vol. 17/Vol. 18 - 1998-1999)

Table 1
Weather factors in Approach-and-landing Accidents

II.2 Defining Windshear

Windshear is defined as a sudden change of wind velocity and/or direction.
Windshear occurs in all directions, but for convenience, it is measured along vertical
and horizontal axis, thus becoming vertical and horizontal windshear:

Vertical windshear:

Variations of the horizontal wind component along the vertical axis, resulting in
turbulence that may affect the aircraft airspeed when climbing or descending
through the windshear layer

Variations of the wind component of 20 kt per 1000 ft to 30 kt per 1000 ft are

typical values, but a vertical windshear may reach up to 10 kt per 100 ft.

Horizontal windshear:

Variations of the wind component along the horizontal axis (e.g., decreasing
headwind or increasing tailwind, or a shift from a headwind to a tailwind)

Variations of wind component may reach up to 100 kt per nautical mile.

Windshear conditions usually are associated with the following weather situations:

Jet streams

Mountain waves

Frontal surfaces

Thunderstorms and convective clouds

Microbursts.

Page 2 of 15

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

Adverse Weather Operations

Windshear Awareness

Microbursts combine two distinct threats to aviation safety (Figure 1):

The downburst part, resulting in strong downdrafts (reaching up to 6000 ft/mn of

vertical velocity)

The outburst part, resulting in large horizontal windshear and wind component shift
from headwind to tailwind (horizontal winds may reach up to 45 kt).

Figure 1
Microburst caused by a Cumulonimbus

II.3 Influence of Windshear on Aircraft Performance

The flight performance is affected as:

Headwind gust instantaneously increases the aircraft speed and thus tends to make
the aircraft fly above intended path and/or accelerate (see Figure 1, item 1).

A downdraft affects both the aircraft Angle-Of-Attack (AOA), that increases, and
the aircraft path since it makes the aircraft sink (see Figure 1, item 2).

Tailwind gust instantaneously decreases the aircraft speed and thus tends to make
the aircraft fly below intended path and/or decelerate (see Figure 1, item 3).

Windshears associated to jet streams, mountain waves and frontal surfaces usually
occur at altitudes that do not present the same risk than microbursts, which occur
closer to the ground.

Page 3 of 15

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

Adverse Weather Operations

Windshear Awareness

Four cases can be observed depending on the position of the aircraft relatively to
the microburst:

Microburst in front of the aircraft

Figure 2
Microburst in front of the aircraft
The crews do not always perceive an increase of the headwind as a risk. But such
a headwind gust de-stabilizes the approach of the aircraft, which will tend to fly
above path and/or accelerate, if the pilot does not react adequately.
If the headwind shear occurs at takeoff, the resulting aircraft performance will
increase. Once out of the shear, the indicated airspeed decreases thus leading to
an AOA increase which might trigger the alpha-floor protection and/or stick shaker
activation.

The aircraft flies through a microburst downdraft

Figure 3
The aircraft flies through a microburst downdraft
Vertical downdrafts are usually preceded by an increase of the headwind component
(see Figures 1 and 3). If the pilot does not fully appreciate the situation,
he/she will react to the headwind gust effects to regain the intended path by

Page 4 of 15

Adverse Weather Operations

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

Windshear Awareness

reducing the power and by pushing on the stick. At that point, a vertical downdraft
will increase the aircraft sink rate, which will bring the aircraft below the intended
path.

Microburst appearing behind the aircraft

Figure 4
Microburst appearing behind the aircraft
In case of a sudden increase of the tailwind, the aircraft airspeed decreases
instantaneously. The lift decreases and the aircraft tends to fly below the intended
approach path.
If the pilots pulls on the stick to recapture the path without adding sufficient thrust,
the AOA will increase significantly and the aircraft will sink down.
If sufficient thrust is set to regain the intended path, but the pilots reaction is then
slow to reduce the thrust once back on the path, the aircraft will fly above the path
and/or will accelerate.

The aircraft flies through a microburst

The worst case is the addition of the previous three cases:

Headwind gust

Downdraft

Tailwind gust.

This is what an
(see Figure 1).

aircraft

encounters

when

Page 5 of 15

it

flies

through

microburst

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

Adverse Weather Operations

Windshear Awareness

II.4 Windshear Awareness and Avoidance

Avoidance
The following information should be used to avoid areas of potential or observed
windshear:

Weather reports and forecast:

Some airports are equipped with a Low Level Windshear Alert System (LLWAS)
and/or a Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (TDWR).
LLWAS consists of a central wind sensor (sensing wind velocity and direction) and
peripheral wind sensors. It enables controllers to warn pilots of existing or
impending windshear conditions.
An alert is generated whenever a difference in excess of 15 kt is detected.
LLWAS may not detect downbursts with a diameter of 2 nm or less.
TDWR enables to detect approaching windshear areas and, thus, to provide pilots
with more advance warning of windshear hazard.

Pilots reports:
PIREPS of windshear in excess of 20 kt or downdraft / updraft of 500 ft/mn below
1000 ft above ground level should draw the attention of the crews.

Visual observation:
Blowing dust, rings of dust, dust devils (i.e., whirlwinds containing dust and stand),
or any other evidence of strong local air outflow near the surface often are
indication of potential or existing windshear.

On-board wind component and ground speed monitoring:

On approach, a comparison of the headwind or tailwind component (as available)
and the surface headwind or tailwind component indicates the potential and likely
degree of vertical windshear. This monitoring increases the situational awareness.

On-board weather radar

On-board predictive windshear system.

Recognition
Timely recognition of a windshear condition is vital for the successful implementation of
the windshear recovery/escape procedure.
The following deviations should be considered as indications of a possible windshear
condition:

Indicated airspeed variations in excess of 15 kt

Page 6 of 15

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

Ground speed variations

Analog wind indication variations: Direction and velocity

Vertical speed excursions of 500 ft/mn

Pitch attitude excursions of 5 degrees

Glide slope deviation of 1 dot

Heading variations of 10 degrees

Unusual autothrust activity or throttle levers position.

Adverse Weather Operations

Windshear Awareness

Predictive and Reactive Windshear Warnings

An optional WINDSHEAR warning is available on most aircraft models.
The windshear warning is based on the assessment of current aircraft performance
(flight parameters and accelerations). The windshear warning is generated whenever
the energy level of the aircraft falls below a predetermined threshold.
The windshear warning system associated to the Speed Reference System (SRS) mode
of the flight guidance constitute the Reactive Windshear Systems (RWS), since both
components react instantaneously to the current variations of aircraft parameters.
To complement the reactive windshear system and provide an early warning of
potential windshear activity, some weather radars feature the capability to detect
windshear areas ahead of the aircraft.
This equipment is referred to as a Predictive Windshear System (PWS).
PWS provides typically a one-minute advance warning. RWS and PWS characteristics
are summarized in Figure 5.

Figure 5
RWS and PWS compared characteristics

Page 7 of 15

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

Adverse Weather Operations

Windshear Awareness

PWS generates three levels of windshear alert, depending on:

The distance and angular position between the aircraft and the windshear

The altitude of the aircraft

The flight phase.

Colored patterns and icons are displayed on the weather radar display (ND) to indicate
areas of windshear activity (as illustrated by Figure 6).

Figure 6
Example of predictive windshear display on ND

III

Operational Standards
As a general rule, if windshear is suspected, or is detected by the PWS, delay
the takeoff.
If windshear is detected by RWS during takeoff or approach, recover with maximum
thrust and follow SRS guidance.
Note:
Applicable recovery procedures are published in the FCOM and QRH.

III.1 Cockpit Preparation Departure Briefing

Flight crew should consider all available windshear-awareness items and:

Assess the conditions for a safe takeoff based on:

Most recent weather reports and forecast

Visual observations

Page 8 of 15

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

Adverse Weather Operations

Windshear Awareness

Crew experience with the airport environment and the prevailing weather
conditions; or,

Delay the takeoff until conditions improve, as warranted.

III.2 Takeoff and Initial Climb

Windshear suspected
If windshear conditions are suspected during takeoff, the flight crew should:

Consider delaying the takeoff

Select the most favorable runway, considering the location of the likely windshear/
downburst

Select the minimum flaps configuration compatible with takeoff requirements, to

maximize the climb-gradient capability

Use the weather radar (and the predictive windshear system, as available) before
commencing the takeoff roll to ensure that the flight path is clear of hazard areas

Select the maximum takeoff thrust

Closely monitor the airspeed and speed trend during the takeoff roll to detect any
evidence of windshear.

Recovery Technique for Windshear Encounter during Takeoff

If windshear is encountered during takeoff roll, apply the following recovery techniques
without delay:

Before V1:

Reject the takeoff only if unacceptable airspeed variations occur and the pilot
assesses there is sufficient runway remaining to stop the aircraft.

After V1:

Maintain or set the thrust levers to the maximum takeoff thrust (TOGA)

Rotate normally at VR

Follow the Flight Director pitch orders, or set the required pitch attitude if FD is
not available (as recommended in the applicable FCOM).

Note:
If a windshear occurs during takeoff roll, V1 may be reached later (or sooner) than
expected. In this case, the pilot may have to rely on his/her own judgment to assess if
there is sufficient runway remaining to stop the aircraft, if necessary.

Page 9 of 15

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

Adverse Weather Operations

Windshear Awareness

Note:
Recovery technique during initial climb is described in the paragraph Recovery
technique for windshear encounter during initial climb, approach and landing
(see page 11).

III.3 Descent and Approach

Windshear suspected
Before conducting an approach in forecast or suspected windshear conditions, the flight
crew should:

Consider delaying the approach and landing until conditions improve or divert to
a suitable airport:

When downburst / windshear conditions are anticipated based on pilots reports

from preceding aircraft or based on an alert issued by the airport Low Level
Windshear Alert System (LLWAS), the landing should be delayed or the aircraft
should divert to the destination alternate airport.

Assess the conditions for a safe approach and landing based on:

Most recent weather reports and forecast

Visual observations

Crew experience with the airport environment and the prevailing weather
conditions.

Select the most favorable runway, considering:

The location of the likely windshear / downburst condition

The available runway approach aids.

Use the weather radar (or the predictive windshear system, as available) during
the approach to ensure that the flight path is clear of hazard areas

Select less than full flaps for landing (to maximize the climb-gradient capability) and
adjust the final approach speed (i.e. VAPP) accordingly

If an ILS is available, engage the autopilot for a more accurate approach tracking

If gusty wind is expected, increase VAPP displayed on the FMS CDU up to a

maximum of minimum approach speed (i.e. VLS) + 15 knots

Compare the headwind component or tailwind component aloft and the surface
headwind or tailwind component to assess the potential and likely degree of vertical
windshear

Page 10 of 15

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

Windshear Awareness

Closely monitor the airspeed, speed trend and ground speed during the approach to
detect any evidence of imminent windshear:

Adverse Weather Operations

A minimum ground speed should be maintained, to ensure a minimum level of

energy to the aircraft, and to ensure proper thrust management during
the approach, in case of sudden headwind to tailwind change. This is
automatically performed on Airbus fly-by-wire aircraft by the Ground Speed mini
function, when the speed target is managed and the A/THR function is engaged.

Be alert to respond immediately to:

Any predictive windshear advisory, W/S AHEAD caution or W/S AHEAD warning

A reactive WINDSHEAR warning.

Recovery Technique for Windshear Encounter during Initial Climb,

Approach and Landing
If windshear is detected (by the pilot, or by the PWS or RWS) during initial climb,
approach or landing, the following recovery techniques should be implemented
immediately:

IV

Set and maintain the Takeoff / Go-Around thrust (TOGA)

Follow the FD pitch orders or set the pitch attitude target recommended in
the FCOM (if FD is not available)

Applying full back stick on Airbus fly-by-wire aircraft, or flying close to the stick
shaker / stall warning Angle-Of-Attack (AOA) on aircraft models that do not have
full flight envelope protection, may be necessary to prevent the aircraft from sinking
down

Do not change the flaps and landing gear configuration until out of the windshear
condition

If AP is engaged, keep it engaged. If AP is not engaged, do not engage it

Level the wings to maximize climb gradient, unless a turn is required for obstacle
clearance

When out of the windshear, let the aircraft accelerate in climb, resume normal climb
and clean aircraft configuration.

Factors Affecting Windshear Awareness

The following factors may affect the windshear awareness and avoidance capability:

Aircraft equipment:

Absence of reactive and/or predictive windshear system(s).

Page 11 of 15

Adverse Weather Operations

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

Windshear Awareness

Airport equipment:

Absence of a Low Level Windshear Alert System (LLWAS) detection and warning
system

Absence of a Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (TDWR).

Training:

Absence of windshear awareness program

Absence of simulator training for windshear recovery.

Standard Operating Procedures:

Inadequate briefings

Inadequate monitoring of flight parameters

Incorrect use of or interaction with automation.

Human Factors and CRM:

Absence of cross-check (for excessive parameter-deviations)

Inadequate back-up (callouts)

Fatigue.

Prevention Strategies
Prevention strategies and lines-of-defense should
these adverse factors (as possible and practical).

be

developed

to

address

Standard Operating Procedures (SOP)

SOP should emphasize the following windshear-awareness items:

Windshear awareness and avoidance:

Takeoff / departure and approach / go-around briefings

Approach hazards awareness.

Windshear recognition:

Task sharing for effective cross-check and back-up, particularly for excessive
parameter-deviations

Energy management during approach

Elements of a stabilized approach and approach gates.

Windshear recovery / escape procedure:

Readiness and commitment to respond to a reactive or predictive windshear

advisory or warning, as available.

Page 12 of 15

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

Adverse Weather Operations

Windshear Awareness

Pilots reports
In all cases, after a windshear encounter, it is important that the crew makes a detailed
report of the event to the ATC, to increase other aircrafts crews awareness. This report
should contain:

The words pilot report

Windshear intensity

Windshear vertical and horizontal position.

Training
A windshear awareness program should be developed and implemented, based on
the contents of:

The industry-developed Windshear Education and Training Aid

The windshear recovery / escape procedure should be trained in a full-flight simulator,

using realistic windshear profiles recorded during actual windshear encounters.

VI

Summary of Key Points

The following key points and recommendations should be considered in
the development of company strategies and initiatives enhancing windshear awareness.
Key points are grouped into the three domains associated with windshear awareness;
Avoidance, Recognition and Recovery / Escape:

Avoidance

Assess the conditions for a safe takeoff or approach-and-landing, based on all

the available meteorological data, visual observations and on-board equipment

Delay the takeoff or the approach, or divert to a more suitable airport

Be prepared and committed for an immediate response to a predictive

windshear advisory/caution/warning or to a reactive windshear warning.

Recognition

Be alert to recognize a potential or existing windshear condition, based on all

the available weather data, on-board equipment and on the monitoring of
the aircraft flight parameters and flight path

Enhance instruments scan, whenever conditions for potential windshear exist.

Recovery / Escape

Follow the FD windshear recovery / escape pitch-guidance

the recommended FCOM recovery / escape procedure.

Page 13 of 15

or

apply

Adverse Weather Operations

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

VII

Windshear Awareness

Associated Flight Operations Briefing Notes

The following Flight Operations Briefing Notes provide expanded information on related
subjects:

VIII

IX

Optimum Use of the Weather Radar

Being Prepared for Go-around

Conducting Effective Briefings

Airbus References

A300/A310/A300-600 Flight Crew Operating Manuals (FCOM) Procedures and

Techniques Inclement Weather Operations Operation in Windshear/Downburst
Conditions

A300/A310/A300-600 FCOM Bulletins Windshear Phenomenon

A318/A319/A320/A321
Windshear Procedures

A318/A319/A320/A321 & A330/A340 Flight Crew Training Manuals Supplementary

Information Adverse Weather Windshear.

&

A330/A340

FCOM

Abnormal

and

Emergency

Regulatory References
The following regulatory references are provided to assist the reader in a quick and
easy reference to the related regulatory material:

ICAO Windshear (Circular 186)

ICAO Annex 6 Part I, 6.21 Recommendation Forward-looking Windshear

Warning System

FAA AC 00-54 - Pilot Windshear Guide.

Additional Reading Materials

The industry-developed Windshear Training Aid should be used to further illustrate

and complement the information contained in this Flight Operations Briefing Note.

Note:
This two-volume Windshear Training Aid is available from: U.S. National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) www.ntis.gov.

Page 14 of 15

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

Adverse Weather Operations

Windshear Awareness

Photo credit: NASA

This Flight Operations Briefing Note (FOBN) has been adapted from the corresponding ALAR Briefing Note developed by
Airbus in the frame of the Approach-and-Landing Accident Reduction (ALAR) international task force led by the Flight Safety
Foundation.
This FOBN is part of a set of Flight Operations Briefing Notes that provide an overview of the applicable standards,
flying techniques and best practices, operational and human factors, suggested company prevention strategies and personal
lines-of-defense related to major threats and hazards to flight operations safety.
This FOBN is intended to enhance the reader's flight safety awareness but it shall not supersede the applicable regulations
and the Airbus or airline's operational documentation; should any deviation appear between this FOBN and the Airbus or
airlines AFM / (M)MEL / FCOM / QRH / FCTM, the latter shall prevail at all times.
In the interest of aviation safety, this FOBN may be reproduced in whole or in part - in all media - or translated; any use of
this FOBN shall not modify its contents or alter an excerpt from its original context. Any commercial use is strictly excluded.
All uses shall credit Airbus and the Flight Safety Foundation.
Airbus shall have no liability or responsibility for the use of this FOBN, the correctness of the duplication, adaptation or
translation and for the updating and revision of any duplicated version.
Airbus Customer Services
Flight Operations Support and Services
1 Rond Point Maurice Bellonte - 31707 BLAGNAC CEDEX France
FOBN Reference : FLT_OPS ADV_WX SEQ 02 REV 02 NOV. 2005

Page 15 of 15

Adverse Weather Operations

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

Optimum Use of the Weather Radar

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

Adverse Weather Operations
Optimum Use of the Weather Radar
I

Introduction
Although more and more aircraft are equipped with one or two airborne weather
radars, incursions into very active cumulonimbus still occur, resulting in injuries or
substantial aircraft damage (Figure 1).

Figure 1
A320 Radome after Hail Encounter
The aim of this Flight Operational Briefing Note is to provide additional information
about weather radar capabilities and limitations, in order to improve the flight crews
overall understanding of the system, and to help prevent such incidents from occurring.

II

Background Information - Statistical Data

A weather radar is only helpful, if the flight crew is able to fully use the capability of the
system and interpret the screen display. The image of radar returns on the Navigation
Display (ND) is a representation of what is detected by the radar. Decisions that are
taken, based on this information, will vary depending on the flight crews interpretation

Page 1 of 17

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

Adverse Weather Operations

Optimum Use of the Weather Radar

of the ND radar image, thus on the experience of the flight crew and their knowledge of
the weather radars limitations.

II.1 Cumulonimbus (Cb) Structure

In flight, cumulonimbus (Cb) structures can be a major source of danger, due to
turbulence and heavy precipitation.

Hail
Hail represents a major threat, because of its effect and because weather radar do not
indicate the nature of returns. Only the knowledge of a Cbs structure and the
observation of different clues can help. The presence of hail within a Cb, varies with
altitude and wind (Figure 2):

Below FL 100, hail is equally likely to be encountered under the storm, in the cloud
or around it (up to 2 NM)

Between FL 100 and FL 200, 60 percent of hail is encountered in the Cb and 40

percent is encountered outside the cloud, under the anvil

Above FL 200, hail is most likely to be encountered inside the cloud.

Usually, the threat of hail is greater downwind of a Cb: indeed, moisture is driven
upward by strong drafts. It then freezes and is transformed into hail, before being
blown downwind. When possible, it is better to try to avoid a storm by flying on the
upwind side of the Cb. Paradoxically, there is less risk of hail in humid air than in dry
air. In fact, moisture in the air behaves as a heat conductor, and helps to melt the hail.

Figure 2
The Risk of Encountering Hail relative to Cb Cloud Position

Page 2 of 17

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

Adverse Weather Operations

Optimum Use of the Weather Radar

Turbulence
Turbulence associated with a Cb is not limited to inside the cloud. Weather radars
cannot detect turbulence in clear air, so it is therefore necessary to take precautionary
measures. A Cb should be cleared by a minimum of 5 000 ft vertically and
20 NM laterally, to minimize the risk of encountering severe turbulence.
Lightning is a very strong indicator of severe turbulence.
Note:
A method to determine the altitude of the top of a Cb is presented in paragraph IV.1.

II.2 Weather Radar Principle

A knowledge of the radar principle is essential in order to accurately interpet
the weather radar display.

Weather Radar Detection Capability

The weather radar only detects precipitation droplets (Figure 3). How much it detects
depends upon the size, composition and number of droplets. Water particles are five
times more reflective than ice particles of the same size.

Figure 3
Weather Radar Principle
The radar does detect:

Rainfall

Wet hail and wet turbulence

Ice crystals, dry hail and dry snow. However, these three elements give small
reflections, as explained below.

The radar does not detect:

Clouds, fog or wind (droplets are too small, or no precipitation at all)

Clear air turbulence (no precipitation)

Page 3 of 17

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

Adverse Weather Operations

Optimum Use of the Weather Radar

Windshear (no precipitation except in microburst)

Sandstorms (solid particles are almost transparent to the radar beam)

Lightning.

Reflectivity
Radar echo returns are proportional to droplet size, and therefore, precipitation
intensity. Droplets that are too small (fog droplets) will return no echo, whereas heavy
droplets (thunderstorm droplets) will return the majority of radar waves (Figure 4).

Figure 4
Reflectivity According to Droplet Size
Reflectivity of precipitation not only depends on the intensity of the precipitation, but
also on the type of precipitation. Precipitation that contains water will return a stronger
return than dry precipitation. Dry hail, for example, will reflect far less than wet hail
(Figure 5). The upper level of a thunderstorm, that contains ice crystals, provides
weaker returns than the middle part, that is full of water or wet hail.

Figure 5
Reflectivity According to Droplet Type

Page 4 of 17

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

Adverse Weather Operations

Optimum Use of the Weather Radar

It is important to note that reflectivity of particles is not directly proportional to

the hazard that may be encountered in a cell. Air can be very humid, when close to the
sea for instance. In this case, thermal convection will produce clouds that are full of
water. These clouds will have a high reflectivity, but will not necessarily be a high
threat. On the other hand, there are equatorial overland regions where converging
winds produce large scale uplifts of dry air. The resulting weather cells have much less
reflectivity than mid-latitude convective cells, making them much harder to detect.
However turbulence in or above such clouds may have a higher intensity than indicated
by the image on the weather radar display.
Similarly, snow flakes have low reflectivity, as long as they are above freezing level. As
they descend through freezing level, snowflakes stick together and become water
covered. Their reflectivity increases and the weather radar display may display amber
or red cells, despite the fact that there is no threat.

Attenuation
Because the weather radar display depends on signal returns, heavy precipitation may
conceal even stronger weather: The major part of the signal is reflected by the frontal
part of the precipitation. The aft part returns weak signals, that are displayed as green
or black areas. The flight crew may interpret these as a no/small threat areas.
Modern weather radars are now able to apply a correction to a signal when it is
suspected to have been attenuated behind a cloud. This reduces the attenuation
phenomenon. However, a black hole behind a red area on a weather radar display
should always be considered as a zone that is potentially very active.
Despite this attenuation correction function, the weather radar should not be used as a
tool to penetrate, or navigate around, areas that are displayed as severe. The weather
radar should only be considered as a tool to be used for weather avoidance.

Figure 6
Attenuation Behind Two Very Active Cells

Page 5 of 17

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

Adverse Weather Operations

Optimum Use of the Weather Radar

Weather Shapes that should attract the Flight Crews Attention

Some displays contain cues that should alert the flight crew:

Shapes

Shapes, more than colors, should be observed carefully in order to detect adverse
weather conditions.
Closely spaced areas of different colors usually indicate highly turbulent zones
(Figure 7).

Figure 7
Closely Spaced Areas of Different Colors
Some shapes are good indicators of severe hail and signify strong vertical drafts
(Figure 8). Fast changing shapes, whatever form they take, also indicate high weather
activity.

Figure 8
Shapes Indicating Adverse Weather

Page 6 of 17

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

Adverse Weather Operations

Optimum Use of the Weather Radar

At cruise altitude, ice replaces water in clouds, and ice is not detected as easily as
water by weather radars. High vertical expansion clouds are representative of highenergy air movements. Therefore, any returns at cruise altitude should be considered
turbulent. In cruise, all cells with green or stronger returns should be avoided by 20 NM
at least.

Turbulence

Some weather radars are fitted with a turbulence display mode. This function
(the TURB function) is based on the Doppler effect and is sensitive to precipitation
movement. Like the weather radar, the TURB function needs a minimum amount of
precipitation to be effective. To help make safe flight path decisions, and especially
when the weather ahead is represented as dense, the turbulence display mode should
be used.
An area of light rainfall, depicted in green in normal mode, is shown in magenta when
there is high turbulence activity.
The TURB function is only active within a range of 40 NM (Doppler measurement
capability) and can only be used in wet turbulence.
Note:
Clear air turbulence and dry turbulence cannot be detected by the weather radar.

III

Radar Technology
Previous generations of weather radars use parabolic antennae and C-band frequencies
(4 000-8 000 MHz). Newer weather radars are fitted with flat antennae and use X-Band
(8 000-12 500 MHz) frequencies, that offer the following advantages:

Higher pulse energy

A narrower beam, that significantly improves the target resolution

Higher reflectivity, and therefore a higher total energy return

Turbulence and windshear detection

Low power consumption.

Note:
Care should be taken when using radar on ground: Radar can cause damage to
the human body.
This new technology has higher attenuation, and therefore a decreased ability to
determine if there are weather cells with high levels of precipitations. Consequently,
the X band radars are intended to be used as weather avoidance tools and not as tools
for penetrating adverse weather.

Page 7 of 17

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

Adverse Weather Operations

Optimum Use of the Weather Radar

New generation weather radars are fitted with:

Either an auto-tilt function, that will set the radar antenna tilt automatically
according to the altitude of the aircraft (see paragraph IV.1)

Figure 1
AutoTilt Function

Or, an auto-scanning function, that will continuously scan both vertically and
horizontally along the aircrafts intended trajectory, and will store and display
a three-dimensional weather representation.

Figure 2
Auto-Scanning Function

Page 8 of 17

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

IV

Adverse Weather Operations

Optimum Use of the Weather Radar

Operational Standards - Best Practices

Weather reports, provided at flight dispatch (e.g. SIGMET), as well as in flight
(e.g. VOLMET, ATIS), inform the flight crew of potential in-flight weather. The best way
to use a weather radar is to use it in conjunction with weather reports and weather
forecasts. The weather radar can then be used in flight to detect, analyze, and to avoid
significant weather.
The flight crew uses four features to operate the radar:

Antenna tilt, that is the angle between the centre of the beam and the horizon

Range control of the ND, that has an essential influence on the optimum tilt setting

Gain control, that adjusts the sensitivity of the receiver (and should usually be set
to AUTO). The sensitivity of the receiver may vary from one type of radar system to
another

Radar modes: weather (WX), weather + turbulence (WX + T).

IV.1 Antenna Tilt

On all weather radars, and more particularly on X-band/flat antenna weather radars,
effective management of the antenna tilt, along with adequate selection of the ND
range, will avoid over/underscanning, thus ensuring optimum detection and
visualization of weather on the ND.
Indeed, the returns displayed on the ND are cells that are cut by the radar beam.
The ND does not represent the cells at aircraft level. Antenna tilt should be taken into
account in order to clearly understand the weather radar display (Figure 9).

Figure 9
Display along Radar Beam

Page 9 of 17

Adverse Weather Operations

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

Optimum Use of the Weather Radar

When flying towards a cell, the flight crew can get an estimate of the vertical expansion
of the cloud above/below the aircraft altitude with the following formula:
h (feet) ~ d(NM) x Tilt (degrees) x 100
Tilt represents
the display.

the

tilt

selected

so

that

the

cell

image

disappears

from

For example, an echo disappearing at 40 NM with 1o tilt down has a top located 4 000 ft
below the aircraft level (Figure 10).

Figure 10
Relationship between Distance / Tilt / Height
Antenna tilt should be adapted to the ND range selection. In most cases in flight,
the adequate antenna tilt setting shows some ground returns at the top edge of
the ND. However, at takeoff, or in climb, the tilt should be set up if adverse weather is
expected above the aircraft. The antenna tilt must be adjusted as the flight progresses,
in relation to the aircrafts altitude, the expected weather and the ND range selection.
In order to avoid overscanning or underscanning, the antenna tilt should be changed
periodically when changing altitude, unless the weather radar is fitted with an auto-tilt
function (Figure 11).

Page 10 of 17

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

Adverse Weather Operations

Optimum Use of the Weather Radar

Figure 11
Level Change / Tilt adjustment
Weather echoes and ground returns are difficult to differentiate. A change in antenna
tilt rapidly changes the shape and color of ground returns and eventually causes them
to disappear. This is not the case for weather echoes. Some weather radars are fitted
with a Ground Clutter Suppress (GCS) function that suppresses the ground return from
the display, when turned ON.
Upper levels of a Cb may contain ice, and therefore may return radar images that do
not represent the severity of its activity. In order to get a better weather detection,
weather radar antenna should be pointed toward lower levels, where water can still be
found, i.e. at levels that are below freezing (Figure 12). If a red area is found at
a lower level, the antenna tilt should be reduced to scan the area vertically. Presence of
yellow or green areas at higher altitude, above a red cell, is an indication of a very
turbulent area.

Figure 12
Storm Scanning

Page 11 of 17

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

Adverse Weather Operations

Optimum Use of the Weather Radar

IV.2 Display Range

To avoid a large storm, the flight crew must make decisions while still 40 NM away
from it. Therefore, the flight crew should select adequate ranges on the NDs:

PNF adequate ranges to plan long-term weather avoidance course changes

(in cruise, typically 160 NM and below)

PF adequate ranges to tactically avoid adverse weather, and monitor its severity
(in cruise, typically 80 NM and below).

Course changes to avoid adverse weather, should be determined using both higher and
lower ranges. This technique prevents the blind alley effect: A course change that
may seem safe when using a low range ND display may reveal a blocked passage when
observed at a higher range (Figure 13).

Figure 13
Blind Alley Effect
As indicated in paragraph IV.1, antenna tilt should be adapted to range selection.
To cover the whole area shown on the ND, the weather radar must have a slightly
negative antenna tilt in order to avoid overscanning. A correct setting will show some
ground return at the top edge of the ND.

IV.3 Gain
The GAIN knob on the weather radar panel adjusts the receiver sensitivity. In the AUTO
position, the gain is in the optimum position to detect standard thunderstorm cells.
A manual setting is available and can be used to analyze the weather.

Page 12 of 17

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

Adverse Weather Operations

Optimum Use of the Weather Radar

In general, the AUTO position should be used, except for cell evaluation. If gain is used
manually for in-depth weather analysis, it must be reset to CAL (AUTO) when analysis
is complete.

Gain Reduction
At lower altitudes, cells are more reflective and the weather radar display may have
a tendency to show a lot of red spots. This can also be the case at higher altitude with
severe Cbs. In this case, decreasing gain:

Can help to judge the relative intensity between two cells

Can help to highlight turbulent cells, because the turbulence display is not affected
by gain in turbulence display mode

Can be useful for finding embedded cells, in heavy stratus rain

Can render attenuation more visible, helping to identify very active cells.

Gain reduction allows the detection of the strongest part of a cell, displayed in red on
the ND. By slowly reducing the gain, most red areas slowly turn yellow, the yellow
areas turn green and the green areas slowly disappear. The remaining red areas,
the red areas that are the last to turn yellow are the strongest parts of the cell and
must be avoided at the greatest distance possible (Figure 14).

Figure 14
Effect of Gain Reduction
Note:
In MAP mode, the gain should always be reduced because of the high reflectivity of
the ground.

Page 13 of 17

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

Adverse Weather Operations

Optimum Use of the Weather Radar

Gain Augmentation
At high altitudes, water particles are frozen and clouds are less reflective. Gain may be
increased for storm evaluation purposes.

Operational and Human Factors Affecting Optimum Use of Weather Radar

The weather radar display may be wrongly disregarded by the flight crew (who may
decide to enter clouds) in the following conditions:

Near the destination airport

When following an other aircraft

When more than 15 minutes behind schedule

At night.

On the other hand, and as explained before, the weather radar, if not correctly used or
interpreted, may mislead the flight crew when:

VI

An area of strong activity is hidden behind heavy rain

A small ND range is not sufficient for the flight crew to determine if an elected
trajectory between clouds is blocked by adverse weather further ahead

Dry hail precipitation returns a weaker echo than water droplets

The antenna tilt is not correctly adjusted

Gain is left in a manual position.

Prevention Strategies
A weather radar is a tool for detecting and avoiding adverse weather and turbulence.
As with any other tool, adequate skills are needed in order to use it efficiently.
Each type of radar has its own particularities, and does not display a given weather
situation in the same way as another type of weather radar. These particularities are
outlined in the weather radar user guide. It is therefore necessary to study the
manufacturers user guide, in order to gain a good knowledge of the weather radar
capabilities and limitations.
The shape of radar echoes, as well as their color, should be observed to identify storms
containing hail. The gain function should be used for deeper analysis, but should then
be reset to the CAL or AUTO position. The TURB function can be used when closing in
on active weather to identify the most turbulent area.
The flight crew should periodically scan:

Vertically, using the antenna tilt function

Horizontally, using the range change.

Page 14 of 17

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

Adverse Weather Operations

Optimum Use of the Weather Radar

As a general rule, the following prevention strategies apply:

Use the weather radar to detect/analyze/avoid significant weather

The shape/colour/size of returns are factors that should be considered to interpret

the weather

Effective management of the antenna tilt along with an appropriate ND range

selection, are key tools to obtaining an informative weather radar display on the ND

Gain is used in CAL/AUTO mode for detection and initial evaluation of displayed
weather: Manual gain control is used to analyze the weather

Wet turbulence can be detected up to 40 NM with the TURB function.

Page 15 of 17

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

Adverse Weather Operations

Optimum Use of the Weather Radar

Airlines should provide information and recommendations on the use of radar to their
flight crews for each flight phase. A typical example of recommendations that could be
provided, for radars not fitted with auto-tilt or auto-scanning function, is as follows:

Phase

Taxi

Recommendations
Set ND to 10 NM range

Radar check must be

Tilt down, then up: Check appearance / disappearance

performed away from

of ground returns

people

Scan up to 15 UP for weather return, if significant

Takeoff

weather is suspected
Select tilt at 4 UP for takeoff

Climb

Remarks

Scan along the departure

path

Select negative tilt, maintain ground returns on top of

Change tilt according to

ND as the aircraft climbs

altitude and ND range.

Select negative tilt and maintain ground returns on top

of ND. As a rule of thumb:
Range 320: tilt 1 DN
Range 160: tilt 1.5 DN
Cruise

Range 80:

tilt 3.5 DN

Range 40:

tilt 6 DN

No ground returns
beyond line of sight

When approaching weather:

- Decrease ND range

FL370 => 240 NM

FL250 => 200 NM

- Tilt down
- Use TURB to isolate turbulence
- GAIN to AUTO
Above FL150
Every 10 000 ft: Adjust tilt upward to maintain ground
Descent

returns on top of ND (~ +1o/10 000 ft)

Below FL150
Every 5 000 ft: Adjust tilt upward to maintain ground
returns on top of ND (~ +1o/5 000 ft)

Approach

Select tilt at 4 UP

To avoid ground returns

Page 16 of 17

Flight Operations Briefing Notes

VII

Adverse Weather Operations

Optimum Use of the Weather Radar

Summary of Key Points

The following key points should be emphasized:

VIII

Weather radars are designed for active detection of adverse weather conditions

Antenna tilt, range management and gain function need to be fully understood to
use the weather radar effectively

Radar display colors reflect humidity in the air and not necessarily turbulence
intensity: A red cell in a humid atmosphere may be less turbulent than a yellow one
in dry air

The TURB function should be used to identify the most turbulent cells within 40 NM.

Airbus References
A310/300-600 Flight Crew Operating Manuals - Procedures and Techniques Inclement
Weather Operation Weather Avoidance Optimum Use of Weather Radar
A320/330/340 Flight Crew Training Manuals - Supplementary Information Use of
Radar

IX

Additional Reading Material / Website References

Honeywell
(RDR-4B)
Users
Manual
with
Radar
Operating
http://www.flwsradar.com/Tech_Lit/Pilots_Guide/Pguide_main.htm

Rockwell Collins Weather Radar Pilots Guide

Guidelines

This FOBN is part of a set of Flight Operations Briefing Notes that provide an overview of the applicable standards, flying
techniques and best practices, operational and human factors, suggested company prevention strategies and personal linesof-defense related to major threats and hazards to flight operations safety.
This FOBN is intended to enhance the reader's flight safety awareness but it shall not supersede the applicable regulations
and the Airbus or airline's operational documentation; should any deviation appear between this FOBN and the Airbus or
airlines AFM / (M)MEL / FCOM / QRH / FCTM, the latter shall prevail at all times.
In the interest of aviation safety, this FOBN may be reproduced in whole or in part - in all media - or translated; any use of
this FOBN shall not modify its contents or alter an excerpt from its original context. Any commercial use is strictly excluded.
All uses shall credit Airbus.
Airbus shall have no liability or responsibility for the use of this FOBN, the correctness of the duplication, adaptation or
translation and for the updating and revision of any duplicated version.
Airbus Customer Services
Flight Operations Support and Services
1 Rond Point Maurice Bellonte - 31707 BLAGNAC CEDEX FRANCE
FOBN Reference : FLT_OPS ADV_WX SEQ 07 REV 02 FEB. 2007

Page 17 of 17