12th International Mathematics Competition for University Students

Blagoevgrad, July 22 - July 28, 2005

First Day
Problem 1. Let A be the n n matrix, whose (i, j)th entry is i + j for all i, j = 1, 2, . . . , n. What is the
rank of A?
Solution 1. For n = 1 the rank is 1. Now assume n 2. Since A = (i)ni,j=1 + (j)ni,j=1 , matrix A is the sum
of two matrixes of rank 1. Therefore, the rank of A is at most 2. The determinant of the top-left 2 2
minor is 1, so the rank is exactly 2.
Therefore, the rank of A is 1 for n = 1 and 2 for n 2.
Solution 2. Consider the case n 2. For i = n, n 1, . . . , 2, subtract the (i 1)th row from the nth row.
Then subtract the second row from all lower rows.

1 2 ... n
2
3
... n + 1
2 3 ... n + 1
1 1 . . . 1
3

4
. . . n + 2
1

1 1 . . .

0 0 . . . 0
rank ..
=
rank
=
rank

= 2.
.
.
.
..
..
..
..
..
.
..
.
.
..
.
.
.
. .
n + 1 n + 2 ...
2n
1 1 ...
1
0 0 ... 0
Problem 2. For an integer n 3 consider the sets
Sn = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) : i xi {0, 1, 2}}
An = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) Sn : i n 2 |{xi , xi+1 , xi+2 }| =
6 1}
and
Bn = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) Sn : i n 1 (xi = xi+1 xi 6= 0)} .
Prove that |An+1 | = 3 |Bn |.
(|A| denotes the number of elements of the set A.)
Solution 1. Extend the definitions also for n = 1, 2. Consider the following sets
A0n = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) An : xn1 = xn } ,
Bn0 = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) Bn : xn = 0} ,

A00n = An \ A0n ,
Bn00 = Bn \ Bn0

and denote an = |An |, a0n = |A0n |, a00n = |A00n |, bn = |Bn |, b0n = |Bn0 |, b00n = |Bn00 | .
It is easy to observe the following relations between the asequences

an = a0n + a00n
a0
= a00n
,
n+1
00
0
00
an+1 = 2an + 2an
which lead to an+1 = 2an + 2an1 .
For the bsequences we have the same relations

bn = b0n + b00n
b0
= b00n
,
n+1
00
0
00
bn+1 = 2bn + 2bn
therefore bn+1 = 2bn + 2bn1 .
By computing the first values of (an ) and (bn ) we obtain

a1 = 3, a2 = 9, a3 = 24
b1 = 3, b2 = 8

which leads to

a2 = 3b1
a3 = 3b2

Now, reasoning by induction, it is easy to prove that an+1 = 3bn for every n 1.
Solution 2. Regarding xi to be elements of Z3 and working modulo 3, we have that
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) An (x1 + 1, x2 + 1, . . . , xn + 1) An , (x1 + 2, x2 + 2, . . . , xn + 2) An
which means that 1/3 of the elements of An start with 0. We establish a bijection between the subset of
all the vectors in An+1 which start with 0 and the set Bn by
(0, x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) An+1 7 (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) Bn
y1 = x1 , y2 = x2 x1 , y3 = x3 x2 , . . . , yn = xn xn1
(if yk = yk+1 = 0 then xk xk1 = xk+1 xk = 0 (where x0 = 0), which gives xk1 = xk = xk+1 , which
is not possible because of the definition of the sets Ap ; therefore, the definition of the above function is
correct).
The inverse is defined by
(y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) Bn 7 (0, x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) An+1
x 1 = y 1 , x2 = y 1 + y 2 , . . . , x n = y 1 + y 2 + + y n
Problem 3. Let f : R [0, ) be a continuously differentiable function. Prove that
Z 1

2
Z 1
Z 1


3
2
0

f (x) dx .
f (x) dx f (0)
f (x) dx max |f (x)|

0

0x1

Solution 1. Let M = max |f 0 (x)|. By the inequality M f 0 (x) M, x [0, 1] it follows:

0x1

M f (x) f (x) f 0 (x) M f (x) , x [0, 1] .

By integration
Z

M
0
x

Z
M f (x)
0

1
1
f (t) dt f 2 (x) f 2 (0) M
2
2

f (t) dt, x [0, 1]

0

1
1
f (t) dt f 3 (x) f 2 (0) f (x) M f (x)
2
2

f (t) dt, x [0, 1] .

0

Integrating the last inequality on [0, 1] it follows that

R
2 R
R
2
R1
1
1
1
M 0 f (x)dx 0 f 3 (x) dx f 2 (0) 0 f (x) dx M 0 f (x)dx
R

R
2
R1
 1 3

1
2
 0 f (x) dx f (0) 0 f (x) dx M 0 f (x) dx .
Solution 2. Let M = max |f 0 (x)| and F (x) =

R1
x

0x1

f ; then F 0 = f , F (0) =

R1
0

f and F (1) = 0.

Integrating by parts,
Z

f F = [f

f =
0
2

F ]10

= f (1)F (1) f (0)F (0)

1
0

 Z
 
f (x) dx = 

Z
f

2F f f = f (0)
0

Then
Z 1
Z

3
2

f (x) dx f (0)


(f 2 )0 F =

 Z

2F f f 
0

1
0

2F f f 0 .

2F f |f | M

2F f = M
0

[F 2 ]10

Z
=M

2

f
0

Problem 4. Find all polynomials P (x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + ... + a1 x + a0 (an 6= 0) satisfying the following
two conditions:
(i) (a0 , a1 , ..., an ) is a permutation of the numbers (0, 1, ..., n)
and
(ii) all roots of P (x) are rational numbers.
Solution 1. Note that P (x) does not have any positive root because P (x) > 0 for every x > 0. Thus, we can
represent them in the form i , i = 1, 2, . . . , n, where i 0. If a0 6= 0 then there is a k N, 1 k n1,
with ak = 0, so using Vietes formulae we get
1 2 ...nk1 nk + 1 2 ...nk1 nk+1 + ... + k+1 k+2 ...n1 n =

ak
= 0,
an

which is impossible because the left side of the equality is positive. Therefore a0 = 0 and one of the roots of
the polynomial, say n , must be equal to zero. Consider the polynomial Q(x) = an xn1 +an1 xn2 +...+a1 .
It has zeros i , i = 1, 2, . . . , n 1. Again, Vietes formulae, for n 3, yield:
1 2 ...n1 =

a1
an

(1)

1 2 ...n2 + 1 2 ...n3 n1 + ... + 2 3 ...n1 =

a2
an

(2)

an1
.
an

(3)

1
1
1
a2
+
+ ... +
= .
1 2
n1
a1

(4)

1 + 2 + ... + n1 =
Dividing (2) by (1) we get

From (3) and (4), applying the AM-HM inequality we obtain

1 + 2 + ... + n1
an1
=

(n 1)an
n1

1
1

n1
+ ... +

1
2

1
n1

(n 1)a1
,
a2

therefore a2aa1n1
(n 1)2 . Hence n2 a2aa1n1
(n 1)2 , implying n 3. So, the only polynomials
an
an
possibly satisfying (i) and (ii) are those of degree at most three. These polynomials can easily be found
and they are P (x) = x, P (x) = x2 + 2x, P (x) = 2x2 + x, P (x) = x3 + 3x2 + 2x and P (x) = 2x3 + 3x2 + x.
2
Solution 2. Consider the prime factorization of P in the ring Z[x]. Since all roots of P are rational, P can
be written as a product of n linear polynomials with rational coefficients. Therefore, all prime factor of P
are linear and P can be written as
n
Y
P (x) =
(bk x + ck )
k=1

where the coefficients bk , ck are integers. Since the leading coefficient of P is positive, we can assume bk > 0
for all k. The coefficients of P are nonnegative, so P cannot have a positive root. This implies ck 0. It
is not possible that ck = 0 for two different values of k, because it would imply a0 = a1 = 0. So ck > 0 in
at least n 1 cases.
Now substitute x = 1.
n

n(n + 1) Y
P (1) = an + + a0 = 0 + 1 + + n =
=
(bk + ck ) 2n1 ;
2
k=1
therefore it is necessary that 2n1 n(n+1)
, therefore n 4. Moreover, the number n(n+1)
can be written
2
2
as a product of n 1 integers greater than 1.
If n = 1, the only solution is P (x) = 1x + 0.
If n = 2, we have P (1) = 3 = 1 3, so one factor must be x, the other one is x + 2 or 2x + 1. Both
x(x + 2) = 1x2 + 2x + 0 and x(2x + 1) = 2x2 + 1x + 0 are solutions.

If n = 3, then P (1) = 6 = 123, so one factor must be x, another one is x+1, the third one is again x+2
or 2x+1. The two polynomials are x(x+1)(x+2) = 1x3 +3x2 +2x+0 and x(x+1)(2x+1) = 2x3 +3x2 +1x+0,
both have the proper set of coefficients.
In the case n = 4, there is no solution because n(n+1)
= 10 cannot be written as a product of 3 integers
2
greater than 1.
Altogether we found 5 solutions: 1x+0, 1x2 +2x+0, 2x2 +1x+0, 1x3 +3x2 +2x+0 and 2x3 +3x2 +1x+0.
Problem 5. Let f : (0, ) R be a twice continuously differentiable function such that
|f 00 (x) + 2xf 0 (x) + (x2 + 1)f (x)| 1
for all x. Prove that lim f (x) = 0.
x

Solution 1. Let g(x) = f 0 (x) + xf (x); then f 00 (x) + 2xf 0 (x) + (x2 + 1)f (x) = g 0 (x) + xg(x).
We prove that if h is a continuously differentiable function such that h0 (x) + xh(x) is bounded then
lim h = 0. Applying this lemma for h = g then for h = f , the statement follows.

Let M be an upper bound for |h0 (x)+xh(x)| and let p(x) = h(x)ex
of the differential equation u0 (x) + xu(x) = 0.) Then
|p0 (x)| = |h0 (x) + xh(x)|ex
and

Since lim ex
x

2 /2

2 /2

2 /2

M ex

. (The function ex

2 /2

is a solution

2 /2

R
R

 

 p(x)   p(0) + 0x p0  |p(0)| + M 0x ex2 /2 dx

|h(x)| =  x2 /2  = 
.

e
ex2 /2
ex2 /2
R x x2 /2
e dx
= and lim 0 x2 /2
= 0 (by LHospitals rule), this implies limx h(x) = 0.
e
2

f (x)ex /2
Solution 2. Apply LHospital rule twice on the fraction
. (Note that LHospital rule is valid if
ex2 /2
the denominator converges to infinity, without any assumption on the numerator.)
2

f (x)ex /2
(f 0 (x) + xf (x))ex
lim f (x) = lim
=
lim
x
x
x
ex2 /2
xex2 /2

2 /2

(f 00 (x) + 2xf 0 (x) + (x2 + 1)f (x))ex

= lim
x
(x2 + 1)ex2 /2

2 /2

f 00 (x) + 2xf 0 (x) + (x2 + 1)f (x)

= 0.
x
x2 + 1

= lim

Problem 6. Given a group G, denote by G(m) the subgroup generated by the mth powers of elements of
G. If G(m) and G(n) are commutative, prove that G(gcd(m, n)) is also commutative. (gcd(m, n) denotes
the greatest common divisor of m and n.)
Solution. Write d = gcd(m, n). It is easy to see that hG(m), G(n)i = G(d); hence, it will suffice to
check commutativity for any two elements in G(m) G(n), and so for any two generators am and bn .
Consider their commutator z = am bn am bn ; then the relations
z = (am bam )n bn = am (bn abn )m
show that z G(m) G(n). But then z is in the center of G(d). Now, from the relation am bn = bn am z, it
easily follows by induction that
2
aml bnl = bnl aml z l .
2

Setting l = m/d and l = n/d we obtain z (m/d) = z (n/d) = e, but this implies that z = e as well.