Weft knitting

Introduction Warp knitting is a method of producing a fabric by

using needles similar to those used in weft knitting,
Knitting is the production of fabric by forming loops with but with the knitted loops made from each warp
yarn, which are interlaced in a variety of ways to form the thread being formed down the length of the fabric; the
fabric. Traditional hand knitting, using knitting needles or loops (courses) are formed vertically down the length of
pins, is thought to have existed as early as the 5th century, the fabric from one thread as opposed to across the
although other simpler techniques of intermeshing and width of the fabric, as is the case of weft knitting.
knotting of yarns existed much earlier.
The first real evidence of a production knitting machine
was the stocking frame, invented by the Reverend William
Lee in 1589. The invention laid the foundation for the In warp knitting, each warp thread is fed more or less in line
development of both weft and warp knitting technologies. with the direction in which the fabric is produced, and each
Lee's invention enabled the knitting of loops at ten times the needle in the knitting width must be fed with at least one
speed of traditional hand-pin knitting. thread at each course. Compared to weaving and weft
The knitting industry is divided into two distinct sectors, knitting it is the fastest method of converting yarn into
weft knitting and warp knitting. fabric, though modern developments in weft knitting
machines mean that there is now very little difference in
terms of production between the two forms of knitting.
In weft knitting, the loops are formed across the width The rest of this chapter will consider weft knitting.
of the fabric, and each weft thread is fed, more or less, at
right angles to the direction in which the fabric is
produced. It is possible to knit with only one thread or
cone of yarn, though production demands have resulted Knitting terms and definitions
in circular weft knitting machines being manufactured
with up to 192 threads (feeders). In order to discuss the different types of knitted fabric
structures, certain terms must be understood.

Compared with warp knitting, weft knitting is a more Courses

versatile method of fabric production in terms of both the
range of fabric structures that can be produced and the yarn
types that can be utilised. Weft knitting is the simplest method Courses are rows of loops across the width of the fabric
of converting a yarn into a fabric. produced by adjacent needles during the same knitting cycle,
and are measured in units of courses per centimetre.
Figure 13.1 shows a simple plain-knitted structure,
indicating a course or row. The number of courses
determines the length of the fabric.

137
138 Textiles

Wales Stitch length

[£)

A wale is a vertical column of needle loops. The number of The stitch length, measured in millimetres, is the length of
wales determines the width of the fabric and they are yarn in the knitted loop. Stitch length is one of the most
measured in units of wales per centimetre. Figure 13.1 important factors controlling the properties of knitted
indicates the wales and also the needle loop. fabrics. It can be determined by removing one course length
(or part of a course length) from a fabric and dividing this
length by the total number of needles knitting that length of
Stitch density yarn. Generally, the larger the stitch length, the more open
and lighter the fabric.
Stitch density is a term frequently used in knitting and
represents the total number of needle loops in a given area.
Stitch density is the product of the courses and wales per The knitted loop
unit length and is measured in units of loops per square
centimetre. The unit of a knitted fabric is known as the loop. Figure 13.1
Sinker loop Wale illustrates how the individual loops, both needle and sinker
loops, are connected together to form the knitted structure.
- Needle loop A large number of loops, which are suitably connected
together, will produce a fabric in which the loops are
Figure 13.1 arranged in horizontal and vertical rows. The loops in the
Plain single- horizontal rows are courses and are made consecutively from
jers ey weft
one yarn package, with one thread of yarn feeding all the
knitting.
needles in the knitting unit. A vertical row of loops linked
Course together is called a wale. The loops in a wale are connected
together by drawing each loop through the previous one.
Figure 13.2 shows the technical face and technical back of a
plain knitted (single-jersey) fabric. Technical in this sense
means the machine back and front of the fabric rather than
the side of the fabric used as the front or right side. It is
more convenient to represent a knitted structure by using a
conventional stitch notation, as illustrated, rather than by
elaborate loop diagrams.
Technical face
Technical back

Stitch notation •

Figure 13.2 Technical face and back of plain single-jersey fabric.

 Weft knitting 139

Fabrics are produced either by forming loops on one side of the wale will disintegrate causing the stitches in that line to
the fabric only or on both sides. These two possibilities give undo or ladder. When the fabric is used for the manufacture
four basic classes of weft knitted fabrics, namely plain, rib, of garments by cutting pattern pieces then sewing (known as
purl and interlock which are widely used in their simple piece goods), some difficulty can be experienced during
forms, but also provide a basis for the production of an making-up (sewing together the pattern pieces) because the
infinite variety of weft knitted structures, by using types of fabric tends to curl at the ends and sides unless it has been
stitches other than knit stitches. These other stitch types will heat set during finishing. Circular machines can be used to
be discussed later. produce fabrics for garment manufacture without the need
for side seams if the correct machine diameter is available, or
for slitting to give a full open-width material, or to produce an
endless succession of body lengths with each length being
Properties of knitted fabric separated by a draw thread.

There are four basic types of weft knitted fabric: plain single-
jersey fabrics are the simplest form, knitted with one set of Rib fabrics
needles; rib or double-jersey fabrics are knitted using two
sets of needles; purl fabrics are formed using a two-headed
needle; and interlock fabrics are basically two rib fabrics
locked together. The term rib is used to describe a knitted fabric with
vertical rows (wales) of loops meshed in the opposite
direction to each other.
Plain single-jersey fabrics

Plain single-jersey is the simplest weft knitted structure Some loops knit to the front and some to the back, so that
that it is possible to produce on one set of needles. some wales look like the technical face of plain knitted and
some like the technical back of plain. Figure 13.3 shows the
structure of the simplest rib fabric, termed a '1 x 1 rib',
having alternate wales knitted to the front and back (two sets
The structure is widely used in the manufacture of knitted
of needles are required to produce rib fabric). The ribs tend to
outer-wear, footwear and all types of fashioned garments. The
close up to create a double-faced fabric, which has the same
fabric can be unroved from either end and if a stitch is broken,
appearance on both sides. The width occupied by a 1 x 1 rib
fabric is about half the width of a plain fabric produced on the

Technical
face

Stitch notation Technica

l back

Figure 13.3 Technical face and back of 1x1 rib double-jersey fabric.
140 Textiles

same number of needles, but it does have nearly twice as much Interlock fabrics
elasticity in the width. Lengthwise, the elasticity varies from
moderate to high, depending upon the yarn used.
Rib fabrics do not curl and can only be unloved from the
end knitted last, hence rib fabrics are suitable for waist bands, Interlock structure consists of two l x l rib fabrics
collars and cuffs as well as stretch-to-fit garments. knitted one after the other by means of two separate
The conventional stitch notation for a 1 x 1 rib structure is yarns, which knit alternately on the face and back of
also shown in Figure 13.3. Other rib structures, such as 2 x 1, the fabric and are interlocked together.
3 x 1 , 4 x 1 , 2 x 2 and more, are possible. To produce a 2 X 1
rib structure, for example, the knitted loops would have to be
two knitted on the front and one knitted on the back of the
fabric alternately. Interlock is a reversible fabric, which has a similar smooth
appearance on each side. It does not curl, is firmer and less
extensible than most weft knitted fabrics, and is heavier and
thicker than rib fabric knitted with the same yarn.
Purl (links-links) fabrics Consequently, fine yarns are usually used to reduce the area
density of the fabric. Interlock is used for outerwear fabrics
(dresswear and skirts), often using wool, acrylic and polyester
yarns, while cotton and polyester/cotton blends are used for
l x l purl fabric has loops knitted to the front and back the production of underwear fabrics.
on alternate courses, in contrast to a 1 x 1 rib fabric
which is knitted to the front and back on alternate wales.

Figure 13.4 shows a 1 x 1 purl structure. The fabric will not

curl, both sides are similar in appearance, and it will extend
Knit, tuck and miss stitch types
easily in the lengthwise direction. It can be unroved from
Loop formation - knit stitch
either end. Variations, such as 3 x 1 and 2 x 2 purl can be
made and there is good scope for patterning. The fabric is
commonly used for children's wear. The conventional stitch To understand the different types of stitches, we need to look
notation of a 1 x 1 purl structure is also shown in Figure 13.4. at how a simple knit stitch is formed. It is easier to understand
if we assume that we have already made a loop, which is held
in the hook of the needle.
Technical face
Technical back

Stitch notation • • • •

Figure 13.4 Technical face and back of purl fabric.

 Weft knitting 141

Dial loops

Cylinder loops

Figure 13.5 Interlock double-jersey fabric.

 Raising Clearing and feeding

Figure 13.6 Knitting action with a latch needle.

Knock-over
142 Textiles

When a stitch has been formed, the needle rises to take the needle at the time of feeding the yarn. They are referred to
new yarn to produce another stitch. While this is happening, as knit, tuck and miss positions.
the fabric must be held down to prevent its rising with the These different stitches are produced by controlling the
needle. The loop (a) in the needle hook opens the latch of the height of the needles, and individual selection of needles
needle as the needle rises. When the needle has risen to its enable knit, tuck or miss stitches to be formed.
clearing height the old loop is below the latch on the needle
stem. The needle is now in position to receive the new yarn (b)
before starting to move down. The needle begins to descend, Tuck stitch
causing the old loop (a) to close the latch, so trapping the new
yarn (b). When the needle reaches its lowest position, the new
loop (b) will have been drawn through the old loop (a) —
known as knock-over — and the needle is now ready to rise A tuck stitch is made when a needle takes a new loop
so that the sequence can begin again. without clearing the previously formed loop, so that
The weft knitted structures described so far have been loops are accumulated on the needles.
totally composed of knitted loops, which are produced
whenever the needle clears the old loop, receives a new yarn
and knocks over the old loop from the previous knitting The previously formed knitted loop is called the held loop
cycle. Figure 13.7 shows the three possible positions of the and the loop which joins it is the tuck loop. The tuck loop will
always lie at the back of the held loop.
The number of consecutive tucks on any one needle is
limited by the amount of yam that the needle hook can hold,
with the maximum usually being between four and five loops.
Needle raised to clear Figure 13.8 shows a single tuck viewed from the technical
height (knitting) face of the fabric, which is produced by raising the needle to
the tuck position so that it is high enough to receive the new
Needle raised and not yarn without clearing the held loop.
cleared (tucking) Figure 13.9 shows a three-course tuck structure viewed
from the technical back and, in addition, how this structure
Cylinder verge is represented using conventional stitch notation. Tuck stitches
tend to reduce the length of the fabric and increase its width,
resulting in the fabric being thicker with less extension in its
width. The yarn in the tuck loop is able to straighten itself
more easilv than the yarn in the normal knitted loop,
Previous knitted
causing loops in the adjacent wales to be pushed apart.
loop
Relaxation in the width direction is consequently less than
that of a plain knitted fabric produced under similar knitting
conditions.

Needle not Miss stitch

raised
(miss or float)

A miss stitch is produced by a needle holding the old loop

(the needle is not raised, which effectively means the
Knit needle is missed), while the two adjacent needles are
raised and cleared to produce a new knitted loop.

The float will lie freely on the reverse side of the held loop,
which is the technical back, and in the case of rib and interlock
Miss structures it will be inside the fabric. Figure 13.10 illustrates
Yarn that the float will extend from the base of one knitted or
Figure 13.7 Three needle positions for the tucked loop to the next.
production of three needle types.
 Weft knitting 143

Figure 13.8 Single tuck stitch - technical face.

Course 2

Course 1 Figure 13.9 Three-course

tuck - technical back.

Course 5

=
gure 13.10 One needle float or miss stitch -technical face.
144 Textiles

Course 1

Course 3

Course 2

Figure 13.11 Three-needle miss - technical back.

Figure 13.11 shows a three-needle float viewed from the

technical back, together with the conventional stitch
notation used to represent this structure. Hook
The introduction of miss stitches results in the fabric
becoming narrower in width, since the wales are pulled
closer together and the held loop 'robs' yarn from adjacent
loops. This tends to improve fabric stability.
Knit, tuck and miss stitches can be used in any of the four
fabric types — single jersey, rib, purl or interlock — to produce a
wide range of structural effects.

Weft knitting machines

Knitting elements

Only one type of needle has been used in the descriptions of

weft knitting so far. There are three commonly used metal
needle types for the production of weft knitted fabrics: latch
needles, which are self-acting; compound needles, which have Stem
two independently controlled parts; and bearded needles, the
simplest in form but requiring another element to control
them.

LATCH NEEDLE
Figure 13.12 Latch needle.
The latch needle was developed in the mid 19th century and
compared with the bearded needle, which evolved some 260
years earlier, it has the advantage of being self-acting, though it is slightly more expensive to produce. It is the most widely
used needle in weft knitting. Figure 13.12 shows the main parts
of the latch needle.
 Weft knitting 145

COMPOUND NEEDLE BEARDED NEEDLE

Figure 13.13 shows the compound needle, which comprises Figure 13.14 shows the bearded needle and its main parts.
two parts — the hook and tongue — that are controlled This needle is the simplest and cheapest to manufacture but
separately. This type of needle, though designed in the mid it does require an additional element to close the beard during
19th century, did not really become popular until after the knitting. In the case of warp knitting, this is a presser bar. In
Second World War when it was used on warp knitting weft knitting, the bearded needle is used mainly on straight
machines. Today the open-stem type compound needle is bar machines, but there is an increasing demand for it to be
increasingly used for warp knitting in place of the bearded replaced by either latch or compound needles, both of which
needle, but its use in weft knitting has been limited, though enable much higher production rates to be achieved. The
developments by leading weft knitting machinery majority of modern high speed warp knitting machines now
manufacturers have resulted in its being incorporated into use compound rather than bearded needles.
their machines.
The compound needle is expensive, with each part
requiring separate and precise control. This is not a major
problem in warp knitting since all the needles operate
Classification of weft knitting machines
together, but it can create problems in weft knitting. The
compound needle offers a much shorter, smoother and Table 13.1 gives a simple classification of weft knitting
simpler knitting action in comparison to the latch and machinery. These machines range from high production,
bearded needle, and this enables production speeds to be limited capability, single-jersey types to versatile, multi-
increased. functional models with extensive fabric patterning ability.

Head

Beard

Stem

Figure 13.13 Compound needle.

Figure 13.14 Bearded needle.
146 Textiles

Table 13.1 Classification of weft knitting machinery

Straight bar Flat bar (latch Circular (bearded i needle)
(bearded needle) needle) (latch needle)

one two one needfe bed two needle one two double one
needle needle (domestic type) beds needle needle cylinder neddle
bed beds bed beds bed

fully fashioned v-bed; flat purl plain single- rib; interlock; purl sinker wheel;
jersey double-jersey loop wheel
jacquard; jacquard
pile; inlay;
sliver knit
shaped knitwear knitwear knitwear garment or garment or garment or fabric
fabric fabric knitwear

In all cases these machines will employ one of the types of

needle shown in the table to form the knitted loop. Machine
types shown in Table 13.1 predominantly employ latch needles
of one form or another.
From table 13.1 it can be seen that the simplest weft knitting
New yarn
machinery has one set of needles, arranged either in a straight
line (flat bar/straight bar) or around a cylinder (circular). These
machines are capable of producing single-jersey fabrics, but
not double jersey, and can use a combination of three types
of stitch: knit, miss or tuck.
With two needle beds, double-jersey fabrics such as rib and
interlock can be produced on both flat bar machines and
circular machines. In the case of circular machines this Old
second needle bed takes the form of a dial, a flat disc loo
placed on top of the cylinder. The second needle bed of a p
flat bar machine is placed at an angle to the first, and in the
case of v-bed machines, the two beds form an inverted V
shape.
In the case of purl machines, two needle beds are used.
They can be flat or circular and use special double hooked
needles. In the circular version of the purl machine, the
second set of needles is in the form of a second cylinder
positioned above the first.

Knitting single-jersey fabrics with latch

needles

Latch needles have an individual movement and slide up and

down in grooves which are cut in the cylinder or needle bed.
These grooves are called tricks. The sliding movement, up or
down of the needle, is controlled by cams which form a track
for the needle butt to follow. The stitch cam is adjustable, Upthrow
cam
which means the stitch length or the length of the yarn in
the knitted loop can be varied. Figure 13.15 shows a typical Figure 13.15 Knitting action of a latch needle
cam system and the sequence of actions that allow a loop to
circular machine.
be formed on a circular single-jersey machine.
 Weft knitting 147

As described earlier, the fabric must be held down while Loop formation of a 1 x 1 rib fabric
forming the knitted loop. On older machines, this was done
by pulling the fabric down (the take-down mechanism), but
most modern circular machines employ holding-down
sinkers or plain web sinkers and are referred to as sinker-top Rib fabrics are generally produced on v-bed or circular
machines. These machines have one needle for every wale in machines. In both cases, loop formation is effectively
the fabric and, between each needle there is a sinker, which the same, with v-bed machines having a front bed and a
has two functions: to hold the fabric loops in a given back bed, while circular machines have a cylinder and
position whenever the needle rises, and to provide a surface dial (or sometimes a superimposed cylinder, one
over which the needle draws the loop. positioned directly above the other).
Figure 13.16 shows the knitting action of a latch needle
machine employing sinkers. The principle of loop formation
is similar to that already described, but in this technique
sinkers are employed to aid loop formation. Two sets of needles are used to produce rib structures, and
In position (a), the sinker is in the forward position, with Figure 13.17 illustrates the knitting action and loop formation
the throat of the sinker holding down the fabric as the on a circular cylinder and dial machine.
needle starts to rise. At (b), the sinker is still forward as the Position (a) shows the needles at the start of loop formation,
needle reaches the clearing height, but then at (c) it begins to while at (b) adjacent needles have been moved to the clearing
move back and the needle descends to collect the new yarn, height. At (c) the needles start their return movement and take
while at (d), the old loop has closed the latch to trap the new the new yarn into the needle hook simultaneously. The
thread and knockover is taking place. The sinker then moves needles now come under the control of the stitch cam (d), as
forward (e) to hold down the fabric as the process starts to the new loop is drawn through the old loop, with the old
repeat itself. The movement of the sinkers is controlled by cylinder loop being knocked over. It can be seen that in
sinker cams. They are housed in a sinker ring and cap position (d) the dial needle has not completed its knock-
assembly, with the latter being'finely adjusted to ensure that over. This is known as delayed timing, which is very popular
the sinker timing is correct. The sinker timing is influenced in the production of rib fabrics, as the delay produces tighter
by the appearance of the knitted fabric. fabric due to robbing-back (this is where some yarn is taken

(0

Figure 13.16 Knitting action of latch needle and sinker machine.

148 Textiles

Dial

Cylinder

Figure 13.18 Needle arrangement for a 1 x 1 rib

fabric.

Purl knitting

Flat purl knitting uses two horizontal needle beds and

double-ended latch needles which may, according to the
selection and type of fabric being made, be transferred
from one bed to the other, knitting first on the hook at
one end and then on the hook at the other.

Figure 13.19 shows the knitting action of a flat bed purl

machine which has tricks in each of the needle beds. They
are in line with one another to enable the needles to transfer
from one bed to the other. Sliders positioned in each trick
control the double-ended latch needle movement. Position
(1) shows the needle knitting in the front bed under the
control of the shder in that bed. In position (2), the needle
has been moved to the centre, with both sliders engaging
the needle hook. The sliders then start to move back, but the
Figure 13.17 Loop formation of a 1 x 1 rib fabric
slider in the back bed is pressed down by a cam at point X, so
on a cylinder and dial circular machine.
that the front bed slider is freed from the needle hook and the
needle is transferred to the back bed.
from the previously knitted stitch to make the current stitch).
In position (3), the slider in the back bed has control of the
Position (e) shows knock-over complete. If both the cylinder
needle and it can be seen that the yarn is fed to the opposite
and dial needles knock-over together, to produce loops of
end of the needle, when compared to that of position (1).
equal size, it is known as synchronised timing and this could
Position (4) shows that the slider in the back bed has moved
be shown diagrammatically by omitting position (d) from
the needle to the knock-over position to complete the
Figure 13.17.
formation of the purl stitch. It should be noted that a purl
Figure 13.18 shows the needle arrangement for a 1 X 1 rib
stitch is made when a loop is formed by one hook and then
fabric.
 Weft knitting 149

Back bed
(1)

Front bed

Dial

Figure 13.19 Purl knitting.

at the next course by the other hook of the same needle, so that one course is formed on the front bed and the next course is formed
on the back bed to create a 1 x 1 purl structure.
The flat bar machine is also capable of producing rib structures, dependent on the slider set-out. Structures such as 1 X 1, 2 X
2 and 3 x 1 ribs can be made by ensuring that the same needles knock-over in the same direction as each course is knitted. The
machine is consequently very versatile.

Interlock knitting
 Interlock is a popular double-jersey structure produced on a cylinder and dial circular weft knitting machine.

Figure 13.20 shows the needle set-out on the machine, with long and short needles alternating on the cylinder. In the dial, the
needles are set out exactly opposite to those on the cylinder. This means that, as a result of the special arrangement of the
cams only one set of needles will knit at each feeder. To make this possible, there are two separate cam tracks with one controlling
the short needles and the other the long ones. At the first feeder only long needles will knit, and
Figure 13.20 Needle arrangement for interlock fabric.
150 Textiles

at the second feeder only short needles will knit so as to

STRAIGHT BAR (FULLY FASHIONED)
produce one actual course of interlock two feeders are
MACHINES
required. Figure 13.20 illustrates the interlock structure.

End-products of Machine gauge: normally 21—30 needles per 1.5 inch

weft knitted fabrics Machine width: from 2 to 16 section machines, each section
up to 36 inches wide
Needle type: bearded and latch
Weft knitted fabrics are used as apparel, household, industrial
Needle bed type: single and rib
and technical fabrics.
Products: jumpers, pullovers, cardigans, dresses,
suits, trouser suits, fully-fashioned hose,
underwear, sports shirts, thermal wear.

End-products of weft knitted fabrics

Knitted loop length control
FLAT BAR MACHINES
The control of loop length during knitting is of paramount
Machine gauge: 5-14 needles per inch (npi) importance. The need to control it precisely has led to
Machine width: up to 78.7 inches considerable research into its behaviour as well as the
Needle type: latch development of devices and instruments for its control.
Needle bed type: single, rib and interlock
Products: jumpers, pullovers, cardigans, dresses,
suits, trouser suits, trimmings, hats, The loop length is the fundamental unit of the weft
scarves, accessories, ribs for straight bar knitted structure; its length and shape determines the
machines (fully-fashioned machines). fabric dimensions, which in turn can be affected by the
yarn used and the finishing techniques employed, such
as heat-setting.
CIRCULAR MACHINES

Machine gauge: 5-40 npi Machine

width: up to 60 inches
Needle type: latch, bearded (on sinker wheel and loop
wheel), and some compound needle Loop length
machines
Needle bed type: single, rib, interlock and double cylinder A number of individual loop lengths form a course length,
Products: i hose machines: seam-free hose, tights, and this ultimately influences fabric dimensions and other
industrial use dye bags, knit-de-knit associated properties, such as fabric area density. Variations in
yarns, industrial fabrics ii half-hose course length within a fabric will result in a fabric fault known
machines: half-hose, stockings, children's as barre (bars appear across the fabric). To reduce or even
tights, sports socks iii garment blank remove course length variation, a number of yarn measuring
machines: underwear, t-shirts, jumpers, and control devices have been developed and, with the
pullovers, cardigans, dresses, suits, introduction of multi-feeder machines, it is even more
trouser suits, vests, briefs, thermal wear, important to control loop length.
cleaning cloths, industrial fabrics
iv fabric machines: rolls of fabric with the
following end-uses: jackets, tops, sports DETERMINATION OF COURSE LENGTH
and t-shirts, casual wear, suits, dresses,
swim-wear, bath robes, dressing Course length measurements can be obtained by removing a
gowns, track suits, jogging suits, number of courses from the knitted fabric, though this can be
furnishing upholstery, industrial and time consuming and only really serves as an indication of loop
technical fabrics, household fabrics. length after knitting. Determination of loop length at the start
of knitting and control during knitting are essential to fabric
quality. Two instrument types are available for use during
 Weft knitting 151

knitting: yarn length counters and yarn speed meters, which have up to four tiers of tapes on machines producing more
indicate how much yarn is being used by each feeder while the complex structures where course lengths vary at each feeder.
machine is operating. Tape feed units are generally suitable for structures having a
The yarn length counter is the simplest; it records the maximum of four different course lengths.
amount of yarn fed by a particular feeder for a given number Another type of yarn furnishing device is the storage
of revolutions, with the course length being obtained by feeder, which is similar to a weft accumulator in weaving.
dividing the reading by the number of knitting machine This device supplies yarn at uniform tension, rather than a
revolutions. The yarn speed meter can be hand-held. It constant rate of feed, by withdrawing yarn from a cone or
records the yarn feed rate in metres per minute and this package and winding onto a store. These units are motor
reading is divided by the number of knitting machine driven and wind yarn on to the store at the same time that it
revolutions per minute to obtain the course length. is being withdrawn, so that yarn and cone-to-cone tension
Other types of yarn speed meters exist. One such example variations are reduced. A store of yarn is created to reduce
gives a direct reading of the yarn speed in centimetres per the possibility of a fault being introduced into the fab ric if
second. the yarn breaks or runs off at the cone.
Storage feed units tend to be expensive and, as a result, a
number of other devices are available for the control of yarn
tension.
CONTROL OF COURSE LENGTH

Modern circular weft knitting machines are fitted with a

number of feeders, which at one time required individual Figure 13.21 Iro storage
stitch cam adjustment. The stitch cams caused the needles
to pull yarn from the supply package, and variations in
unwinding properties of supply yarns led to variations in
ioop length. Adjusting individual cams was not only time
consuming, it led to stitch-length variation between
individual feeds.

Positive feed devices were designed to eliminate the

problem of variations in unwinding properties and cam
setting by strictly controlling the rate and tension of the
supply yarn to the knitting elements.

All modern cylinder rotating, single- jersey machines are

fitted with positive yarn feed devices, which feed the yarn to
the needles at a constant rate to control the stitch length in the
fabric. The function of the stitch cam is in th is case reduced to
that of a yarn input tension device.
The tape positive-feed system proved to be cheap and
extremely effective. Each positive-feed wheel is driven by a
continuous tape via a single pulley from the main machine
drive. This ensures that yarn is fed at the same constant rate to
each feeder so that adjustments in the rate of feed to all
reeders are therefore easily and quickly made.
Consequently, only one feeder unit needs to be checked for
the correct yarn feed rate. If the diameter of the drive pulley
is increased the rate of feed will increase, resulting in a larger
stitch length.
Developments in positive-feed devices have resulted in
ultrapositive-feed units. These units have a small yarn store
in the form of a number of wraps of yarn around a wheel,
reducing the possibility of yarn slippage and variation in
tension from cone to cone at each feeder. It is possible to unit.
152 Textiles

Knitted fabric geometry (interlock is basically two l x l rib fabrics locked together). In
practice, then, only one feeder is analysed for interlock fabrics.
It is normal practice to weigh a 10 cm X 10 cm piece of fabric
There has been considerable research into the behaviour of
and multiply by 100 to arrive at the actual area density in the
single-jersey structures in different states of relaxation. These
correct units of grams per square metre. This is then
relaxation states include dry-relaxed, wet-relaxed and fully
compared to the calculated area density, and the percentage
relaxed. On the machine the fabric is under stress. After a
difference between the actual and calculated values should be
time off the machine the fabric dry-relaxes. Wet-relaxed
less than three per cent. A re-check of the variables would be
fabric has been soaked in water and the fully relaxed state is
necessary if the difference was found to be greater.
achieved by agitation during drying, which should give a
true relaxed state to all fabric types. The fundamental
principle of this work was to enable plain single-jersey fabric
parameters to be predicted prior to actual knitting. CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Knitting can be divided into two distinct sectors: weft

Tightness factor knitting and warp knitting.
The knitted loop is the fundamental unit of the weft
knitted structure. Courses are rows of loops across the fabric
width and wales are vertical columns of loops. Stitch length is
Tightness factor is the ratio of the area covered by the the length of yarn in the knitted loop.
yarn in one loop to the area occupied by that loop. There are basically four types of weft knitted fabric: plain
single-jersey; rib; purl; and interlock.
There are three types of weft knitted stitch: knit, miss and
The expression developed for the calculation of tightness tuck.
factor (K) is given below: There are three commonly used needles: latch, compound
and bearded. Weft knitting machines can be divided into three
main classes: straight bar, flat bar and circular. All three types
can have one or two needle beds.
where T = yarn linear density in tex £ = Control of loop length is vital in weft knitting because
stitch length in millimetres variations in course length cause barre fabric.
Tightness factor is the ratio of the area occupied by the yarn
For most plain fabrics, the mean tightness factor is in one loop to the area occupied by the loop. Weft knitted
between 1.4 and 1.5, although they can range between 1.2 fabrics have tightness factors within the range of 1.2 to 1.6.
and 1.6. Outside this range, fabrics are considered to be Fabric area density can be calculated or the actual fabric
unsuitable for clothing applications. area density determined by weighing a 10 cm xlO cm piece
of fabric and multiplying by 100 to get the standard units of
grams per square metre.
Fabric area density

The calculation of fabric area density is important in that it can REVISION EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS
be used as a guide to quality control procedures. In its simplest
form, fabric area density for plain single-jersey is as follows:
1 What are the differences between warp and weft knitting?
sxIxX 2 What is the simplest knitted structure?
-----------= g per square metre 3 How could the stitch density be calculated?
4 What does the term 'technical face' mean?
where s = stitch density (loops per square cm) £
5 Name two types of double-jersey fabric.
= stitch length in mm X = yarn linear 6 What is the difference between a tuck and a miss stitch?
density in tex 7 Which weft knitting machine uses two needle beds but
only one set of needles?
Calculations for 1 X 1 rib fabrics can be done in a similar 8 What is the difference in needle arrangement between rib
way to the above, but it must be remembered that the face and interlock machines?
wales of the rib need to be doubled because these conceal 9 How are loop length and course length related?
the alternate wales knitted on the back of the fabric. In the 10 Why must yarn tension be carefully controlled during weft
case of plain interlock, only the face of the fabric is analysed knitting?
and the results are doubled to arrive at the fabric area density
 Warp knitting

Introduction between 1950 and 1970 due to developments in yarns

available (synthetic continuous filaments), machine
developments in both knitting and yarn preparation, and
new fabric structures. After 1970, warp knitting declined
Warp knitting forms fabric by interlacing loops of yarn, with the reduction in sales of nylon shirts and sheets (due to
but vertically down the length of the fabric in contrast to their lack of comfort) which were the major products of warp
weft knitting. Each needle in the knitting width must be knitting at that time. Textured polyester weft knitted fabrics
fed by at least one yarn and in line with the direction of started a boom period at the same time, contributing toward
fabric production. It is the fastest method of fabric this decline. The inability of warp knitting machines to
production using mainly continuous filament yarns. successfully process natural staple-fibre yarns, such as cotton
and polyester/cotton, led to a fashion swing towards woven
polyester/cotton fabrics for sheeting and shirting.
Warp knitting machines were invented in 1775, some 200 Gradually staple fibre yarns and needles capable of
years after the first weft knitting machines. Man-made successfully knitting them have been developed for use in
continuous filament yarns enabled bulk production of the warp knitted structures, although warp knitting of 100 per
simplest warp knitted fabrics after the first World War. There cent cotton yarns has only recently become commercially
was phenomenal growth in the warp knitting industry feasible. Warp knitting has also expanded into geotextiles and
lace fabrics.

Warp knitted fabric properties

Warp knitted fabrics can be designed to exhibit a dimensional
stability equal to that of a woven fabric or with elasticity
comparable with that of weft knitted fabrics, while open
work structures and designs can also be produced. It is
possible to use an extremely wide range of yarns in various
counts but continuous filament yarns are the most popular,
particularly on Tricot - the simplest machines. Although
single guide bar fabrics can be made, in which only one set
of yarns is used, the fabric has a poor cover and is very
unstable. Two bar machines (using two sets of yarns) are used
for producing basic and simple fabric constructions for
lingerie, or more rigid fabrics for shirting, fitted sheets and
pillow cases. Raised loop fabrics are produced for nightwear,
Wale outer wear, upholstery and bedsheets, and plain and fancy net
and mesh fabrics are made for curtains.
Figure 14.1 Single bar warp knitted fabric.

153
 154 Textiles

Types of machine up to 78 guide bars and they are capable of processing both
staple fibre and continuous filament yarns for furnishing,
industrial and jacquard fabrics.
Two types or classes of machines are used for the Figures 14.2 and 14.3 show sections through a Tricot
machine and a Raschel machine respectively. They clearly
production of warp knitted fabrics: Tricot and Raschel.
show some basic design differences, in terms of the relative
position of the warp beams, the number of guide bars used
and the angle at which the fabric is taken up from the needles.
Table 14.1 gives a simple classification of warp knitting
machinery, indicating the types of needles used and giving Fabric structure
examples of products that can be produced.
There are a number of fundamental design differences
between Tricot and Raschel machines. Tricot machines use
To form warp knitted fabrics, each needle is supplied
both bearded and compound needles, with the latter
with a yarn. All needles knit at the same time,
becoming extremely popular since its shorter and smoother
producing a complete course at once.
needle movement has enabled increased production speeds
to be achieved. Usually two guide bars are used on Tricot
machines, though up to five guide bars are possible. They are Warp knitting machines have straight needle bed(s) and can
used for the production of apparel and household fabrics, produce flat fabric on a single bed and a tubular fabric on a
particularly when bearded needles are used to process double bed machine. Yarn is supplied to the needles by a
continuous filament yarns. warp beam. From the beam, each yarn is threaded through
Raschel machines use latch and compound needles and are the eye of a guide bar and the guide bar movement wraps the
usually coarser in gauge than Tricot machines (gauge refers to yarns around the needle to form the stitch. All needles operate
the number of needles per inch). Raschel machines can have at the same time, moving up and down to interlace the loops.

Table 14.1 Classification of warp knitting machinery

Tricot machines (bearded, needle)

Single needle bar Double needle bar

2-5 bars weft insertion cut presser pile 3-4 bars gloves
lingerie 2-3 bars blouses oed men lingerie
shirts bed linen curtains bath robes
dresses curtains dresses gowns
lining

Raschel machines (latch/needle) Single needle bar Double needle bar

Standard Raschel weft insertion lace face-to-face plush cords special version 2-
9 bars 1-10 bars 12-48 bars (jacquard) trim bandages split film high
speed curtains (fall-plate) 6-7 bars 4-8 bars fruit and industrial
curtain lace vegetable bags furnishings foundation garments
jacquard lace special version high pile up to 78 bars up to 18 bars
fabric 6 bar (fall-plate) (fall-plate) electronically weft insertion controlled curtains jacquard lace
 Warp 155
knitting

Figure 14.2 Two guide-bar Tricot machine.

Figure 14.3 Four guide-bar Raschel machine.

The structure of a warp knitted fabric is dependent upon

several factors. The number of guide bars used determines The overlap is a lateral movement of the guide bar on
the number of separately controlled sets of yarns, with each the beard or hook side of the needle, and it usually
guide bar feeding a set of yarn to the needles. The order of extends over one needle space only. The underlap is
threading or sequence in which the warp threads are passed the lateral movement of the guide bar on the side of
through the eyes of the guides alters the structure. It should the needle remote from the beard or the hook, and the
be noted that if two or more guide bars are used it is not extent of this movement is only limited by mechanical
essential to provide each guide in each bar with a warp considerations.
thread, but the arrangement must be such that each needle in
the knitting width receives at least one warp thread at each
course.
The lateral or lapping movement of the guide bars which
wraps yarn around the needles also affects the structure. These Pattern chains
movements are controlled from either interchangeable pattern
wheels or from pattern chains consisting of varying heights of Figure 14.4 shows the pattern chain links which have been
links which can be built up to give the required guide bar accurately ground to provide a smooth and accurately timed
movements (see Figure 14.4). sideways movement, known as a shog, to produce overlap and
The type and linear density of the yams used will determine underlap movements of the guide bar. The diagram shows the
factors such as area density. Special mechanisms are available four different types of link available to produce the shog: A
for producing held stitches, tuck stitches and figured fabrics, straight; B - leading; C - trailing; D - leading and trailing.
raised effects and full-width weft insertion, with the latter They also have numbers: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on, relating to
providing a means of creating fabric stability in the width the height of the links. Each successive link number will
direction. move the guide bar needle one space further than the
There arc two basic terms used in warp knitting to describe previous number.
the sideways or lapping movement of the guide bars. These are A pattern chain is built up of differing links with three links
overlap and underlap. being required for each course of the structure being
156 Textiles

One full repeat for 1-0/1-2 notation

Figure 14.4 Pattern chain links.

produced. Two links will produce the overlap with a third link,
known as an intermediate link, being added on most Tricot
machines to allow time for the underlap to take place.

Loop formation
Knitting action - bearded needle Tricot
machine

Figure 14.5 shows the position of the knitting elements of a

Tricot warp knitting machine, while Figures 14.6 and 14.7
illustrate a sinker unit and a guide-bar unit respectively. The
actual knitting cycle is shown in Figure 14.8.
In Figure 14.8, position (a) shows that the needle bar has
risen to the centre of its vertical path. The fabric is held in
the throat of the sinker to stop it rising with the needle and
Figure 14.5 Knitting elements of a Tricot machine.
the guide bars will already have moved left or right one or
more needle spaces for the first movement, which is known
as the underlap.
At position (b) the guides have swung between the needles
towards the back of the machine and stopped on the beard
side. At this point the guides make a sideways movement of
one needle space. This is called the overlap. These laps may
be in the same or opposite direction for each guide bar,
depending on the structure being produced. The guides
then swing back to the front of the machine (c), with the
overlap having wrapped a thread around the needle. This
overlap thread usually stops on the beard.
The second rise of the needle takes place, which is sufficient
to allow the thread to fall off the beard and onto the stem of
Figure 14.6 Warp knitting sinker unit.
 Warp 157
knitting

Figure 14.7 Warp knitting guide unit.

Individual guides

the needle (d) before it descends (e) until the tip of the needle
is just underneath the top of the sinker. The presser then
comes forward to close the beard.
At (f) the sinker moves backwards and, by its camming
action, raises the old loop on the needle stem, onto the
closed beard. The presser then moves back and the needle
descends towards knock-over, which occurs at (g), when the
old loop is thrown over the top of the needle and the new loop
is pulled through the old loop. Finally, the sinker moves
forwards to hold the fabric down and the guide bars are
repositioned ready for the next course (the underlap).

Knitting action - latch needle Raschel machine

Figure 14.9 shows the main elements involved in the loop

formation ot a Raschel warp knitting machine and illustrates
the sequence of events in one machine cycle. The guide bars
Figure 14.8 Knitting action of a bearded needle Tricot machine.
158 Textiles

are at the front of the machine after completing their underlap

at (a), with the web holders being forward to hold the fabric
down as the needle bar starts to rise from knock-over.
At (b) the needle bar has risen to its full height and the old
loop has slipped down the stem after opening the latches,
which are prevented from closing by the latch guard. The
web holders can then start to withdraw and allow the guide
bars to form the overlap.
The guide bars have swung to the back of the machine (c)
and will then move one needle space sideways to form the
overlap before swinging back to the front of the machine (d),
so that the warp threads can be laid into the needle hooks. The
needle bar then descends (e) and the old loops contact and
close the latches, so trapping the new loops inside. The web
holders start to move forwards and, as the needle bar has
continued its descent, its head has passed below the surface
of the trick plate (f). This allows the new loops to be drawn
through the old loops, which are cast off and, as the web
holders advance over the trick plate, the underlap movement
starts again.

Knitting action - compound needle Raschel

machine

Figure 14.10 shows the various stages in loop formation for a

compound needle warp knitting machine.
At (a) the needles are at the knock-over position after
completion of the previous course, with the web holders
positioned between the needles to hold the fabric down.
The needles have risen to the full height at (b), with the
closing element having risen to a lesser extent, to allow the
hook to open. The guide then swings between the needles
towards the back of the machine for the start of the overlap
(c), before making their sideways shog and swinging back to
the front of the machine to complete the overlap (d). The web
holders then begin to withdraw and the needle descends (e).
This closes the element which descends at a slower rate to
close the hook and trap the newly wrapped yarn. The guides
then shog sideways to reposition themselves in front of the
needle space ready for the start of the next course, and the
underlap is completed.
At (f) the needle has descended to the knock-over position
and a new course of loops has been produced.

Warp knitted fabric structures

Figure 14.9 Knitting action of a latch needle To produce warp knitted fabric, the wales must be connected
Raschel machine. to each other. These connections are produced by traversing
the guide bars between overlaps so that the threads wrap
around different needles at different courses. These
movements (underlaps) determine, by their direction and
 Warp knitting 159

Figure 14.10 Knitting action of a compound needle Raschel machine.

<ize, the structure of the fabric, and since it is the underlaps example, Look at Figure 14.11, part (g). The first overlap was
rhat decide the structure of the fabric some form of notation caused when the guide bar moved from space 1 to space 2,
must be used to record the movement of the guides. which would be noted 1-2. The second overlap was caused
when the guide bar moved from space 1 to space 0, noted
1-0. The underlap is noted by a solidus /, so the underlap was
Notation caused when the guide bar moved from space 2 to space 1,
noted 2/1, then from space 0 to space 1, noted 0/1. The full
chain pattern notation for (g) would therefore be 1-2/1-0/1-2/
The movement is plotted on point paper, where each dot
1-0, repeating to form the structure. Usually only one repeat of
represents a needle in the needle bar, and each row of dots
the pattern is given, 1-2/1-0.
represents a course, reading successive courses upwards on
As was mentioned earlier, the pattern chain is formed from
the paper, from bottom to top, and with the needle spaces
individual links, two forming the overlap. A third
being numbered from right to left.
intermediate link on Tricot machines allows time for the
underlap. For example, for a two-course repeat 1-0/1-2
notation, the links used for the pattern chain for one full
Pattern chain notation repeat would be as shown in Figure 14.12.
This would produce a smooth movement and would be
In addition to the notation for the fabric structure shown in repeated until all the links have been included to fill the
Figure 14.11, notation is also used for the pattern chain. pattern drum, which normally requires 48 links in total. With
The overlap movements are indicated by a dash, with the three links per course, 16 courses will therefore be required for
spaces that the guide bar has moved from and to. For one revolution of the drum.
160 Textiles

Figure 14.11 Warp knit notation.

Lapping movements

Figure 14.13 shows the lapping movement over the same

needles but in opposite directions. This produces what is
known as closed and open laps.

Figure 14.12 Links used for pattern chain.

Figure 14.13 Open and closed laps.

 Warp knitting 161

Back guide bar

An open lap is produced when the underlap is made in
the same direction as the preceding overlap and a closed
lap is formed when the underlap is made in the opposite
direction to the preceding overlap. An open pillar
stitch (or chain stitch) is produced when only overlaps
are made, so that it is an open lap stitch. Miss-lapping
occurs when neither overlaps nor underlaps are made,
while laying-in has no overlaps, only underlaps.

Miss-lapping and laying-in are made by the back guide bar

and overlaps from the front guide bar are required to secure
them into the structure.
The notation for this miss-lapping motion is 1-1 1-1, since
there are neither overlaps nor underlaps. The notation for
laying-in would be 0-0 3-3, as again there are no overlaps,
but underlaps (underlaps being 0/3, 3/0).
When two or more guide bars are used, it is customary to
show the guide bar movement separately. In Figure 14.15, for
example, locknit is made on two bar machines. The front bar
laps 1-0/2-3 and the back bar laps 1-2/1-0, as shown below.
Figure 14.16 illustrates the lapping notations for some basic,
warp knitted, two guide bar structures. Variation in the
construction ot a warp knitted fabric allows the properties to
be modified, with more elastic structures such as locknit
being used for lingerie, while queenscord or sharkskin are
used for shirts or blouses because they are more rigid.

Figure 14.14 Pillar stitch, miss-lapping and

laying-in.

4 3 2 10
Front bar

Front guide bar

Figure 14.15 Locknit.
Figure 14.16 Two guide-bar warp knit structures.
162 Textiles

Properties of two guide- Locknit

bar structures
This is the most popular two-bar structure. The longer
Basic rules underlaps of the front guide bar plate on the technical back
of the fabric, as illustrated in Figure 14.18, improve fabric
extensibility, cover and handle, so that the structure is ideal
The following basic rules apply in the production of two
for use as a lingerie or intimate apparel fabric.
guide-bar warp knitted structures.
1. When the guides swing through the needles to commence
their overlap, the back guide bar will be the first to lay its
underlap on the technical back and the front bar must be
last so that its underlaps will be on top on the back of the
fabric.
2. The front guide-bar thread will be the first to strike the
needle on its return swing following the overlap and it will
occupy a lower position on the needle, so that it will be
prominent on the technical face of the fabric.
3. When the two guide bars underlap in opposite directions
they will tend to balance the tension at the needle head and
produce a more rigid upright overlap stitch.
4. When the front guide bar makes a shorter underlap it will Figure 14.18 Locknit.
tie the longer underlaps of the back guide bar securely into
the rigid structure. Reverse locknit

Full tricot This is not as popular as locknit. The shorter underlaps on the
front guide bar reduce fabric extensibility and shrinkage in the
finished width.
Tricot is the simplest two-bar structure (Figure 14.17). The two
underlaps balance each other exactly as they cross diagonally
between each wale producing upright overlaps. The structure
tends to have poor cover and is prone to splitting between the
Sharkskin
wales during stentering or button-holing.
The increased back guide-bar underlap of three needle spaces
produces a more rigid and heavier fabric that is suitable for
printed fabric products.

Figure 14.17 Full tricot.

Figure 14.19 Sharkskin.
 Warp knitting 163

Queenscord Raschel machines

This structure has even more rigidity than sharkskin because Type ot needle: latch or compound
of the pillar stitch produced by the front guide bar. This traps Machine gauge: from 6 to 32 needles per inch
the back bar underlaps tightly to give minimal shrinkage. Machine width: 75 to 230 inches
Machine speed: 500 to 2500 courses per minute
No. needle bars: one or two
No. guide bars: from 2 to 78.
Products: marquisettes, curtains, foundation gar-
ments, nets, fishing nets, sport nets,
technical fabrics, industrial fabrics, curtain
lace, power nets, tablecloths, bed covers,
elastic bandages, upholstery, underwear,
drapes, geotextile fabrics.

Figure 14.20
Queenscord.

Satin CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Large underlaps In warp knitting, loops of yarn are interlaced vertically

are produced by the front guide bar, giving the structure down the length of the fabric. Each needle in the knitting
greater elasticity than locknit.When the fabric is produced width must be fed with at least one yarn at every course.
using a lustrous continuous-filament yarn in the front bar, Continuous filament yarns are mainly used on Tricot
the fabric has a high sheen. machines. It is the fastest method of fabric production.
Tricot machines are the simplest, usually using only two
guide bars. They use both bearded and compound needles.
Raschel machines can have up to 78 guide bars, they are
usually a coarser gauge and use both latch and compound
End-products of needles. These machines are capable of producing complex
warp knitted fabrics structures.
Beams of yarn supply guide bars which move laterally and
Tricot machines swing backwards and forwards between needles in order to
wrap yarn around the needle to form loops. All needles on a
warp knitting machine operate simultaneously, moving up
Type of needle: compound or bearded
and down to interlace the loops.
Machine gauge: from 18 to 40 needles per inch
Overlap is the sideways movement of the guide bar on the
Machine width: 84 to 210 inches
hook side of the needle, usually moving one needle space only.
Machine speed: 1000 to 3500 courses per minute
Underlap is the sideways movement of the guide bar on the
No. needle bars: one or two
opposite side of the needle and can extend over several
No. guide bars: two to five
needle spaces.
Products: lingerie, shirts, outer wear, leisure wear,
Pattern chains control the sideways movement, or shog, of
sportswear, car seat covers, upholstery,
the guide bars.
industrial fabrics, technical fabrics, bed
Closed laps have overlaps followed by underlaps in the
linen, nets, towelling, linings and
opposite direction. Open laps have overlaps and either
footwear fabrics.
underlaps in the same direction, or no underlaps at all.
Laying-in has underlaps, but no overlaps; miss-lapping has
neither underlaps nor overlaps.
The relative timing between front and back guide bars in
two guide-bar structures is such that on the technical back, the
underlaps of the front guide bar show; on the technical face,
the front guide bar overlaps are predominant.
16 4 Textiles

5 XVhlch
REVISION EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS P°Pulaf ™° guide-bar structure would you use if
maximum rigidity was the priority? 6 What is the
most popular two guide-bar structure and
1 Why was there a decline in warp knitting after 1970? what is its major end-product?
2 How has the warp knitting industry reacted to this 7 When would miss-lapping and laying-in be used in warp
decline? knitted fabrics?
3 With more than one guide bar, it is not necessary to
provide each guide in each bar with a warp yarn. What is
essential for the production of a fabric?
4 What would be the chain notation for the following
structure?