12EC244-Mobile Communications: UNIT-1

12EC244-Mobile Communications
UNIT-1
(Wireless Transmission)
SUGUMAR.D,
Assistant Professor,
ECE Department,
Karunya University.
7/30/2012
Karunya University
Karunya University
Unit-1 Wireless Transmission
12EC244 Mobile Communications
Over View
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Frequencies
Signals
Antennas
Signal propagation
Multiplexing
Modulation
Spread spectrum
Cellular systems
Medium Access Control
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1.Frequencies for communication

twisted
pair
coax cable
1 Mm
300 Hz
10 km
30 kHz
VLF
optical transmission
100 m
3 MHz
LF
MF
HF
VLF = Very Low Frequency

LF = Low Frequency
MF = Medium Frequency
HF = High Frequency
VHF = Very High Frequency
1m
300 MHz
10 mm
30 GHz
VHF
SHF
UHF
100 m
3 THz
EHF
infrared
1 m
300 THz
visible light UV
UHF = Ultra High Frequency

SHF = Super High Frequency
EHF = Extra High Frequency
UV = Ultraviolet Light
Frequency and wave length: = c/f

wave length , speed of light c @ 3x108 m/s, frequency f
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Frequencies for mobile communication
VLF, LF, MF HF not used for wireless

VHF-/UHF-ranges for mobile radio
simple, small antenna for cars
deterministic propagation characteristics, reliable connections
SHF and higher for directed radio links, satellite communication
small antenna, beam forming
large bandwidth available
Wireless LANs use frequencies in UHF to SHF range
some systems planned up to EHF
limitations due to absorption by water and oxygen molecules
(resonance frequencies)
weather dependent fading. E.g. signal loss caused by heavy rain
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Frequencies and regulations
ITU-R holds auctions for new frequencies, manages frequency bands

worldwide (WRC, World Radio Conferences)
Examples Europe
USA
Japan
Cellular
phones
GSM 880-915, 925-960,

1710-1785, 1805-1880
UMTS 1920-1980,
2110-2170
AMPS, TDMA,
CDMA, GSM 824849, 869-894
TDMA, CDMA,
GSM, UMTS 18501910, 1930-1990
PDC, FOMA 810888, 893-958

PDC 1429-1453,
1477-1501
FOMA 1920-1980,
2110-2170
Cordless
phones
CT1+ 885-887, 930932

CT2 864-868
DECT 1880-1900
PACS 1850-1910,
1930-1990
PACS-UB 19101930
PHS 1895-1918
JCT 245-380
Wireless
LANs
802.11b/g 2412-2472
802.11b/g 24122462
802.11b 2412-2484
802.11g 2412-2472
Other RF
systems
27, 128, 418, 433, 868
315, 915
426, 868
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Frequencies and regulations
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2.Signals
physical representation of data

function of time and location
signal parameters: parameters representing the value of data
classification
continuous time/discrete time
continuous values/discrete values
analog signal = continuous time and continuous values
digital signal = discrete time and discrete values
signal parameters of periodic signals:
period T, frequency f=1/T, amplitude A, phase shift
sine wave as special periodic signal for a carrier:
s(t) = At sin(2 p ft t + t)
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Fourier representation of periodic

signals
1
g (t ) c an sin(2nft ) bn cos(2nft )
2
n 1
n 1
0
t
ideal periodic signal
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real composition
(based on harmonics)
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Fourier representation of periodic signals
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Representations of Signals
Different representations of signals

amplitude (amplitude domain)
frequency spectrum (frequency domain)
phase state diagram (amplitude M and phase in polar coordinates)
Composed signals transferred into frequency domain using Fourier

transformation
Digital signals need
infinite frequencies for perfect transmission
modulation with a carrier frequency for transmission (analog signal!)
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3.Antennas: isotropic radiator
Radiation and reception of electromagnetic waves, coupling of wires to

space for radio transmission
Isotropic radiator: equal radiation in all directions (three
dimensional) - only a theoretical reference antenna
Real antennas always have directive effects (vertically and/or horizontally)
Radiation pattern: measurement of radiation around an antenna
z
y
x
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ideal
isotropic
radiator
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Antennas: simple dipoles

Real antennas are not isotropic radiators but, e.g., dipoles with lengths
/4 on car roofs or /2 as Hertzian dipole
shape of antenna proportional to wavelength
/4
/2
Example: Radiation pattern of a simple Hertzian dipole

y
side view (xy-plane)
side view (yz-plane)
simple
dipole
top view (xz-plane)
Gain: maximum power in the direction of the main lobe compared to

the power of an isotropic radiator (with the same average power)
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Antennas: directed and sectorized
Often used for microwave connections or base stations for mobile phones
(e.g., radio coverage of a valley)
y
side view (xy-plane)
side view (yz-plane)
top view (xz-plane)
top view, 3 sector
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directed
antenna
sectorized
antenna
top view, 6 sector
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Antennas: diversity
Grouping of 2 or more antennas
multi-element antenna arrays
Antenna diversity
switched diversity, selection diversity
receiver chooses antenna with largest output
diversity combining
combine output power to produce gain
co phasing needed to avoid cancellation
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4.Signal propagation ranges
Transmission range
communication possible
low error rate
Detection range
detection of the signal possible
no communication possible
Interference range
signal may not be detected
signal adds to the background
noise
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Signal propagation
Propagation in free space always like light (straight line)

Receiving power proportional to 1/d in vacuum much more in real
environments
(d = distance between sender and receiver)
Receiving power additionally influenced by
fading (frequency dependent)
shadowing
reflection at large obstacles
refraction depending on the density of a medium
scattering at small obstacles
diffraction at edges
shadowing
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reflection
refraction
scattering
diffraction
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Multipath propagation
Signal can take many different paths between sender and receiver due to
reflection, scattering, diffraction
multipath
LOS pulses pulses
signal at sender
signal at receiver
Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over time

interference with neighbor symbols, Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)
The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase shifted
distorted signal depending on the phases of the different parts
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Effects of mobility
Channel characteristics change over time and location

signal paths change
different delay variations of different signal parts
different phases of signal parts
quick changes in the power received (short term fading)
Additional changes in
distance to sender
obstacles further away
slow changes in the average power received (long term fading)
power
short term fading

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long term
fading
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5.Multiplexing
Multiplexing in 4 dimensions
space (si)
time (t)
frequency (f)
code (c)
Goal: multiple use of a shared

medium
Important: guard spaces
needed!
channels ki
k1
k2
k3
k4
k5
k6
c
t
c
t
s1
s2
c
t
s3
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Frequency Multiplex
Separation of the whole spectrum

into smaller frequency bands
A channel gets a certain band of
the spectrum for the whole time
Advantages:
no dynamic coordination
necessary
works also for analog signals
Disadvantages:
waste of bandwidth if the
traffic is distributed unevenly
inflexible
guard spaces
k1
k2
k3
k4
k5
k6
c
f
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Time Multiplex
A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain amount of time

Advantages:
only one carrier in the medium at any time
throughput high even for many users
k1
k2
k3
k4
Disadvantages:
Precise synchronization necessary
k5
k6
c
f
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Time and Frequency Multiplex
Combination of both
methods
A channel gets a certain
frequency band for a
certain amount of time
Example: GSM
Advantages:
k1
k2
k3
k4
k5
k6
c
f
better protection
against tapping
protection against
frequency selective
interference
higher data rates
compared to code t
multiplex
but: precise coordination

required
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Code Multiplex
Each channel has a unique code

All channels use the same spectrum
at the same time
Advantages:
bandwidth efficient
no coordination and
synchronization necessary
good protection against
interference and tapping
Disadvantages:
lower user data rates
more complex signal
regeneration
Implemented using spread spectrum
technology
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k1
k2
k3
k4
k5
k6
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6.Modulation
Digital modulation
digital data is translated into an analog signal (baseband)
ASK, FSK, PSK - main focus in this chapter
differences in spectral efficiency, power efficiency, robustness
Analog modulation
shifts center frequency of baseband signal up to the radio carrier
Motivation
smaller antennas (e.g., l/4)
Frequency Division Multiplexing
medium characteristics
Basic schemes
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Phase Modulation (PM)
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Modulation and Demodulation

digital
data
101101001
analog
baseband
signal
digital
modulation
analog
modulation
radio transmitter
radio
carrier
analog
baseband
signal
analog
demodulation
synchronization
decision
digital
data
101101001
radio receiver
radio
carrier
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Digital Modulation
1
Modulation of digital signals known as

Shift Keying
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):
very simple
low bandwidth requirements
very susceptible to interference
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):
needs larger bandwidth
Phase Shift Keying (PSK):
more complex
robust against interference
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Advanced Frequency Shift Keying
Bandwidth needed for FSK depends on the distance between the carrier
frequencies
special pre-computation avoids sudden phase shifts MSK (Minimum
Shift Keying)
bit separated into even and odd bits, the duration of each bit is doubled
depending on the bit values (even, odd) the higher or lower frequency, original or
inverted is chosen
the frequency of one carrier is twice the frequency of the other
Equivalent to offset QPSK
even higher bandwidth efficiency using a Gaussian low-pass filter

GMSK (Gaussian MSK), used in GSM
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Example of MSK
1
0
bit
data
even
0101
even bits
odd
0011
odd bits
signal
value
hnnh
- - ++
low
frequency
h: high frequency
n: low frequency
+: original signal
-: inverted signal
high
frequency
MSK
signal
t
No phase shifts!
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Advanced Phase Shift Keying

BPSK (Binary Phase Shift Keying):
bit value 0: sine wave
bit value 1: inverted sine wave
very simple PSK
low spectral efficiency
robust, used e.g. in satellite systems
QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying):
2 bits coded as one symbol
symbol determines shift of sine wave
needs less bandwidth compared to BPSK A
more complex
Often also transmission of relative, not
absolute phase shift: DQPSK -Differential
QPSK (IS-136, PHS)
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10
11
00
01
t
11
10
00
01
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Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

(QAM): combines amplitude and phase
modulation
it is possible to code n bits using one
symbol
2n discrete levels, n=2 identical to QPSK
bit error rate increases with n, but less
errors compared to comparable PSK
schemes
Example: 16-QAM (4 bits = 1 symbol)
Symbols 0011 and 0001 have the same
phase f , but different amplitude a. 0000
and 1000 have different phase, but same
amplitude. used in standard 9600 bit/s
modems
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Q
0010
0001
0011
0000
1000
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Hierarchical Modulation
DVB-T modulates two separate data streams onto a

single DVB-T stream
High Priority (HP) embedded within a Low Priority
(LP) stream
Multi carrier system, about 2000 or 8000 carriers
QPSK, 16 QAM, 64QAM
Example: 64QAM
10
good reception: resolve the entire 64QAM
constellation
poor reception, mobile reception: resolve only
QPSK portion
00
6 bit per QAM symbol, 2 most significant
000010
determine QPSK
HP service coded in QPSK (2 bit), LP uses
remaining 4 bit
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010101
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7.Spread spectrum technology
Problem of radio transmission: frequency dependent fading can wipe

out narrow band signals for duration of the interference
Solution: spread the narrow band signal into a broad band signal using
a special code
protection against narrow band interference
power
interference
power
spread
signal
signal
detection at
receiver
f
spread
interference
f
Side effects:
coexistence of several signals without dynamic coordination
tap-proof
Alternatives: Direct Sequence, Frequency Hopping
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Effects of spreading and interference

dP/df
dP/df
i)
user signal
broadband interference
narrowband interference
ii)
f
sender
dP/df
iii)
iv)
f
receiver
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dP/df
dP/df
v)
f
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Spreading and frequency selective

fading
channel
quality
2
narrowband channels
4
frequency
narrow band
signal
guard space
channel
quality
spread
spectrum
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spread spectrum channels
frequency
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DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread

Spectrum) I
XOR of the signal with pseudorandom number (chipping sequence)

many chips per bit (e.g., 128)
result in higher bandwidth of the
signal
Advantages
reduces frequency selective
fading
in cellular networks
base stations can use the
same frequency range
several base stations can
detect and recover the signal
soft handover
Disadvantages
precise power control necessary
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tb
user data
0
XOR
tc
chipping
sequence
01101010110101
=
resulting
signal
01101011001010
tb: bit period

tc: chip period
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DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread

Spectrum) II
spread
spectrum
signal
user data
X
transmit
signal
modulator
chipping
sequence
radio
carrier
transmitter
correlator
received
signal
lowpass
filtered
signal
demodulator
radio
carrier
sampled
sums
products
X
integrator
data
decision
chipping
sequence
receiver
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FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread

Spectrum) I
Discrete changes of carrier frequency

sequence of frequency changes determined via pseudo random
number sequence
Two versions
Fast Hopping:
several frequencies per user bit
Slow Hopping:
several user bits per frequency
Advantages
frequency selective fading and interference limited to short period
simple implementation
uses only small portion of spectrum at any time
Disadvantages
not as robust as DSSS
simpler to detect
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Spectrum) II
tb
user data
0
td
f3
slow
hopping
(3 bits/hop)
f2
f1
f
td
f3
fast
hopping
(3 hops/bit)
f2
f1
t
tb: bit period

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td: dwell time

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Spectrum) III
narrowband
signal
user data
modulator
transmitter
received
signal
hopping
sequence
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modulator
frequency
synthesizer
narrowband
signal
demodulator
frequency
synthesizer
spread
transmit
signal
hopping
sequence
data
demodulator
receiver
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8.Cell structure
Implements space division multiplex: base station covers a certain

transmission area (cell)
Mobile stations communicate only via the base station
Advantages of cell structures:
higher capacity, higher number of users
less transmission power needed
more robust, decentralized
base station deals with interference, transmission area etc. locally
Problems:
fixed network needed for the base stations
handover (changing from one cell to another) necessary
interference with other cells
Cell sizes from some 100 m in cities to, e.g., 35 km on the country side
(GSM) - even less for higher frequencies
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Frequency planning I
Frequency reuse only with a certain distance between the base stations
Standard model using 7 frequencies:
f3
f5
f4
f2
f6
f1
f3
f5
f4
f7
f1
f2
Fixed frequency assignment:

certain frequencies are assigned to a certain cell
problem: different traffic load in different cells
Dynamic frequency assignment:
base station chooses frequencies depending on the frequencies already
used in neighbor cells
more capacity in cells with more traffic
assignment can also be based on interference measurements
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Frequency planning II
f3
f3
f2
f1
f2
f1
f3
f2
f1
f3
f2
f1
f3
f3
f3
f1
f2
3 cell cluster
f2
f3
f5
f4
f6
f1
f3
f3
f5
f4
f7
f2
f6
f7
f2
f5
f3
f1
f2
7 cell cluster
f2
f2
f2
f1 f
f1 f
f1 f
h
h2
3
3
3
h1 2
h
1
g2 h3 g2 h3 g2
g1
g1
g1
g3
g3
g3
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3 cell cluster
with 3 sector antennas
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Cell breathing
CDM systems: cell size depends on current load

Additional traffic appears as noise to other users
If the noise level is too high users drop out of cells
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9.Medium Access
Can we apply media access methods from fixed networks?

Example CSMA/CD
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
send when medium is free, listen to medium if collision occurs (IEEE
802.3)
Problems in wireless networks
signal strength decreases with distance
sender applies CS and CD, but collisions happen at receiver
sender may not hear collision, i.e., CD does not work
Hidden terminal: CS might not work
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Motivation - hidden and exposed

terminals
Hidden terminals
A sends to B, C cannot hear A
C wants to send to B, C senses a free medium (CS fails)
Collision at B, A cannot receive the collision (CD fails)
C is hidden from A
Exposed terminals
B sends to A, C wants to send to another terminal (not A or B)
C has to wait, CS signals a medium in use
but A is outside radio range of C, waiting is not necessary
C is exposed to B
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Motivation - near and far terminals

Terminals A and B send, C receives
signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance
Bs signal drowns out As signal
C cannot receive A
If C was an arbiter, B would drown out A

Also severe problem for CDMA-networks - precise power control
needed!
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Access methods
SDMA/FDMA/TDMA
SDMA (Space Division Multiple Access)

segment space into sectors, use directed antennas
cell structure
FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
assign a frequency to a transmission channel
permanent (e.g., radio broadcast), slow hopping (e.g., GSM), fast
hopping (FHSS, Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
assign the fixed sending frequency to a transmission channel between a
sender and a receiver for a certain amount of time
The multiplexing schemes are now used to control medium access!
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FDD/FDMA - general scheme

example GSM
f
960 MHz
935.2 MHz
124
200 kHz
1
20 MHz
915 MHz
890.2 MHz
124
t
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TDD/TDMA - general scheme

example DECT
417 s
1
3
downlink
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11
12 1
3
uplink
11
12
t
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Aloha/Slotted Aloha
Mechanism
random, distributed (no central arbiter), time-multiplex
Slotted Aloha uses time-slots, sending must start at slot boundaries
ALOHA
collision
sender A
sender B
sender C
SLOTTED ALOHA
t
collision
sender A
sender B
sender C
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DAMA - Demand Assigned Multiple

Access
Channel efficiency only 18% for Aloha, 36% for Slotted Aloha
(assuming Poisson distribution for packet arrival and packet
length)
Reservation can increase efficiency to 80%
a sender reserves a future time-slot

sending within this reserved time-slot is possible without collision
reservation also causes higher delays
typical scheme for satellite links
Examples for reservation algorithms:

Explicit Reservation according to Roberts (Reservation-ALOHA)
Implicit Reservation (PRMA)
Reservation-TDMA
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Access method DAMA: Explicit

Reservation
Explicit Reservation (Reservation Aloha):

two modes:
ALOHA mode for reservation: competition for small reservation
slots, collisions possible
reserved mode for data transmission in reserved slots (no collisions
possible)
it is important for all stations to keep the reservation list consistent at
any point in time and, therefore, all stations have to synchronize from
time to time
collision
Aloha
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reserved
Aloha
reserved
Aloha
reserved
Aloha
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Access method DAMA: PRMA
Implicit reservation (PRMA - Packet Reservation MA):

a certain number of slots form a frame, frames are repeated
stations compete for empty slots using slotted aloha
once station reserves a slot successfully, slot is assigned to this station
in all following frames as long as the station has data to send
competition for a slot starts again once slot was empty in last frame
reservation
ACDABA-F
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
ACDABA-F
frame1 A C D A B A
AC-ABAF-
frame2 A C
A---BAFD
frame3 A
B A F
ACEEBAFD
frame4 A
B A F
time-slot
A B A
collision at
reservation
attempts
A C E E B A F D
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Access method DAMA: ReservationTDMA
Reservation Time Division Multiple Access

every frame consists of N mini-slots and x data-slots
every station has its own mini-slot and can reserve up to k data-slots
using this mini-slot (i.e. x = N * k).
other stations can send data in unused data-slots according to a roundrobin sending scheme (best-effort traffic)
N mini-slots
reservations
for data-slots
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N * k data-slots
e.g. N=6, k=2
other stations can use free data-slots

based on a round-robin scheme
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MACA - collision avoidance
MACA (Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance) uses short signaling

packets for collision avoidance
RTS (request to send): a sender uses RTS packet to request right to send
before it sends a data packet
CTS (clear to send): the receiver grants the right to send as soon as it is
ready to receive
Signaling packets contain
sender address
receiver address
packet size
Variants of this method can be found in IEEE802.11 as DFWMAC
(Distributed Foundation Wireless MAC)
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MACA examples
1.
2.
MACA avoids the problem

of hidden terminals
A and C want to send to
B
A sends RTS first
C waits after receiving
CTS from B
RTS
CTS
A
MACA avoids the problem

of exposed terminals
B wants to send to A, C
to another terminal
now C does not have to
wait for it cannot receive
CTS from A
RTS
RTS
CTS
A
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CTS
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MACA variant: DFWMAC in

IEEE802.11
sender
receiver
idle
idle
packet ready to send; RTS

RxBusy
ACK
time-out
NAK;
RTS
wait for the

right to send
time-out;
RTS
data;
ACK
CTS; data
wait for
data
wait for ACK
ACK: positive acknowledgement

NAK: negative acknowledgement
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RTS;
CTS
time-out
data;
NAK
RxBusy: receiver busy
RTS; RxBusy
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Polling mechanisms
If base station can poll other terminals according to a certain scheme

schemes known from fixed networks can be used
Example: Randomly Addressed Polling
base station signals readiness to all mobile terminals
terminals ready to send transmit random number without collision
using CDMA or FDMA
the base station chooses one address for polling from list of all random
numbers (collision if two terminals choose the same address)
the base station acknowledges correct packets and continues polling the
next terminal
this cycle starts again after polling all terminals of the list
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D/ISMA (Digital/Inhibit Sense Multiple Access)
Current state of the medium is signaled via a busy tone

the base station signals on the downlink (base station to terminals) if the
medium is free or not
terminals must not send if the medium is busy
terminals can access the medium as soon as the busy tone stops
the base station signals collisions and successful transmissions via the busy
tone and acknowledgements, respectively (media access is not coordinated
within this approach)
mechanism used, e.g., for CDPD (USA, integrated into AMPS)
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Access method CDMA
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

all terminals send on same frequency at the same time using ALL the
bandwidth of transmission channel
each sender has a unique random number, sender XORs the signal with
this random number
the receiver can tune into this signal if it knows the pseudo random
number
Disadvantages:
higher complexity of a receiver (receiver cannot just listen into the
medium and start receiving if there is a signal)
all signals should have the same strength at a receiver
Advantages:
all terminals can use the same frequency, no planning needed
huge code space (e.g. 232) compared to frequency space
interference (e.g. white noise) is not coded
forward error correction and encryption can be easily integrated
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CDMA in theory
Sender A
sends Ad = 1, key Ak = 010011 (assign: 0= -1, 1= +1)
sending signal As = Ad * Ak = (-1, +1, -1, -1, +1, +1)
Sender B
sends Bd = 0, key Bk = 110101 (assign: 0= -1, 1= +1)
sending signal Bs = Bd * Bk = (-1, -1, +1, -1, +1, -1)
Both signals superimpose in space

interference neglected (noise etc.)
As + Bs = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0)
Receiver wants to receive signal from sender A

apply key Ak bitwise (inner product)
Ae = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0) Ak = 2 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 2 + 0 = 6
result greater than 0, therefore, original bit was 1
receiving B
Be = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0) Bk = -2 + 0 + 0 - 2 - 2 + 0 = -6, i.e. 0
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CDMA on signal level I

data A
Ad
key A
key
sequence A
data key
signal A
Ak
As
Real systems use much longer keys resulting in a larger distance

between single code words in code space.
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CDMA on signal level II

As
signal A
data B
key B
key
sequence B
data key
signal B
Bd
1 1
1 0
1 0
1 0
0 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
Bk
Bs
As + Bs
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CDMA on signal level III

data A
Ad
As + Bs
Ak
(As + Bs)
* Ak
integrator
output
comparator
output
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CDMA on signal level IV

data B
Bd
As + Bs
Bk
(As + Bs)
* Bk
integrator
output
comparator
output
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CDMA on signal level V

As + Bs
wrong
key K
(As + Bs)
*K
integrator
output
comparator
output
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(0)
(0)
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SAMA - Spread Aloha Multiple Access
Aloha has only a very low efficiency, CDMA needs complex receivers to
be able to receive different senders with individual codes at the same time
Idea: use spread spectrum with only one single code (chipping sequence)
for spreading for all senders accessing according to aloha
collision
sender A
sender B
0
0
1
1
narrow
band
send for a
shorter period
with higher power
spread the signal e.g. using the chipping sequence 110101 (CDMA without CD)
t
Problem: find a chipping sequence with good characteristics
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Comparison
SDMA/TDMA/FDMA/CDMA
Approach
Idea
SDMA
segment space into
cells/sectors
Terminals
only one terminal can

be active in one
cell/one sector
Signal
separation
cell structure, directed

antennas
TDMA
segment sending
time into disjoint
time-slots, demand
driven or fixed
patterns
all terminals are
active for short
periods of time on
the same frequency
synchronization in
the time domain
Advantages very simple, increases established, fully

capacity per km
digital, flexible
Disadvantages
inflexible, antennas
typically fixed
Comment
only in combination
with TDMA, FDMA or
CDMA useful
guard space
needed (multipath
propagation),
synchronization
difficult
standard in fixed
networks, together
with FDMA/SDMA
used in many
mobile networks
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FDMA
CDMA
segment the
frequency band into
disjoint sub-bands
spread the spectrum

using orthogonal codes
every terminal has its

own frequency,
uninterrupted
all terminals can be active

at the same place at the
same moment,
uninterrupted
code plus special
receivers
filtering in the
frequency domain
simple, established,
robust
inflexible,
frequencies are a
scarce resource
flexible, less frequency

planning needed, soft
handover
complex receivers, needs
more complicated power
control for senders
typically combined
with TDMA
(frequency hopping
patterns) and SDMA
(frequency reuse)
still faces some problems,

higher complexity,
lowered expectations; will
be integrated with
TDMA/FDMA
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References
Chapter # 2 and Chapter # 3 from Mobile Communications, Second

Edition, By Prof. Dr. Jochen H. Schiller.
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12EC244-Mobile Communications

Unit-1 Wireless Transmission