c


A problem is defined as a situation in which a person wants something and does not know
immediately what series of actions he can perform to get it. In our current context,
mathematical ideas are involved in the actions to resolve the situation. Thus the four elements
that must exist before we are in a problem solving situation are:

1) a situation must exist involving an initial state and a goal state

2) the situation must involve mathematics
3) a person must desire a solution
4) there must be some blockage between the initial and desired states.

Calculating the means of a set of numbers is an exercise or task, not a problem, for 7th
graders. They know immediately how to proceed, having learned the skill in the fifth grade
according to our scope and sequence. Deciding if there is a direct relationship between two
variables and whether the data is reliable enough (using measures of central tendancy like
means) is likely to be a problem for most 7th graders since those skills are not taught before
the 7th grade.

There are three affective considerations to problem solving: 1) You must desire a solution; 2)
You must feel it is within your ability to solve; 3) you must believe that you can begin to work
on the problem. This third consideration comes from having experience in solving problems
and from having an understanding (explicit or intuitive) in the procedures and processes that
are usually involved in solving problems. The purpose of the math curiculum is to give a
person experience in solving a variety of problems (where math is involved) and several
procedures and a general process for solving problems.
A problem comprises a situation and an objective.
 c


 





Definitions

Bruner (1961) cited the work of Weldon who claimed that one needs to consider
'troubles', 'puzzles', and 'problems' when defining a problem. A 'trouble' is a circumstance or
situation which makes one upset and uncomfortable. A 'puzzle' has a nice tight form, clear
structure, and a neat solution. A problem is a puzzle placed on top of a trouble. Funkhouser
(1990) referred to this definition as ³lighthearted´, and Shulman (1985) called it his ³favorite
epigram.´ I think Bruner¶s citation is interesting.

According to Kantowski (1977), "An individual is faced with a Ô
 when he

encounters a question he cannot answer or a situation he is unable to resolve using the
knowledge immediately available to him. He must then think of a way to use the information
at his disposal to arrive at the goal, the solution of the problem" (p. 163). The author
differentiates between a problem and an exercise. In the case of a problem, an algorithm
which will lead to a solution is unavailable. In an exercise one determines the algorithm and
then does the manipulation. Mervis (1978) defines a problem as "a question or condition that
is difficult to deal with and has not been solved" (p. 27).

Lester (1980) says that "A problem is a situation in which an individual or group is called
upon to perform a task for which there is no readily accessible algorithm which determines
completely the method of solution" (Quoted in Lester, 1980, p. 287 from Lester, 1978).

Buchanan (1987) defines mathematical problems as "non-routine problems that required

more than ready-to-hand procedures or algorithms in the solution process" (p. 402). McLeod
(1988) defines problems as "those tasks where the solution or goal is not immediately
attainable and there is no obvious algorithm for the student to use" (p. 135).

According to Blum and Niss (1991), a problem is a situation which has certain open
questions that "challenge somebody intellectually who is not in immediate possession of
direct methods/procedures/algorithms, etc. sufficient to answer the question" (p. 37). Thus a
problem is relative to the individuals involved; that is, what is a problem for one person may
be an exercise for another. For example, the task 2 + 3 may be a problem for a pre-schooler
but not for a middle-schooler.

A common element in the definitions of Kantowski, Lester, Buchanan, McCleod, and

Blum and Niss is that there is no known algorithm to solve a problem. The problem solver
has to design a method of solution.

In 

  Ô

  (Ohio Department of Education, 1980), it is
stated that a mathematical problem has four elements:
 1. A situation which involves an initial state and a goal state.

2. The situation must involve mathematics.

3. A person must desire a solution.

4. There must be some blockage between the given and desired states (p. 5).

This definition has an affective component (the desire to find a solution) which is absent in the
previous definitions.

Kilpatrick (1985) defines a problem as "a situation in which a goal is to be attained and
a direct route to the goal is blocked" (p. 2). In a similar way, Mayer (1985) claims that a
problem occurs when one is faced with a "given state" and one wants to attain a "goal state."

The preceding three definitions refer to initial and goal states in a problem situation. The
other definitions do not refer explicitly to goals.

Polya (1985), the father of problem solving, identified two categories of problems:

1. Problems to find, the principal parts of which are the unknown, the data, and the
condition.

2. Problems to prove which comprise a hypothesis and a conclusion.

Blum and Niss (1991) also identified two kinds of mathematical problems. There are
applied mathematical problems in which the situation and question belong to the real-world
(outside of mathematics); and there are pure mathematical problems which are embedded
entirely in mathematics. These appear to be similar to Polya¶s categories.

Teachers¶ Conceptions of a Mathematical Problem

Studies have been done into teachers¶ conceptions of a problem. For example,
Thompson (1988) found that 5 of the 16 teachers whom she studied conceived a problem as
"the description of a situation involving stated quantities, followed by a question of some
relationship among the quantities whose answer called for the application of one or more
arithmetic operations" (p. 235). The teachers¶ responses implied that a problem has an
answer, usually a number, and there is a unique procedure to obtain that answer. Thompson
(1988) found that teachers had varying conceptions of problems. For example, some
teachers gave 'story' or 'word' problems as examples of problem tasks.

Students¶ Conceptions of a Mathematical Problem

 There were also studies into students¶ conceptions of a problem. For example, Frank
(1988) conducted a study with 27 mathematically talented middle school students to
investigate their beliefs about mathematics and how these beliefs influence their problem-
solving practices. She used a questionnaire, interviews and observations. She found that
students believed that mathematical problems must be solvable quickly in a few steps and
that mathematical problems were routine tasks which could be done by the application of
known algorithms. They perceived non-routine problems as "extra credit" tasks. Students
believed that if a problem could not be solved in less than 5 to 10 minutes, either something
was wrong with them or the problem. The goal of doing mathematics was to obtain "right
answers." Students focused entirely on answers which to them were either completely right
or completely wrong.

Spangler (1992) used open-ended questions to assess students' beliefs about

mathematics and found that students do have beliefs about certain aspects of mathematics.
Some of her findings concurred with those of other researchers, e.g., Frank (1988).

Spangler (1992) found that one of the common beliefs among students was that a
mathematical problem has only one correct answer. Students were not prepared to accept
that a problem could have different answers, all being correct. They indicated that they
preferred one method to multiple methods for solving a problem because they did not have to
remember much. Students admitted that they could obtain the correct answer to a problem
without understanding what they were doing. Students rarely checked to see if their answers
made sense in the context of the given problem. They verified their answers with the teacher
or by checking the text and they are not inclined to look for multiple solutions or to generalize
their results.

Mtetwa and Garofalo (1989) identified the following unhealthy beliefs which students
have about mathematics and mathematical problem solving:

1. In mathematical word problems the relative size of numbers is more important

than the relationships between the quantities which they represent. For example,

numbers which are to be subtracted are usually close in size, and numbers which are
to be divided are not close in size and are evenly divisible. They claimed that
teachers and textbooks help to perpetuate these beliefs.

2. Computation problems must be solved by using a step-by-step algorithm. This

is a consequence of the instructional practices of teachers.

3. Mathematics problems have only one correct answer. The consequence of

 such a belief is that students fail to recognize/consider/accept other valid and
reasonable answers. They contend that such a belief could develop from textbook
answers and classroom experiences.

There is some degree of consistency between teachers¶ and students¶ conceptions of

a problem. For example, they believe that a problem has one correct answer which is usually
obtained by a step-by-step procedure.

Summary

The essence of these definitions is that a problem is a task or experience which is being
encountered by the individual for the very first time and, therefore, there is no known
procedure for handling it. The individual has to design his/her own method of

solution drawing upon the various skills, knowledge, strategies, and so forth, which have been
previously learned. What the individual does in the process of working towards a solution is
referred to as problem solving; so the emphasis is not on the answer but on the processes
involved. From this perspective many routine word problems which appear in textbooks are
mistakenly designated as problems. They are not; they are merely exercises. A problem is
relative to the individual; what may constitute a problem for one person may not be a problem
for another because he/she might have encountered it before. Teachers and students have
similar conceptions of a problem and these conceptions are sometimes inconsistent with the
literature.


c

 




 

Mathematical problem solving is a complex cognitive activity involving a number of processes

and strategies. Problem solving has two stages: problem representation and problem
execution. Successful problem solving is not possible without first representing the problem
appropriately. Appropriate problem representation indicates that the problem solver has
understood the problem and serves to guide the student toward the solution plan. Students
who have difficulty representing math problems will have difficulty solving them.

One of the most powerful problem representation strategies is visualization. Developmentally,

for most children, visualization matures somewhere between the ages of 8 and 11. Therefore,
students in upper elementary school should be able to use visualization effectively to
represent mathematical problems. Students with LD, however, who have been characterized
as having a variety of strategy deficits and differences, usually have difficulties using
visualization as an effective learning strategy for remembering information and representing
problems. Many students do not develop the ability to use visual representation automatically
during math problem solving. These students need explicit instruction in how to use
visualization to represent problems.

Teaching mathematical problem solving is a challenge for many teachers, many of whom rely
almost exclusively on mathematics textbooks to guide instruction. Most mathematics
textbooks simply instruct students to draw a picture or make a diagram using the information
in the problem. Students with LD at the upper elementary level may be incapable of
developing an appropriate representation of the problem for a variety of reasons. First, they
are generally operating at a fairly concrete level. Second, they are poor at visual
representation. As a result, symbolic representation may not be possible without explicit
instruction that incorporates manipulatives and other materials that will help students move
from a concrete to a more symbolic, schematic level. In other words, teachers must provide
systematic, progressive, and scaffolded instruction that considers the students¶ cognitive
strengths and weaknesses.

Students who have difficulty solving math word problems usually draw a picture of the
problem without considering the relationships among the problem components and, as a
result, still do not understand the problem and therefore cannot make a plan to solve it. So, it
is not simply a matter of ³drawing a picture or making a diagram;´ rather, it is the type of
picture or diagram that is important. Effective visual representations, whether with
manipulatives, with paper and pencil, or in one¶s imagination, show the relationships among
the problem parts. These are called schematic representations (van Garderen & Montague,
2003). Poor problem solvers tend to make immature representations that are more pictorial
than schematic in nature. The illustration below shows the difference between a pictorial and
a schematic representation of the mathematical problem presented at the beginning of the
brief.
Other cognitive processes and strategies needed for successful mathematical problem
solving include paraphrasing the problem, which is a comprehension strategy, hypothesizing
or setting a goal and making a plan to solve the problem, estimating or predicting the outcome,
computing or doing the arithmetic, and checking to make sure the plan was appropriate and
the answer is correct (Montague, 2003; Montague, Warger, & Morgan, 2000). Mathematical
problem solving also requires self-regulation strategies. Students with LD are notoriously poor
self-regulators. During this developmental period, it is imperative that they be explicitly taught
how to self-instruct (tell themselves what to do), self-question (ask themselves questions),
and self-monitor (check themselves as they solve the problem).
¢


Problem posing and problem solving involve examining situations that arise in mathematics
and other disciplines and in common experiences, describing these situations mathematically,
formulating appropriate mathematical questions, and using a variety of strategies to find
solutions. By developing their problem-solving skills, students will come to realize the
potential usefulness of mathematics in their lives.






Problem solving is a term that often means different things to different people. Sometimes it
even means different things at different times for the same people! It may mean solving
simple word problems that appear in standard textbooks, applying mathematics to real-world
situations, solving nonroutine problems or puzzles, or creating and testing mathematical
conjectures that may lead to the study of new concepts. In every case, however, problem
solving involves an individual confronting a situation which she has no guaranteed way to
resolve. Some tasks are problems for everyone (like finding the volume of a puddle), some
are problems for virtually no one (like counting how many eggs are in a dozen), and some are
problems for some people but not for others (like finding out how many balloons 4 children
have if each has 3 balloons, or finding the area of a circle).

Problem solving involves far more than solving the word problems included in the students'
textbooks; it is an approach to learning and doing mathematics that emphasizes questioning
and figuring things out. The ï       
     of the National Council of
Teachers of Mathematics considers problem solving as the central focus of the mathematics
curriculum.

"As such, it is a primary goal of all mathematics instruction and an integral part of all
mathematics activity. Problem solving is not a distinct topic but a process that should
permeate the entire program and provide the context in which concepts and skills can be
learned." (p. 23)

Thus, problem solving involves all students a large part of the time; it is not an incidental topic
stuck on at the end of the lesson or chapter, nor is it just for those who are interested in or
have already mastered the day's lesson.

Students should have opportunities to pose as well as to solve problems; not all problems
considered should be taken from the text or created by the teacher. However, the situations
explored must be interesting,engaging, and intellectually stimulating. Worthwhile
mathematical tasks are not only interesting to the students, they also develop the students'
mathematical understandings and skills, stimulate them to make connections and develop a
coherent framework for mathematical ideas, promote communication about mathematics,
represent mathematics as an ongoing human activity, draw on their diverse background
experiences and inclinations, and promote the development of all students' dispositions to do
mathematics (p

     of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics).
As a result of such activities, students come to understand mathematics and use it effectively
in a variety of situations.




Problem solving is a basic skill needed by today¶s learners. The problem-solving skill is an
important intellectual activity for human beings; it is also a very important springhead of
humankind¶s knowledge. Guided by recent research in problem solving, changing
professional standards, new workplace demands, and recent changes in learning theory,
educators and trainers are revising curricula to include integrated learning environments
which encourage learners to use higher order thinking skills, and in particular, problem solving
skills.

Problem solving has become the means to rejoin content and application in a learning
environment for basic skills as well as their application in various contexts. Problem solving
also includes attitudinal as well as cognitive components. To solve problems, learners have to
want to do so, and they have to believe they can. Motivation and attitudinal aspects such as
effort, confidence, anxiety, persistence and knowledge about self are important to the problem
solving process.

Problem solving involves both analytical and creative skills: analytical in comprehending the
problem and the relationships within the original situation, and in checking the results of
results of each step, and creative in devising the
solution. Imagination plays a large part in both of these skills: problem solving requires the
ability to imagine a chain of intermediate steps and their consequences.

For example to solve the problem of crossing a river by chopping down a tree
and laying it across the river appears to be quite simple. The ability to imagine the individual
steps in a solution and their results can only be gained through
experience, acquisition of subject specific knowledge and understanding, and practice in
using the necessary tools. True creativity in problem solving lies in lateral thinking that is in
the ability to imagine the results of processes in different contexts to those previously
experienced. This requires the ability to abstract, at least sub-consciously, generalizations,
and while such transfer may be possible between different contexts within one academic
discipline it is not as easy to achieve between contexts in different disciplines.




The most explicit analyses of knowledge and procedural skills required to solve the problems
are provided by the following models. The models are based on similar analyses of
performance, but somewhat different characterizations of knowledge at each stage of
problem solving.






 
The first problem solving models broke down into
two distinct approaches:

 


 


 

Scientists often report using both methods to enable discovery.

  ¢ !"#

‡ Define the problem
‡ Suggest possible solutions and identify alternative
‡ Reason about the solutions and implement
‡ Test and prove

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 c

 !%#
‡ Problem formulation and information gathering
‡ Incubation - allowing the unconscious to work on it
‡ Illumination - working to gain insight
‡ Verification - testing for accuracy

 


Etter (1995) presented a model used by students to
solve engineering problems.
‡ Define the problem - state it clearly
‡ Gather information - describe input and output
‡ Generate and evaluate potential solutions
‡ Refine and implement solutions
‡ Verify and test solution method and result

&$



Polya (1945 and 1962) was the first to describe a
problem solving model based on classroom experience:
Four stages of Problem Solving are as follows:
‡ Understand and explore the problem
‡ Find a strategy
‡ Use the strategy to solve the problem
‡ Look back and reflect on the solution.
Although we have listed the Four Stages of Problem
Solving in order, for difficult problems it may not be possible
to simply move through them consecutively to produce an
answer. It is frequently the case that children move backwards
and forwards between and across the steps. In fact the figure1
below is much more like what happens in practice.
Understand

Look back strategy

Solve
Understand and explore the problem
‡ State the question
‡ Identify the goal
‡ Give known, unknowns and conditions
‡ Introduce drawings or notations

There is no chance of being able to solve a problem unless you can first understand it. This
process requires not only knowing what you have to find but also the key pieces of
information that somehow need to be put together to obtain the answer. Children will often not
be able to absorb all the important information of a problem in one go. It will almost always be
necessary to read a problem several times, both at the start and during working on it. During
the solution process, children may find that they have to look back at the original question
from time to time to make sure that they are on the right track.

Find a strategy
‡ Outline a potential solution
‡ Look at similar problems
‡ Restate the problem differently
‡ Break it into sub problems

Finding a strategy tends to suggest that it is a fairly simple matter to think of an appropriate
strategy. However, there are certain problems where children may find it necessary to play
around with the information before they are able to think of a strategy that might produce a
solution. This exploratory phase will also help them to understand the problem better and may
make them aware of some piece of information that they had neglected after the first reading.

Use the strategy to solve the problem

‡ Refine and transform into a solution
‡ Relate tasks to givens and unknowns
‡ Check validity of each step
‡ Define steps in relations to the whole problem

Having explored the problem and decided on a plan of attack, the third problem-solving step,
solve the problem, can be taken. Hopefully now the problem will be solved and an answer
obtained. During this phase it is important for the children to keep a track of what they are
doing. This is useful to show others what they have done and it is also helpful in finding errors
should the right answer not be found.

Look back and reflect on the solution

‡ Confirm results and arguments
‡ Assess effectiveness of solution
‡ Assess accuracy of results
‡ Assess usefulness of solution for solving other

'
 ()

It is not enough to describe a problem-solving process and to describe how individuals differ
in their approach to or use of it. It is also necessary to identify specific techniques of attending
to individual differences. Fortunately, a variety of problem-solving techniques have been
identified to accommodate individual preferences. It is important that techniques from both
categories be selected and used in the problem-solving process. Duemler and Mayer (1988)
found that when students used exclusively either reflection or inspiration during problem
solving, they tended to be less successful than if they used a moderate amount of both
processes. This section offers some examples of both types of techniques; the next section
will demonstrate how to integrate them into the problem-solving process to accommodate
individual differences.
The following techniques focus more on logic and critical thinking, especially within the
context of applying the scientific approach:

‡ Analysis
‡ Backwards planning
‡ Categorizing/classifying
‡ Challenging assumptions
‡ Evaluating/judging
‡ Inductive/deductive reasoning
‡ Thinking aloud
‡ Network analysis
‡ Plus-Minus-Interesting
‡ Task analysis

The following problem-solving techniques focusmore on creative, lateral, or divergent thinking:

‡ Brainstorming
‡ Imaging/visualization
‡ Incubation
‡ Outcome psychodrama
‡ Outrageous provocation
‡ Overload
‡ Random word technique
‡ Relaxation
‡ Synthesizing
‡ Taking another's perspective
‡ Values clarification


 () 

 '


The problem-solving techniques discussed above are most powerful when combined to
activate both the logical/rational and intuitive/creative parts of the brain. The following
narrative will provide an example of how these techniques can be used at specific points in
the problem solving process to address important individual differences. The techniques will
be presented within the context of a group problem-solving situation but are equally
applicable to an
individual situation.

 )


The goal of the Input phase is to gain a clearer understanding of the problem or situation. The
first step is to identify the problem and state them clearly and concisely. Identifying the
problem means describing as precisely as possible the gap between one's perception of
present circumstances and what one would like to happen. Problem identification is vital to
communicate to one's self and others the focus of the problem-solving/decision-making
process. The second step of the Input phase is to state the criteria that will be used to
evaluate possible alternatives to the problem as well as the effectiveness of selected
solutions. The third step is to gather information or facts relevant to solving the problem or
making a decision. This step is critical for understanding the initial conditions and for further
clarification of the
perceived gap.


 


In the Processing phase the task is to develop, evaluate, and select alternatives and solutions
that can solve the problem. The first step in this phase is to develop alternatives or possible
solutions. This generation should be free, open, and unconcerned about feasibility. Enough
time should be spent on this activity to ensure that non-standard and creative alternatives are
generated. The next step is to evaluate the generated alternatives via the stated criteria. The
third step of the processing phase is to develop a solution that will successfully solve the
problem. For relatively simple problems, one alternative may be obviously superior. However,
in complex situations several alternatives may likely be combined to form a more effective
solution.

 *))


During the Output phase a plan is developed and the solution actually implemented. The plan
must be sufficiently detailed to allow for successful implementation, and methods of
evaluation must be considered and developed. When developing a plan, the major phases of
implementation are first considered, and then steps necessary for each phase are generated.
It is often helpful to construct a timeline and make a diagram of the most important steps in
the implementation using a technique such as network analysis. Backwards planning and task
analysis are also useful techniques at this point. The plan is then implemented as carefully
and as completely as possible, following the steps as they have been developed and making
minor modifications as appropriate.

 +


The next step, evaluating implementation of the solution, should be an ongoing process.
Some determination as to completeness of implementation needs to be considered prior to
evaluating effectiveness. The second step of this phase is evaluating the effectiveness of the
solution. It is particularly important to evaluate outcomes in light of the problem statement
generated at the beginning of the process. Affective, cognitive, and behavioral outcomes
should be considered, especially if they have been identified as important criteria. The final
step in the process is modifying the solution in ways suggested by the evaluation process.
Evaluation of the solution implementation and outcomes generally presents additional
problems to be considered and addressed. Issues identified in terms of both efficiency and
effectiveness of implementation should be addressed.

)

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)

There is a need to develop and use a problem-solving/decision-making process that is both

scientific and considerate of individual differences and viewpoints. While the scientific process
has provided a method used successfully in a wide variety of situations, researchers have
described individual differences that can influence perspectives and goals related to problem
solving. These differences can be used to identify appropriate problem solving techniques
used in each step of the problem-solving process. The process described in this paper allows
individuals to use a standard method in a variety of situations and to adapt it to meet personal
preferences. The same process can be used in group situations to satisfy the unique
perspectives of individual members. Decisions made in this manner are more likely to be
effective since individuals can consciously attend to both personal strengths and weaknesses.

 
 


  ,

Problem Solving is very important but problem solvers often misunderstand it. This report
proposes the definition of problems, terminology for Problem Solving and useful Problem
Solving patterns.

We should define what is the problem as the first step of Problem Solving. Yet problem
solvers often forget this first step.

Further, we should recognize common terminology such as Purpose, Situation, Problem,

Cause, Solvable Cause, Issue, and Solution. Even Consultants, who should be professional
problem solvers, are often confused with the terminology of Problem Solving. For example,
some consultants may think of issues as problems, or some of them think of problems as
causes. But issues must be the proposal to solve problems and problems should be negative
expressions while issues should be a positive expression. Some consultants do not mind this
type of minute terminology, but clear terminology is helpful to increase the efficiency of
Problem Solving. Third, there are several useful thinking patterns such as strategic thinking,
emotional thinking, realistic thinking, empirical thinking and so on. The thinking pattern means
how we think. So far, I recognized fourteen thinking patterns. If we choose an appropriate
pattern at each step in Problem Solving, we can improve the efficiency of Problem Solving.

This report will explain the above three points such as the definition of problems, the
terminology of Problem Solving, and useful thinking patterns.






We should know the basic terminology for Problem Solving. This report proposes seven terms
such as Purpose, Situation, Problem, Cause, Solvable Cause, Issue, and Solution.

p


Purpose is what we want to do or what we want to be. Purpose is an easy term to understand.
But problem solvers frequently forget to confirm Purpose, at the first step of Problem Solving.
Without clear purposes, we can not think about problems.

 


Situation is just what a circumstance is. Situation is neither good nor bad. We should
recognize situations objectively as much as we can. Usually almost all situations are not
problems. But some problem solvers think of all situations as problems. Before we recognize
a problem, we should capture situations clearly without recognizing them as problems or non-
problems. Without recognizing situations objectively, Problem Solving is likely to be narrow
sighted, because problem solvers recognize problems with their prejudice.

p
 

Problem is some portions of a situation, which cannot realize purposes. Since problem
solvers often neglect the differences of purposes, they cannot capture the true problems. If
the purpose is different, the identical situation may be a problem or may not be a problem.

 

Cause is what brings about a problem. Some problem solvers do not distinguish causes from
problems. But since problems are some portions of a situation, problems are more general
than causes are. In other words causes are more specific facts, which bring about problems.
Without distinguishing causes from problems, Problem Solving can not be specific. Finding
specific facts which causes problems is the essential step in Problem Solving.

    

Solvable cause is some portions of causes. When we solve a problem, we should focus on
solvable causes. Finding solvable causes is another essential step in Problem Solving. But
problem solvers frequently do not extract solvable causes among causes. If we try to solve
unsolvable causes, we waste time. Extracting solvable causes is a useful step to make
Problem Solving efficient.

 

Issue is the opposite expression of a problem. If a problem is that we do not have money, the
issue is that we get money. Some problem splvers do not know what Issue is. They may think
of "we do not have money" as an issue. At the worst case, they may mix the problems, which
should be negative expressions, and the issues, which should be positive expressions.

 

Solution is a specific action to solve a problem, which is equal to a specific action to realize an
issue. Some problem solvers do not break down issues into more specific actions. Issues are
not solutions. Problem solvers must break down issues into specific action.



 







If we can think systematically, we do not have to be frustrated when we think. In contrast, if

we have no systematic method, Problem Solving frustrate us. This reports lists five systematic
thinking processes such as rational thinking, systems thinking, cause & effect thinking,
contingent thinking, and the Toyota0fs five times WHYs method .

J 




Rational thinking is one of the most common Problem Solving methods. This report will briefly
show this Problem Solving method.

1. Set the ideal situation

2. Identify a current situation
3. Compare the ideal situation and the current situation, and identify the problem
situation
4. Break down the problem to its causes
 5. Conceive the solution alternatives to the causes
6. Evaluate and choose the reasonable solution alternatives
7. Implement the solutions

We can use rational thinking as a Problem Solving method for almost all problems.





Systems thinking is a more scientific Problem Solving approach than the rational thinking
approach. We set the system, which causes problems and analyze them based on systems0f
functions. The following arre the system and how the system works.

System

i Purpose
i Input
i Output
i Function
i Inside cause (Solvable cause)
i Outside cause (Unsolvable cause)
i Result

In order to realize Purpose, we prepare Input and through Function we can get Output. But
Output does not necessarily realize Purpose. Result of the Function may be different from
Purpose. This difference is created by Outside Cause and Inside Cause. We can not solve
Outside Cause but we can solve Inside Cause. For example, when we want to play golf,
Purpose is to play golf. If we can not play golf, this situation is Output. If we can not play golf
because of a bad weather, the bad weather is Outside Cause, because we can not change
the weather. In contrast, if we cannot play golf because we left golf bags in our home, this
cause is solvable. Then, that we left bags in our home is an Inside Cause.

Systems thinking is a very clear and useful method to solve problems.

 



Traditionally, we like to clarify cause and effect relations. We usually think of finding causes
as solving problems. Finding a cause and effect relation is a conventional basic Problem
Solving method.







Game Theory is a typical contingent thinking method. If we think about as many situations as
possible, which may happen, and prepare solutions for each situation, this process is a
contingent thinking approach.

 0

At Toyota, employees are taught to think WHY consecutively five times. This is an adaptation
of cause and effect thinking. If employees think WHY and find a cause, they try to ask
themselves WHY again. They continue five times. Through these five WHYS, they can break
down causes into a very specific level. This five times WHYs approach is very useful to solve
problems.



 







In order to think efficiently, there are several useful thinking patterns. This report lists five
patterns for efficient thinking such as hypothesis thinking, conception thinking, structure
thinking, convergence & divergence thinking, and time order thinking.





If we can collect all information quickly and easily, you can solve problems very efficiently. But
actually, we can not collect every information. If we try to collect all information, we need so
long time. Hypothesis thinking does not require collecting all information. We develop a
hypothesis based on available information. After we developed a hypothesis, we collect
minimum information to prove the hypothesis. If the first hypothesis is right, you do not have
to collect any more information. If the first hypothesis is wrong, we will develop the next
hypothesis based on available information. Hypothesis thinking is a very efficient problem-
solving method, because we do not have to waste time to collect unnecessary information.







Problem Solving is not necessarily logical or rational. Creativity and flexibility are other
important aspects for Problem Solving. We can not recognize these aspects clearly. This
report shows only what kinds of tips are useful for creative and flexible conception. Following
are portions of tips.

i To be visual.
i To write down what we think.
 i Use cards to draw, write and arrange ideas in many ways.
i Change positions, forms, and viewpoints, physically and mentally.

We can imagine without words and logic, but in order to communicate to others, we must
explain by words and logic. Therefore after we create ideas, we must explain them literally.
Creative conception must be translated into reasonable explanations. Without explanations,
conception does not make sense.







If we make a structure like a tree to grasp a complex situation, we can understand very clearly.

Upper level should be more abstract and lower level should be more concrete. Dividing
abstract situations from concrete situations is helpful to clarify the complex situations. Very
frequently, problem solvers cannot arrange a situation clearly. A clear recognition of a
complex situation increases efficiency of Problem Solving.










When we should be creative we do not have to consider convergence of ideas. In contrast,

when we should summarize ideas we must focus on convergence. If we do convergence and
divergence simultaneously, Problem Solving becomes inefficient.








Thinking based on a time order is very convenient, when we are confused with Problem
Solving. We can think based on a time order from the past to the future and make a complex
situation clear.


,

¢
 
+)- '+)

Quantitative skills and methods (mathematics) represents a growing body of rules and
patterns that can be carefully, in other words intelligently, used one at a time and one after
another, alone and in sequence, to arrive at repeatable, reproducible, observable and hence
verifiable results.

To develop problem solving skills, and avoid re-invention of the wheel, students will be
exposed to problems and situations in which the mathematical skills and concepts they have
met can be applied in routine or predictable manner. The first aim of mathematics instruction
is to give students those skills and concepts - previously found or hard-won by previous
generations - for solving routine problems and puzzles in a straightforward or combinatorial or
opportunistic manner. For that, logic mastery would be useful for the development of
precision reading and writing skills. The well-practiced ability to record problem solving steps
and effort in a clear legible format readable by peers, teachers and themselves would make
aid and speed routine problem solving.

Routine problem solving (challenging as it may be to some students) in which mathematical

skills and concepts are pieces of a jigsaw puzzle - one whose solution is standard - even on
display - represents a first step in developing the critical thinking and problem solving skills of
students. It provides a standard for all further problem solving. Seeing what kinds of
problems have been met and/or solve before, and how, provides a model for further problem
solving. Greater knowledge of the kinds of problems met before and how they have been
solved provides a systematic base for further problem solving.

Mathematics in the first instance, is an art form, a discipline, with simple and then more
complicated rules, patterns and methods to master. For many routine problems or situations
in daily life and in our cultures that students need to learn to address and solve with ways that
lead to repeatable and reproducible results - reliable results. Once students have sufficient
drill and practice, sufficient exposure, the use of some skills and concepts should become
familiar, automatic, and their use no longer an adventure.

Problem solving from a state of ignorance is over-rated. With a combinatorial or creative

mind, standing on prior knowledge of what has worked or not, is better. While creativity (the
combination of previously mastered skills and concepts, and the invention of new ones) is
possible with any level of knowledge, the ability to be creative and in that produce methods to
solve problems in a verifiable manner - a manner that peers can follow or reproduce -
increases with the level of knowledge and level of skill and competence. Students need to
learn when creativity is required and when previous methods give satisfactory
results. Problem solving situation with incomplete information of what has been done - a
partial state of ignorance - may be provided to show how a greater knowledge of previous
solution reduces problem solving challenges.

Problem solving in an society where common problems repeat themselves and thus become
routine should be based routine solutions methods, methods whose efficacy, suitability and
limitations has been checked and understood by the user. With practice, solving common
problem should become routine.

Empirical problem solving aims to find or apply methods with repeatable and reproducible,
and reliable results. That may turn open problems into routine problems. Practice in solving
problems which have become routine may prepare students for open problems. Practice in
solving routine problems and puzzles in a straightforward or combinatorial or opportunistic
manner when solution methods are not given provides a model for tackling non-routine
problems, a model that stands on and then looks beyond previous methods.

+
,. Routines and methods in society for "solving" problems may lead to repeatable,
reproducible and harmful results. The ability to follow instructions carefully and precisely is a
plus for getting results but not a guarantee that the results will be ethnical or that practices will
be sustainable. So students should not be trained to follow methods or instructions without
reflection on the benefits and limitations of the methods. Routine solution methods may be
challenged and should be for the everyone's sake. But those routine methods cannot be
challenge, cannot be considered and examine carefully if their study is avoided.
+)



From the curricular point of view, routine problem solving involves using at least one of the
four arithmetic operations and/or ratio to solve problems that are practical in nature. Routine
problem solving concerns to a large degree the kind of problem solving that serves a socially
useful function that has immediate and future payoff. Children typically do routine problem
solving as early as age 5 or 6. They combine and separate things such as toys in the course
of their normal activities. Adults are regularly called upon to do simple and complex routine
problem solving.

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Answer:
The original price is RM 125.98
20% off the regular price and I have RM 100.00

6
  6 
 


= RM 100 ± RM 100.80
= -RM 0.80
No enough because I still need RM 0.80 just can buy that jacket.

/



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"

 )

First, divide 2 into 6 swords to see how many swords

he could make in one day.

62=3

Then multiply your answer by 9 to see how many swords he could make in 9 days.

3 x 9 = 27
/

&

At the tavern, Ralph bought a mug of mead for 1 shilling, bread for 2 shillings, meat for 2
shillings, and a souvenir for his children 5 shillings. How much did Ralph spend on food?

First, find the information you need to solve the problem. Some information is extra. The extra
information is:

Ralph bought a souvenir toy for his children for 5 shillings.

I'll solve the problem using only the information I need.

1+2+2=5

Ralph spent 5 shillings on food.



,

¢
+)- '+)

Quantitative skills and methods (mathematics) represents a growing body of rules and

patterns that can be carefully, in other words intelligently, used one at a time and one after

another, alone and in sequence, to arrive at repeatable, reproducible, observable and hence

verifiable results.

To develop problem solving skills, and avoid re-invention of the wheel, students will be

exposed to problems and situations in which the mathematical skills and concepts they have

met can be applied in routine or predictable manner. The first aim of mathematics instruction

is to give students those skills and concepts - previously found or hard-won by previous

generations - for solving routine problems and puzzles in a straightforward or combinatorial or

opportunistic manner. For that, logic mastery would be useful for the development of

precision reading and writing skills. The well-practiced ability to record problem solving steps

and effort in a clear legible format readable by peers, teachers and themselves would make

aid and speed routine problem solving.

Routine problem solving (challenging as it may be to some students) in which mathematical

skills and concepts are pieces of a jigsaw puzzle - one whose solution is standard - even on

display - represents a first step in developing the critical thinking and problem solving skills of

students. It provides a standard for all further problem solving. Seeing what kinds of

problems have been met and/or solve before, and how, provides a model for further problem

solving. Greater knowledge of the kinds of problems met before and how they have been

solved provides a systematic base for further problem solving.

Mathematics in the first instance, is an art form, a discipline, with simple and then more

complicated rules, patterns and methods to master. For many routine problems or situations

in daily life and in our cultures that students need to learn to address and solve with ways that

lead to repeatable and reproducible results - reliable results. Once students have sufficient

drill and practice, sufficient exposure, the use of some skills and concepts should become

familiar, automatic, and their use no longer an adventure.

Problem solving from a state of ignorance is over-rated. With a combinatorial or creative

mind, standing on prior knowledge of what has worked or not, is better. While creativity (the

combination of previously mastered skills and concepts, and the invention of new ones) is

possible with any level of knowledge, the ability to be creative and in that produce methods to

solve problems in a verifiable manner - a manner that peers can follow or reproduce -

increases with the level of knowledge and level of skill and competence. Students need to

learn when creativity is required and when previous methods give satisfactory

results. Problem solving situation with incomplete information of what has been done - a

partial state of ignorance - may be provided to show how a greater knowledge of previous

solution reduces problem solving challenges.

Problem solving in an society where common problems repeat themselves and thus become

routine should be based routine solutions methods, methods whose efficacy, suitability and

limitations has been checked and understood by the user. With practice, solving common

problem should become routine.

Empirical problem solving aims to find or apply methods with repeatable and reproducible,

and reliable results. That may turn open problems into routine problems. Practice in solving

problems which have become routine may prepare students for open problems. Practice in

solving routine problems and puzzles in a straightforward or combinatorial or opportunistic

manner when solution methods are not given provides a model for tackling non-routine

problems, a model that stands on and then looks beyond previous methods.

+
,. Routines and methods in society for "solving" problems may lead to repeatable,

reproducible and harmful results. The ability to follow instructions carefully and precisely is a

plus for getting results but not a guarantee that the results will be ethnical or that practices will

be sustainable. So students should not be trained to follow methods or instructions without

reflection on the benefits and limitations of the methods. Routine solution methods may be

challenged and should be for the everyone's sake. But those routine methods cannot be

challenge, cannot be considered and examine carefully if their study is avoided.


-')



Non-routine problem solving serves a different purpose than routine problem solving. While
routine problem solving concerns solving problems that are useful for daily living (in the
present or in the future), non-routine problem solving concerns that only indirectly. Non-
routine problem solving is mostly concerned with developing students¶ mathematical
reasoning power and fostering the understanding that mathematics is a creative endeavour.
From the point of view of students, non-routine problem solving can be challenging and
interesting. From the point of view of planning classroom instruction, teachers can use non-
routine problem solving to introduce ideas (EXPLORATORY stage of teaching); to deepen
and extend understandings of algorithms, skills, and concepts (MAINTENANCE stage of
teaching); and to motivate and challenge students (EXPLORATORY and MAINTENANCE
stages of teaching). There are other uses as well. Having students do non-routine problem
solving can encourage the move from specific to general thinking; in other words, encourage
the ability to think in more abstract ways. From the point of view of students growing to
adulthood, that ability is becoming more important in today¶s technological, complex, and
demanding world.

Non-routine problem solving can be seen as evoking an µ

  " 
  " - 
 -
 
 
¶ reaction. That involves a search for heuristics (strategies
seeking to discover). There is no convenient model or solution path that is readily available to
apply to solving a problem. That is in sharp contrast to routine problem solving where there
are readily identifiable models (the meanings of the arithmetic operations and the associated
templates) to apply to problem situations.

The following is an example of a problem that concerns non-routine problem solving.

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Solving problems like the one above normally requires a search for a strategy that seeks to
discover a solution (a heuristic). There are many strategies that can be used for solving
unfamiliar or unusual problems. The strategies suggested below are teachable to the extent
that teachers can encourage and help students to identify, to understand, and to use them.
However, non-routine problem solving cannot be approached in an automatized way as can
routine problem solving. To say that another way, we cannot find nice, tidy methods of
solution for all problems. Inevitably, we will be confronted with a situation that evokes the
response; ³
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The list below does not contain strategies like: µread the question carefully¶, µdraw a diagram¶,
or µmake a table¶. Those kinds of strategies are not the essence of what it takes to be
successful at non-routine problem solving. They are only preliminary steps that help in getting
organized. The hard part still remains - to actually solve the problem - and that takes more
powerful strategies than drawing a diagram, reading the question carefully, or making a table.
The following list of strategies is appropriate for Early and Middle Years students in that the
strategies involve ways of thinking that are likely to be comfortable for these students.

i Look for a pattern

i Guess and check
i Make and solve a simpler problem.
i Work backwards.
i Act it out/make a model.
i Break up the problem into smaller ones and try to solve these first.
It is important that students share how they solved problems so that their classmates are
exposed to a variety of strategies as well as the idea that there may be more than one way to
reach a solution. It is unwise to force students to use one particular strategy for two important
reasons. First, often more than one strategy can be applied to solving a problem. Second, the
goal is for students to search for and apply useful strategies, not to train students to make use
of a particular strategy.

Finally, non-routine problem solving should not be reserved for special students such as
those who finish the regular work early. All students should participate in and be encouraged
to succeed at non-routine problem solving. All students can benefit from the kinds of thinking
that is involved in non-routine problem solving.

Non routine problem

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To make clearer the distinction between routine and non-routine problem solving, consider

the following two problems. Both are suitable for grade 3.

Problem 1



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Problem 2

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Notice that addition is required for both problems. In problem 1,) ))


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realize that.

In problem 2, )



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µput together¶ action does not help you with solving problem 2. Being good at arithmetic might
help you a bit, but the matter really concerns a search for strategies to apply to the problem.

Guess and check is a useful strategy to begin with.

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