ARTICLES

A vs. An
USE 1
The article A is used before singular, countable nouns which begin
with consonant sounds.
Examples:

He is a teacher.

She doesn't own a car.

I saw a bear at the zoo.

USE 2
The article AN is used before singular, countable nouns which begin
with vowel sounds.
Examples:

He is an actor.

She didn't get an invitation.

I saw an eagle at the zoo.

USE 3
Remember that A(AN) means "one" or "a single". You cannot use A(AN) with plural
nouns.
Examples:

I saw a bears in Yellowstone National Park. Not Correct

I saw bears in Yellowstone National Park. Correct

USE 4

If there is an adjective or an adverb-adjective combination before the

noun, A(AN) should agree with the first sound in the adjective or the adverb-adjective
combination.
Examples:

He is an excellent teacher.

I saw a really beautiful eagle at the zoo.

USE 5
Use A before words such as "European" or "university" which sound like they start
with a consonant even if the first letter is a vowel. Also useA before letters and
numbers which sound like they begin with a consonant, such as "U", "J", "1" or "9".
Remember, it is the sound not the spelling which is important. For example, "1" is
spelled O-N-E; however, it is pronounced "won" like it starts with a "W".
Examples:

She has a euro. Sounds like "yu-ro".

That number is a "1". Sounds like "won".

USE 6
Use AN before words such as "hour" which sound like they start with a vowel even if
the first letter is a consonant. Also use AN before letters and numbers which sound
like they begin with a vowel, such as "F" or "8". Remember, it is the sound not the
spelling which is important. For example, "F" is pronounced "eff" like it starts with an
"E".
Examples:

I only have an hour for lunch. Sounds like "au-er".

Does his name begin with an "F"? Sounds like "eff".

USE 7

Some words such as "herb" or "hospital" are more complicated because they are
pronounced differently in different English accents. In most American accents, the "h"
in "herb" is silent, so Americans usually say "an herb". In many British accents, the
"h" in "herb" is pronounced, so many British say "a herb". In some British accents, the
"h" in hospital is silent, so some British will say "an hospital" instead of "a hospital".

USE 8
In English, some nouns are considered uncountable such as: information, air, advice,
salt and fun. We do not use A(AN) with these uncountable nouns. (Learn more
about countable and uncountable nouns.)
Examples:

She gives a good advice. Not Correct

She gives good advice. Correct

A(An) vs. The

USE 9
A and AN are called indefinite articles. "Indefinite" means "not specific".
Use A(AN) when you are talking about a thing in general, NOT a specific thing.
Examples:

I need a phone. Not a specific phone, any phone

Mark wants a bicycle. Not a particular bicycle, a bicycle in general

Do you have a driver's license? In general

Use A(AN) when talking about a thing which is new, unknown, or introduced to a
listener for the first time. Also use A(AN) when you are asking about the existence of
something.
Examples:

I have a car. The car is being introduced for the first time.

Tom is a teacher. This is new information to the listener.

Is there a dictionary in your backpack? Asking about the existence of the

dictionary

Similarly, use A(AN) to introduce what type of thing we are talking about.
Examples:

That is an excellent book. Describing the kind of book

Do you live in a big house? Asking about the kind of house

I ate a thick, juicy steak. Describing the kind of steak

REMEMBER: You cannot use A(AN) with plural nouns because A(AN) means "one"
or "a single".
Examples:

I saw a bears in Yellowstone National Park. Not Correct

I saw bears in Yellowstone National Park. Correct

USE 10
THE is called a definite article. "Definite" means "specific". Use THE when talking
about something which is already known to the listener or which has been previously
mentioned, introduced, or discussed.
Examples:

I have a cat. The cat is black.

There is a book in my backpack. The book is very heavy.

Do you know where I left the car keys? The listener knows which specific car
keys you are talking about.

Do you own a car? Is the car blue? You assume they do have a car after
asking about it in the first sentence.

Nobody lives on the Moon. The Moon is known to everyone.

IMPORTANT: You can use THE with both singular nouns and plural nouns.
Examples:

I saw the bear in Yellowstone National Park. Correct

I saw the bears in Yellowstone National Park. Correct

USE 11
Many clauses and phrases make the noun known to the listener by telling the listener
which person or thing we are talking about. Let's look at an example sentence:
Can you give me the book on the table.
We use THE in this sentence because the phrase "on the table" tells the listener
which book we are referring to. We are not talking about other books, we are talking
about a specific book that the listener can see or already knows about. Learning to
recognize such identifying clauses and phrases will help you use THE correctly.
Examples:

Did you read the book which I gave you?

He didn't like the movie that you suggested.

He loved the dessert with chocolate and cherries.

The phone on my desk belongs to Ken.

Did you know the man who was talking to Leonie?

HOWEVER: Not all clauses and phrases make the noun known to the listener. Some
are simply descriptive. They add extra information, but they do not tell the listener
which specific thing we are talking about.
Examples:

He bought the house with a big backyard. This combination tells the listener
which specific house he bought.

He bought a house with a big backyard. This combination tells the listener
what kind of house he bought, but not the specific house he bought.

USE 12
A(AN) can be used like the word "per".
Examples:

Apples currently cost $1.30 a pound.

Cheetahs can run 60 miles an hour.

You want $150 a person for the tour?

USE 13
Use THE with nouns modified by ranking or ordering expressions such as "the first",
"the second", "the third", "the next", "the last", "the previous", "the following", "the
penultimate", etc.
Examples:

This is the fifth day of our conference.

I'll pay the next time we have dinner.

Don't forget the following rule.

USE 14
Use THE with superlatives such as "the best", "the biggest", "the most important",
"the least interesting", etc.
Examples:

This is the best day ever.

That is the most expensive hotel room I've ever heard of in my life.

He told the funniest joke!

Comparative forms, such as "bigger", "better", "more" can be used with

both A(AN) and THE and follow general article usage.
Examples:

I like the bigger roller coaster.

He has a more expensive car than I do.

HOWEVER: THE is often used with comparative forms (bigger) rather than
superlative forms (biggest) when comparing only two things. This is commonly used
in phrases such as "the bigger of the two".
Examples:

Jessie and Shauna are both smart. But I think Shauna is the smarter of the
two.

Between Jason's son and his daughter, his daughter is the better athlete.

USE 15
Do not use articles when generalizing about uncountable nouns and plural countable
nouns.
Examples:

Curiosity is a great trait. Uncountable

Water is an important resource. Uncountable

Vegetables are good for you. Plural countable

USE 16
English speakers often use THE plus a singular noun when they talk about or make
generalizations about certain topics, including:

musical instruments (the piano, the guitar, the flute)

plants (the coconut palm, the saguaro, the baobab)

animals (the leopard, the elephant, the lowland gorilla)

inventions (the steam engine, the plane, the light bulb)

currencies (the dollar, the euro, the yen)

body parts (the head, the eye, the ear)

Examples:

I play the piano.

The sequoia tree is native to California.

The dolphin is a very intelligent animal.

The Wright brothers invented the airplane.

Right now, the euro is stronger than the dollar.

Cheryl got poked in the eye.

In general, English speakers choose to use THE in this way to give the noun a more
abstract or conceptual sound. We choose to say "the piano" to make it sound more
like an abstract art form. Similarly, "the dolphin" sounds more like we are referring to
the species. Moreover, "the plane" has a more conceptual sound that conveys the
idea of invention. But remember, you can also make generalizations about these
topics using plurals as in USE 15.

USE 17
The expressions "a few" and "a little" mean "some" and express the idea that you
have more than expected.
Examples:

He always carries a few dollars for emergencies.

He had a little difficulty with his homework.

She has a few friends who can help her move.

HOWEVER: The expressions "few" and "little" (without an article) mean "not much"
and express the idea that you have less than expected.
Examples:

Unfortunately, I had little time to enjoy New York because I had to work so
much.

Sadly, he has few people in his life.

They have little money, so their daughter cannot pay her tuition.

BUT REMEMBER: When the words "only" or "just" are used, "a few" and "a little"
also emphasize the meaning "not much".
Examples:

Unfortunately, I only had a little time to enjoy New York because I had to work
so much.

Sadly, he just has a few people in his life.

They only have a little money, so their daughter cannot pay her tuition.

USE 18
Generally, articles are not used with the names of illnesses or diseases.

Examples:

Dr. Smith visits schools and universities to educate students on AIDS.

Oncologists are doctors who specialize in treating cancer.

There are several medications that can be used to treat malaria.

HOWEVER: There are some illnesses which require THE.

the measles

the flu

the mumps

the bubonic plague

MOREOVER: There are a few health conditions or illnesses which can be used with
both A(AN) as well as THE and follow general article use. This category includes
most aches, pains, growths, and attacks.

a cold

a heart attack

a stroke

a wart / tumor / growth / etc.

a sore throat / sore back/ sore foot / etc.

a headache / toothache / backache / etc.

REMEMBER: This last category follows general article use. Study the examples
below.
Examples:

John has a cold. The cold was pretty bad.

Nancy had a heart attack. The heart attack seriously weakened her heart.

Deb had a sore throat. The sore throat made it hard to talk.

USE 19
If a direction (north, west, southeast, left, right) directly follows a verb, do not use an
article with the direction.
Examples:

We need to walk south.

They drove north all day.

At the stop sign, turn left and walk three blocks.

HOWEVER: If a direction follows a preposition, you must use THE.

Examples:

We need to walk to the south.

Our house is in the north.

The grocery store is on the right.

MOREOVER: Use THE with compass directions when referring to them as special
geographic or cultural regions.
Examples:

We love the South.

Have you ever visited the East?

The West has better national parks.

USE 20
THE can be used with plural family names to refer to the family as a group.

Examples:

The Robinsons love to vacation in Florida.

The Shinoharas are originally from Japan.

My brother lives next door to the Jacksons.

USE 21
THE can be combined with certain adjectives to refer to a group of people such as
"the blind", "the elderly", "the rich", "the French", "the Sioux", etc.
Examples:

He is elderly. Adjective

The organization helps the elderly. Elderly people

REMEMBER: This is especially important in situations where nationalities or ethnic

groups and their languages might be confused. In such situations, THE is used to
specify that we are talking about the nationality or ethnic group rather than the
language.
Examples:

I like French. Language

I like the French. The French people

HOWEVER: When generalizing about nationalities or ethnic groups that end in "ans", such as "Americans", "Mexicans", and "Hawaiians",THE is not usually used.
Examples:

Americans watch a lot of TV.

Germans drink a lot of beer.

USE 22

Do not use THE with the names of most countries unless the name contains a word
such as "States", "Kingdom", "Republic", "Emirates", "Union", "Coast", etc.
Examples:

I love Italy.

John used to live in Japan.

He lives in the United States.

SIMILARLY: Don't use THE with states, provinces, and cities unless THE is
specifically part of the name or contains a word such as "Territory" or "Coast".
Examples:

He lives in California.

Ladakh is in India.

The Northwest Territories is a province in Canada.

EXCEPTIONS: THE is used with "the Netherlands" as well as with many nations
which are island chains, such as "the Philippines", "the Maldives", "the Bahamas",
etc. Additionally, in the past, THE was used with certain countries such as "the
Sudan", "the Gambia", and "the Congo"; this usage is becoming less common.
Examples:

He lives in the Netherlands.

I visited the Bahamas last year.

USE 23
Use THE with the names of:

oceans

seas

coasts - obale

rivers

swamps - movare

archipelagos

collections of lakes (such as the Great Lakes)

mountain chains

deserts

references on the globe (such as the Equator, the North Pole)

geographic regions (such as the Northwest, the Middle East)

bridges (except Tower Bridge)

pagodas

hotels

theaters

museums

institutes

skyscrapers - neboder

the Sun, the Moon

extraordinary works of art or architecture (such as the Mona Lisa, the

Colosseum, the Great Wall of China, and the Taj Mahal)

Examples:

James visited the Hermitage, a famous museum in St. Petersburg.

I would love to visit the North Pole.

Nina walked over the Rialto Bridge.

USE 24
Do not use an article with:

individual lakes

individual islands

beaches

waterfalls - slapovi

individual mountains (except the Matterhorn)

canyons (except the Grand Canyon)

people's first names

streets (except the High Street)

public squares javni trgovi

hospitals

stadiums

malls - centri

parks

churches

temples - hramovi

universities

colleges

languages

religions

days

months

holidays

Examples:

Have you ever visited Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris?

Kenta is Buddhist.

We went camping in King's Canyon.

HOWEVER: There are additional exceptions to some of the above categories. For
example, THE is often used in the pattern "the ... of ...".
Examples:

The University of Colorado

The Temple of Ranakpur

The Cathedral of Siena

USE 25
Time expressions can be especially confusing. THE is used in some time
expressions such as:

in the morning

in the afternoon

in the evening

during the night

during the day

the day before yesterday

the day after tomorrow

the fall

the summer

Examples:

We'll meet in the afternoon.

Jake loves to go camping in the fall.

There was a small earthquake during the night.

HOWEVER: In other time expressions, no article is used:

at night

at noon

at midnight

all day

all night

all month

every month

every year

last night

last Friday

yesterday

tomorrow

Examples:

Did you sleep well last night?

I'll see you tomorrow.

We are meeting for lunch at noon.

MOREOVER: There are some expressions which can take both A(AN) and THE such
as:

a/the whole day

a/the whole month

an/the entire year

an/the entire decade

Examples:

He spent a whole month in Hawaii. I wish I could do that.

I took last Friday off to go to the doctor. I spent the whole day sitting in his
office.

When she first moved to Germany, it took an entire year for her to learn
enough German to go shopping.

Phil hated the '90s. He spent the whole decade in a dead-end job struggling to
pay his rent.

We use a before nouns or adjectives which begin with a consonant, or when U sounds like
a Y, or O sounds like a W.
A cat

A dog
A university
A young puppy
A one-eyed pirate
We use an before words which begin with a vowel sound or a soft H sound.
An egg
An hour-glass
An antique necklace
This rule also applies to acronyms.
A Society of Writers member was quoted in the article.
A S.O.W. member was quoted in the article.
An S.O.W. member was quoted in the article.
Because S sounds like it begins with a vowel (ess), an should be used in front of it.

The Used With All

In English, the should not come before the word all. They may be used separately, or
combined into all the.
At the all birthday parties, food and drinks are served to the guests.
This could be written as: at birthday parties, at all birthday parties, or at all the birthday
parties.
My father asked me to take the all books off the dining room table. NE VALJA!
My father asked me to take all the books off the dining room table. VALJA!

When using the phrases most of, some of, and all of, put the definite article the before the
plural noun which is being modified by the phrase.
I want to clean all of rooms in the house before the guests arrive.
The phrase all of should be followed by the article the.
I want to clean all of the rooms in the house before the guests arrive.
Most of people are careful of their health in the winter. NE VALJA

Most of the people are careful of their health in the winter. VALJA
Some of vegetables are fresh, but some are frozen. NE VALJA
Some of the vegetables are fresh, but some are frozen. VALJA

Using Articles With Pronouns

A pronoun is used to modify a noun; an article is also used to modify a noun. If both are
used to modify the same noun, the reader will become confused. Pronouns are words like
he, I, we, our, it, her, and their. Articles should not be used to modify pronouns.
Why are you reading the my book?
The and my should not be used together.
Why are you reading my book?
Getting on the train, she gave her ticket to a him . NE VALJA
Getting on the train, she gave her ticket to him . VALJA
Getting on the train, she gave her ticket to a ticket man .

Indefinite Article With Uncountable

Noun
Uncountable nouns are nouns which are difficult or impossible to count. Uncountable
nouns include untouchable things (information, air), things like liquids (milk, wine), and
things which are too large or numerous to count (equipment, sand, wood). Because these
things cant be counted, singular articles like a or an should not be used to modify them.
Uncountable nouns can be modified by words like some. Alternately, the uncountable noun
can be changed to a countable noun.
Please give me a water.
Water is an uncountable noun, and should not be used with the indefinite article, a.
Please give me some water.
Please give me a bottle of water.

Please give me an ice.

Please give me an ice cube .
Please give me some ice .
N.B. Depending on the context, some nouns can be countable or uncountable (e.g. hair,
noise, time)
We need a light in this room.
We need some light in this room.

Do not use the before the name of:

most countries or territories (e.g. Canada, China, New Zealand)

towns, cities or states (e.g. Ottawa, Paris, California/
streets (e.g. Front Street, Lakeview Avenue, Dogwood Crescent)
lakes (e.g. Lake Ontario, Lake Placid, Bear Lake)
bays, where the term bay comes after the name (e.g. the Bay of Fundy)
mountains (e.g. Mount Everest, Mount Kilimanjaro)
continents (e.g. North America, Africa)
islands (e.g. Fiji Islands, Prince Edward Island)

Dont use articles with:

languages and nationalities (e.g. Chinese, English, French, Spanish)
N.B. If you put an article in front of these words, it refers to the people of that country.
sports (e.g. diving, baseball, skiing)
academic subjects (e.g. chemistry, English, philosophy)

Use a to refer to something for the first time.

Would you like a drink?

I've finally got a good job.

An elephant and a mouse fell in love.

Use a with names of jobs.

John is a doctor.

Mary is training to be an engineer.

He wants to be a dancer.

Use a with nationalities and religions in the singular.

John is an Englishman.

Kate is a Catholic.

Use a with the names of days of the week when not referring to any particular day.

I was born on a Thursday.

Could I come over on a Saturday sometime?

Use a to refer to an example of something.

The mouse had a tiny nose .

The elephant had a long trunk .

It was a very strange car .

Use a with singular nouns after the words 'what' and 'such'.

What a shame !

She's such a beautiful girl .

What a lovely day !

Use a meaning 'one', referring to a single object or person, or a single unit of measure. In these
sentences using "one" instead of the indefinite article is grammatically correct. It will add emphasis to
the number, and contrast with other numbers.

I'd like an orange and two lemons please.

I'd like one orange and two lemons please.

The burglar took a diamond necklace and some valuable paintings.

I can think of a hundred reasons not to come.

I need a kilogram of sugar.

I need one kilogram of sugar.

You can't run a mile in 5 minutes!

USE THE

to refer to a system or service:

How long does it take on the train?
I heard it on the radio.
You should tell the police.

With adjectives like rich, poor, elderly, unemployed to talk about groups of
people:
Life can be very hard for the poor.
I think the rich should pay more taxes.
She works for a group to help the disabled.

Used to designate a natural phenomenon:

The nights get shorter in the summer.

The wind is blowing so hard.

- cultural, e.g. the telephone, the movies, the theatre, the newspaper
- regional/local, might include nouns like the university, the library, the river, if
such things exist in a certain region and if there is only one; nouns in a room or a
house like the kitchen, the door, the floor, the light switch; instructions for the
use of a device (e.g. Press the red switch to operate the drill.).
Proper names: - refer to distinct people, places or things - only occur with the
articles the (titles) and (names) e.g. President Obama, but: the President of the
U.S. Mr. Blair, but: the Prime Minister of England Dr. Jones, but: the Dean of the
School of Engineering Croatia, but: the Republic of Croatia Zagreb, but: the city of
Zagreb
b) certain cultural features (holidays, parks, and streets), e.g. Christmas, Hyde
Park, Blake Street
Idiomatic structures with - when a countable noun is not specialized: a) with
time expressions and events: e.g. at night, in winter, after dinner b) with

institutions: e.g. to school, at home c) with means of transportation: e.g. by car,

by bus, by air

THE + plural or uncountable noun has a specific meaning

e.g. The computers crashed.
e.g. The music at the party was awful.
8 We use THE + singular nouns to make general statements about
animals, discoveries, inventiones
e.g. The electron is a part of every atom.
e.g. The dog can swim.

He will go to prison for many years.

USE zero article when speaking about a prisoner
I went to the prison to visit him. After all, we are friends.
USE the article when talking about the prison as a specific building which
you visit for some reason

We have school at 8 AM.

Lectures, school activities
Jenny is in hospital
She is a patient
She goes to church every Sunday
A service
The school is five minutes away.
The building
Jack spent five hours in the hospital waiting for the results
In the waiting room
When I go abroad, I always visit the church
The builing, monument

encode make sound into code

encourage to give courage
enhance to make better

encrypt to convert data to a secret code

enable to make it possible
ensure to make sure
brighten - to make smth brighter
enlarge- to make smth larger
enable to make smth able to
widen to make smth wider
unavoidable - impossible to avoid
reserved - owned or controlled by a company
utilize - o use sth for a practical purpose; to make use of sth
available - able to transfer data in both directions, i.e. can send and receive dana
vigilance attention, alertness, caution
infestation invaded by pests or parasites
boot start, prepare
benign not harmful, warm, affectionate
malignant - malicious, invasive,harmful
rest assured be certain that smth will happen
rifling through search quickly through smth
to trigger initiate
consent agreement
gamut range, scope, extent
flourish multiply, proliferate, develop
- relase, loose putanje, labav
- remain hidden as to wait in ambush
- to join pridruiti
-harmful, offensive - tetan
replicate copy, duplicate
-evil, misfortune, nuisance zlo, nesrea, smetnja
misdirestion hides the presence of the code
reproduction attaches a copy of itself to another
trigger decides when and how to activate
payload does the damage
caught zateen
viral code virusni kod
latter type potonji tip
payload korisna nosivost
data recovery oporavak podataka
bug - greka
unleashed - pokrenuti
lurked - vrebati
fused itself - sjediniti
tainted - pokvaren
scourge kazna
engaging- privlaiti
purchase nabaviti, kupiti
tampered - mijenjani
transit - tranzit

guarded - uvan
gibberish - frfljanje
reverse - preokrenuti
dedpher - deifrirati
altered - promijenjen
recipient - primalac
issuer - izdavatelj
tenets - naela
Verbs followed by to-infinitives
tend prove learn determine aim decide manage hope appear expect neglect
seem arrange fail offer dare agree hesitate plan volunteer choose promise
prepare refuse ask encourage

account for biti odgovoran za

argue with, for prepirati sa, za
assign to dodijeliti
associate with povezati sa
attribute
accede to pristupiti
acclimatize to prilagoditi
ascribe to pripisati
attend to pobrinuti se za
apply for prijaviti se za
benefit from - koristiti
call for,in (zahtjevati, pozvati)
consent to pristati
convince to uvjeriti se
compare to, with usporediti
comply with biti u skladu s
conform to, with odgovarati
consist of sastojati se od
confide in pouzdati se
cajole in nagovarati na
contend with boriti se sa
crave for uditi za
depart from odstupiti od
dispose of rijeiti se
diverege from odstupati od
dispense with dijeliti sa, izostaviti
dwell on zadravati se na
equip with opremiti se, opskrbiti
exclude from iskljuiti se iz
emanate from proizlaziti iz
embark on ukrcati se na, krenuti
insist on inzistirati
inflict on nanijeti

meddle in, with uplitati se, mijeati

opt for odluiti se za
provide for, with osigurati, omoguiti
prepare for pripremiti se
ponder on razmisliti
react to reagirati na
refer to uputiti na
restrain from suzdrati od
reconcile with pomiriti se sa
succeed in, to uspjeti u
subsist on opstati
succumb to podlei
smile on nasmijeiti
speak of govoriti
suffer from patiti od
think of misliti na
toy with poigravati se
yearn for udjeti za
A computer virus is a very small program routine that infects a computer system and uses its
resources to reproduce itself. it often does this by patching the operating system to enable it
to detect program files, such as com or exe files. it then copies itself into those files. this
smoetimes causes harm to the host computer system. when the user runs an infected
program, it is loaded into memory carryng the virus. to be a virus, a program only needs to
have a reproduction routine that enables it to infect other programs.

The difference between object + ing form and object + bare infinitive is like the
difference between progressive and simple tenses. With ing forms the verbs
suggest that one pays attention to events or actions that are going on; infinitives
usually refer to complete events/actions which are seen/heard from beginning to
end.

For the system to work, two parties engaging in a transaction must know each
others private keys. Da bi sustav funkcionirao, dvije strane koje su ukljuene u
prijenosne akcije trebaju znati meusobne private kljueve.