Chapter 1

1. Describe the main components of the Earth.

Earth is tectonically active (parts of the surface move relative to each other) and
compositionally heterogeneous (rocks vary greatly in composition from place to place).
The Earth is made of 4 distinct layers:

A solid iron Inner Core.

A liquid iron Outer Core
A Mantle divided into:

Lower Mantle (less mobile)

Transition zone
Asthenosphere (very mobile)
A Lithosphere (fairly rigid), including the Crust.

The Earth's crust (solid and cool layer at the surface) is composed of two compositionally
different kinds of crust: oceanic crust (iron rich, denser and relatively thin, up to 10 km thick)
and continental crust (silica rich and relatively thick at around 40 km thick, or up to 70 km
thick in mountainous regions).
Liquid core and asthenosphere are only liquid in the sense that they deform and flow over
periods of 1000's of years. It is the slow circulating flow of the liquid part of the iron core that
gives rise to the Earth's magnetic field.
Crust's composition is dominated by oxygen, silicon and aluminium (the elements of the main
mineral group known as the alumino-silicates), whereas the Earth as a whole is dominated by
iron and oxygen, and the Universe as a whole is overwhelmingly composed of Hydrogen.
An important aspect of the Earth is the presence of heavier radioactive elements, especially
Uranium and Thorium, which decay in a complex radioactive element series to produce heat,
thus maintaining the Earth's temperature higher than would occur by simple thermal cooling.
These radioactive elements are particularly concentrated in the Earth's crust.
A final important feature of the Earth's composition is the presence of water at the surface, the
hydrosphere, without which life, the biosphere, could not exist. The biosphere extends a
kilometer or so into the subsurface. Organisms (bacteria) can be found alive in oilfield reservoirs.

2. Describe the carbon cycle.

The Carbon Cycle is particularly relevant to petroleum systems, in which the remains of plants
and animals (organic matter) are deposited, buried and "cooked" to form accumulations of
hydrocarbon. The burning of liquid hydrocarbons and solid coal (collectively known as fossil
fuels) releases the carbon back into the atmosphere (as carbon dioxide) and is now considered to
have an impact on the Earth's climate through global warming. Other accumulations of carbon
occur where accumulations of calcite occur to form limestone. Calcite (calcium carbonate
CaCO3) is a mineral commonly used by animals in their hard parts (shells or skeletons) and after
death the accumulation of these shells forms 'carbonates' - rocks composed largely of calcium
carbonate.
3. Describe the main differences between igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rock
types.
There are three main groups of rocks making up the crust:

Igneous rocks - formed by the crystallization of molten material. Molten material is

sourced from the Earth's interior. Igneous rocks are divided into extrusive igneous rocks
(form by extrusion from volcanoes onto the surface) and intrusive igneous rocks
(intrude into previous formed rocks). Extrusive igneous rocks cool relatively fast as
they are extruded, and so have fine crystal sizes, often too fine to see individual crystals
with the naked eye. Extrusive rocks often contain gas bubbles and include lavas (e.g.
basalt, andesite, rhyolite) and tuffs (ash deposits). Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly,
because there is less temperature difference between them and the surrounding rocks at
depth, and they therefore have coarser crystals that are easy to see. These include granite,
gabbro, pyroxenite, diorite. At relatively high levels in the crust, intruded melts cool
relatively fast forming medium to fine sized crystals (e.g. basalt). If these bodies intrude
across the stratigraphy they are termed dikes (vertical intusions of magma), if they
intrude along the layers they are called sills (horizontal intusions of magma). Igneous
rocks are crystalline, with no porosity, and therefore rarely form drilling targets for
petroleum - however, fractured granites and lavas can be productive for hydrocarbons.

They may also be important seal units.

Sedimentary rocks - formed by the accumulation of particles, followed by burial,
compaction and cementation of those particles. Clastic or detrital ()
sedimentary rocks are formed by the erosion of pre-existing rocks, and further transport
of the particles by water or air, and their eventual deposition (forming conglomerates,
sandstones, mudstones). Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed by direct precipitation
() of minerals from water (limestones and evaporites). Organic sedimentary

rocks are those formed by the accumulation of remains of animals or plants (limestones,
chert,coal). Sedimentary rocks form the large majority of petroleum reservoirs and source

rocks.
Metamorphic rocks - formed by recrystallization of older rocks (igneous, sedimentary
or metamorphic), either by direct heating (thermal metamorphism) or by heating
accompanied by pressure and deformation (regional metamorphism). Thermal
metamorphism occurs around hot igneous intrusions, while regional metamorphism is
associated with deep burial and mountain building processes within the Earth's crust. All
metamorphic rocks are recrystallized, with no porosity, although often they are fractured
due to the stress they have been under.

Identification of rock types could be provided by: Drill cuttings: tiny rock chippings
recovered from the drilling mud during drilling operations. Core samples: larger diameter
samples, a few millimetres or centimeters across, recovered by coring. Outcrop
samples: fist-sized samples collected in the field at outcrop, where the rocks are more easily
accessible.
4. Describe the main distinguishing features and occurrence of the major rock forming
minerals
We use the physical properties of minerals to identify them in hand specimen. The useful
properties include the crystal structure (governs the shape of the mineral and also the shape
of broken surfaces), the hardness of the mineral, and the color of the mineral.
Minerals most commonly occurring in sedimentary rocks:

Quartz [SiO2]:

The dominant mineral in sandstones and important in many

igneous rocks (especially granite). A hard (cannot be scratched with a steel blade),
transparent or white mineral which is not easily dissolved. Quartz crystals can also be
purple (amethyst), yellow (citrine), pink (rose) and brown colored (smoky).
Hexagonal crystal structure. Household glass is produced by melting grains of quartz.
Chert is a form of quartz that lacks a crystalline structure (hence known as
amorphous), formed from the deposition of microscopic siliceous skeletons of marine

plankton. Broken surfaces are curved and irregular.

Calcite [CaCO3]: The dominant mineral in limestones and important cement in
sandstones. A fairly soft (can be scratched with a knife), transparent or cloudy mineral
which is fairly easily dissolved in weak acids. Rhombohedral crystal structure.
Broken surfaces tend to be planar, making a rhombohedral shape.

Dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2]: A primary mineral in evaporite (sedimentary rocks

formed by chemical precipitation from a saturated brine( )

) deposits and also a common alteration product of limestone. Hard, white mineral,
more resistant to acid than calcite. Broken surfaces tend to be planar forming a

rhombohedral shape.
Halite (Rock Salt) [NaCl]: Major evaporite mineral. A soft (can be scratched

with the fingernail), salty tasting, transparent mineral which dissolves in water, with a

cubic crystal structure. Broken surfaces tend to be planar forming a cubic shape.
Feldspar (Albite) [NaAlSi308]: Major component in granite, minor
component in sandstones. Albite is one end-member of the Feldspar mineral family where the sodium atom [Na] can be substituted by Potassium [K] or Calcium [Ca]. A
fairly hard, white to pink mineral that slowly dissolves in weak acids. Broken

surfaces tend to be planar in two directions, but irregular in all other directions.
Pyrite [FeS2]: Minor component in mudstones and sandstones. Hard, golden

metallic mineral (known as Fool's Gold). Cubic crystal habit.

Kaolinite [Al2Si2O5(OH)4]: An important clay mineral, notably produced by the
breakdown of Feldspar (during weathering or during alteration after deposition). An
important component in mudstones and significant pore-blocking mineral in

sandstones. A soft white mineral, not easily dissolved in weak acids.

Chlorite [(Mg,Fe,Al)6(Si,Al)4O10(OH)8]: A major clay mineral produced by
the breakdown of igneous rocks. An important component in mudstones and
occasional pore-blocking clay in sandstones. A fairly soft, green, earthy-looking
mineral.

Illite [K1-1.5Al4(Si7-6.5Al1-1.5O20)(OH)4]: An important clay mineral produced by

the breakdown of feldspar. Very important pore-blocking clay. Fibrous, soft, white.
Smectite [(0.5Ca,Na)0.7(Al,Mg,Fe)4[Si,Al)8O20] (OH)4nH2O]: A major
clay mineral in mudstone rocks. This is swelling () clay that expands on
contact with water.

Mica [KAl2 (AlSi3O10)(OH,F)2]: Important component of granites and

sandstones as a detrital mineral. Often radioactive.

5. Describe Mohs scale of hardness.

6. Describe sea-floor spreading and subduction.

7. Describe tectonic activity associated with plate boundaries.
The Earth's solid crust is constantly being moved around by slow convection currents in the
asthenosphere. The lithosphere is split into sections called plates that move towards and away
from each other depending on the movement in the underlying asthenosphere. The location of
igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks in the crust can be explained by this model of the
Earth's upper layers, called plate tectonics. Plate tectonics is a fairly recent theory (established
in the early 1960's) to explain the relationship between continents and oceans - more specifically
between continental and oceanic crust.
The crust consists of a number (currently around 55) of plates, which may contain either
continental crust, oceanic crust, or both. Where these plates meet (at plate boundaries) they are
converging, diverging, or transform (sliding past each other).

Where plates are separating, at divergent margins, we observe sea-floor spreading and
the growth of oceanic crust (e.g., Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Iceland). In the divergent setting,
upwelling of hot mantle material causes uplift which the results in stretching and faulting
of the crust allowing magma to rise up and fill the spaces created. If the divergence
continues, new oceanic crust is created above the upwelling mantle, and the convection
( ,
.) in the mantle to either side of the upwelling drags the now separated
continental or oceanic plates away to either side.
Where they collide at convergent margins, we observe either mountain chains (e.g.,
Himalayas, Alps, Rockies and Andes) or the destruction of ocean basins (e.g., east of
Philippines) at subduction zones. There are two models of convergent margins
illustrated, where continental crust meets oceanic crust, and where oceanic and oceanic
crust meet. In both cases, one plate is subducted below the other. The convergence in the
subduction zone causes reverse faulting in the top plate and uplift. A trench develops
along the meeting point of the two plates. The descending plate releases water into the
overlying mantle and lithospheric material, which causes melting of the rocks there. The
hot melts rise, and are either emplaced within the crust (creating intrusive igneous rocks
like granite) or reach the surface to create volcanoes.

In a transform boundary, the plates are moving past each other. This occurs in oceanic
crust along mid ocean ridges, separating zones of spreading. It can also occur in
continental crust, with or without some convergence which may cause uplift and
mountain building on one side of the fault.

8. Describe the role of plate tectonics in controlling the formation of sedimentary basins.
A basin is a large scale depression at the Earth's surface in which thick sequences of sediments
accumulate. Petroleum resources predominantly occur in the major ancient sedimentary basins of
the Earth. These basins have characteristic structural patterns related to their tectonic setting. A
basic theory (one of several) for the formation of sedimentary basins is that thinning of the
lithosphere occurs due to extensions caused by plate tectonics and associated convection in the
mantle. This leads to the creation of a surface depression which is then infilled by sediments
eroded off the adjacent uplifted continents. As the sediments are deposited, they are generally
deformed by continuing extension leading to breakage of the crust, where a break is called a
fault, resulting in a series of fault-defined blocks. The formation of sedimentary basins showing
two end-member models for lithospheric extension and basin formation: a) A pure shear ()
model - deformation in discontinuous (brittle ()) and continuous (ductile ())
modes of the various layers is uniform; b). A simple shear model where brittle fault blocks are
carried along a surface (shear plane) that spreads through the entire lithosphere. Deformation in
both brittle and ductile layers is asymmetrical.

1) The mainly lateral movement of tectonic plates also gives rise to vertical tectonic
movements, with the creation of basins and mountain ranges. These vertical tectonic motions
feed the processes leading to the wearing away of mountains (weathering or erosion) and
creating the final resting place of the weathering products (deposition).
2) Vertical tectonic motions also affect sea level on two different scales. a) Locally, tectonic
movements can change the height of the land relative to the global sea-level (called elative sealevel change), while changes in the total volume of ocean basins by tectonic processes affects the
absolute sea-level (eustatic sea-level change). b) Eustatic sea level is also and sometimes more
strongly, influenced by global climatic changes (through the growth or melting of ice caps)
which occur in response to oscillations in the Earth's planetary motion about the Sun. The
interactions of tectonic processes, erosion, deposition and sea level change - summarized as
relative sea-level change - gives raise to the complex patterns of sedimentation that control
where hydrocarbon sources and reservoirs may be found.

9. Identify the major time periods of the geological record.

Mnemonics: Epochs - Put Eggs On My Plate Please.
Periods: Perhaps Children Only Sing During Christmas Parties To Justify Cookie
Consumption.

10. Relate geological events - deposition and erosion - to a time scale.

Geologists use the present as the key to understanding the past, assuming that many of the
processes are similar. In this case, the depositional rate appears anomalous. The reason for the
low estimate is that much of the time is "missing". By "missing" we mean that there are no rocks
that record deposition during that time. These missing sequences or gaps are marked by
unconformities, which represent erosion or non-deposition in the geological record. In general,
when we see a sedimentary sequence we can be pretty sure that much of the (originally
deposited) material is missing. The geological record is very discontinuous as a result.

These gaps are known as hiatuses if they represent a small time period and unconformities if
they represent a larger time interval.
11. Describe the difference between and conformable section and an unconformity.
There are three basic types of unconformity in the sedimentary sequence:

Angular unconformity: in which older strata have been tilted or folded prior to the

deposition of the newer strata.

Disconformity (or parallel unconformity): in which the strata have the same dip above
and below the unconformity (there has been no tectonic deformation of the older

succession), and there is evidence for erosion at the unconformity level.

Paraconformity (or non-depositional unconformity): in which similar strata lie at the
same dip above and below the unconformity and there is no evidence for erosion. This
type may be difficult to detect and usually requires careful age dating of the sequence.

An unbroken succession of rocks without an unconformity is known as a conformable sequence

or succession.

12. Identify the order of events (deposition, erosion, intrusion) in a rock section using the
Law of Superposition.
The Principle (or Law) of Superposition: This states simply that if the strata (layers) are not
overturned then the oldest layers must be at the bottom and the youngest layers must be at the
top of a succession. This is based on the simple observation that sediments are deposited on top
of previously deposited sedimentary layers. An extension of this principle is that in order for a
fault to cut rocks, those rocks must be there already - therefore the fault is younger than the
rocks. Similarly, intrusions only cross-cut those rocks that are older than the age of the
intrusion.
The Principle of Original Horizontality: Sedimentary strata were laid down (more or less)
horizontally (flat).
The Principle of Original Continuity: The strata were originally laterally extensive.
13. Draw simple stratigraphic relationships (onlap, downlap, offlap, unconformities).
Relationships of the beds to each other and to unconformity surfaces:
When we observe onlap (younger beds overstep older) on an unconformity surface, we
can infer a transgression (rise in relative sea level), as younger strata extend
progressively towards the land.
When we observe offlap (younger beds being deposited in a more restricted area than the
older ones), a regression (fall in relative sea level) can be inferred.

On the figure below are indicated downlap truncations (), which occur when originally
inclined strata terminate downdip against an older surface, and toplap surfaces which mark
updip terminations of inclined strata.

14. Describe Walther's Law.

Walther's Law (1894):"Lithologies that occur in conformable () vertical successions
() of strata must occur in laterally adjacent ( )
environments".
Imagine a beach (sand being deposited) grading into an immediately offshore environment
(muddy sand) and an offshore environment (mud). If the sea-level rises (transgression), then the
place where previously beach sand was being deposited is now immediately offshore, so muddy
sand is being deposited. Further transgression results in mud being deposited in this location.
Our vertical succession that results is therefore sandstone - muddy sandstone - mudstone, which
is equivalent to the sediments being deposited in the laterally adjacent environments: sand muddy sand - mud.
Another way of saying the same thing is: "Lithostratigraphic transitions in a vertical sequence
relect laterally migrating environments"
from other source:
Sedimentary environments that started out side-by-side will end up overlapping one another over
time due to transgressions and regressions.
The result is a vertical sequence of beds. The vertical sequence of facies mirrors the original
lateral distribution of sedimentary environments.