Realpolitik

Realpolitik (from German: real realistic, practical,

or actual"; and Politik politics, German pronunciation:
[ealpolitk]) is politics or diplomacy based primarily on considerations of given circumstances and factors,
rather than explicit ideological notions or moral or ethical
premises. In this respect, it shares aspects of its philosophical approach with those of realism and pragmatism.
It is often simply referred to as pragmatism in politics,
e.g. 'pursuing pragmatic policies (Singapore). The term
Realpolitik is sometimes used pejoratively to imply politics that are coercive, amoral, or Machiavellian.

ing of the term. Realpolitik emerged in mid-19th century

Europe from the collision of the enlightenment with state
formation and power politics. The concept, Bew argues,
was an early attempt at answering the conundrum of how
to achieve liberal enlightened goals in a world that does
not follow liberal enlightened rules.
Publicist, journalist and liberal political reformer Von
Rochau coined the term in 1853 and added a second volume in 1869 that further rened his earlier arguments.
Rochau, exiled in Paris until the 1848 uprising, returned
during the revolution and became well-known gure in
the national liberal party. As the liberal gains of the 1848
revolutions fell victim to coercive governments or were
swallowed by powerful social forces such as class, religion and nationalism, Rochau - according to Bew - began
to think hard about how the work that had begun with
such enthusiasm had failed to yield any lasting results.

Realpolitik is often confused with the philosophy of

political realism. Political realism is particular modern, descriptive paradigm, or theoretical and methodological framework, aimed at describing, explaining and,
eventually, predicting events in the international relations
domains. Both are often believed to suggest working
from the hypothesis that it is chiey based on the pursuit, possession, and application of power. (See also
power politics) However, some International Relations
Realists, such as Kenneth Waltz and Hans Morgenthau,
have viewed states as pursuing immediate survival or security, rather than the pursuit of power.

He said that the great achievement of the Enlightenment

had been to show that might is not necessarily right.
The mistake liberals made was to assume that the law
of the strong had suddenly evaporated simply because
it had been shown to be unjust. Rochau wrote that
to bring down the walls of Jericho, the Realpolitiker
knows the simple pickaxe is more useful than the mightiest trumpet. Rochaus concept was seized upon by Ger1 Origin of the term
man thinkers in the mid and late-nineteenth century, and
became associated with Otto von Bismarck's statecraft
The term Realpolitik was coined by Ludwig von Rochau, in unifying Germany. By 1890, usage of the word rea German writer and politician in the 19th century.[1] His alpolitik was widespread, yet increasingly detached from
1853 book Grundstze der Realpolitik angewendet auf die its original meaning.[3]
staatlichen Zustnde Deutschlands describes the meaning
of the term:[2]

2 History and branches

The study of the forces that shape, maintain

and alter the state is the basis of all political insight and leads to the understanding that the law
of power governs the world of states just as the
law of gravity governs the physical world. The
older political science was fully aware of this
truth but draw a wrong and detrimental conclusion - the right of the more powerful. The
modern era has corrected this unethical fallacy,
but while breaking with the alleged right of the
more powerful one, the modern era was too
much inclined to overlook the real might of the
more powerful and the inevitability of its political inuence.

See Political Realism for branches and antecedents more

relevant to contemporary diplomacy and the particular
modern, international relations paradigm.
Thucydides, an ancient Greek historian who wrote
the History of the Peloponnesian War and is also
cited as an intellectual forebearer of realpolitik.
Chanakya (or Kautilya) early Indian statesman, and
writer on the Arthashastra.
Ibn Khaldun, an Arab Muslim historiographer and
historian, and one of the founding fathers of modern historiography author of Muqaddimah a universal history of time.

Historian John Bew suggests that much of what stands for

modern realpolitik today deviates from the original mean1

2
Han Fei, Chinese scholar who theorised Legalism
(or Legism) and who served in the court of the King
of Qinlater unier of China ending the Warring
States period. His theory centres on The Two Handles (about penalty and rewards as tools of governance). He theorised about a neutral, manipulative
ruler who would act as head of state while secretly
controlling the executive through his ministersthe
ones to take real responsibility for any policy.

2.1

HISTORY AND BRANCHES

Realpolitik in Europe

In the U.S. the term is often analogous to power politics,

while in Germany Realpolitik has a somewhat less negative connotation, referring to realistic politics in opposition to idealistic (unrealistic) politics. It is particularly
associated with the era of 19th century nationalism. Realpolitik policies were employed in response to the failed
Niccol Machiavelli, an Italian political philosorevolutions of 1848, as means to strengthen states and
pher, who wrote Il Principe (The Prince) in which
tighten social order.
he held that the sole aim of a prince (politician) was
to seek power, regardless of religious or ethical con- The most famous German advocate of Realpolitik was
Otto von Bismarck, the First Chancellor (18621890) to
siderations.
Wilhelm I of the Kingdom of Prussia. Bismarck used
Cardinal Richelieu, French statesman who de- Realpolitik in his quest to achieve Prussian dominance in
stroyed domestic factionalism and guided France to Germany. He manipulated political issues such as the
a position of dominance in foreign aairs.
Schleswig-Holstein Question and the Hohenzollern candidature to antagonize other countries and cause wars if
Thomas Hobbes, an English philosopher who wrote necessary to attain his goals. Such policies are characterLeviathan in which he stated the state of nature was istic of Bismarck, demonstrating a pragmatic view of the
prone to a war of all against all.
real political world. Another example was his willingFrederick the Great, Prussian monarch who trans- ness to adopt some social policies of the socialists such
formed Prussia into a great European power through as employee insurance and pensions; in doing so, he used
small changes from the top down to avoid the possibility
warfare and diplomacy.
of major change from the bottom up. Likewise, Prussias
Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Prigord, French seemingly illogical move of not demanding territory from
diplomat who guided France and Europe through a a defeated Austria, a move that later led to the unication
of Germany, is an oft-cited example of Realpolitik.
variety of political systems.

Adolf Hitler's attempt to annex the predominantly Ger Prince Klemens Wenzel von Metternich, Koblenzman region of Czechoslovakia called the Sudetenland in
born Austrian statesman opposed to political revo1938 may also be described as Realpolitik. At rst, Hitler
lution.
unsuccessfully demanded that Czech president Edvard
Carl von Clausewitz, 1819th century Prussian gen- Bene hand over that region of the country. However,
eral and military theorist who wrote On War (Vom British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain subsequently
gave the Sudetenland to Hitler in the (ultimately unsucKriege).
cessful) hope of preventing a war, as codied in the
Camillo Benso of Cavour, Italian statesman who Munich Agreement. With Britain a guarantor of Czech
diplomatically managed to maneuver the Kingdom independence, Hitler knew that Bene' opinion on the
of Sardinia to become a new great power in Europe, matter was immaterial if Chamberlain was prepared to
controlling a nearly united Italy that was ve times give Hitler what he desired.
as large as the Kingdom of Sardinia had been before E. H. Carr (Edward Hallett Carr) was a liberal realist
he came to power.
and later left-wing British historian and international relations theorist who argued for realistic international poli Otto von Bismarck, Prussian statesman who coined
cies versus utopian ones. Carr described realism as the
the term balance of power. Balancing power means
acceptance that what exists is right, and the belief that
keeping the peace and careful realpolitik practitionthere is no reality or force outside history such as God.
ers try to avoid arms races.
He argued that in realism there is no moral dimension,
20th century proponents of political realism in- and that what is successful is right, and what is unsucclude Hans Morgenthau, Henry Kissinger, Charles cessful is wrong. Carr was convinced that the Bolsheviks
were destined to win the Russian Civil War, and approved
de Gaulle, and Joseph Stalin.
of the Prime Minister David Lloyd George's opposition
Mao Zedong's Three Worlds Theory is described to the anti-Bolshevik ideas of the War Secretary Winston
as Realpolitik by his critics, including Enver Hoxha, Churchill under the grounds of Realpolitik.[4] In Carrs
who argue that it was not based on a strong ideolog- opinion, Churchills support of the White Russian moveical grounding and used only to justify rapport with ment was folly, as Russia was likely to be a great power
the West.
once more under the leadership of the Bolsheviks.

2.3

2.2

Chinese Literary Tradition

Examples of U.S. Realpolitik

3
Statecraft: And How to Restore Americas Standing in the
World. For the purposes of contrast, and speaking in ideal
types, political ideologues would tend to favor principle
over other considerations. Such individuals or groups can
reject compromises which they see as the abandonment
of their ideals, and so may sacrice political gain in favor
of adhering to principles they believe to be constitutive
of long-term goals.

The policy of Realpolitik was formally introduced to the

Richard Nixon White House by Henry Kissinger.[5] In
this context, the policy meant dealing with other powerful nations in a practical manner rather than on the basis of political doctrine or ethicsfor instance, Nixons
diplomacy with the Peoples Republic of China, despite
U.S. opposition to communism and the previous doctrine
of containment. Another example is Kissingers use of
shuttle diplomacy after the 1973 Arab-Israeli war, where
he persuaded the Israelis to withdraw partially from the
Sinai in deference to the political realities created by the 2.3 Chinese Literary Tradition
oil crisis.
Henry Kissinger generally receives credit for introduc- China has a Realpolitik dating back thousands of years.
ing Realpolitik to American foreign policy. However, it Often referred to as Chinese Legalism, the spirits of conshould be noted that Kissinger himself said that he had tent may be most readily recognized by western viewers
[18]
never used the term and has said that it used by both lib- through one of its kindred, the Art of War, The Chieral and realist foreign policy thinkers to label, criticize nese developed a vast, complex and highly centralized buand facilitate a choosing of sides.[6] Kissinger had looked reaucratic state hundreds of years before Europes Chrisat what he implemented while serving as Secretary of tian era, with a united realm in the form of the Zhou
State and United States Security Advisor not in the con- Dynasty stretching back long before that. Chinese adnes of making Realpolitik a standard policy but within ministrative organization inuenced western administrain the terms of being a statesman. This political mindset tive practices not later than the twelfth century, playing a
can be seen in Kissingers book A World Restored and is signicant role in the development of the modern state,
[19][20][21][22]
pointed out by historian John Bew in his book Realpolitik, including use of the examination.
where Kissinger goes on to say that the role of the states- Starting in the Spring and Autumn period (771-476/403
man is, the ability to recognize the real relationship of BCE), a trend of realistic reformers were taken on to
forces and to make this knowledge serve his ends.[7][8] In advance the material interest of their respective states,
this context one can see how Realpolitik principles can in- with the Qin state founding the rst Chinese Empire, Qin
uence American policy but not as standard policy. The dynasty the in 221 BCE, ending Chinas Warring States
reach and inuence of Realpolitik is found instead in prag- period. The political theory developed during the era, inmatic and exible policy that changes to the needs of the cluding that of Confucianism would inuence every dysituation. This type of policy making can be seen in the nasty thereafter.
current American administration led by President Barack
Obama. Historian John Bew makes note of this direction Those termed Legalist are more purely Reapolitikal in
in the Obama administration when President Obamas contrast to Confucianism, and include non-legal Shen Puformer chief of sta remarks in an article in the New hai derived political technique, which charges the ruler
York Times. The former chief of sta is Rahm Emanuel engage in passive observation to determine facts rather
and he goes on to say that everyone wants to break it down than take on too much himself. Sinologist Creel writes:
into contrasts of idealist and realist, however if you had If one wishes to exaggerate, it would no doubt be possito put him in a category, hes probably more realpolitik, ble to translate (foundational Realist) Shen Buhais term
like Bush 41. Youve got to be cold-blooded about the Shu, or technique, as 'science', and argue that Pu-hai was
the rst political scientist, though Creel does not care
self-interests of your nation.[9]
to go this far.[19]
Realpolitik is distinct from ideological politics in that it is
not dictated by a xed set of rules, but instead tends to be Main article: Qin dynasty
goal-oriented, limited only by practical exigencies. Since
Realpolitik is ordered toward the most practical means of During the Spring and Autumn Period,[21] the prevasecuring national interests, it can often entail compro- lent philosophy had dictated war as a gentlemans activmising on ideological principles. For example, during ity; military commanders were instructed to respect what
the Cold War, the United States often supported authori- they perceived to be Heavens laws in battle.[23] For examtarian regimes that were human rights violators, in order ple, when Duke Xiang of Song[note 1] was at war with the
to theoretically secure the greater national interest of re- state of Chu during the Warring States period, he declined
gional stability.[10][11][12][13] After the end of Cold War an opportunity to attack the enemy force, commanded by
this practice continued.[14][15][16][17]
Zhu, while they were crossing a river.
Most recently, former ambassador Dennis Ross advo- The Qin disregarded this military tradition, taking advancated this approach to foreign policy in his 2007 book tage of their enemys weaknesses.

2.4

Singapore

Michael Bacon writes that The PAP government has

taken pains to present its principles of meritocracy and
pragmatism as a viable alternative to liberal democracy
and multi-party competition, sometimes by drawing from
a specious notion of Confucian values and Asian culture
to construct ideological bulwarks - like Asian democracy - against the criticisms of the so-called liberal West.
By crediting meritocracy and pragmatism for creating the
right conditions for economic success, the PAP government has been able not only to justify its (liberal) democratic decit, but also to produce ideological resources
and a structure of authorization for the maintenance of a
one-party dominant regime. In pragmatic terms, Singapores considerable economic success is justication
enough for its authoritarian means.[24]
According to Kenneth Paul Tan of the Lee Kuan Yew
School of Public Policy, Chua Beng Huat (1997)[25]
argued that the rhetoric of pragmatism in Singapore is
ideological and hegemonic in nature, adopted and disseminated in the public sphere by the Peoples Action
Party (PAP) government and institutionalized throughout the state in all its administrative, planning and policymaking functions. It is suggested that by doggedly describing itself as pragmatic, the Singapore state is actually disguising its ideological work and political nature
through an assertion of the absence of ideology and politics. Chan Heng Chee (1975) earlier described Singapore
as a depoliticized administrative state, where ideology
and politics had triumphantly been replaced by rational
and scientic modes of public administration.[24]

REFERENCES

4 Notes
[1] Not to be confused with any Duke of the Song dynasty of
a later period.

5 References
[1] Haslam, Jonathan (2002). No Virtue Like Necessity: Realist Thought in International Relations since Machiavelli.
London: Yale University Press. p. 168. ISBN 0-30009150-8.
[2] von Rochau, Ludwig.
Grundstze der Realpolitik
angewendet auf die staatlichen Zustnde Deutschlands.
[3] Bew, John (2014). Real Realpolitik: A History. Washington, D.C.: The Library of Congress.
[4] Davies, Robert William Edward Hallett Carr, 18921982 pages 473-511 from Proceedings of the British
Academy, Volume 69, 1983 page 477.
[5] Byrnes, Sholto. Time to Rethink Realpolitik. New
Statesman. Retrieved 25 June 2011.
[6] Kissinger, Henry (June 2012). The Limits of Universalism. New Criterion.
[7] Kissinger, Henry (1999). A World Restored: Metternich,
Castlereagh and the Problems of Peace, 1812-1822. London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson. pp. 312322.
[8] Bew, John (2015). Realpolitik: A History. New York:
Oxford University Press. p. 258.
[9] Bew, John (2015). Realpolitik: A History. New York:
Oxford University Press. pp. 45.

See also
Otto von Bismarck
Cardinal Richelieu
Chanakya
Tonyukuk
Consequentialism
Henry Kissinger
Monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force
Niccol Machiavelli
Legalism (Chinese philosophy)
Noopolitik
Weltpolitik
Power politics
Pragmatism
Realism in international relations

[10] DeConde, Alexander et al., eds. (2001). Dictatorships.

Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy, Volume 1. Simon & Schuster. p. 499. ISBN 9780684806570.
[11] Adams, Francis (2003). Deepening democracy: global
governance and political reform in Latin America. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 31. ISBN 9780275979713.
[12] McMahon, Robert J. (1999). The limits of empire:
the United States and Southeast Asia since World War
II. Columbia University Press.
p.
205.
ISBN
9780231108805.
[13] Grandin & Joseph, Greg & Gilbert (2010). A Century
of Revolution. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. pp.
397414.
[14] Chick, Kristen (14 May 2012). US resumes arms sales to
Bahrain. Activists feel abandoned. The Christian Science
Monitor. Retrieved 13 August 2014.
[15] Josh Rogin. Americas Allies Are Funding ISIS. The
Daily Beast. Retrieved 2014-08-10.
[16] US support for human rights abroad: The case of Saudi
Arabia. CSMonitor.com. 2014-01-28. Retrieved 201408-10.

[17] 5 dictators the U.S. still supports. The Week. Retrieved

2014-08-10.
[18] Wealth and Power. Orville Schell
[19] Herrlee G. Creel, Shen Pu-Hai: A Secular Philosopher of
Administration, Journal of Chinese Philosophy Volume 1.
[20] Van der Sprenkel
[21] Origins of Statecraft in China
[22] Legalism and the Legalists of Ancient China. sjsu.edu.
[23] Morton 1995, p. 26
[24] Tan, Kenneth Paul (February 2012).
The Ideology of Pragmatism:
Neo-liberal Globalisation
and Political Authoritarianism in Singapore.
Journal of Contemporary Asia 42 (1):
6792.
doi:10.1080/00472336.2012.634644.
[25] Chua, Beng-Huat (1995). Communitarian ideology and
democracy in Singapore (Repr. 1996. ed.). London [u.a.]:
Routledge. ISBN 9780415120548.

References
John Bew: The Real Origins of Realpolitik, The
National Interest, 2014
John Bew: Real Realpolitik: A History, The John
W. Kluge Center at the Library of Congress, April
10, 2014. Accessed July 29, 2014.
David Robertson: The Routledge Dictionary of Politics. Routledge 2004. ISBN 978-0-415-32377-2, p.
420 (restricted online copy, p. 420, at Google Books)
Hajo Holborn: History of Modern Germany: 18401945. Princeton University Press 1982, ISBN 9780-691-00797-7, p. 117 (restricted online copy, p.
117, at Google Books)
Ruth Weissbourd Grant: Hypocrisy and integrity:
Machiavelli, Rousseau, and the ethics of politics.
University of Chicago Press 1997, ISBN 978-0226-30582-0, p. 40-41 (restricted online copy, p.
40, at Google Books)
Frank Whelon Wayman (ed.), Paul Francis Diehl
(ed.): Reconstructing Realpolitik. University of
Michigan Press 1994, ISBN 978-0-472-08268-1
(restricted online copy at Google Books)
Federico Trocini: Linvenzione della Realpolitik e
la scoperta della legge del potere. August Ludwig
von Rochau tra radicalismo e nazional-liberalismo,
il Mulino, Bologna 2009

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