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SURFACE RUNOFF
3.0

INTRODUCTION

Runoff is generated by rainstorms and its occurrence and quantity are dependent on the characteristics of
the rainfall event, i.e. intensity, duration and distribution. There are important factors which influence the
runoff generating process.
Surface runoff is a term used to describe when soil is infiltrated to full capacity and excess water, from
rain, snowmelt, or other sources flow over the land. This is a major component of the water cycle or the
hydrological cycle.
Surface runoff can be generated either by rainfall or by the melting of snow or glaciers. Based on the
hydrological cycle, runoff is flow from a drainage basin or watershed that appears in surface streams. The
flow is made by parts of precipitation that falls directly into the stream, surface runoff, subsurface runoff,
and groundwater runoff.
In hydrology, quantity of water discharged in surface streams. Runoff includes not only the waters that
travel over the land surface and through channels to reach a stream but also interflow, the water that
infiltrates the soil surface and travels by means of gravity toward a stream channel (always above the
main groundwater level) and eventually empties into the channel.

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Precipitation

Figure 3.0 :Illustrating basin relationship between Precipitation(rainfall), infiltration and runoff

Can we learn anything about the basin from a measured runoff event?
Rainfall excess or direct runoff = Overland Flow

Streamflow = Direct Runoff + Baseflow

Direct Runoff = rainfall excess

rainfall excess= rainfall - losses

Losses = interception, infiltration, depression

storage,etc. (sometimes called basin
recharge)

When rain falls, the first drops of water are intercepted by the leaves and stems of the vegetation. This is
usually referred to as interception storage.
3.1

Rainfall-runoff relationship.

As the rain continues, water reaching the ground surface infiltrates into the soil until it reaches a stage
where the rate of rainfall (intensity) exceeds the infiltration capacity of the soil. Thereafter, surface
puddles, ditches, and other depressions are filled (depression storage), after which runoff is generated.

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The infiltration capacity of the soil depends on its texture and structure, as well as on the soil moisture
content. The initial capacity (of a dry soil) is high but, as the storm continues, it decreases until it reaches
a steady value termed as final infiltration rate (see Figure 3.1).
The process of runoff generation continues as long as the rainfall intensity exceeds the actual infiltration
capacity of the soil but it stops as soon as the rate of rainfall drops below the actual rate of infiltration.

Figure 3.1 :Schematic diagram illustrating relationship between rainfall, infiltration and runoff (Source: Linsley et al. 1958)

3.2 Factors affecting runoff

What factors influence surface runoff?
Catchments characteristics affecting runoff;
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.

size
shape
slope
land use (cover)
soil type
antecedent conditions

Rainfall characteristics affecting runoff;

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

Storm characteristics
storm intensity (i(t) and total depth)
storm duration
spatial variation
movement

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The influence of the rainfall-runoff process are described below.

i. Soil type
The infiltration capacity is among others dependent on the porosity of a soil which determines the water
storage capacity and affects the resistance of water to flow into deeper layers.
Porosity differs from one soil type to the other. The highest infiltration capacities are observed in loose,
sandy soils while heavy clay or loamy soils have considerable smaller infiltration capacities.
ii. Vegetation
The amount of rain lost to interception storage on the foliage depends on the kind of vegetation and its
growth stage. Values of interception are between 1 and 4 mm. A cereal crop, for example, has a smaller
storage capacity than a dense grass cover.
More significant is the effect the vegetation has on the infiltration capacity of the soil. A dense vegetation
cover shields the soil from the raindrop impact and reduces the crusting effect as described earlier.
In addition, the root system as well as organic matter in the soil increase the soil porosity thus allowing
more water to infiltrate. Vegetation also retards the surface flow particularly on gentle slopes, giving the
water more time to infiltrate and to evaporate.
In conclusion, an area densely covered with vegetation, yields less runoff than bare ground.
iii. Slope and catchment size
Investigations on experimental runoff plots (Sharma et al. 1986) have shown that steep slope plots yield
more runoff than those with gentle slopes.
In addition, it was observed that the quantity of runoff decreased with increasing slope length.
This is mainly due to lower flow velocities and subsequently a longer time of concentration (defined as the
time needed for a drop of water to reach the outlet of a catchment from the most remote location in the
catchment). This means that the water is exposed for a longer duration to infiltration and evaporation
before it reaches the measuring point. The same applies when catchment areas of different sizes are
compared.
The runoff efficiency (volume of runoff per unit of area) increases with the decreasing size of the
catchment i.e. the larger the size of the catchment the larger the time of concentration and the smaller the
runoff efficiency.

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3.3

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Streamflow Measurement

Figure 3.3; A man gages a stream by measuring water velocity (using a current meter) and
water depth
The water which constitutes the flow in the surface stream is called streamflow. If the streamflow is
unaffected by the artificial diversions, storage, or other works of man in or on the stream channels, then it
is called as runoff. Streamflow forms the most important data for engineers and hydrologists since they
are concerned mainly with estimating rates and volumes of the streamflow to be used in the design of
water resources projects, rainfall-runoff relations, unit hydrograph studies, design flood estimation etc.

3.3.1

Measurement of stage.

The river stage has been defined as the height of the water surface in the river at a given section
above any arbitrary datum. It is usually expressed in meters. The stage can be easily measured
by installing a vertical staff gauge which is nothing but a graduated scale such the a portion of it is
always in the water at all times.it can be conveniently attached to a bridge pier or any other
existing structure. It is read manually by noting the level of water surface in contact with it.

Figure 3.3.1; Measurement of stage in the river

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3.3.2

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Measurement of velocity.

Stream gaging is a technique used to measure the discharge, or the volume of water moving
through a channel per unit time, of a stream. The height of water in the stream channel, known as
a stage or gage height, can be used to determine the discharge in a stream. When used in
conjunction with velocity and cross-sectional area measurements, stage height can be related to
discharge for a stream. If a weir or flume (devices, generally made of concrete, located in a
stream channel that have a constant, known shape and size) is used, mathematical equations
based on the weir or flume shape can be used in conjunction with stage height, negating the
need for velocity measurements.
Stream discharge can be measured using;
(1) volumetric gauging,
(2) float gauging,
(3) current metering,
(4) dilution gauging (constant injection or gulp methods),
(5) structural methods, and
(6) slope-area methods.
The choice of method depends on the characteristics of the stream and on the application.
(1) Volumetric gauging:
3

Stream discharge (in cumecs@m /s) at one point in time (i.e., a 'spot discharge') can be
measured directly with volumetric gauging, though this is only possible with small river-flows, or
indirectly with the velocity-area methods of float gauging and current metering.
(2) Float gauging:
Involves measuring the velocity of a neutral buoyancy object and multiplying this by the average
cross-sectional area (using a tape and rule) of the river. These objects do, however, float close to
the river surface, which is faster then the average velocity of the water profile and must, therefore,
be reduced by a coefficient (e.g., a river 0.9 m deep has a coefficient of 0.7). Some rivers also
have large changes in velocity across the river channel. This cannot be corrected, so the more
accurate current metering method is recommended.

Figure 3.3.2(1); Price AA current meter

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(3) Current metering:

With current metering the rotation of a current meter's impeller (Figure 3.3.2(1)) gives the local
water velocity following application of a calibration equation (called a rating equation). To cope
with the vertical distribution of velocity, measurements should be made at different depths (D) in
the water profile. If only two depths are used for measurement, then an average of 0.2D and 0.8D
gives a good representation of the profile velocity, or 0.6D if only one depth is used (Hewlett,
1982 p99). The transverse (i.e., 'across-river') distribution of velocity can be characterised by first
dividing the channel cross-section into a number of 'segments'. The edge of these segments are
called 'verticals' and these are the locations at which the measurements to calculated the profileaverage velocity should be made (Figure 3.3.2(2)). The 'Mean-Section Method' or 'Mid-Section
Method' can then be used to calculate the discharge for each segment (Dingman, 1993 p536541).

Figure 3.3.2 (2). Gauging water velocity at a 'vertical'

Figure 3.3.2

(2). Current Meter Discharge Measurement

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Where the Mean-Section Method is used to calculate discharge for each segment using:
Qseg = 0.5(v1+v2) 0.5(d1+d2) b
where Qseg is the discharge for each channel segment (cumecs), v1 and v2 are the profileaverage water velocities at vertical 1 and 2 respectively (either side of the segment), d1 and d2
are the depths of the flow at verticals 1 and 2 respectively, and b is the chosen width of each
channel segment. The average velocity of the water in the two 'end segments' (adjacent to the
river banks) are calculated by assuming zero depth and zero velocity at the water's edge. Current
metering is an accurate method of river gauging except where the river is very shallow. Under
such conditions, an alternative method of dilution gauging can be used.
(4) Dilution gauging: This method is based on 'the two component mixing equation', i.e.,

where Q is the unknown upstream river discharge, q is the tracer discharge, C2 is the mixed
downstream concentration, C1 is the concentration of the tracer to be added, and C0 is the
background tracer concentration in the river (may be zero). Sodium chloride (common salt) is a
good tracer for dilution gauging as it is (a) 'chemically conservative', i.e., does not adsorb
('chemically bind') onto river sediments, (b) has a high solubility in water, (c) is relatively nontoxic, (d) can be measured in the field indirectly with a conductivity meter, and (e) is cheap and
readily available. Where large rivers are to be gauged, then alternative tracers that can be traced
at ppb (part per billion) levels are normally used, e.g., the fluorescent Rhodamine WT. Two
approaches to dilution gauging can be used - 'constant injection method' and the 'integration or
gulp injection method'. The (3a) constant injection method is the most difficult to employ in the
field, but the simplest to understand as it involves a direct transformation of the two component
mixing equation, i.e.,

With this method a known tracer concentration (C1) is trickled into the river at a fixed rate (q;
using a 'Mariotte device'). At a downstream point, the background concentration (C0) is measured
followed by this concentration mixed with the tracer (C2). In some contrast, the (3b) integration or
gulp method involves the addition of a known volume and concentration of a tracer (i.e., the VC1
term) into the river as a single 'slug'. The downstream (mixed) concentration is then measured
(C2), the background concentration (C0) subtracted and the area beneath C2-C0 versus time (t)
curve calculated giving the term:

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The river discharge is then:

These four methods of volumetric, float, current-meter and dilution gauging (see e.g., Dingman,
1993 p541-542) give only spot discharges, for continuous traces of river discharge (e.g., a single
river hydrograph or a series of several storm hydrographs), the structural method is required.
(5) Structural method: Within this method, a relationship between the height of water in the river
(called the 'stage') and several spot discharge measurements (by current metering or dilution
gauging) is established and called the rating curve. Within a natural river reach the relationship
between the stage and discharge follows many different curves, changing because the river
changes from subcritical flow (also called 'tranquil' flow with a Froude number <1) to supercritical
flow (or 'fast/shooting' flow with a Froude number >1). For example, as river-water flows over a
boulder it moves from subcritical flow to supercritical flow (a 'hydraulic drop') at the top of the
boulder and then 'jumps back up' to subcritical flow shortly after (at the 'hydraulic jump') (Gordon
et al., 1992). If, however, one forces a river through a stable and large hydraulic drop, then just
upstream of that point, that river is always subcritical and, therefore, has only one relationship
between stage and discharge. Thus by building a structure to create this hydraulic drop an
accurate discharge trace can be calculated. River gauging structures called weirs force the river
generate this hydraulic drop as the water falls from a stilling pool, while flumes normally use a
constriction to generate the hydraulic drop. There are many types of weirs from V-notch (Figure
3.3.2(5/1)) to rectangular thin-plate to Crump weirs, and many types of flumes from trapezoidal
(Figure 3.3.2(5/2).) to H-flume types.

Figure 3.3.2(5/1). V-notch thin-plate weir (Tir Gwyn catchment, mid-Wales)

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Figure3.3.2(5/2). Trapezoidal flume (Tir Gwyn catchment, mid-Wales)

The river stage upstream of the weir and upstream or within a flume is then measured in a stilling
well using a float-actuated chart recorder, an electronic potentiometer or electronic pressure
transducer (and datalogger). If the peak discharge during a flood is required for flood prediction at
a site where only the maximum height of the flood is known or where river-gauges have been
over-topped, then slope-area methods can be used.
(6) Slope-area methods: Perhaps the most common slope-area method involves the use of the
Manning Equation, i.e.,

and

where V is the river velocity (or 'specific discharge'), R is the 'hydraulic radius' which is the crosssectional area of the flow divided by the wetted perimeter, S is approximated by the downstream
slope on the river surface, and n is Manning's roughness coefficient (which varies between 0.025
and 0.07 in natural channels). In other words, if the water-surface slope and the 'hydraulic mean
depth' ( 'hydraulic radius') increase so does the river's velocity, while if the channel roughness
increases, the river velocity reduces (Hewlett, 1982 p102-103).