A

Psychobiological Model of Temperament

and Character
C. Robert

Cloninger, MD; Dragan M. Svrakic, MD, PhD;

In

Thomas R.

Przybeck,

PhD

study, we describe a psychobiological model of the structure and development of

personality that accounts for dimensions of both temperament and character. Previous research has confirmed four dimensions of temperament: novelty seeking, harm avoidance,
reward dependence, and persistence, which are independently heritable, manifest early in
life, and involve preconceptual biases in perceptual memory and habit formation. For the first time,
we describe three dimensions of character that mature in adulthood and influence personal and
social effectiveness by insight learning about self-concepts. Self-concepts vary according to the extent
to which a person identifies the self as (1) an autonomous individual, (2) an integral part of humanity, and (3) an integral part of the universe as a whole. Each aspect of self-concept corresponds
this

of three character dimensions called self-directedness, cooperativeness, and selftranscendence, respectively. We also describe the conceptual background and development of a
self-report measure of these dimensions, the Temperament and Character Inventory. Data on 300
individuals from the general population support the reliability and structure of these seven personality dimensions. We discuss the implications for studies of information processing, inheritance,
(Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1993;50:975-990)
development, diagnosis, and treatment.
to one

Several lines of research are converging to

facilitate the integration of categorical and
dimensional methods for diagnosing per
sonality disorder. First, explicit diagnostic
criteria were developed to define tradi
tional categories of personality disorders,1
and structured interviews were developed
that make such diagnoses reliably.23 Sec
ond, self-report scales for rating quantita
tive dimensions of personality were devel
oped using factor analysis of traits observed
in individuals with personality disor
ders4"6 or in the general population'^; these
were shown to be reliable and to correlate
highly with one another.310 Third, selfreported dimensional measures were shown
to explain much of the reliable variance in
interview diagnoses of personality disor
ders11 and to agree closely with indepenFrom the Department
St Louis, Mo.

of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine,

dent reports of spouses and other collat

eral informants.10
Despite this progress in assessment
methods, no consensus has been reached
on the number or content of the dimen
sions needed to describe personality dis

order.51213 Five factors, plus or minus two,

for most variation in personality

between individuals in the general popu
lation.1213 When observer-rated or selfreported behavior is factor analyzed, two
factors like neuroticism (vs stability) and
account

extraversion

(vs introversion)

are

consis

tently described. There is less consistency

in the content of the third factor; Eysenck
and Eysenck7 described tough-mindedness;

Tellegen,9 constraint; and Costa and McCrae,10

openness to experience. In a popular fivefactor model, two additional factors are con

scientiousness and agreeableness, but the

optimal rotation and content of alternative
five-factor models remain subjects of active-

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debate.1014 Furthermore, the fivefactor model does not capture some

domains of personality relevant to per

sonality disorders, such as indi
vidual autonomy, traditional moral
values, and other aspects of matu
rity and self-actualization described
in humanistic and transpersonal psy

chology.13 Studies of natural lan

provide evidence of seven di
mensions of personality, including two
self-evaluative dimensions for good
and bad self-concepts that are

guage

labeled positive and negative

valence.12

roticism

measures

frequent in in

dividuals with personality disor

der,11 but are not diagnostically spe
cific; many psychiatric patients
without personality disorder also have
high neuroticism scores and some in
dividuals with high neuroticism scores
have no psychiatric disorder.13 Ac

cordingly,

the use of the five-factor

model for clinical diagnosis has been
criticized in part because the con
tent of its individual factors is clini

cally heterogeneous.12
In

addition, the content of fac

defined by factor analysis of in

dividual case descriptions is also etiologically heterogeneous. Gray1617 used
observations about the effects of antors

the number of
measured factors increases in avail
able instruments, the cumulative pro
portion of shared variance is likely
to increase between alternative mod
els. In other words, what is left out
of one model can be added until a
comprehensive set is accumulated.
However, factor analysis of indi
vidual case descriptions can only de
termine the minimum number of
measured dimensions, and cannot de
compose their underlying causal struc
ture. Extrastatistical information is
needed to specify the structure of the
underlying biologic and social vari
ability in personality traits. In other
words, descriptive data about indi
vidual behavior are not sufficient to per
mit any strong preference among al
ternative ways of summarizing
personality traits. Advocates of a par
ticular model derived by factor analy
sis must ultimately base their pref
erence on authority or tradition if they
eschew external etiologic criteria.8 An
example of utmost importance in the
assessment of personality disorder is
the content of the factor called neuroticism. According to the authors of
a popular five-factor inventory, neu-

Nevertheless,

neuroticism scores are

as

adjustment com

pared with emotional instability and

identifies individuals who are prone
to psychological distress, unrealistic
ideas, excessive cravings or urges, and

maladaptive coping responses.15 ft is

a clinically heterogeneous compos
ite of anxiety, hostility, depression,
self-consciousness, impulsiveness, and
general emotional vulnerability. High

tianxiety drugs on personality to ar

gue that the behavioral factors of

neuroticism and extraversionintroversion do not correspond to their

underlying biologic variation. He

showed that drugs that reduce scores

of neuroticism, such as
benzodiazepines, also
consistently reduce scores on mea
sures of introversion, suggesting that
these dimensions are not etiologically independent, but rather share
biological determinants. Likewise,
Cloninger1819 showed that the phenotypic structure of personality may
differ from the underlying biogenetic structure because the observed
behavioral variation is the result of
the interaction of genetic and envi
ronmental influences. For example,
extraversion and tough-mindedness
are composed of elements that are
genetically independent but share
common environmental factors.20"22
Such experimental information on
etiologic factors helps to choose
among an infinite set of alternative
models of personality structure.
To test hypotheses about the
causal structure of personality, a gen
eral psychobiological model of per
sonality was developed and de
scribed by Cloninger18 in two stages.
The model was initially based on a
synthesis of information from twin
and family studies, studies of longi
tudinal development, neuropharmacologic and neurobehavioral studies
on measures

alcohol and

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of learning in humans and other ani

mals, as well as psychometric stud
ies of personality in individuals and
in twin pairs.18 The original model
described three dimensions of per
sonality that were postulated to be
genetically independent of one an
other. The dimensions were called nov
elty seeking, harm avoidance, and re
ward dependence, and were measured
with a 100-item self-report inventory
called the Trimensional Personality

Questionnaire (TPQ).23 Recently the

model was extended to measure seven

dimensions of personality with the
addition of measures of persistence, selfdirectedness, cooperativeness, and
self-transcendence. This extension is
based on a synthesis of information
about social and cognitive develop
ment and descriptions of personality
development in humanistic and
transpersonal psychology. This sevenfactor model supersedes models with
fewer factors and is formulated to al
low differential diagnosis of personal
ity disorder subtypes from one an
other and from other psychiatric
disorders.
The model was extended to be
more comprehensive and to im
prove the diagnosis of personality dis
order. We observed that the original
three dimensions distinguished among
subtypes of personality disorders, but
did not consistently differentiate in
dividuals with personality disorders
or poor social adjustment from other
well-adapted individuals with ex
treme personality profiles.24 Further
more, coverage of the personality
domain was incomplete with a threedimensional model: some DSMlll-R personality disorders such as
paranoid and schizotypal personal
ity had been neglected, and some per
sonality factors measured in other di
mensional models could not be
explained by the TPQ. In a compan
ion article25 we show that the pres
ence of an interview diagnosis of per
sonality disorder by DSM-U1-R criteria
is consistently predicted by low scores
on two personality dimensions: selfdirectedness and cooperativeness. De
pending on these scores, the risk of

personality disorder in a clinical

sample varied from 11% to 94%, so
that the relationship to diagnosis is

In other words, con

scious memories are concept-based
whereas unconscious memories are

personality disorder categories.

Next, we briefly summarize the
development of the model and then

tex

strong. In addition, the other five di

mensions permit differential subtyping of all the individual DSM-III-R

describe the structure and content of

the factors to inform clinicians about
their practical clinical use. Sample

questions

are

provided.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Development of the
Psychobiological Model
Personality has been defined as "the
dynamic organization within the in
dividual of those psychophysical sys

tems that determine his unique ad

justments to his environment."26
Learning has been likewise defined
as "the organization of behavior as a

result of individual experience."27

Therefore, differences between indi
viduals in the adaptive systems in

volved in the reception, processing,

and storing of information about ex
perience define personality in gen
eral. Two types of memory systems
have been distinguished in pri

mates.28"30 Conscious experiences are

represented as words, images, or sym

bols about facts and events that have
explicit meanings and functional re
lations with one another that we can
consciously retrieve, declare ver
bally, and act on intentionally. In con
trast, unconscious, implicit, or pro
cedural memories involve presemantic
perceptual processing that encodes
concrete visuospatial structural in
formation and affective valence; such
perceptual processing can operate in
dependent of abstract conceptual, in
tentional,

declarative pro
example, individuals
with amnesia who cannot recognize
or recall prior exposure to particular
pairs of words may have longlasting affective responses and im
provement of their ability to com
plete the word from partial letter
or

cesses.3132 For

fragments.33"33

percept-driven.
Hippocampal processing and
long-term storage in association cor

appear to be essential for con

solidation of explicit memories that
can be intentionally retrieved; in con

hippocampal processing is not

required for retention of implicit
memories that are unintentionally re
trast

trieved without any conscious recall

of the original experiential events.313236
Lesion studies in humans and other
primates show that conceptual in
formation is processed and stored in
a cortico-limbo-diencephalic system
that includes the higher order sen
sory areas of the cortex, the entorhinal cortex, the amygdala, hippocam
pal formation, the medial thalamic
nuclei, ventromedial prefrontal cor
tex, and the basal forebrain. In con
trast, perceptual memories underly
ing unconscious habits are stored in
a cortico-striatal system, which in
cludes the sensory cortical areas, and
the caudate and putamen.2830 An ex

of the anatomical separation

of these two memory systems is that
monkeys with combined amygdalohippocampal removal show severe im
pairments in conceptual memory tasks
(such as visual recognition) after de
lays of only a minute, but they learn
perceptual memory tasks (such as
concurrent visual discrimination
habits) as quickly as normal
animals.2837
Associative learning, such as op
rant conditioning of habits and af
fective responses, requires direct per
ceptual experience of the events but
does not involve conscious recall or
recognition of the contingencies that
modify behavior.16 In contrast, con
ceptual learning is conscious and ab
stractly symbolic, as is verbal learn

ample

ing in which symbolic communication

can alter expectancies about the en
vironment and behavior.38
Prior personality models failed

distinguish

between distinct as
of
pects memory because they were
derived by factor analysis of behavto

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consideration of its un
and social deter
minants. In this psychobiological
model, four dimensions of person
ality involve automatic, preconceptual responses to perceptual stimuli,
presumably reflecting heritable bi
ases in information processing by the
perceptual memory system. These four
dimensions will be referred to as tem
perament factors, in contrast to the
three factors that appear to be conceptbased. The three personality factors
based on differences in selfconcepts will be denoted as charac
ter dimensions.
The temperament dimensions
were defined in terms of individual
differences in associative learning in
response to novelty, danger or pun
ishment, and reward. They have been
described previously in detail.18 One

ior,

not

by

derlying biologic

temperament factor, novelty

is viewed
activation

seeking,

heritable bias in the

initiation of behaviors

as a
or

such as frequent exploratory activity

in response to novelty, impulsive de
cision making, extravagance in ap
proach to cues of reward, and quick
loss of temper and active avoidance
of frustration. A second tempera
ment factor, harm avoidance, is viewed
as a heritable bias in the inhibition
or cessation of behaviors, such as pes
simistic worry in anticipation of fu
ture problems, passive avoidant be
haviors such as fear of uncertainty
and shyness of strangers, and rapid
fatigability. The third temperament
factor, reward dependence, is viewed
as a heritable bias in the mainte
nance or continuation of ongoing
behaviors, and is manifest as senti
mentality, social attachment, and
dependence on approval of others.
Differences between individuals
based on these dimensions are observ
able in early childhood and are mod
erately predictive of adolescent and
adult behavior.39 Accordingly, these
aspects of personality denote traits that
are usually considered temperament
factors because they are heritable, mani
fest early in life, and apparently in
volve preconceptual or unconscious
biases in learning.

of temperament
inferred largely
from genetic studies of personality
in humans and neurobiological
studies of the functional organiza
tion of brain networks regulating
classic and oprant learning re
sponses of rodents to simple ap
petitive or aversive stimuli.184041
As is typical of complex systems
that are usually hierarchical and
decomposable into stable sub
systems that evolved sequentially,42
ethologic studies also suggested
that the phylogeny of tempera
ment began with a behavioral in
hibition (harm avoidance) system
in all animals, next added an acti
vation (novelty seeking) system in
more advanced animals, and then
added subsystems for behavioral
The

structure

in this model

was

maintenance (reward dependence)

in reptiles and later
Normative studies using the

phyla.43

a self-report inventory mea

suring the three dimensions of tem

TPQ,

perament described here, con

firmed the proposed structure of
temperament with the exception that
persistence emerged as a distinct fourth
dimension.222344 Persistence, origi
nally thought to be a component of
reward dependence, was measured
in terms of perseverance despite frus
tration and

fatigue; it was uncorre-

lated with other aspects of reward de

pendence (sentimentality, social
attachment, and dependence on ap

proval). A large-scale twin study con

firmed that each of these four

perament factors had

tem

heritability

between 50% and 65% and was ge

netically homogeneous and indepen
dent of the others.22 In contrast, per
sonality factors derived by factor
analysis, such as neuroticism and ex
traversion, are composites of etiologically heterogeneous items, with
heritable variation in at least two di
mensions besides the four TPQ tem
perament dimensions. In other words,
there are more than five heritable di
mensions of personality.22
Ethological studies also sug
gested that conceptual or insightbased learning evolved after the pre-

conceptual learning biases involved

temperament.43 Hence we extend

our theory of personality to allow
for the development of conceptin

based character traits. Character

development is defined here in
terms of insight learning or reorga
nization of self-concepts. Insight
involves the conceptual organiza
tion of perception and is defined
as the apprehension of relation
ships. Insight learning involves the
development of a new adaptive
response as a result of a sudden
conceptual reorganization of
experience.2743 In human beings,
insight learning includes verbal
learning, the acquisition of learn
ing sets or how to learn, and ab
stract conceptualization that influ
ences behavioral goals and

expectancies.
Human
convert some

beings
sensory

process

or

inputs (ie,

percepts) into abstract symbols (ie,

concepts). Consequently in human
beings, stimulus-response charac
teristics depend on the conceptual
significance and salience of per

ceived stimuli.38 Hence character

may be described in terms of the
response biases related to different
concepts of the self, ie, who and

what we are, and why we are

here. Our unconscious automatic
responses to initiate, maintain, or
stop behavior are initially deter
mined by temperament factors,
but these can be modified and
conditioned as a result of changes
in the significance and salience of
stimuli that are determined by our
concept of our identity. From this

perspective, personality develop

ment is seen as an iterative epige-

netic process in which heritable

temperament factors initially moti

of selfin
turn
which
concepts,
modify
the significance and salience of
perceived stimuli to which the
person responds. In this way, both
temperament and character devel
opment influence one another and
motivate behavior.
Three aspects of the developvate

insight learning

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of self-concepts (ie, characterological response sets) are distin

guished according to the extent to

ment

which

person identifies the self as

(1) an autonomous individual, (2) an

integral part of humanity or society,

or (3) an integral part of the unity of
all things (ie, the universe, which de
notes everything turned into one in
terdependent whole). Each aspect of
self-concept corresponds to one of
three character dimensions that we
call (1) self-directedness, (2) coop
erativeness, and (3) self-transcen

dence, respectively.

Empirical

Dimensions

of Character

After the genetic structure of the four

temperament dimensions was con
firmed, other studies were carried out
to identify aspects of self-reported or
observer-rated personality that are not
correlated with temperament as mea
sured by the TPQ. First, in factoranalytic research on personality in 11year-old children, a factor defined by
adjustment problems was found to
be largely uncorrelated with novelty
seeking, harm avoidance, and re
ward dependence.2439 Observations
were based on behavioral adjust
ment ratings obtained in clinical in
terviews of the children's teachers. The
adjustment problem factor was la
beled "unpopularity" because it was
highly correlated with frequent peer
conflicts (re.75), being unpopular
(r=.70), and bullying or being bul
lied (r=.64). The temperament and
popularity factors were uncorre
lated with intelligence and aca
demic achievement.
In studies of self-reported per
sonality by adults, we observed that
various measures of social coopera
tion and compassion were not well
explained by the TPQ. Specifically,
the temperament factors of the TPQ
were largely uncorrelated with some
measures of social cooperation, such
as the agreeability scale of the Neu-

roticism-Extraversion-Openness per
the aggression

sonality inventory,46

scale of the Multidimensional Per-

sonality Questionnaire (MPQ),18-47 and

the hostility scale of the Profile of
Mood States.48

Furthermore, measures of indi

vidual self-acceptance and esteem were
not well explained by the TPQ. This
included the alienation scale of the
MPQ, in which individuals view them
selves as victims of other people and
circumstances.1847 It also includes the
repression factor of the Minnesota

Multiphasic Psychological

Inven
in
which
individuals
have
dif
tory,

ficulty admitting to faults about them

selves.49 Acceptance of individual

responsibility, positive self-regard, and

leadership have been found to be cor
related with the ability to endorse un
flattering statements about self in other
work.50

Finally, absorption

in the

MPQ

is also not well correlated

with any
or
factors
with
of
TPQ
any the three
order
dimensions
of the
higher
The
scale
has
MPQ.1847
absorption
been associated with differential re-

sponsivity to hypnosis, meditation,

biofeedback, and with increased ca
pacity for vivid imagery.31 Absorp

tion or self-forgetful concentration has

been described as a stage in insight

meditation that leads to selftranscendence.52 It is also described
as a correlate of self-actualization, selftranscendence, and loving fascina
tion with nature.5354
These observations suggested
that aspects of personality unmea
sured by the TPQ include dimen
sions of character related to accep
tance of the individual self, acceptance
of other people, and acceptance of
nature in general. Individuals with
mature personalities (ie, effective ad
aptation and self-satisfaction) are selfreliant, cooperative, and possibly selftranscendent. In contrast, those with
personality disorders have difficutty
with self-acceptance, are intolerant
and revengeful toward others, and
may feel self-conscious and unful
filled. This suggested the hypothesis
that subtypes of personality disor
der can be defined in terms of tem
perament variables,18 whereas the
presence or absence of personality dis-

order may be defined in terms of the

character dimensions of selfdirectedness, cooperativeness, and self-

transcendence.

ing good self-esteem, able

to

faults and accept themselves

are, feel that their lives have

admit

as

they

mean

ing and purpose, delay gratification

achieve their goals, and show ini

overcoming challenges. On
the negative side, "borderline" indi
viduals have low self-esteem, blame
others for their problems, feel un
certain of their identity or purpose,
and are often reactive, dependent, and
resourceless. Such low self-esteem and
feelings of inferiority have been sug
gested to be immature or "childish"
characteristics.37 However, many chil
dren show positive self-esteem at an
early age, particularly when their par
ents show consistent affection and en
courage autonomy.58,59
More specifically, Rotter60 de
scribed the notion of locus of con
trol, differentiating those with an in
ternal locus of control (who believe
their success is controlled by their
own efforts) from those with an ex
ternal locus of control (who believe
their success is controlled by factors
other than themselves). Studies of this
measure showed that those with in
ternal locus of control are more re
sponsible and resourceful problemsolvers, whereas others are more
alienated and apathetic, tending to
blame other people and chance cir
cumstances for problems.61 Some
measures of locus of control are con
founded with other aspects of tem
perament and mood (eg, depres
sion, high harm avoidance, and
dependence on approval and per
suasion), but a factor of responsibil
ity vs blaming appears to be distinct
from other aspects of temperament
and related to the more general con
cept of self-directedness.
Frankl62 has emphasized the
importance of purpose fulness and
to

Description
To

develop explicit self-report

measures
o

of Character

pe

ra t

of self-directedness, coand self-

i vene ss

transcendence, prior descriptions

of related

psychological concepts

reviewed. These provided de

scriptions of specific component
factors for each of the three pro
posed dimensions of character.

were

Self-Directedness
Our interview studies indicate that
self-directedness is the major deter
minant of the presence or absence
of personality disorder.25 Accord
ingly, we will consider this dimen
sion in the most detail because of its
clinical importance.
The basic concept ofself-directed
ness refers to self-determination and
"willpower," or the ability of an in
dividual to control, regulate, and adapt
behavior to fit the situation in ac
cord with individually chosen goals
and values.55 Popular concepts about
"willpower" can be confusing, how
ever, because willpower or the "will"
is not an entity, but a metaphorical
abstract concept to describe the ex
tent to which a person identifies the
imaginai self as an integrated, pur
poseful whole individual, rather than
a disorganized set of reactive im
pulses. A more neutral and informa
tive term than willpower may be to
refer to the intentional force of in
dividuals to affirm or commit to par
ticular goals or purposes. According
to humanists, human beings differ
from other animais in terms of their
ability to make choices among alter
native responses, to "change their
mind," and to tell lies; therefore, hu
man beings can be considered to be
responsible for what they do.56
On the positive side, individu
als who are mature, effective, and wellorganized leaders are described as hav-

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tiative in

meaningful goal-direction as a moti

vating force in mature people. He
suggested that man's main concern
is to fulfill meaning, rather than to gratify
impulses and avoid conflicts. Such
purposefulness varies widely among
individuals.63 Rogers64 and Covey65 have
emphasized initiative and resource
ful problem solving in effective

schoolchildren and business lead

ers,

respectively,

as an

important

aspect of mature character. Bandura66

and Bandura and Cervone67 de
scribed self-efficacy, which is re
lated to resourcefulness and initia
tive in goal-directed behavior.
According to some Yoga practition
ers,

after someone has cultivated clear

goals and values for a long time, what

was initially an effort becomes "sec

ond nature."68 In other words, such

integrated individuals expect their au
tomatic responses to be congruent

with their goals and values, and they

trust themselves to act spontane

ously without any feeling of sup

pressed conflict.
Self-esteem and the ability to ac
one's
limitations unapologetically
cept
without fantasies of unlimited ability
and ageless youth are crucial aspects
of the development of mature self-

directed behavior.53575864 individuals

with poor adjustment and feelings of
inferiority or inadequacy are often re
active and deny, repress, or ignore their
faults, wishing to be best at everything
always, whereas well-adjusted children
are able to recognize and admit un
flattering truths about themselves.50
Such positive self-esteem and ability
to accept individual limitations has been
found to be strongly correlated with
responsibility and resourcefulness.50

In summary, self-directedness can

be formulated as a developmental pro
cess with several stages or aspects. These
include (1) acceptance of responsibil
ity for one's own choices instead of
blaming other people and circum
stances, (2) identification of individu
ally valued goals and purposes vs lack
of goal direction, (3) development of
skills and confidence in solving prob
lems (resourcefulness vs apathy), (4)
self-acceptance vs self-striving, and fi
nally (5) congruent second nature vs
personal distrust. Sample questions
from the Temperament and Charac
ter Inventory (TCI) are listed in Table 1
along with their endorsement frequency
in a community sample described later.
The assessment of self-directedness is
crucial for diagnosis because low selfdirectedness is the common character
istic of all categories of personality dis
orders, as shown in our companion ar
ticle.25 Regardless of other personality
traits or circumstances, personality dis
order is likely to be present if selfdirectedness is low, and vice versa.

Cooperativeness
The second higher order character
factor of cooperativeness was formu
lated to account for individual dif
ferences in identification with and ac
ceptance of other people. This factor

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designed to measure different as

pects of character related to agreeability vs self-centered aggression and
was

hostility.

In

our

companion article,

found that low cooperativeness

scores contribute substantially to the
likelihood of concomitant personal
ity disorder.23 Particularly in indi
viduals who are high or only mod
erately low in self-directedness, the
probability of a diagnosis of person
ality disorder was increased by low
cooperativeness. All categories of per
sonality disorder are associated with low
we

cooperativeness.

Cooperative individuals are de

socially tolerant, em
pathie, helpful, and compassionate,
scribed

as

whereas uncooperative individuals are

described as socially intolerant, dis
interested in other people, unhelp
ful, and revengeful. Rogers64 has de
scribed facilitative people who show
unconditional acceptance of others,
empathy with others' feelings, and
willingness to help others achieve their
goals without selfish domination. Such
social acceptance, helpfulness, and
concern for the rights of others are
often correlated with one another and
with positive self-esteem.69 Empa
thy, defined as a feeling of unity or
identification with other people, is
said to allow improved communica
tion and compassion for others.70

Helpful generativity and compas

sion are frequently noted as signs of
maturity in developmental psychol

ogy.71 Such compassion involves the

willingness to forgive and be kind to

others regardless of their behavior,
rather than to seek revenge

or to en

joy their embarrassment or suffer

ing; it involves feelings of brotherly

love and the absence of hostility.5372

Effective business leadership of
ten involves helpfulness, ie, skill in

finding mutually satisfying ("winto problems, rather

than looking out only for personal
gain.63 Religious traditions from Bud
dhism to Judeo-Christianity also em
phasize the concept of "purehearted" acceptance of principles or

helpfulness, (4) compassion vs revengefulness, and (5) pure-hearted

principles vs self-advantage. Sample

questions about cooperativeness are

listed in Table 2. Uncooperative in
dividuals tend to see the world and
others as hostile and alien to them.
In contrast, cooperative individuals
feel they are synergistic components
of a mutually supportive and help
ful community that is motivated by
compassion and reciprocal respect.
Self-Transcendence

win") solutions

natural laws that cannot be broken

without inevitable bad conse
quences for the individual, society,
and nature.6573 Belief in such natu
ral principles, as opposed to imme
diate self-advantage or social con
ventions, represents an advanced level
of moral or character development,
as described by Kohlberg7475 and

Baruk.76

In summary, cooperativeness can

be formulated as a developmental pro
cess with several aspects or stages.
These include (1) social acceptance
vs intolerance, (2) empathy vs social

disinterest, (3) helpfulness

vs un-

people meditate or pray daily,

more frequent than sexual
intercourse according to population
surveys.77 Frequent meditation or
Most

which is

prayer is often associated with en

hanced life satisfaction and personal
effectiveness, particularly in older

adults.78 Nevertheless, selftranscendence and character traits as

sociated with spirituality have usu
ally been neglected in systematic
research and omitted from person
ality inventories that purport to be
comprehensive, including the fivefactor model. However, much infor
mation about the observable behav
ior of self-transcendent individuals
has been written based on the lives
of mystics and saints7980 and selfactualizing individuals.5354 Also

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transpersonal psychology has re

cently provided descriptions of the
subjective experiences and changes
in behavior of people who attain the

of "nirvana" or self-transcen
as a result of insight medita
tion techniques.8182 Self-transcen
dence refers generally to identification
with everything conceived as essen
tial and consequential parts of a uni
fied whole. This involves a state of
"unitive consciousness" in which ev
erything is part of one totality. In uni
tive consciousness, there is no indi
vidual self because there is no
meaningful distinction between self
and otherthe person is simply aware
of being an integral part of the evo
lution of the cosmos. This unitive per
spective may be described as accep
state

dence

tance, identification, or spiritual union

nature and its source.79
We found that self-transcendence
was lower in psychiatric inpatients
than adults in the general commu

with

nity, but did not differentiate most

patients with personality disorders

from those without such disor

ders.25 In the clinical setting of our
interview studies with psychiatric
patients, self-transcendence was
significantly low only in patients
with many symptoms of schizoid
personality disorder.23 In contrast,
self-directedness and cooperative-

low in all personality

disorders. Self-transcendence can
be particuiarly useful in differenti
ating schizoid from schizotypal pa
tients because the latter tend to
endorse questions about extrasen
sory perception and other aspects
ness were

of self-transcendence.
The stable self-forgetfulness of
self-transcendent people has been de
scribed

the

experienced
transiently by people when they are
totally absorbed, intensely concen
trated, and fascinated by one thing.54
In such one-pointed concentration
people may forget where they are and
as

same as

lose all sense of the passage of time.

Such absorption often leads to
"transpersonal" identification with things
outside the individual self. The per
son may identify (or feel a sense of spiri
tual union) with anything or every
thing. They may experience the feel
ing that they are part of or being guided
by a wonderful intelligence, which is
possibly the divine source of all phe
nomena. Ultimately, there maybe loss
of all distinctions between self and other
by identifying with the concept of an
immanent God as one-in-all.
Such transpersonal identification
leads to spiritual acceptance, or the
apprehension of relationships that can
not be explained by analytical reason
ing or demonstrated by objective ob
servation to others. Spirituality has been
defined as our inner craving to be im-

mortal,83 which leads

us to

identify

with nature as a whole or with its source.

Such arguably metaphorical concepts
as extrasensory perception or reincar
nation of souls can be understood as
attempts to describe the experience

of transpersonal identification using

words, which unavoidably denote
things and events. Use of language to
describe self-transcendent experience
is difficult at best because selftranscendent cognition is intuitive rather
than analytical and deductive.83
Considered as a developmental
process, self-transcendence has mul
tiple aspects or stages. These stages
can be simplified into some basic ex
periences and behaviors that have been
described in abroad spectrum of people
and cultures, not just rare mystics: (1)
self-forgetful vs self-conscious expe
rience, (2) transpersonal identification
(ie, identification with nature) vs selfdifferentiation, and (3) spiritual ac
ceptance vs rational materialism. Some
examples of questions about these fac
tors are listed in Table 3. In our clini
cal studies only the symptoms of schiz
oid personality disorder were signifi
cantly correlated with low self-

transcendence, so it is not a common

characteristic of traditional concepts

of personality disorder.25 Nevertheless,
current DSM-U1-R definitions of per
sonality disorder may be too narrow
because spirituality and other phenom
ena measured by this dimension are

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important for the adjustment and per

sonal satisfaction of many people, par

ticularly those over 35 years of age.84
Self-transcendence merits further sys
tematic study in samples from both
clinical and general populations to clarify
its clinical significance.

Empirical Testing of the

Personality Model
sample of 300 adults, 150 women
and 150 men, completed the TCI,
which is a 226-item, true-false ques
tionnaire measuring seven dimen
sions of personality. These include a
107-item version of the TPQ, mea
suring the temperament dimensions
of novelty seeking, harm avoidance,
and reward dependence and persis
tence, ft also includes a 119-item char
acter inventory measuring selfdirectedness, cooperativeness, and selftranscendence. These 119 items were
selected from 195 items obtained by
generating 15 questions for each of
the 13 rationally defined character
factors. This included measures of the
five aspects of self-directedness, five
aspects of cooperativeness, and five
aspects of self-transcendence de
scribed in the prior section. These
A

pretested in a sample
college students, discarding

measures were

of 212

questions that had

extreme re

sponse frequencies (generally out

side 20% to 80% endorsement) or

weakly correlated with the other

retained items on each factor. No se
lection was made based on intercorrelations between factors. This yielded
13 scales that are internally consis
tent and face-valid measures of the
constructs to be tested here.
Subjects were solicited for par

were

in the study as they en

shopping mall whose cus
tomers were thought to be fairly
representative of the general popu
lation of St Louis, Mo. Subjects aged

ticipation
tered

18 years

or

older

were

recruited

se

quentially, and were excluded only

if they were in an oversampled gender-

age group. The recruiters and ad

ministrators of the test were blind to
the personality model measured by
the TCI. The mean (SD) age of the
sample was 34.1 12.9 years (range,
18 to 91 years). The women (mean
[SD], 35.513.7 years; range, 18
to 91 years) were slightly older than
the men (mean [SD], 32.711.9
years; range, 18 to 84 years). The

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consisted of 114 white (62

and 52 women) and 186 nonwhite (88 men and 98 women) sub

sample
men

jects.

To test for representativeness of

sample, the results of the TPQ

were compared with those obtained
in a national area probability sample
the

of 1019 noninstitutionalized adults.23

Statistical analyses were car
ried out using version 6.03 of the SAS
statistical software (SAS Institute, Cary,

NC).85

*
Correlations above .40 are indicated in bold. S1 indicates responsibility vs blaming; S2, purposefulness vs lack of goal direction; S3, resourcefulness; S4,
self-acceptance vs self-striving; S5, congruent second nature; C1, social acceptance vs social intolerance; C2, empathy vs social disinterest; C3, helpfulness
vs unhelpfulness; C4, compassion vs revengefulness; C5, pure-hearted principles vs self advantage; ST1, self-forgetful vs self-conscious experience; ST2,
transpersonal Identification vs self-differentiation; and ST3, spiritual acceptance vs rational materialism.

RESULTS

Variability of Personality Traits

SDs, and internal con
(Cronbach
a) for each scale
sistency
The

means,

and subscale are shown in

Tables 4 and 5 for the tempera
ment and character scales, respec
tively. The results for the tempera
ment scales were similar to those
obtained in a national area probabil
ity sample,23 suggesting that the
sample was representative of the gen
eral adult population. All the scales
showed substantial variability among
individuals. The internal consis
tency of the composite scales was high,
ranging from .76 to .87 for the tem
perament scales and .84 to .89 for
the character scales.
Structure of Character Scales

The correlations among the 13

character subscales are summa
rized in Table 6. Principal com
ponent analysis identified three
factors with eigenvalues greater
than 1.0. These accounted for
35%, 16%, and 8% of the variance
(59% cumulatively). The standard
ized factor loadings following Pro-

(that is, allowing for

nonindependence of factors) are

max

rotation

shown in Table 7. The highest

loadings of all the cooperativeness
scales and self-acceptance are on
factor 1. In other words, the abil
ity to accept limitations about one
self is associated with the ability to
tolerate and accept limitations in
other people as well. The highest
loadings of all the self-directedness
subscales except self-acceptance
are on factor 2. The highest load
ings of all the self-transcendence
scales are on factor 3. The vari
ances explained by each factor af
ter rotation were 30%, 27%, and
i5%, respectively. Interfactor cor
relations were .52 for factors f
and 2, .16 for factors 2 and 3,
and .06 for factors 1 and 3. The
derived three-factor solution for
the f3 character scales corre
sponds closely with the rationally
defined dimensions of selfdirectedness, cooperativeness, and
self-transcendence.
Structure of

Temperament

and Character
The correlations among the four
dimensions of temperament and

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three dimensions of character are

summarized in Table 8. The only
correlations above .40 relate harm
avoidance with self-directedness
( .47) and cooperativeness with
reward dependence (.54) and selfdirectedness (.57).

Principal component analysis

identified seven factors with eigen
values greater than 1. fn the varimax solution the variances ex
plained by each factor were

14.2%, 12.0%, 10.1%, 9.0%,

7.6%, 6.0%, and 5.7%, accounting

for 65.0% of the total variance.

The standardized factor loadings

following

Promax rotation

are

shown in Table 9. Ignoring cor

relations with other factors, the
variances explained by each ro
tated factor ranged from 4.4% to
2.0%, which is 17.7% to 8.0% of
the total variance in the 25 factors.
The correlations among the seven
empirically derived factors corre
sponded closely to those summarized
in Table 8 for the rationally defined
factors.
The persistence factor appears
to be a fairly distinct seventh dimen
sion of personality, but it has sig
nificant relations to other aspects of
both temperament and character. It

pects of self-transcendence. The ef

fects of ethnicity on character were
small, accounting for less than 3%
of variance in any scale.

Age was strongly correlated with

self-directedness (r=.30; P<.0001)

and cooperativeness (r=.35; P<.0001),
but not self-transcendence (r=.01; dif
ferences were not significant). The ef
fect of age on each character scale is

depicted in Figures 1 through 3.

The sample was divided into quin
tiles according to age. This yielded

*The highest loadings are indicated in bold. S1 indicates responsibility vs blaming; S2, purposefulness
lack of goal direction; S3, resourcefulness; S4, self-acceptance vs self-striving; S5, congruent second
nature; C1, social acceptance vs social intolerance; C2, empathy vs social disinterest; C3, helpfulness vs
unhelpfulness; C4, compassion vs revengefulness; C5, pure-hearted principles vs self advantage; ST1,
self-forgetful vs self-conscious experience; ST2, transpersonal identification vs self-differentiation; and
ST3, spiritual acceptance vs rational materialism.
vs

groups with ages between 18 and 21

years (n=58; mean age, 19 years), 22
and 29 years (n=64; mean age, 26
years), 30 and 35 years (n=62; mean
age, 33 years), 36 and 43 years (n=61;
mean age, 40 years), and 44 and 91
years (n=55; mean age, 55 years). For

self-directedness (Figure 1), each com

ponent increased for birth cohorts
from age f8 to 43 years. Selfcongruence was still higher in the old
est cohort, whereas the other com
ponents remained at about the same
level in cohorts aged 40 years and
older.
For

*Correlations above .40 are indicated in bold. NS indicates novelty seeking; HA, harm avoidance; P,
persistence; RD, reward dependence; SD, self-directedness; C, cooperativeness; and ST,
self-transcendence.

has positive correlations greater than

.20 with three self-directedness com

ponents: resourcefulness (.36), con

gruent second nature (.28), and pur

posefulness (.24). However, it is not

strongly correlated with other as

pects of self-directedness such as responsibility (.14) and selfacceptance (.08). Persistence has
negative correlations less than .20
with three temperament factors: fa-

tigability ( .29), impulsiveness

( .21), and disorderliness ( .21).

In this

sample,

it

was not

signifi

cantly correlated with rewarddependence measures such as sen

timentality (.09), attachment (.03),
or dependence (
.07). We tenta-

tively consider persistence to be a tem

perament factor because of its promi
nent development in early childhood.
Effects of
Variables

Demographic
on

Character

The effects of gender, ethnicity, and

age were examined on the character
scales. Women had higher scores on
total cooperativeness (81% vs 72%
as proportion of total items; P<.01)
and each of its components. Women
also had higher scores in spiritual ac
ceptance than men (71% vs 64%;

cooperativeness (Figure

2), each component increased for

the birth cohorts from ages 18 to
43 years, much like selfdirectedness except that the great
est increase was between the co
horts from 18 to 29 years.
Compassion and principles
showed some further increase in
the oldest cohorts.
For self-transcendence (Figure
3), self-forgetfulness and transper
sonal identification were lowest in the
cohort between ages 30 and 35 years.
Spiritual acceptance increased most
sharply in the cohort aged about 40
years compared with the next younger
cohort.
COMMENT

Our empirical results and review

of prior literature support a tridi
mensional model of character
structure. These three factors of

P<.01).

self-directedness, cooperativeness,

There were no gender differ

ences in self-directedness or other as-

and self-transcendence can be un

derstood in terms of the epigenetic

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*Highest loadings are given in bold; postulated factors, in italics. NS1 indicates exploratory excitability; NS2, impulsiveness; NS3, extravagance; NS4,
disorderliness; HA1, worry/pessimism; HA2, fear of uncertainty; HA3, shyness with strangers; HA4, fatigability and asthenia; RD1, sentimentality vs
insensitivity; RD2, persistence; RD3, attachment vs detachment; RD4, dependence vs independence; S1, responsibility vs blaming; S2, purposefulness; S3,
resourcefulness; S4, self-acceptance vs self-striving; S5, congruent second nature; C1, social acceptance vs social intolerance; C2, empathy; C3, helpfulness;
04, compassion vs revengefulness; C5, pure-hearted principles; ST1, self-forgetful vs self-conscious experience; ST2, transpersonal identification vs
self-differentiation; and ST3, spiritual acceptance vs rational materalism.

development
sive
tion

of

increasingly

inclu

concepts of the self: identifica

as an autonomous

individual

(self-directedness), as an integral
part of human society (coopera
tiveness), and as an integral part of
the universe (self-transcendence).

hypothesis that
complex hierarchic
system that can be naturally decom
posed into distinct psychobiological
dimensions of temperament and
This supports the

personality

is

character.

Alternative Models
We do

not assume

that the psy

chobiological model presented

herein provides the only way to
derive a description and understand
ing of character

chodynamic

traits. In

fact, psy-

theories suggest that

character traits arise as stable resi

dues of normal defense mecha
nisms, such as anticipation, altru
ism, and sublimation. Anticipation,
which enables people to work for
long-term goals, can lead to some
self-directed behaviors like purposefulness. Likewise altruism can
lead to cooperative traits, such as
helpfulness and compassion. De
spite such parallels in content,
psychodynamic concepts of char
acter are categorical constructs that
emphasize the uniqueness of each
individual. In contrast, we empha
size the consistent quantitative
structure of the differences among
individuals. This dimensional
structure facilitates the testing of
quantitative, falsifiable hypotheses

relating psychological variation

its biological and social causes.

to

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Development
The finding of three distinct charac
ter dimensions has strong implications
for models of longitudinal develop
ment. The findings of Erikson7186
and others are often interpreted to
mean that there is a fixed stepwise
sequence in which development of
one factor necessarily precedes the
development of the next. Bowlby87
has suggested an alternative epigenetic model in which personality
development of each individual
can proceed along any one of a set
of potential paths, depending on
initial temperament and initial ex
perience. According to this

multiple-path epigenetic model,

each subsequent step in develop
ment is a motivated effort to adapt
to current

circumstances, given

Resourceful
85

Congruent
SD1

75

Responsible

SD 2

tinguish developmental effects from

cohort effects. Nevertheless, our find
ings suggest the importance of age
and/or cohort effects in the unfold
ing of character and encourage fu
ture longitudinal research.

SD 3

Purposeful

DIAGNOSIS

SD 4

65

Self-accepting

SD 5

55

45

15

20

25

30

- " " - I

35

40

45

50

55

60

Age, y

Figure

1. Relationship of age to self-directedness

from the general community.

(SD) subscale scores in quintiles of 300 individuals

These character scales may help to

clarify current concepts of what a per
sonality disorder is in contrast to more
optimal adaptation. That is, indi
viduals with extreme variants of tem
perament may be well-adapted, depend
ing on their character and circum
stances. However, anyone who is low
in self-directedness and cooperative
ness is likely to have a personality dis
order, and vice versa. The importance
of self-transcendence in character de

velopment is arguable in early life, but

it becomes a major concern as we face

C1

C2
C3
C4

C5

death and misfortune. The availabil

ity of this set of personality measures
should facilitate evaluation and clas
sification of personality and its disor
ders, as well as studies of inheritance,
information processing, and develop

(cognitive, personal, social, moral,

spiritual).

ment

and

The three dimensions of char

distinct from previously de
scribed measures of temperament.
Overall, our results support a sevendimensional model of personality; four
temperament factors and three char
acter factors. The temperament fac
tors appear to be more directly tied
to neurobiological and genetic de
terminants of behavior, in contrast
to the epigenetic development of selfconcepts in character. Furthermore,
the temperament dimensions ap
pear to be more closely related to sus
ceptibility to different neurotic syn
dromes, such as anxiety and
somatoform disorders, rather than to
the presence or absence of person
ality disorders or psychoses.40 Eat
ing disorders and substance abuse dis
orders appear to involve differences
in both temperament and character
development, but this requires fur
ther systematic study.19
acter are

Age, y
2. Relationship of age to
from the general community.

Figure

cooperativeness (C) subscale scores in quintiles of 300 individuals

personality. However, if there

fixed developmental
really
current

were a

sequence for character traits, then ma

turity could be adequately de
scribed on a single scale. The obser
vation of three character dimensions

suggests that there are multiple as

pects of character development, each

having unique

antecedents. Never

theless, the joint staging and

action of these

inter

multiple dimensions
has received little study because of
the absence of comprehensive quan-

measures of the multiple fac

of temperament and character.
Some sequences in character devel
opment may be more frequent or op
timal than others, and the correla
tions among the character and
temperament dimensions suggest
some reciprocal interaction. Our find
ings about longitudinal develop
ment should be considered illustra
tive and tentative because this is a
cross-sectional study of people of vary
ing age. In this study we cannot dis-

titative
tors

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techniques may facilitate learning self-

ST 1

directed behavior.53 Some other meth

ods of psychological treatment, such
as psychoanalysis, transactional analy
sis, and reality therapy, are also di
rected primarily at development of selfdirected behavior.81 fn contrast, other

ST 2

experiential techniques are designed

75
70-

65

'

60

ST 3

55
50

45

- ~

20

25

30

practiced

- - ~ - ~ "

35

40

50

45

55

60

ge, y

Figure 3. Relationship of age to self-transcendence (ST)

individuals from the general community.
INHERITANCE

genetic factors are

likely
as important in character develop
ment as they are for temperament.
In fact, the heritability of character
may explain why some individuals
maintain inflexible maladaptive be
havior patterns whereas others
with similar temperaments do not.
Conceptual learning, such as selfaware imitation, is an evolutionary
development of mammals.43 Indi
vidual differences in human twins
for the MPQ primary factors of
alienation, aggression, and absorp
tion are influenced by genetic fac
tors as much as other aspects of
personality.88 However, if cultural
perspectives8990 and social learn
ing39646691 are as important in the
epignesis of self-concepts as has
been suggested, then environmen
tal effects associated with particu
lar families and cultures should be
more important in character devel
opment than has been observed
for temperament. Comparisons of
the inheritance of temperament
and character should be useful for
testing sociocultural learning hy
potheses. Likewise, the effect of
different forms of psychotherapy
on character development should
be a controlled way of assessing
It is

that

subscale

scores

in

quintiles of 300

the influence of environmental

change

on

facilitate acceptance of others or de

of cooperative behavior;
these include Rogerian counseling,64
logotherapy,62 and interpersonal psychosynthesis.94 Finally, attainment of
self-transcendence is a goal ofJungian
analysis84 and insight meditation as
to

velopment

personality.

MEMORY SYSTEMS

The most fundamental distinction be

tween character and temperament
here appears to be that character de
velopment is a concept-based pro
cess whereas temperament involves
differences between individuals in per
ceptual processes and habit forma
tion. This corresponds to the dis
tinction of conceptual memory
(regulated by the cortico-limbodiencephalic memory system) and
perceptual memory (regulated by the
cortico-striatal memory system).
TREATMENT

Different pharmacological interven

tions have been proposed in the modi
fication of temperament.4092 For ex

ample, lithium therapy reduces fre

quency of temper outbursts and
increases reflectiveness.93 However,
lithium therapy does not change selfconcepts or increase self-directedness,
and compliance outside of authoritar
ian controlled settings is poor.93 In con
trast, different psychological treatments
may be relevant for the development
of different aspects of character. For
example, particular cognitive-behavioral

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in

Mahayana Buddhism,

Vedanta Hinduism, Taoism, and mys

tical forms of other religions.32 Much
research is needed to explore the in
teractions of specific drugs and psy
chosocial interventions in treatment
of personality and its disorders.
Finally, assuming that charac
ter and temperament involve conceptbased and percept-driven memory,
stable personality change probably re
quires that conceptual insights modify
habits by disciplined practice, per
haps facilitated by combined pharmacotherapy. In other words, per
sonality change has both rational and
emotional components.95 Conscious
intention is transient, effortful, and
inefficient, whereas perceptual con

ditioning is more long-lasting, auto

matic, and efficient.349697 A combi

nation of
treatments

cognitive-behavioral

and, perhaps only

ini

tially, medications to alter indi

vidual differences in temperament
should be most effective.

Accepted for publication November 4,

1992.

This study was supported in part

by grant MH31302 from the National
Institute of Mental Health, and grants
AA07982 and AA08028 from the Na
tional Institute on Alcoholism and Al
cohol Abuse, National Institutes of Health,
Bethesda, Md, and a grant from the John
D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foun
dation Mental Health Research Net
work on the Psychoblology of Depres
sion, Chicago, III.

Helpful comments were received

from many colleagues, particularly Sam

uel Guze, MD, John Nemiah, MD, and

Sartorius, MD, and our de

Norman

13.

partmental Personality Study Group

(Kenneth Freedland, MD, Andrew Heath,

MD, Kim McCaum, MD, Joan Luby,
MD, John Rohrbaugh, MD, and Rich
ard Wetzel, PhD). We also appreciate
the comments of Mary Blehar, PhD,
Michael Bohman, MD, Lindon Eaves,
PhD, Peter Joyce, MD, Alex Kaplan,
MD, Roger Mulder, MD, Gordon Parker,
MD, and Soren Sigvardsson, PhD.
Reprint requests to Department of

Psychiatry, Washington University School

of Medicine, 4940 Children's Pi, St Louis,
MO 63110 (Dr Cloninger).
REFERENCES

14.

15.

16.
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18.

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on Nomenclature and Statistics. Diagnostic and
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