Forced Migration Research and Policy

Forced Migration Research and Policy
Overview of current trends and future

directions
April 2010
Refugee Studies Centre

Oxford Department of International Development
University of Oxford
Directors Foreword
The University of Oxfords Refugee Studies Centre (RSC) is a world leader in the
multidisciplinary study of the causes and consequences of forced migration. The Conflict
and Humanitarian Funding Arrangement (CHFA) between the UK Department for
International Development (DFID) and the RSC has supported the expansion of the
Centres activities over the past three years, enabling the RSC to roll out a range of
initiatives which seek to link its research more actively and effectively to processes of
policy and practice change in the field of forced migration and humanitarian action.
As part of this programme, Forced Migration Research and Policy: Overview of current
trends and future directions provides a framework for the RSCs policy-related research.
It maps out contemporary issues and highlights themes and topics requiring further
attention from researchers, policymakers and practitioners which the RSC will pursue.
Our approach to policy-related research is shaped by our wider academic role as a centre
of scholarship engaging with some of the challenging conceptual and theoretical
questions which underpin the more immediate concerns of the policy community. These
intellectual ambitions and the qualities which define our academic credentials
independence, methodological rigour, systematic inquiry, analytical expertise also
enable us to research and provide critical insights into the more applied agendas of policy
and practice.
This report was commissioned by the RSC and prepared by Dr Katy Long, researcher at
the RSC. The document also benefited from inputs by senior RSC staff and researchers
and some external policy partners of the RSC.
This document is a key strategic document for the RSCs programme of policy-related
research and our aims to better connect research, policy and practice. However, we hope
that it will also inform the research agenda, policy priorities and institutional practices of
the wider academic community and policy stakeholders in order to improve international
humanitarian action and conflict prevention, and address the rights and needs of forced
migrants.
Professor Roger Zetter
Director
FORCED MIGRATION RESEARCH AND POLICY OVERVIEW
Contents
Directors foreword.............................................................................................. 1
Contents ............................................................................................................... 2
Objectives and overview....................................................................................... 3
Current and future trends in forced migration research and policy .................. 5
A)
State fragility and forced migration ......................................................... 5
B)
The economics of forced migration .......................................................... 8
C)
Environmental displacement ...................................................................11
D)
Displaced groups with specific needs ......................................................14
E)
Durable solutions .....................................................................................17
F)
Humanitarian space and spaces of protection ........................................21
G)
Realising protection: legal and institutional challenges .........................25
H)
Conclusions and recommendations ........................................................29
References ...........................................................................................................32
Objectives and overview

1.
This paper was commissioned by the Refugee Studies Centre (RSC) of the University of
Oxford. It provides a strategic overview of current developments in forced migration
research and policy interests, concentrating on those areas in which the RSC offers its
particular expertise to policymakers. It maps current research areas and policy trends as
of the end of 2009, as well as identifying areas likely to demand attention in the future.
2.
The paper draws upon a range of materials published by relevant policy organisations and
international institutions. These documents have helped to map out these organisations'
particular strategic interests in forced migration research. The project has also been
influenced by recent debates that have taken place within the academic field of forced
migration studies regarding the nature and scope of forced migration studies as well as
the outcomes of recent policy-related processes.
3.
It addition this paper has benefited greatly from the assessments of RSC researchers on
the likely trends in forced migration research in their own areas of expertise. It has also
received valuable input from a number of policymakers and researchers notably in
identifying areas of on-going research of particular relevance to policymakers.
4.
In the past decade there has been considerable debate between adherents of refugee
studies, and those researchers who instead advocate a wider forced migration approach.
This reflects similar divisions among policymakers, particularly as the attention given to
Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs), human trafficking and mixed migration flows has
grown along with the number of organisations involved in migration work. This paper
takes the line that, while refugees may be a distinct group of forced migrants, it is more
helpful when considering broad research and policy trends to think in terms of forced
migration and displacement. For this reason the paper refers to forced migration as a
general term, with specific groups of forced migrants convention refugees, IDPs etc
only explicitly identified where appropriate.
5.
The paper identifies seven key research themes which are of immediate relevance to
policymakers and which are also likely to be of increasing importance in developing
forced migration policy in the coming years. These are all areas in which it is suggested
that further research is needed to help shape the direction of such policies. These key
themes are:
State fragility and forced migration
The economics of forced migration
Environmental displacement
Displaced groups with specific needs
Durable solutions
Humanitarian space and spaces of protection
Realising protection: legal and institutional challenges
6.
There are significant overlaps between some of these themes. Where possible, these links
between themes have been highlighted in the sections that follow. Recognising these
connections is important because doing so helps to underline where there is most
pressing need for further policy-relevant research to be conducted.
7.
In particular, it is clear that many issues prioritised by both researchers and policymakers
can be linked to the meta-thematic issue of state fragility. Many of the most urgent
contemporary questions such as how to address the economic dimensions of forced
migration, or how to preserve or reform humanitarian and protection space are related
above all to the fragility of states that induce displacement. This underlines the extent to
which such state collapse poses serious challenges to the international community in
terms both of security and of protection norms.
8.
As a result of this analysis this paper recommends that policy and research agendas ought
above all to concentrate on understanding the environmental, economic, political and
socio-cultural connections between state fragility and forced migration. This conclusion
also responds to the growing recognition among researchers, policymakers and
practitioners of the prevalence of mixed migration flows and the complex connections
between economic migration and political flight that challenge traditional conceptions of
forced migration and displacement (Feller 2006; UNHCR 2007a; Crisp 2009).
9.
The majority of the broad thematic issues covered in this report such as gender and
forced migration, or environmental displacement have already been recognised by
policymakers and researchers as deserving of their attention. In these cases this report is
primarily intended to summarise the existing policy research agenda and highlight
neglected aspects within such policy fields which are ripe for further research.
10.
However, it is equally clear that there are some issues concerning forced displacement
which are highly relevant to policymakers but which to date have been largely neglected
by both the policy-making and research communities. As a result this paper concludes
that future research agendas must pay more attention to understanding forced migrants'
own political and economic agency, with the aim of incorporating these capacities into
intentional policy strategies addressing forced migration.
11.
The document details potential avenues for future collaborations between the RSC as an
academic research institution and international organisations and governments with an
interest in addressing forced migration. However given the well-documented difficulty of
encouraging fruitful connections between policy and research, this paper should be seen
as a first step of engagement in a much longer-term, multi-faceted process of developing
useful relationships between forced migration research and policy agendas.
Current and future trends in Forced Migration

research and policy
A) State fragility and forced migration
A1.
In the past decade state fragility has become an increasingly popular concept for both
policymakers and researchers working on issues related to international development,
humanitarian relief and global conflict (USAID 2005; DFID 2005; UNDP 2008; World
Bank 2009a; OECD 2009). This in part reflects an increased awareness among Western
states and international organisations of the complexity of post-conflict reconstruction
and state stabilisation, as demonstrated by the difficulties encountered in Iraq and
Afghanistan. It is also illustrative of the securitisation of development discourses, with
fragile states becoming an increasingly important post-2001 concept linked to combating
international terrorism (Duffield 2007).
A2.
There has been considerable effort among researchers to define the contours of state
fragility, resulting in a general agreement that fragile states are those most vulnerable to
internal and external shock, which lack legitimate institutions, and which are thus
vulnerable to endemic conflict and crisis (Grono 2007; Crisis Index for Foreign Policy
2009; Stewart and Brown 2009; World Bank 2009b; www.crisisstates.org). There has been
particular interest among both researchers and policymakers in understanding the
complex relationship between state fragility and violent conflict (e.g. Menocal 2009;
World Bank 2009c).
A3.
The correlation between state fragility and forced migration flows is not a new
observation but builds upon the root causes strategies that emerged among forced
migration policymakers as early as the 1980s. It is clear that the fragility of states can
contribute to forced migration: warlord economies thrive where apparatus lacks
legitimacy or where effective control and state institutions may be captured by an lite,
with consequent persecution of opponent groups within civil society (e.g. Ethiopia,
Burma). Fractionalisation within such states can lead to civil conflict, causing flight due to
generalised violence (e.g. Chad, DRC, Haiti). Fragile states also frequently demonstrate an
inability to withstand economic collapse or environmental disaster, leading to flight from
existential threats (e.g. Zimbabwe); this is one example of a politically-induced mixed
migration flow, a phenomenon which has been recently labelled survival migration
(Betts and Kaytaz 2009) , although the use of this term and its implications for forced
migration policy remain controversial (Survival Migration Workshop 2009).
A4.
Forced migration itself is also recognised as having a significant effect on state fragility.
UN Security Council resolutions from as early as 1991 recognised the link between
regional instability and displacement flows (UN Security Council 1991). However given
the level of interest from development and humanitarian agencies in the concept of state
fragility, there has been remarkably little research focusing directly on the connections
between fragile states and forced migration. There is relatively little research available,
particularly among those working in security studies rather than in the field of forced
migration, looking at how refugees cause conflict, exacerbate conflict or frustrate conflictresolution and peace-building.
A5.
Most research on peace-building and fragile states focuses exclusively on reconstruction

and the reintegration of refugees in the country in question and pays little attention to the
regional context. This is striking given that conflict in the Global South has been shown to
spill over into neighbouring states through the spread of small arms, the movement of
armed groups and the policies of neighbouring states. Refugee movements are also linked
to the regionalisation of conflict. Preliminary research has demonstrated that the longterm presence of refugees from fragile states in neighbouring countries can have a
negative impact on peace-building, if there are armed elements opposed to peace, if there
are pressures from the host country for early and unsustainable repatriation or if refugees
are politicised in exile. Equally refugees can make an important contribution to peacebuilding if they benefit from training and skills development in exile (AU 2006; Milner
2009).
A6.
Much of the political interest in the concept of state fragility, and consequently much of
the policy-relevant research which has been undertaken by development organisations,
has been primarily interested in offering solutions to state fragility. In terms of forced
migration the focus has been on the effects of state fragility on the durability of solutions,
particularly repatriation. This also is a response to the fact that many protracted refugee
situations are a result of endemic state fragility (Loescher 2009; Loescher, Milner,
Newman and Troeller 2008). Research has focused on the conditions needed for
sustainable return of forced migrants as part of post-conflict reconstruction (e.g. Feller
2009; Koser 2009).
A7.
Fragile states also offer particular obstacles to the securing of humanitarian assistance and
spaces for protection. Chronic instability, endemic violence and the absence of political
control structures have frequently led to the militarisation and politicisation of relief
efforts and the failure of the international community to provide spaces for protection
(see Humanitarian space and spaces of protection).
Future directions
A8.
State fragility is inextricably linked to the dynamics of forced migration but to date this
relationship has been under-researched. There is an urgent need for further research to
explore in more detail the relationship between displacement and state fragility. In
particular this research needs to consider what forms of state fragility (e.g. anarchic,
autocratic or transitioning regimes) are most likely to result in what forms of forced
migration (refugee or IDP production). Incorporating forced migration into models for
understanding state fragility should be an important policy priority.
A9.
Despite the interest of states and many think-tanks and NGOs in the processes of statebuilding, researchers have increasingly pointed to the ethical and political dilemmas that
can result from such technocratic approaches (e.g. Chandler 2006; Bickerton 2007 in
contrast to the account offered in Ghani and Lockhart 2008) The difficulties faced in
Afghanistan by both the international community and returning refugees have also
sensitised international policymakers to these problems (ICG 2009). Researchers in forced
migration may be particularly well situated to address some of these issues due to their
anthropological and sociological (rather than technocratic) approaches to researching
displacement.
A10. There is a need for policymakers and researchers to consider the national dimensions of
state fragility and their effects upon forced migration movements. Forced migration is
frequently a result of the exclusion of certain groups from national membership and as
such is a consequence of the fragility of community as much as of the fragility of
institutions. Sustainable reconstruction depends not only on strengthening states
technical and institutional capacities, but also on addressing this exclusion from
community and the failure to build a viable and inclusive national identity. The
connections between national identity, state structures and forced migration flows need
further research, particularly in terms of understanding the tools needed to effect lasting
stability within a society as well as a territory.
A11. Such observations are also likely to influence and be influenced by recent developments of
policies relating to urban refugees. Urban space may often offer (relatively) continued
stability and levels of service within fragile states. Working with local authorities and
other non-state actors within urban spaces should encourage future researchers to reflect
the multiple levels of community within which displacement may both occur and be
addressed in their work.
A12. Further research is needed to more fully address the role of repatriation in combating
state fragility and the role of returnee participation in post-conflict reconstruction and
reintegration (e.g. as in Southern Sudan). There is a particular need for more research on
the role of state-strengthening in facilitating solutions for IDPs (Duffield et al. 2008;
Pantuliano et al. 2008). Although research has begun to be carried out into the role which
refugees themselves can play in peace-building processes (Milner 2009), there is a need
for further understanding and increased awareness by policymakers about the potential
benefits of such an approach.
A13. Policymakers discussions surrounding state fragility and forced migration need to be
linked to their increasing awareness of the role of migration as a development tool and the
relationship between the regional context, refugees and peace-building in fragile states. In
particular there is a need for further research on the long-term political role of diasporas
from fragile states and the role of remittances in fragile state-perpetuation, statestrengthening or state-creation.
A14. The contemporary reality of human mobility and migration challenges the assumptions
of rootedness which underpin the current structures of international political
organisation (Bakewell 2008). This is particularly obvious when considering population
outflows from fragile states which lack the capacity to realise their obligations to their
citizens. These migratory flows, particularly in the case of forced displacement, suggest
that there is a need for both researchers and policymakers to consider how to reform
global migration governance regimes in order that these structures can better empower
(and thus protect) the peoples of fragile states.
Key thematic linkages

The economics of forced migration; Environmental displacement; Durable solutions;
Humanitarian space and spaces of protection; Realising protection: legal and institutional
challenges.
B) The economics of forced migration

B1.
Forced migrants, and particularly refugees, have traditionally been conceptualised as

engaging in political flight. This image of the political refugee is deliberately contrasted
against those of the economic and the voluntary migrant. However in recent years
researchers and many international observers have increasingly acknowledged that
perpetuation of this dichotomy is frequently intended to serve the interests of states
interested in managing migration rather than refugee protection (e.g. Zetter 2007; Foster
2007; Haddad 2008).
B2.
Many researchers and policymakers recognise the importance of re-conceptualising

forced displacement within a framework of political economy and as part of a wider
pattern of migration and human mobility. Although stressing its continued belief in the
need for a distinction to remain between the ideas of refugee and migrant, UNHCR has
nonetheless increasingly engaged with ideas relating to mixed migration flows and
individual refugees' mixed and changing motivations for flight and exile (UNHCR 2007a;
Long 2009).
B3.
In the past few years research projects have underlined the economic causes which may
lie behind forced migration flows. Refugees may flee as a result of the economic
consequences of persecution the denial of opportunities to work or systematic
livelihood discrimination (Foster 2007). However other forced migrants may move in
response to broader economic collapse, which may be related to endemic political state
fragility (see State fragility and forced displacement), or in response to environmental
threats in communities of origin (see Environmental displacement).
B4.
This research agenda has been particularly driven by concerns about onward migration to
donor countries, often from refugee camps or from host states where entry into the
labour-market is prohibited and forced migrants' freedom of movement is restricted
(Crisp 2003; Van Hear 2003; Lindley and Van Hear 2007; Paoletti 2009). The attention
given by policymakers to human trafficking and human smuggling has also encouraged
greater focus on transnational labour networks (e.g. Anderson and O'Connell-Davidson
2002). This has led to growing recognition that the search for sustainable livelihoods is a
major factor driving exile, as well as a crucial element in ensuring a framework for
durable solutions. UNHCR has recently begun to explore in more detail the idea of using
regularised labour migration channels as a fourth solution for some refugee groups,
building on regional initiatives in Afghanistan and the ECOWAS 1 region (Monsutti 2006,
2008; Adepoju et al. 2007; Long 2009).
B5.
This greater recognition of the economic factors driving and/or influencing the course
and outcome of some forced migration movements has important implications for the
legal and normative structure of the international refugee regime. Although recent legal
research has argued that violations of economic and social rights should be given greater
prominence in refugee status determination processes (Foster 2009), many states are
likely to be reluctant to embrace this at a policy level. However, concern about the need
for forced migrants to secure sustainable livelihoods in exile has played an important role
in driving UNHCRs and other international organisations' growing insistence that
onward migration of refugees often occurs in search of effective protection (including
access to basic economic rights) and should not therefore be characterised as irregular
secondary migration (UNHCR 2007b; Lindley and Van Hear 2007; Zimmermann 2009).
Reaching a consensus on the meaning of effective protection, and the architecture that is
needed to ensure the provision of such protection, is likely to continue to pose a major
challenge for both researchers and policymakers.
B6.
However, recognition of the economic dimensions of forced migration also represents a

positive research and policy opportunity. In recent years considerable attention has been
paid to the relationship between migration and development (IOM 2003; World Bank
2007; DFID 2007; see also the Global Forum on Migration and Development), with
particular interest in the positive contribution of migration remittances to development
agendas (OECD 2005; World Bank 2008). This has gone some way towards reversing a
previous sedentary bias in development policy, in which migration and mobility have
tended to be seen as symptomatic of failure of development rather than as potential
solutions to endemic poverty (Jacobsen 2005; Bakewell 2008). However, many states
continue to view migration-as-development as a means of reducing South-North
migration in the long term despite researchers stressing the dangers of making this
assumption (IOM 2003).
Economic Community of West African States
B7.
To date, relatively little policy research has been directly concerned with the relationship
between forced migration and these development agendas. The World Bank is among
those institutions that have indicated an interest in focusing more directly on the
development challenges related to displacement (World Bank 2009b).
B8.
Interest in development as part of (re)integration processes (see Durable solutions)

reflects current international interest in ideas relating to capacity-building and postconflict reconstruction a focus which is not entirely new, given the root causes debates
of the early 1980s. In particular it is increasingly recognised that the role of remittances
from forced migrant diasporas (including IDPs) to those sections of the population that
remain in a region during conflict and in the immediate post-conflict stages of
reconstruction may play a crucial role in ensuring that livelihood strategies are capable of
meeting basic needs, with local distribution networks often being more effective at
reaching target populations than international aid (Ratha 2003; Lindley 2007). The
economic power structures associated with remittance-led development may thus have a
profound role in shaping the structures of states emerging from conflict (Ratha 2003;
Fagen 2006).
Future directions
B9.
There is increasing recognition among both the research and policy communities that
forced migration and displacement may involve economic factors, either as a cause of
flight or as a result of changing motivations in protracted refugee situations (PRSs)
(UNHCR 2007a; Van Hear 2009). There is a clear need for more research exploring the
nature of the economic dimensions of forced migration, in prompting flight, shaping exile
and influencing the nature of durable solutions. This work needs to go beyond the current
mixed migration discourse to consider individuals complex and changing motivations
for flight and/or migration.
B10. The causal role between (forced) migrant-led development especially remittances and
post-conflict state reconstruction has not yet been fully explored, though the importance
of doing so is increasingly recognised. Research also needs to be carried out assessing the
role of remittances from forced migrants, especially during protracted displacement and
in conflict and crisis settings.
B11. It is not yet clear whether survival migration is the most appropriate way in which to
conceptualise the movements of forced migrants seeking economic as well as political
protection. Further legal and normative research would be useful in order to consider the
meaning of effective protection and what policy shifts may be needed in order to better
incorporate an economic dimension into forced migration protection which enables selfsufficiency rather than reliance upon long-term aid.
10
B12. Forced migration tends to occur from and to fragile states and in conflict settings. These
settings raise particular economic development challenges related to forced migration,
which are now being recognised by the policy community, and which should be the focus
of future research. Given the decline in recent years of the 4Rs (repatriation,
reintegration, rehabilitation and reconstruction) model for repatriation as development
there is a need for research offering new frameworks linking development and refugee
return.
B13. In particular, recognition of forced migrants' own agency economic and political must
be incorporated into both policy and research agendas, so that human mobility becomes
part of the displacement-development framework (e.g. Kaiser 2005). Policy-relevant
research could also focus on the particular impact that the current global recession is
likely to have on patterns of development in relation to forced migration.

State fragility and forced migration; Durable solutions; Realising protection: legal and
institutional challenges.
C) Environmental displacement
C1.
As early as 1990 the potential impact of environmental change on patterns of human

migration was recognised as a serious concern for policymakers and donor governments
and one that required significant new research (IPCC 2007; UNHCR 2008b). In recent
years, environmental forced migration has become a major policy issue, in part as a
response to growing international recognition of the need for urgent measures to combat
climate change and mitigate its likely effects (Kollmannskog 2009a). In the run-up to the
Copenhagen climate talks held in December 2009, the potential for massive displacement
was highlighted, with calls from the government of Bangladesh among others for new
climate migration channels to be developed by Western states (Guardian 2009).
C2.
Considerable attention has been directed to addressing the prospective effects of macrolevel climate-induced mass displacement (UNEP 2009; UNHCR 2008b, 2009a; Joint
Submission 2009a, 2009b; Warner et al. 2009). Several research programmes have
concentrated on mapping the probable geographical impact of widespread climate change
on patterns of forced migration in order to develop early warning systems and mitigate
probable effects (IPCC 2007). Other projects are studying existing climate-induced
displacements in order to better understand the socio-cultural, economic and political
effects of this form of forced migration in affected regions (e.g. International Crisis Group
2008 on Haiti; Forced Migration Review 2008 on Ghana, Central Asia, Darfur,
Bangladesh).
11
C3.
Beyond the need to gather empirical evidence with which to inform policy-making there
is also a need for policymakers to address normative issues such as the degree of force
involved in different forms of environmental migration. In particular, as UNHCR among
others has now recognised, there is a need to construct new protection mechanisms able
to meet the needs of environmental migrants who currently fall outside the parameters of
existing legal regimes (UNHCR 2008b; Zetter 2008, 2009; Boano, Zetter and Morris 2008;
Joint Submission 2009b; Crisp 2009).
C4.
There remain significant shortfalls in both the quantity and quality of research conducted
into the connections between migration both forced and voluntary and climate
change. A new report by IOM seeking to bring together existing findings stresses above all
the lack of clear data on the relationship between migration flows and climate change or
environmental degradation (IOM 2009).
C5.
The causal relationship between environmental change and conflict, and consequently
with forced migration, has been the subject of significant attention from both
policymakers and researchers. The environmental dimensions of conflict-related
displacement have been particularly highlighted in relation to the conflict in Darfur
(Kibreab 1997; ICG 2004, 2008; University for Peace 2006; Smith and Vivekananda 2007).
More recently a paper focusing on Burundian and Somali experiences of
environmentally-induced migration highlighted the danger of fragile states' lack of
adaptive capacity in responding to environmental change as well as the complexity of the
dynamics that link climate change, conflict and mobility: it serves as a useful reminder
that climate change may also force settlement as well as displacement (Kolmannskog
2009b; International Alert 2009).
C6.
It is clear that mass displacement has a profound effect on eco-systems (and consequently
on livelihoods and state stability): this is particularly true in protracted refugee situations
(Berry 2008). Research needs to consider how such damage can be reduced, to support
international organisations helping to combat the potential negative environmental
impact of essential livelihood activities such as firewood collection (Womens Refugee
Commission 2009). This is important if local integration is to be considered as a
prospective durable solution.
C7.
There has been considerable discussion about what form of legal or institutional
framework is needed in order to respond to the threat of future climate displacement.
UNHCR is seen as increasingly interested in expanding both its operational role and its
legal mandate to cover protection in natural disasters (UNHCR 2009b; Crisp 2009).
However, there are serious concerns that this may lead to the over-extension of UNHCR's
mandate at a time when asylum provisions for Convention refugees are under severe
strain. Some scholars have argued that the international community should stop
concentrating on the causal dynamics of climate change migration and instead adopt a
rights-based approach in determining how institutional reform should proceed (e.g.
Survival Migration Workshop 2009).
12
C8.
Climate change research is, by definition, inter-disciplinary: much of the empirical

evidence which will inform understandings of population movement in relation to
climate change will come from studies conducted by environmental scientists. However it
is important that experts in forced migration are also involved in policy-making: their indepth understanding of the dynamics of displacement should play a crucial role in
formulating appropriate responses to the human dimensions of environmental migration.
C9.
Environmental displacement is now a stated policy priority for many policy organisations
who have an interest in forced migration (including the UK Department for International
Development (DFID), the International Organization for Migration (IOM), the
Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC), the International Council of Voluntary Agencies
(ICVA), Oxfam and UNHCR). It is important that this interest in the environmental
dimensions of forced migration is translated into targeted research projects producing
positive policy recommendations. This means moving beyond research focusing on
awareness-raising profiling to work focused on developing appropriate political and
legal frameworks.
Future directions
C10. Research efforts should nonetheless continue to focus on mapping the dynamics of
environmentally-induced migration, looking not only at climate change but also at other
forms of environmental forced migration (e.g. with human causes such as overpopulation or deforestation) (Brown 2008; Piguet 2008). This will help to build-up
research findings upon which evidence-based policies can then be constructed. In
considering the impact of climate change on human mobility it will be important to
consider the impact that forced settlement may have on rights-provision as well as forced
displacement, as some livelihoods relying on mobility become restricted by
environmental degradation (Kollmannskog 2009).
C11. There is a particular need to consider the effects of environmental factors on the viability
of durable solutions to forced migration, whether in relation to prospects for repatriation
or for local integration. This issue has not yet been adequately addressed in depth beyond
the case-study level by either researchers or policymakers.
C12. UNHCR's involvement in operations after the Indian Ocean Tsunami demonstrates an
increasing tendency for international involvement in protection of natural disaster
victims the vast majority as IDPs (UNHCR 2008b; 2009). Thus a priority for policyrelevant research into the environmental dimensions of forced migration must be to
consider the protection challenges posed by flight from sudden-onset natural disasters.
13
C13. Arguably the most important issues for policymakers and researchers addressing the
question of environmentally-induced forced migration are those related to political and
protection issues. There has been long-standing debate about what form of rights to
protection should be accorded to the environmentally displaced and what form of
international regime can best address environmental forced migration (e.g. Keane 2004;
UNHCR August 2009; Crisp 2009). Further research is needed to aid policymakers in
determining what policies can best address the varied and distinct needs of different
groups of environmental forced migrants and whether a rights-based or a causal approach
is more likely to provide effective protection.
C14. There are also other political questions which will be important to address. The future
disappearance of low-lying territorial nation-states due to rising sea levels raises issues
regarding the nature of state-based obligations to national citizens, while the prospective
relocation of these states through the purchase of new territory highlights issues of
international burden sharing and the potential need for new legal frameworks (e.g.
McAdam 2010). More research to ascertain the likely impact of these profound political
re-organisations is required (Johnson 2009).

Durable solutions; State fragility and forced migration; Realising protection: legal and
institutional challenges.
D) Displaced groups with specific needs

D1.
In the past two decades policymakers and those operating in the field have paid
considerable attention to developing programmes targeting groups with specific needs
within forced migrant populations. These efforts have particularly focused on challenges
related to gender and generations (UNHCR 1994, 2003a; NRC 2007a; Russell 2008; IOM
2009). Gender and generation-sensitive programming remain key policy priorities for
international, humanitarian and development organisations working with forced
migrants (UNHCR 2008a).
D2.
Gender-focused policy and research in forced migration has tended to form part of a
wider policy of gender-mainstreaming that has taken place across the international
development and humanitarian assistance sectors since the 1990s (OSAGI; UNHCR
2008a). However in recent years the adequacy of this approach has been questioned by
several researchers and organisations who have argued that such an approach failed to
ensure that the complexities of gendered experience were genuinely taken into account in
policy construction (e.g. Daly 2005; Mehra and Gupta 2006; UNDP 2006).
14
D3.
Legal research projects have focused on how international human rights instruments,
particularly women-specific instruments such as the Convention on the Elimination of
All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, can support the protection, empowerment
and rights of women and girls as forced migrants or in displacement settings (Edwards
2009). In addition lawyers have examined and argued for the recognition of women as
refugees under international law (Edwards 2003) and there are particular problems of
statelessness, for example faced by women in states with discriminatory citizenship laws
(Blitz 2009; Edwards 2009).
D4.
Legal approaches to gender inequality have tended to focus on the securing of womens
legal rights. However, as part of the gender-mainstreaming agenda, gender-based forced
migration policies and research projects have begun to raise awareness regarding the
gendered vulnerabilities of displaced men and boys too, particularly the use of sexual
violence against them in armed conflict (Russell 2007; Refugee Law Project 2009). Oxfam
is beginning a new project looking at protection issues and men.
D5.
Current research and policy work on gender in forced migration is also particularly
focused on combating sexual and gender based violence (SGBV) (UNHCR 2003a;
Alliance DARC/IOM 2007; Forced Migration Review 2007; EPAU 2008). This stress on
the links between gender, violence and displacement was born out of the conflicts in the
former Yugoslavia and Rwanda in the 1990s, and reflects today the experiences of
numerous situations of forced displacement and conflict in areas such as DRC and
Darfur. It reflects growing concern among both researchers and policymakers with the
use of rape against both women and men as a weapon of war and the prevalence of
SGBV in refugee camps (Dugan et al. 2000; Amnesty International 2004; UN Security
Council 2008; Human Rights Watch 2009). Most of this work continues to focus on
violence against female victims, who continue to be disproportionately subjected to such
violence.
D6.
Researchers and policymakers have to be clear in their goals when devising gendered or
generational projects and recognise that such projects may have unexpected social
outcomes. Campaigns for female emancipation within forced migrant communities, for
example, may involve deliberate and significant disruption of existing social norms that
can increase conflict in domestic settings. Managing the fallout from womens rights
programming and campaigns is essential to ensure that gains for women are not shortlived and that changes to negative social and cultural patterns that reinforce the secondclass citizenship of women within their own communities are durable and survive even
when they return to their countries of origin. This is one area in which the RSC's research
expertise may prove particularly helpful to policymakers because it can provide a deep
contextual understanding of forced migrant societies' own understandings of the
meanings of gender and generation.
15
D7.
Generation-focused programming has primarily been directed at the specific experiences

of child and adolescent forced migrants. UNICEF's research has in the past tended to
focus on children's experiences of migration generally rather than forced migration
specifically, although some regional offices have produced work on forced displacement
(UNICEF UK 2004; UNICEF EAPRO 2009) and particular attention has been paid to the
question of unaccompanied refugees and trafficked minors (UNICEF 2007; Reale/Save
the Children 2008; UNHCR 2009). Also of special concern is the use/exploitation of
children in conflict as combatants (Boyden and de Berry 2004; Coalition to Stop the Use
of Child Soldiers 2008; Reich 2009). However, this work has overwhelmingly focused on
processes of disarmament, demobilization and reinsertion (DDR) and child soldiers'
experiences of violence rather than their experiences of displacement, despite the
recognition of the link between displacement and increased vulnerability to forcible
recruitment (IDMC; UN 2009).
D8.
This work has been complemented by research concerned with adolescent experiences of
forced migration, research that has been particularly concerned with psycho-social and
health-related dimensions of trauma associated with forced migration (e.g. Woodruff
2006; Ellis 2008). But it has also focused on the integration prospects of long-term forced
migrants in host or return communities, particularly in relation to protracted refugee
situations, and especially in the case of Palestinians (e.g. Hart 2008). The political
dimensions of this work in particular, the close association between the potential
violence of refugee warriors and young, alienated, males make this work particularly
relevant to policymakers concerned with the security aspects of forced migration.
D9.
Considerably less research work has been undertaken on the specific dimensions of the
forced migration experiences of the elderly, particularly work which does not focus on the
psycho-social or health-related risks to which elderly refugees are exposed (UNHCR 2000;
UNHCR/HelpAge International 2002, 2006). However there is evidence that
organisations are increasingly recognising the importance of programming which can
respond to the needs of older refugees (UNHCR 2008a; Refugee Council 2008b).
D10. There is also a growing interest in the relationship between experiences of forced
migration and disability. Although historically an area which has received little attention
from policymakers or researchers, UNHCR now lists this area as one of its policy
priorities (UNHCR 2008a). A major report was released last year by the Women's Refugee
Commission and Forced Migration Review will publish an issue in 2010 on the theme of
forced migration and disability (Women's Refugee Commission 2008).
Future directions
D11. Further research should be carried out on the long-term impact of women's
empowerment within displaced communities. Research indicates that gains in terms of
female equality are often reversed following the implementation of durable solutions and
the withdrawal of international personnel (e.g. Jamal 2000). Given the relevance of these
concerns to the current situations in Afghanistan and Iraq, this is an important area for
better understanding of the dynamics of post-conflict return.
16
D12. More attention must be paid by both researchers and policymakers to men and boys
within gender programming. This is not least because protecting the long-term gains
which can be made by displaced women and girls through their gendered inclusion
during exile depends upon policies which also target men's gendered identities and social
roles (Turner 2000).
D13. More research is also needed to determine when gender- or generation-focused
programming is an appropriate tool; this is clearly the case in delivering some services
(e.g. reproductive health care or combating SGBV). But research needs to focus on
providing a better understanding of the relationships and potential conflicts between
recognised groups with specific needs in order to ensure the development of sustainable
policies which address the root causes of vulnerabilities within societies. A more holistic
understanding of the stresses placed on societies as a result of forced migration might
seek to focus on community or family empowerment.
D14. There is a particular need for more generation-focused research on responses to
protracted displacement situations and integration issues. Policy needs to take account
not simply of age but also of the particular challenges faced by second or third generation
forced migrants or refugees-by-birth. Research looking at children involved in DDR
processes should focus not only on their exposure to violence but also the impact of
displacement.
D15. The effect of forced migration upon disability and of disabilities upon individuals'
experiences of forced migration should be the focus of new research. These projects
should consider the impact of disability upon protection needs, development
opportunities and durable solutions.

Durable solutions; Humanitarian space and spaces of protection; Realising protection: legal
and institutional challenges.
E) Durable solutions
E1.
Finding durable solutions to forced migration is arguably the central aim of forced
migration policymakers. Durable solutions offer the promise of restoring stability and
security and moving beyond the need for international aid. Refugee-focused policies have
traditionally centred on three strategies: resettlement, local integration and repatriation.
All of these solutions focus on the re-establishment of a protective link between a forced
migrant and a nation-state through the institution of citizenship.
17
E2.
It is widely acknowledged that refugee resettlement does not offer a viable solution to
mass displacement. However it remains a crucial strategic tool, particularly in dealing
with vulnerable refugees or residual protracted refugee populations. Yet since the end of
the Cold War Western asylum space has been shrinking, leading to a major resettlement
gap between the numbers identified by UNHCR as in need of resettlement and the
number of places available (UNHCR 2009).
E3.
The decline of asylum has been identified as stemming from a number of factors,
including refugees' declining geo-political value and competing domestic political
considerations (Gibney 2004; Chimni 2004, 2009; Crisp 2009; Van Hear 2009). This
shrinkage of asylum space has been the focus of considerable research and advocacy
work among forced migration scholars and activists who are interested in combating
government policies seen to have an excessive focus on the exclusion of refugees and
asylum-seekers (e.g. Gibney 2008; Danish Refugee Council 2008; Human Rights Watch
2008).
E4.
Repatriation has always been the international communitys preferred durable solution
and since the end of the Cold War it has also been the dominant operational solution.
However the past decade has seen an increasingly nuanced understanding of the limits of
repatriation among international organisations, in contrast with states' continued
pressure for refugee return (Human Rights Watch 2008; Long 2009; IRIN 2009).
Sustainable repatriation is now recognised to be a long-term process requiring significant
state-building efforts to combat state fragility and to ensure good prospects for
reconciliation and reintegration (Crisp 2001; UNDP 2002; UNHCR 2003c; UNHCR
2008c; IOM; Pantuliano et al. 2008). It is also recognised that even successful repatriation
programmes may leave significant residual populations who cannot be repatriated.
E5.
Recent policy and research work has thus focused on understanding the connections
between peace-building, post-conflict reconstruction and the return of displaced
populations, particularly in fragile states such as Sudan and Burundi (Tennant et al. 2009;
Kiragu and Tennant 2008). Despite general agreement among policymakers that
repatriation should be voluntary there continue to be significant concerns about its
operational use. Debates about the relevant importance of voluntariness and safety in
repatriation continue (e.g. Bialczyk 2008). Another shift is a growing recognition that
return must be dealt with in an urban context, as returnees move back to cities rather
than rural communities of origin (UNHCR September 2009; UNHCR December 2009).
E6.
In the past few years local integration has reappeared on the international policy agenda
and is attracting increased research attention (Jacobsen 2001; Hovil 2007; Crisp and
Fielden 2008). This partly reflects UNHCR's interest in the recent successful integration
of 1972 Burundians in Tanzania (Fielden 2008). It is also a response to the decline of
resettlement options and the need to address protracted displacement situations; however
there remain significant local and national political obstacles to permanent local
integration of displaced populations in many of these.
18
E7.
Both local integration and repatriation face important practical obstacles, whether for
IDPs or refugees. In particular there are significant issues over land distribution,
particularly where demographic pressures and a lack of alternative livelihood options
make access to land a vital component of socio-economic survival. Academic and policy
work has long stressed the importance of land issues in both prolonging and resolving
conflicts (Stepputat 2008; HPG 2008; NRC 2009; Pantuliano 2009). This reflects a
growing interest in the practical dimensions of sustainable integration.
E8.
All three traditional durable solutions rely on ensuring the (re)integration of forced
migrant populations into a wider community. Yet the past decade has seen increasing
political anxiety about the difficulty of achieving such integration (Zetter et al. 2006;
Refugee Council 2007b; Mayor of London 2007; UKBA 2009). In the West public
discourse relating to failure to integrate is particularly connected to fears over the rise of
Islamic fundamentalism. It is also clear that forced migrants in Western states often suffer
political, social and economic marginalisation and stigmatisation. This marginalisation of
displaced populations has also been a major obstacle (sometimes a deliberate one) to any
formal process of local integration in Southern hosting countries. Long-term studies of
repatriation also demonstrate the difficulties of integration, particularly following
protracted refugee situations or if the political causes of displacement have not been
resolved (Koser 2007; Milner 2009; Adelman 2009; Haider 2009).
E9.
Growing awareness of protracted refugee situations (Crisp 2003; Milner and Loescher
2005; UNHCR 2007a) and the complexities of such cases as Afghanistan (UNHCR
2003b), coupled with growing acknowledgement from policymakers that forced migrants
increasingly form part of mixed migration movements involving economic and political
dimensions, has led to new calls for a creative re-thinking of durable solutions (e.g.
Monsutti 2006).
E10. Long-term trends in the patterns of global displacement clearly indicate the increasing
predominance of internal displacement which demands a specific approach to the idea of
solutions focusing attention on integration and return to communities rather than
states of origin (Forced Migration Review 2008). These new challenges have been
addressed by some policymakers, notably the Brookings-Bern project (e.g. IASC 2007;
Ferris and Mundt 2008), but there is a relative lack of academic research focusing on
durable solutions as these relate to IDPs, although UNHCR has begun a global review of
the return and reintegration of IDPs with a report due in 2010.
19
Future directions
E11. Research must continue mapping the effects not only on forced migrants but also on the
broader international human rights regime of the decline of asylum space in the West
and globally. More research is needed to consider on what basis states might be persuaded
to re-open asylum space and when and how resettlement strategies can be successfully
pursued. Western government policymakers, including those in the UK, need to be more
responsive to research evidence demonstrating the continued need for resettlement as a
solution to forced migration. Researchers must also continue to map the particular
challenges faced in achieving durable solutions in protracted displacement situations.
E12. There is a particular need to better understand the connections between state fragility and
the potential viability of durable solutions. This observation applies to both local
integration and repatriation processes. Repatriation is to be understood as requiring a
political settlement to the causes of displacement and thus it is intricately connected to
wider programmes of post-conflict reconstruction. These linkages must be better
understood in order to inform government and UNHCR policies regarding the timing,
manner and content of repatriation programmes.
E13. There is an urgent need for more work investigating the applicability of durable solutions
to IDPs and there needs to be more academic and policy-based debate regarding the effect
of growing numbers of IDPs upon the international community's understanding of the
political, socio-economic, environmental, normative and logistical dimensions of durable
solutions. In particular more work should be carried out regarding the connection
between repatriation and subsequent internal displacement.
E14. Researchers need to continue to explore the dynamics relating to the frequent failure of
forced migrant groups to integrate into host communities or reintegrate after returning to
their community of origin. This will allow policymakers to better combat the negative
consequences of such failures which may result in significant domestic social instability
involving host communities as well as displaced groups. Such work should focus on
Northern as well as Southern responses and obstacles to integration and must consider
the political, social and economic dimensions of integration. These projects should focus
not just on reconnection to state-level institutions, but on the practical local dimensions
of reintegration such as competition over resources.
E15. More attention needs to be paid to refugee autonomy within the framework of durable
solutions by policymakers. Research suggests that refugee groups have significant political
capacity and interest in shaping durable solutions to suit their needs (e.g. KANERE 2009).
This is likely to involve recognition of the potential viability of self-settlement and
informal solutions to displacement, in particular through local integration. Research
which has stressed the resilience of transnational networks and the creativity of forced
migrants in achieving de facto solutions through self-settlement and onward movement is
important in underlining the need to work with forced migrants' own searches for
dignified solutions (Bakewell 2000; Van Hear 2003; UNHCR 2007, 2009; Long 2009).
20
E16. There is also an urgent need to move beyond the limits of the three traditional durable
solutions and formulate new means of solving forced migration crises. Durable solutions
no longer have an exilic bias but they continue to have a sedentary bias assuming a
return home or a new anchoring to a single place of residence. This must be questioned
(Bakewell 2008) and the rights attached to citizenship and those attached to residency
need to be unbundled (Gibney 2008; Long 2009a, b).
E17. The potential contribution of mobility to solving problems of displacement is an area
which merits more research attention and is likely to be of considerable policy
significance. Regularised labour migration may provide one possible fourth solution to
displacement and UNHCR is currently exploring the protection implications that such an
approach might have (Adepoju et al. 2007; UNHCR 2007a; Long 2009, 2010). This type of
solution would not address the political causes of forced migration but would recognise
that labour migration may be an appropriate response with which to meet refugees
economic needs.

State fragility and forced migration; The economics of forced migration; Environmental
displacement; Displaced groups with specific needs; Humanitarian spaces and spaces of
protection; Realising protection: legal and institutional challenges.
F) Humanitarian space and spaces of protection

F1.
In addressing forced migration flows the international humanitarian community

constantly refers to the concept of protection. However protection has proved difficult to
define in detail (ICVA 2009a; ICRC 2008). In September 2009 the RSC, in partnership
with the Overseas Development Institute (ODI), held an international conference in
Oxford on the Challenges of Protection. Some of the papers presented highlighted the
difficulties ethical, conceptual and practical of negotiating the politics of state-based
protection while simultaneously attempting to preserve the neutrality and impartiality of
humanitarian space (Addison 2009; Refugee Studies Centre 2009).
F2.
It is clear that protection is not necessarily made effective simply by virtue of space being
available within which humanitarian agencies may operate, given that the idea of
protection goes beyond meeting human needs of all with impartiality and neutrality to
aim at securing full respect for individuals fundamental rights (ICVA 2009a). This means
that UNHCR's legal mandate to protect refugees (and conversely the lack of a legal
mandate for IDP protection) is particularly important and has led to considerable debate
within the international community about whether humanitarian organisations can or
should provide protection (e.g. MSF 2007).
21
F3.
The concept of humanitarian space emerged in the mid-1990s, popularised by then-MSF

President Rony Brauman (Wagner 2005). 2 In the past decade the shrinking of
humanitarian space has become a topic of particular concern to humanitarian
organisations (OCHA/IRIN 2003; Holt 2006; Stokes 2008; UNHCR July 2009). With the
politicisation of international engagement in fragile states such as Iraq, Afghanistan,
Sudan, Somalia and DRC, relief and aid efforts have become connected to explicitly
political projects focused on state reconstruction rather than humanitarian principles
(Gnaedinger 2007a, b; Michalski 2007; HPG 2008). Therefore the international
humanitarian community is often no longer perceived as neutral by local actors, resulting
in the legitimate targeting or blocking of humanitarian aid and increasingly violent
attacks upon humanitarian workers. Researchers argue that the shrinking of
humanitarian space is likely to have direct impacts on patterns of forced migration and
the ability of the international community to respond to the immediate needs of the
displaced.
F4.
Regional fragility and porous international borders often result in the spread of so-called
civil conflicts across international borders; this can make humanitarian access difficult.
However, refugees and other externally displaced persons are generally more easily
accessible to the international humanitarian community than IDPs, and it is the latter
who are generally recognised as facing the greatest protection risks. (NRC 2009).
F5.
Urban forced migrants are another subset of displaced persons who must frequently
survive beyond the boundaries of humanitarian space. The number of Iraqi urban
refugees in Jordan and Syria has made this a particularly urgent and relevant issue for
policymakers (Crisp et al. 2009). In September 2009 UNHCR released its long-awaited
new policy on urban refugees; its rights-based framework is intended to establish a basis
for the extension of humanitarian services and protection into urban areas (UNHCR
2009). Over half of the persons of concern to UNHCR are now classified as urban
displaced and the 2009 High Commissioners Dialogue on urban protection issues
underlined the extent to which this is likely to represent a long-term paradigm shift
(UNHCR December 2009). Protection needs are likely to increasingly reflect urban
realities and will need to be met in urban settings. This will pose new institutional
challenges, not least in the novel involvement of local authorities in such protection work.
F6.
Some researchers have pointed out that many urban displaced may deliberately seek to
evade the labels that accompany entry into formal international protective space. This
throws up questions about the international community's obligation to protect as against
forced migrants' autonomy the diminishing ability to exercise choice which frequently
accompanies access to formal spaces of protection (Journal of Refugee Studies 2006;
Lindley 2007; Hovil 2007) and the need to consider how self-reliance can be incorporated
into models of effective protection. Related to this there is a growing interest in
community-based protection strategies among researchers, policymakers and
practitioners (Addison 2009).
Brauman described humanitarian space as a space of freedom in which we are free to evaluate needs, free to
monitor the distribution and use of relief goods, and free to have a dialogue with the people (Wagner 2005).
22
F7.
Policy concerns relating to urban refugees and IDPs are intricately connected to questions
relating to protection space within refugee or other forced migrant camps. Camps are
intended to function as humanitarian space within which the international community
can offer both relief and protection. However in the past decade there has been an
increasing recognition among policymakers that camps, particularly when located within
fragile states, cannot always offer protection from external threats such as militia raids.
They may also fail to offer adequate protection from internal threats such as exposure to
sexual violence, harassment and corruption (Martin and Tirman 2009). The full impact
on spatial protection of the Camp Management Cluster, while innovative, remains to be
seen (OCHA 2008; NRC 2009).
F8.
The process of humanitarian reform which has taken place since 2005, particularly
designed to improve inter-agency coordination, has addressed some of these protection
issues (as seen in the cluster approach) (UNHCR 2005). However there remain significant
obstacles to any further programme of reform, not least declining interest and political
will among agencies themselves (ICVA 2008, 2009). Some agencies, notably MSF, have
argued that such coordination occurs at the expense of humanitarian independence and
neutrality (Stobbaerts 2007; Elhawary 2008).
F9.
A connected issue which has also been raised is the extent to which some organisations
dealing with displacement and migration (especially IOM) should become involved in
issues of protection rather than assistance (Human Rights Watch 2003; Amnesty
International 2004).
Future directions
F10. Protection is a foundational term for those involved in forced migration, whether as
scholars, policymakers or practitioners, but it remains poorly conceptualised and further
research is needed involving both policymakers and academics about its meaning both
operationally and philosophically (Addison 2009; RSC conference 2009).
F11. There is an urgent need for further research and policy consideration of the relationship
between humanitarianism and politics. Identifying the politicisation of humanitarian
space as a new intrusion over-simplifies the relationship between political action and
humanitarian space. There needs to be more nuanced contextualisation of how the
dynamics of international humanitarian action have changed and what the longer-term
implications of new integrated approaches to crises and conflicts mean for humanitarian
operations. There is also a need for research which considers the limits of protective space
as distinct from humanitarian space, particularly given the increasingly insecure
environment within which humanitarian organisations operate.
23
F12. Displacement by definition involves spatial upheaval. It also frequently involves

permanent spatial transformation, exemplified by the building of permanent camps and
squatter settlements, especially in protracted refugee situations. In order to help
international policymakers be aware of the effects such physical spatial transformations
may have on the conceptual space available for protection in attempting to deliver both
humanitarian assistance and effective protection, further research and understanding of
these connections is required.
F13. Further research is needed to map the specific humanitarian and protection needs of the
urban displaced, both refugees and IDPs. In general more research should be directed
towards understanding how the micro-level geography of protection space (camps, urban
squatter slums etc.) interacts with the macro-level spatial geography of protection. Then
policies can be designed to reflect these multi-level spatial challenges.
F14. The spatial dimensions of protection and humanitarian relief in forced migration
situations tend to be approached by international policymakers in terms of international
requirements for access and security. While this is undoubtedly an important
consideration, there is a pressing need for more work to acknowledge the tensions that
this approach creates between the autonomy of the displaced and their access to
protection or relief. Research could help to demonstrate how the creation of space within
displacement locations might help in the exercise of choice for the pursuit of individual
livelihood strategies and for the development of political capacity within displaced
populations as a sustainable pathway to longer-term protection (Zetter and Boano 2009).
F15. More research is also needed on the availability of both humanitarian and protective
space for forced migrants within the Global North and to map the causes and
consequences of the incremental erosion of this space and the formal exclusion from the
North of forced migrants. It is particularly important to better understand and for
policymakers to take better into account the relationship between securitisation
discourse, the failures of the Northern asylum-protection regime and the destitution and
political and social alienation suffered by forced migrants as a consequence.

Environmental displacement; Groups with specific needs; State fragility and forced
migration; Realising protection: legal and institutional challenges.
24
G) Realising protection: legal and institutional

challenges
G1.
The realisation of human rights of the displaced requires political will in order that good
intentions in the form of binding international treaty obligations or custom are translated
into action. There are significant legal and institutional challenges to ensuring the
provision of protection to refugees, IDPs and other forced migrants. The meaning of
protection itself has been the subject of considerable debate in recent years. UNHCR and
other international organisations have emphasised the need for protection to extend
beyond the recognition of civil and political rights to encompass access to sustainable
livelihoods (UNHCR 2007, September 2009), although states have refused to accept this
rationale for what they call irregular secondary migration. Recent developments in the
asylum policies of EU and other Northern states and the Common European Asylum
System, for example, have been repeatedly criticised by advocacy organisations for their
incompatibility with refugees' rights (ECRE 2004; Refugee Council 2009). There is an
urgent need to build a wider consensus on what constitutes protection not only in
practice but also in legal and normative terms.
G2.
It is also clear that the existing refugee regime cannot offer protection to significant
subsets of forced migrants, particularly those who are fleeing the socio-economic
consequences of political collapse or environmental disaster. Labelling such groups as
survival migrants is not unproblematic (Betts 2009; Survival Migration Workshop 2009)
but helps to highlight the gaps in current institutional implementation of existing
protection regimes. As calls are made for more groups of forced migrants to benefit from
protection against refoulement, or in some cases for special status, including those who
qualify for subsidiary protection under the EU Qualifications Directive, the institution of
asylum becomes ever more elusive.
G3.
In terms of the protection of IDPs, the Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement are
now well-established, and provide an important protection framework. However there
continues to be debate among both researchers and policymakers about the nature of the
protection space afforded to IDPs (Guiding Principles). Some have argued for instance
that it is questionable whether IDPs should be distinguished in conflict situations from
other civilians who are protected under international humanitarian law and generally fall
under the ICRC's mandate (Wagner 2005). Similar arguments were made about the
treatment of IDPs in urban settings at the 2009 High Commissioners Dialogue (UNHCR
December 2009). Questions also continue to be raised about whether UNHCR should
take formal responsibility for all IDPs, and if so what form of mandate extension this
would entail (UNHCR 2005b; Feller 2006b; UNHCR 2007). The adoption in Kampala in
October 2009 of the African Union Convention for the Protection and Assistance of
Internally Displaced Persons in Africa has been welcomed as an important step forward
although serious concerns remain about how the Convention will be implemented, and
the extent to which its provisions actually reflect political will (IRIN 2009).
25
G4.
The international protection regime has also struggled to effectively combat statelessness
and the loss of meaningful access to fundamental human rights experienced by stateless
persons. Although legal instruments exist, the widespread failure to ratify and comply
with existing conventions on statelessness, and the deliberate discrimination against
specific populations who are unable to realise their rights to nationality and hence state
protection, have exposed major holes in the human rights regime (Blitz 2009: 6).
G5.
Another legal and normative development influencing the study of forced migration is
the changing international conception of state sovereignty. Recent years have seen the
development and strengthening of the Responsibility to Protect (R2P) doctrine as a
means of securing access to populations within fragile states, with the International Crisis
Group playing an important role in this process (International Commission on
Intervention and State Sovereignty 2001; Evans 2008; International Coalition for the
Responsibility to Protect 2009). Given that forced migration is a direct consequence of an
inability to protect and that fragile states represent a particular challenge for those
interested in securing humanitarian or protection space for forced migrants, this is clearly
an important development with potential impact on the means of protecting forced
migrants. However, the politicisation of humanitarian intervention doctrines as
proclaimed in Afghanistan and Iraq have led to a backlash against R2P (UN 2009;
Conklin 2009).
G6.
Reflecting many of these broader legal and institutional challenges is the increasing
interest among policymakers and researchers regarding the relationship between refugee
law and human rights law, as well a growing focus on the notion of human security (e.g.
Edwards 2009). Many legal scholars now argue that refugee law should be seen in direct
relation to the wider body of human rights law and interpreted accordingly (Edwards
2003, 2009). This human rights-based approach has been used to argue for the
incorporation of socio-economic rights within Refugee Status Determination (RSD)
processes (Foster 2007), as well as in building up soft law and subsidiary protection
frameworks that rely upon other human rights treaties and a non-refoulement obligation
incorporated in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (Article 7).
26
G7.
Many of these legal innovations have been focused on practices in Northern jurisdictions
(including Australia and New Zealand), and have been responses to increasing
restrictions by developed countries on asylum seekers entering their territory and
curtailment of their rights upon entry. Advocacy groups and researchers have
documented the significant protection failures resulting from this closing of protection
space within Northern states who are not only the signatories but the authors of the
current normative regime. Convention Plus 3 attempted to address these issues in relation
to North-South burden-sharing, but also raised concerns about burden-shifting (UNHCR
2009). More recently the development of subsidiary protection within the EU indicates an
attempt to at least carve out temporary, minimal spaces for protection without impinging
on states' security agendas, although these initiatives may also lead to the erosion of
asylum rights within the EU (ECRE 2009).
G8.
One aspect of the growing securitisation has been an increased recourse by Northern
states to detention, deportation and denaturalisation procedures in order to remove noncitizens from state territory. Recent work has stressed the role of these processes as both
for immigration control and as social control mechanisms, reinforcing the privileges of
citizenship and membership hierarchies (Gibney 2008; Deportation and the Development
of Citizenship Conference 2009). By exploring the reasons behind the expansion of
detention and deportation practices this work is likely to be particularly important for
those engaged in advocacy work against such procedures. It also has important
implications for those seeking to understand the dynamics of immigrant integration into
Northern states. The use of internal and external borders, containment policies and the
encouragement of regional protection responses also highlights a system of asylum that is
very much under threat.
G9.
Another aspect of displacement which has traditionally not been considered when
addressing both the spatial and legal dimensions of realising protection is meeting
migrants needs during the journey itself. The increasing prominence of anti-trafficking
discourse in recent years has gone some way to addressing this gap by focusing attention
on the idea of the journey as a space of potential exploitation and a location for
international intervention (UNHCR 2005a; Edwards 2007; Riiskjaer and Gallagher 2008;
UNODC 2009). Again, this reflects policymakers growing concerns with the protection
needs of mixed migratory flows. However anti-trafficking rhetoric is frequently connected
not only to the idea of protection but also to matters of border securitisation and mixed
migration, thus representing a highly politicised rather than a humanitarian approach to
protection within the journeys of the displaced.
Convention Plus was an international effort initiated and coordinated by UNHCR between 2002 and 2006.
Its aim was to improve refugee protection worldwide and to facilitate the resolution of refugee problems
through multilateral special agreements. This was to be achieved through a process of discussion and
negotiation with states and other partners of UNHCR to mobilise support and bring about firmer
commitments. See http://www.unhcr.org/pages/4a2792106.html
27
Future directions
G10. There is a considerable need for further collaboration between policymakers and
researchers regarding the best structures and practices through which protection can be
provided to forced migrants. This is likely to involve considerably more legal research
into the connections between the refugee regime and broader human rights frameworks
that may provide protection to wider categories of forced migrants. One opportunity for
such broad-based policy discussions may be UNHCR's 60th Anniversary programme
(Feller 2009b).
G11. The research needed is not only legal. There is also an urgent need for more conceptual
and normative work to be done looking at how a shift to a rights-based protection
framework alongside changes in conceptions of sovereignty may impact upon
understandings of displacement itself. Within a rights-based framework the international
communitys concern must be to ensure meaningful access to human rights by all those
whose human rights are violated. In particular, the question of the conditions under
which IDPs can or should be distinguished from other rights-deprived citizens must be
given serious attention. A related question is whether the economic and social needs of
forced migrants are less worthy of international protection than the political and if so
on what ethical basis (Foster 2007). Refugee and asylum researchers and their migration
studies counterparts will need to speak to each other more frequently and deeply.
G12. Although there is a general consensus that institutional and legal responses must now
move beyond the traditional focus upon refugees to looking at forced migrant groups,
policymakers and researchers must now consider how it is most appropriate to categorise
such groups. On the one hand calls for protocols addressing the needs of those displaced
by natural disasters or by climate change (Docherty and Gianini 2009) tend to encourage
a focus on causes of displacement rather than the rights lost. On the other hand a focus
only on rights provision ignores the very real distinctions between the loss of home, the
loss of political rights or the loss of state territory and nationality, all of which may result
in displacement but which may require very different remedies. And for the stateless
rights deprivations regularly occur in their own countries. These dilemmas require
further research and serious discussion at policy level.
G13. Continuous monitoring is needed to see how the enlargement of the international
normative protection system alongside a narrowing of access to countries of asylum will
play out.
G14. There is also a particular need for policymakers and researchers to focus on how
protection frameworks already in existence could be better implemented in practice.
Human rights law, regional treaties and increasingly accepted soft law guiding principles
already offer a robust protection regime in theory, but there is a danger that in focusing
on further regime reform the real protection gap which is above all a question of
political will may be ignored. Further research on potential uses of non-state forms of
protection is required, as is greater commitment to advocacy on the basis of existing
research detailing failures in implementing existing legal protection frameworks (Betts
2009a, 2009b; Cross 2009).
28

The economics of forced migration; Environmental displacement; Groups with specific
needs; Durable solutions; State fragility and forced migration; Humanitarian space and
spaces of protection.
H) Conclusions and recommendations

H1.
Forced migration has historically been addressed by the international humanitarian

community as a question of aid delivery and legal protection. This remains the primary
operating lens for a number of international organisations, from relief operations such as
those of MSF through to the protection-based activities of UNHCR. However, states have
tended to view forced migration as also being a political issue involving questions of
entitlement to national membership and inter-regional security. Particularly in reviewing
policy trends in the last decade, it is clear that the humanitarian approach to forced
migration is under threat from an increasingly securitised public political discourse
surrounding all forms of migration.
H2.
It must be recognised that policymakers and practitioners cannot adequately confront the
complex political, environmental and economic dimensions of forced migration through
a humanitarian lens alone nor by focusing only on South-based policies without
considering the exclusionary impact of Northern restrictions on mobility. However it
must also be acknowledged that humanitarian work and thus the safeguarding of
humanitarian space remains a crucial front-line response to the crises caused by forced
migration. The major challenge for policymakers and researchers in the future will be to
consider how humanitarian space can be protected without limiting the ability of the
international community to tackle the substantive causes of forced migration.
H3.
Development has traditionally only been linked to forced migration in relation to durable
solutions, particularly in terms of post-conflict reconstruction and reconciliation
programmes. There has been a clear sedentary bias to such work. Recent discourse on
migration and development, particularly focusing on the role remittances can play in
post-conflict situations, should now be incorporated into policies and practices relating to
forced migration. The major challenge for development policymakers and researchers
interested in forced migration will be to understand how to use the agency and economic
capacities of the displaced within reconstruction programmes, encouraging rather than
limiting human mobility.
H4.
Humanitarian, political, economic and security concerns surrounding forced migration

all converge on the problems posed to the international community by endemic state
fragility. This is particularly true in grappling with those flows of survival migrants who
fall outside the existing protection regimes and exemplify the human consequences of
some policymakers false dichotomies between genuine political refugees and bogus
economic migrants.
29
H5.
This does not mean that there is a solution to forced migration to be found simply by
attempting to fix failed states in the Global South. State fragility is equally indicative of
incoherence and hypocrisies within contemporary structures of international political
organisation in the Global North, and solving forced migration does not mean that
migration will or should be solved. These observations do, however, demonstrate the
urgent need for further research on the question of the relationships between state
fragility, forced migration and the remedies required to ensure human security.
H6.
This report makes the following recommendations to policymakers:

a. Policymakers should adopt an evidence-based approach to policy, building policy
frameworks from research findings and not vice versa. In the long term such policies,
developed on firm research foundations, will be more likely to result in successful
outcomes.
b. Development policymakers should seek to explicitly incorporate understanding of
forced migration into already existing programmes focusing on migrant-led development
c. The current attention paid to the potential impact of environmental forced migration is
important. However, such attention should not be used to divert attention away from
shrinking asylum space or other political protection failures. Nor should policy interest in
environmental forced migration focus solely on the science or geography of climatechange migration. Instead, policymakers should focus on the political dimensions by
considering what types of reform of the global governance regime might adequately
protect these groups of forced migrants.
d. Fragile states are arguably the greatest policy challenge faced by the international
community in relation to forced migration. However policies addressing the relationship
between fragile states and forced migration must not limit themselves to statestrengthening or capacity-building programmes. A comprehensive approach must also
consider the connections between state fragility and the behaviour of Northern states,
particularly in terms of border securitisation discourses.
e. To redress a historic neglect of refugees' own agency in the international community's
approach to forced migration, policymakers must look to use forced migrants' own
political and economic capacities, placing human mobility, autonomy and dignity at the
centre of international programmes for relief, protection and reconstruction.
30
H7.
The RSC intends to pursue the following interests:

a. Given the recognised need for continued discussion about the best means of
connecting research, policy and practice to ensure maximum benefit for all parties, the
RSC will continue to build up strong institutional links with relevant international
organisations and to act as a forum for frank and open discussions relating to forced
migration in order to encourage dialogue between policymakers and researchers in the
field of forced migration. The RSC will seek to improve links between research projects
and relevant policy debates. This should help to underline the useful contribution RSC
can make to urgent practical concerns whilst retaining its academic focus and its position
as a strong independent organisation.
b. The RSC will move towards a more integrated research agenda that would encourage
cross-disciplinary and cross-thematic dialogue, in order to have a positive impact on
research outcomes in both academic and policy terms. A more integrated and thematic
research approach should also help external policymakers to identify relevant expertise
within the RSC.
c. Policy agendas in the North frequently fail to adequately acknowledge the positive
political and economic agency of forced migrants. The RSC has a strong network of
Southern research contacts with whom it has built up long-term relationships. This gives
the RSC exceptional access to Southern research networks which directly challenge this
absence of refugee voices within policy discourse. The RSC will build on its connections
in the Global South to encourage research projects and policy agendas to take full account
of the potential for refugee agency and human mobility to contribute to forced migration
policy frameworks.
31
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Displaced groups with specific needs

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Boyden, J. and de Berry, J. (eds) (2004) Children and Youth on the Front Line:
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Edwards, A. (2009) Displacement, Statelessness and Questions of Gender Equality under
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March 2010.
Refugee Law Project (2009) Gender Against Men: Film Documentary. Premiered 4 June
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Turner, S. (2000) Vindicating Masculinity: the Fate of Promoting Gender Equality.
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UNDP Evaluation Office (January 2006) Evaluation of Gender Mainstreaming in

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41
Durable solutions
Adelman, H. (2009) Problems of Refugee Reintegration.
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Bakewell, O. (2000) Repatriation and Self-Settled Refugees in Zambia: Bringing Solutions
to the Wrong Problems. Journal of Refugee Studies, 13:4, pp.563-73.
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Bialczyk, A. (January 2008) "Voluntary Repatriation" and the Case of Afghanistan: A
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Chimni, B. (2004) From Resettlement to Involuntary Repatriation: Towards a Critical
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Crisp, J. (2001) Mind the Gap! UNHCR, Humanitarian Assistance and the Development
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Ferris, E. and Mundt, A. (2008) Durable Solutions for IDPs in Protracted Situations:
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Forced Migration Review (2008) Ten Years of the Guiding Principles on Internal
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Gibney, M. (2004) The Ethics and Politics of Asylum. Cambridge: Cambridge University
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Gibney, M. (2008) Asylum and the Expansion of Deportation in the United Kingdom.
Government and Opposition, 43: 2, pp. 146-167.
Haider, H. (2009) (Re)Imagining Coexistence: Striving for Sustainable Return,
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Transitional Justice, 3:1, pp. 91-113.
Hovil, L. (2007) Self-settled Refugees in Uganda: An Alternative Approach to
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Human Rights Watch (November 2008) Stuck in a Revolving Door Iraqis and Other
Asylum Seekers and Migrants at the Greece/Turkey Entrance to the European Union.
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Humanitarian Policy Group (2008) Crisis in Kenya: Land, Displacement and the Search
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Jacobsen, K. (2001) The Forgotten Solution: Local Integration for Refugees in Developing
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Long, C. (2009) The Politics of Refugee Repatriation in the Twentieth Century. Ph.D.
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Long, C. (2009b) Extending Protection? Labour Migration and Durable Solutions for
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Mayor of London (July 2007) Enriched: the Mayors Draft Strategy for Refugee
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Milner, J. and Loescher, G. (2005) Protracted Refugee Situations: Domestic and
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Pantuliano, S. (ed.) (2008) Uncharted Territory: Land, Conflict and Humanitarian Action.
Rugby, UK: Practical Action Publishing.
Pantuliano, S., Buchanan-Smith, M., Murphy, P. and Mosel, I. (HPG) (September 2008)
The Long Road Home: Opportunities and Obstacles to the Reintegration of IDPs and
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Stepputat, F. (2008) Forced Migration, Land and Sovereignty, Government and
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Tennant, V., Hatungimana, F. and Haver, K. (July 2009) Money Matters: An Evaluation
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UKBA (March 2009) Moving on Together: the UK Governments Recommitment to
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Humanitarian space and spaces of protection

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Gnaedinger, A. (2007b) Humanitarian Principles: the Importance of their Preservation

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Refugee Council (May 2009) Largest Ever Survey of Destitution among Asylum Seekers
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Realising protection: legal and institutional challenges

Betts, A. (2009) Protection by Persuasion. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
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What is the purpose of this document?

What is the purpose of this document?

What topics does it discuss as requiring further attention from researchers and policymakers?

What topics does it discuss as requiring further attention from researchers and policymakers?

Forced Migration Research and Policy

Overview of current trends and future

Refugee Studies Centre

FORCED MIGRATION RESEARCH AND POLICY OVERVIEW

State fragility and forced migration ......................................................... 5

The economics of forced migration .......................................................... 8

Environmental displacement ...................................................................11

Displaced groups with specific needs ......................................................14

Durable solutions .....................................................................................17

Humanitarian space and spaces of protection ........................................21

Realising protection: legal and institutional challenges .........................25

Conclusions and recommendations ........................................................29

FORCED MIGRATION RESEARCH AND POLICY OVERVIEW

Objectives and overview

State fragility and forced migration

The economics of forced migration

Displaced groups with specific needs

FORCED MIGRATION RESEARCH AND POLICY OVERVIEW

Humanitarian space and spaces of protection

Realising protection: legal and institutional challenges

FORCED MIGRATION RESEARCH AND POLICY OVERVIEW

Current and future trends in Forced Migration

FORCED MIGRATION RESEARCH AND POLICY OVERVIEW

Most research on peace-building and fragile states focuses exclusively on reconstruction

FORCED MIGRATION RESEARCH AND POLICY OVERVIEW

FORCED MIGRATION RESEARCH AND POLICY OVERVIEW

Key thematic linkages

B) The economics of forced migration

Forced migrants, and particularly refugees, have traditionally been conceptualised as

Many researchers and policymakers recognise the importance of re-conceptualising

FORCED MIGRATION RESEARCH AND POLICY OVERVIEW

However, recognition of the economic dimensions of forced migration also represents a

Economic Community of West African States

FORCED MIGRATION RESEARCH AND POLICY OVERVIEW

Interest in development as part of (re)integration processes (see Durable solutions)

FORCED MIGRATION RESEARCH AND POLICY OVERVIEW

Key thematic linkages

As early as 1990 the potential impact of environmental change on patterns of human

FORCED MIGRATION RESEARCH AND POLICY OVERVIEW

FORCED MIGRATION RESEARCH AND POLICY OVERVIEW

Climate change research is, by definition, inter-disciplinary: much of the empirical

FORCED MIGRATION RESEARCH AND POLICY OVERVIEW

Key thematic linkages

D) Displaced groups with specific needs

FORCED MIGRATION RESEARCH AND POLICY OVERVIEW

FORCED MIGRATION RESEARCH AND POLICY OVERVIEW

Generation-focused programming has primarily been directed at the specific experiences

FORCED MIGRATION RESEARCH AND POLICY OVERVIEW

Key thematic linkages

FORCED MIGRATION RESEARCH AND POLICY OVERVIEW

FORCED MIGRATION RESEARCH AND POLICY OVERVIEW

FORCED MIGRATION RESEARCH AND POLICY OVERVIEW

FORCED MIGRATION RESEARCH AND POLICY OVERVIEW

Key thematic linkages

F) Humanitarian space and spaces of protection