1.

1 Why research is of value

1.2 Ways of Knowing

There are four ways of knowing. Let us look at each one of them.

a. Sensory experience

Normally we, see, hear, and smell taste touch. We gather a lot of data through our
senses. However, sensory knowledge is undependable and in some cases incomplete.
the data we take through our sense do not account for all (or even most) of what we
seem to feel is the range of human knowing. For us to obtain reliable knowledge,
therefore, we cannot rely on our senses alone, but must check what we think we know
with other sources.

b. Agreement with other

The opinion of other is another source of knowledge. We can share our sensations
with others and also check on the accuracy and authenticity of these sensations. The
problem with such common knowledge is that it can be wrong. A majority vote in a
meeting is no guarantee of the truth. Two groups of eyewitnesses to an accident may
disagree as to which driver was on the wrong. Hence we would require considering
additional ways to obtain reliable knowledge.

c .Expert opinion

Some people can consider experts in their field because they know a great deal about
what we are interested in finding out. However experts like everybody else can be
mistaken. For all their study and training, what experts know is still based on
primarily on what they have learned from reading and thinking, from listening to and
observing others, and from their own experience. No expert, however, has studied or
experienced all there is to know in a given field, and thus even an expert can never be
totally sure.

d. Logic

We also get to know by logic. That is by our intellect- the capability we have to
reason things out. This allows us to use sensory data to develop a new kind of
knowledge. For example,

All human beings are mortal

Juma is a human being
Therefore, Juma is mortal.

Note that the first statement (called the major premise) we need only from our
experience about the majority of individuals. We have never experienced anyone who
was not mortal, so we state that all human beings are mortal.
The second statement (called the minor premise) is based entirely on sensory
experience. If we come in contact with Juma and classify him as human beings we
then can deduce that the third statement (called the conclusion) must be true. Logics
tell us it is. As long as the first two statements are true the third statement must be
true.

However, there is a fundamental danger in logical reason in of which we need to be

aware. It is only when the major and minor premises of the syllogism are both true
that the conclusion is guaranteed to be true. If either of the premises is false, the
conclusion may or may not be true.

c. The scientific Method

Science is another way of knowing. However, it is the scientific method that is

important to researchers.

The scientific method essentially involves the testing of ideas in the public arena.
Almost all human beings are capable of making connections- of seeing relationship
and associations. These connections are called “facts”. Facts are items of knowledge
about the world in which we live. In many cases we guess or speculate about the
world around us. To be sure that our guesses or speculation s are true, we need to
0[rigorously test to see if they hold up under more controlled conditions. To
investigate our speculations, we can observe carefully and systematically.

However such investigations do not constitutes science unless they are made public.
This means that all aspects of the investigations are described in sufficient details so
that the study can be repeated by any who question the results. This basically boils
down to five distinct steps.

1. There must be a problem to be investigated. This can be something bothering

us or disturbing us. It may also be an unexplained discrepancy in a
researcher’s field of knowledge, a gap to be closed.
2. The second step involves defining more precisely the problem or the question
to be answered, to be clear about exactly what the purpose of the study is.
3. In the third step we attempt to determine what kinds of in formation would
solve the problem.
4. The fourth steps involves going to the field to collect the data
5. Fifth, we must decide as far as possible, how we will organize the information
that we obtain.
6. Sixth, after the information has been collected and analyzed, it must be
interpreted.
7. Seven, we must write and present the report on our finding.

Please note that:

1. In many studies, there are several possible explanations for a problem or
phenomenon. These are called Hypothesis and may occur at any stage of an
investigation
2. There are two features of scientific research: freedom of thought and public
procedure. At every step, it is crucial that the researcher be as open as
humanly possible to alternatives- in focusing and clarifying the problem, in
 collecting and analysing information, and in interpreting results. The process
must be as public as possible. It is not a private game to be played by a group
of insiders. The value of scientific research is that it can be replicated (i.e.
repeated) by anyone interested in doing so.
3. The essence of all research originates in curiosity-a desire to find out how and
why things happen, including why people do the things they do, as well as
whether or not certain ways of doing things work better than other ways.
4. A common misperception of science fosters the idea that there are fixed,
once-and-all answers to particular questions, which contributes to a common,
but unfortunate tendency to accept, and rigidly adhere to oversimplified
solutions to very complex problems.

Types of research

The term “research” can mean any sort of “careful, systematic, patient study and
investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to discover or establish facts
and principles”. In scientific research, however, the emphasis is on obtaining evidence
to support or refute proposed facts or principles. There are many methodologies that
fit this definition. Let us now look at the various types of research.

a. Experimental research

This is the most conclusive of scientific methods. The researcher has two groups: the
experimental group and the control group. The researcher actually establishes
different treatments and then studies their effects; results of this type are likely to lead
to the clear-cut interpretations. In this type of research we have the control group and
the experimental group. The researcher will administer some treatment to the
experimental group while denying the control group, and then he/she sees the effect.

Another form of experimental research is the single-subject research which involves

the intensive study of a single individual (or sometimes a single group) overtime.
These designs are particularly appropriate when individuals with special
characteristics are studied by means of direct observation.

b. Correlation Research

This is a type of research that is done to determine relationships among two or more
variables and to explore their implications for cause and effect. Correlation research
seeks to investigate whether one or more relationships of some type exist. For
example: wealth and family background; wealth and education. In this approach no
manipulation or intervention on the part of the researcher other than that required
administering the instrument(s) necessary to collect the data desired.

In general, this type of research would be undertaken when one wants to look for and
describe relationships that may exist among naturally occurring phenomena, without
trying in any way to alter theses phenomena.

c. Casual – comparative research

This type of research is intended to determine the cause for or the consequences of
different treatment between groups of people. Suppose a teacher wants to determine
whether students from single –parent families do more poorly in the class than
students from two-parent families. To conduct this investigation, the teacher would
systematically select two groups of students and then assign each a single parent or
two-parent family-which is clearly impossible (and unethical).

To test this issue using a causal-comparative design, the teacher might compare two
groups of students who already belong to one or the other type of family to see if they
differ.

However, interpretations of this type of research are limited because the researcher
cannot say conclusively whether a particular factor is a cause or a result of the
behaviour(s) observed. In our example above, the teacher could not be certain
whether:

1. Any perceived difference in achievement between the two groups was due to
the differences in home situation.
2. The parents’ status was due to the difference in achievement between the two
groups (though this seems likely).

3. Some unidentified factor was at work.

Despite problems of interpretation, causal-comparative studies are of value in

identifying possible causes of observed variations in the behaviour pattern of
individuals.

d. Survey research

This is a type of research used to obtain data that can help determine specific
characteristics of a group. A descriptive survey involves asking questions (often in the
form of a questionnaire) of a large group of individuals either by mail, by telephone or
in person. When answers to a set of question are solicited in person, the research is
called an Interview.

The main difficulties involved in survey research are mainly:

1. Ensuring that the questions to be answered are clear and not misleading

2. Getting respondents to answer questions thoughtfully and honestly

3. Getting a sufficient number of the questionnaires completed and returned so

that meaningful analyses can be made.

The main advantage of survey research is that it has the potential to provide us with a
lot of information obtained from quite a large sample of individuals.
 e. Content Analysis research

Content analysis is a method that permits researchers to study human behaviour

unobtrusively- that is, without being directly involved with people or situations.
Essentially it is a means of analysing the communications (intended or not) that are
inevitably present in anything human being produced. All human products, therefore,
offer potential materials for study.

While most such studies involve an analysis of written documents, some is conducted
using films, folk songs, ancient pottery etc. The method is applicable to any material
that does not come pre-organized for the researcher’s purpose. The major task of the
researcher is to locate appropriate materials and then find a way to analyze them.

f. Qualitative Research

Qualitative iinvolves obtaining a holistic picture of what goes on in a particular

situation or setting. There are two categories:

1. Ethnographic study: the emphasis in this type of research is on documenting or

portraying the everyday experiences of individuals by observing and
interviewing them and relevant others. For example, a researcher may want to
study the behaviour of an elementary classroom. This can be done by
observing on a regular basis, and also interviewing the teacher and the student
in an attempt to describe as fully and as richly as possible what goes on in that
classroom. The data could include detailed prose description by students of
classroom activities, audiotapes of classroom discussions, examples of teacher
lesson plans and students work, sociograms depicting “power” relationships in
the class and flows charts illustrating the direction and frequency of certain
types of comments.

2. Case studies: this is a well-detailed study of one or a few individuals or

situation.

g. Historical research

In historical research, some aspects of the past is studied, either by perusing

documents of the period or by interviewing individuals who lived during the time. An
attempt is then made to reconstruct as accurately as possible what happened during
that time to explain why it did happen.
Suggested further readings

1. Frankfort-Nachmias and David Nachmias(1996).Research Methods In Social

Sciences. 5th edition.St. Martins Press Inc. Great Britain. Chapter one pp 1-23
2. Frankel ,R. Jack & Norman E. Wallen (2000). How to Design and Evaluate
Research in Education, 4th edition. McGraw –Hill Higher Education, USA.
Chapter One pp2-25.