*Lateral-01: A simple wall subjected to an active pressure condition.

(Revision: Sept.-08)

Consider a small 10-foot tall and 3 feet thick concrete retaining wall. The backfill behind the wall
will be from local sandy gravel with a dry unit weight of 115 pcf and an angle of internal friction
of 30 degrees. The wall will not have to retain water.
Estimate, (a) the lateral force on the wall from the backfill in an active pressure condition, (b) its
stability against overturning, and (c) its stability against sliding (use a Factor of Safety 2).

Solution:

30

(a) The Rankine active earth pressure coefficient is, K a = tan 2 45 = tan 2 45
= 0.33
2
2

The lateral pressure at the bottom of the wall is pa = hK a = ( 0.115 kcf )(10 ft )( 0.33 ) = 0.38 ksf
The force against the wall is Fa =

1
( pa ) h = ( 0.5 )( 0.38 )(10 ) = 1.9 kips per foot of wall
2

(b) The stability of the wall against overturning is found by taking moments about the point "O"
at the toe of the wall,
Factor of Safety ( FS ) =

( 3')(10 ')(1')( 0.150 kcf )(1.5 ft ) = 1.07 < 2

resisting moment
=
overturning moment
(1.9 kips )(10 / 3 ft )

(c) The stability of the wall against sliding towards the left is found by,
Factor of Safety ( FS ) =

257

resisting force ( 3' )(10 ' )(1' )( 0.150 kcf )( tan 30 )

= 1.37 < 2
=
driving force
(1.9 kips )

NG

NG

*Lateral02: Compare the Rankine and Coulomb lateral coefficients.

(Revision: Sept-2008)

(a) Compare the Rankine and Coulomb lateral earth pressure coefficients for a wall that retains a
granular backfill soil with = 35, = 12, = 0 and = 20. (Note: is the angle of friction
between the soil and the backside of the wall; is the angle of the slope for the backfill behind
the wall and is the back of the walls angle with respect to the vertical).
(b) What is the passive earth force on the wall at failure if the wall is 10 m high, = 18.1 kN/m3
and c = 9 kN/m2?

Solution:

(a) Rankines active and passive earth pressure coefficients,

35
) = 0.271
K a = tan 2 (45 - ) = tan 2 (45 2
2
35

) = 3.690 Note that

K p = tan 2 (45 + ) = tan 2 (45 +
2
2

Ka =

1
KP

Coulombs active and passive earth pressure coefficients,

Ka =

cos2 ( - )

sin( + )sin( )
cos cos( + ) 1 +

cos( + )cos( )

cos2 ( + )

cos2 (35 - 0)

sin(12 + 35)sin(35 20)

cos 0 cos(12 + 0) 1 +

cos(12 + 0)cos(0 20)

cos2 (35 + 0)

= 0.323

=
= 3.517
2
2

sin(35 12)sin(35 + 20)

sin( )sin( + )
2
cos2 cos( ) 1
cos 0 cos(12 0) 1

cos(12 0)cos(20 0)
cos( )cos( )

When = 0, = 0 and = 0 the Coulomb formula becomes identical to Rankines.

Kp =

(b) Therefore, the Rankine coefficient is 3.690 versus 3.517 for Coulombs. Using these values, the total
passive force Fp on the wall per unit length is,

Rankine ' s Fp = 0.5 h2 K p + 2ch K p = ( 0.5)(18.1)(10) ( 3.690) + 2( 9)(10) 3.690 = 3,685 kN / m2

2

Coulomb ' s Fp = 0.5 h2 K p + 2ch K p = ( 0.5)(18.1)(10) ( 3.517) + 2( 9)(10) 3.517 = 3,520 kN / m2

2

258

*Lateral-03: Passive pressures using the Rankine theory.

(Revision: Sept-08)

Using the Rankine method, find the magnitude and location of the passive pressure force Fp with
respect to the heel of the wall (point B), exerted upon a temporary retaining wall by a large
jacking system (which is not shown in the figure).

Solution:

259

*Lateral-04: The at-rest pressure upon an unyielding wall.

(Revision: Sept-08)

Find the lateral at-rest force F o on the wall and its location with respect to the top of the wall.
Given: Sand #1 has a unit weight of 105 pcf, c = 0 psf and = 30; Sand #2 has a unit weight of 122
pcf, c = 0 psf and = 30.

Solution:
From Jaky's empirical relation, K o = 1 sin ' = 1 sin 30 = 0.50

' = 0 ksf , because there is no surcharge loading upon the surface of Sand #1.
at z = 10 feet 'h = K o 'v = ( 0.5 )( 0.105kcf )(10 ft ) = 0.525 ksf
at z = 0 feet

at z = 20 feet 'h = ( 0.5 ) ( 0.105 )(10 ) + ( 0.122 0.0624 )10 = 0.823 ksf

w = w h = ( 0.0624 pcf )(10 ft ) = 0.624 ksf

1
1
1
( 0.525)(10 ) + ( 0.525)(10 ) + ( 0.302 )(10 ) + ( 0.624 )(10 )
2
2
2
i
kip
Fo = 2.63 + 5.25 + 1.49 + 3.12 = 12.5
ft

Fo = fi = F 1 + F 2 + F 3 + F 4 =

z=

( 2.63)( 6.67 ) + ( 5.25 )(15) + (1.49 )(16.67 ) + ( 3.12 )(16.67 ) = 173.1 kip ft
12.5 kip

12.5 kip

z = 13.8 ft from the top of the wall.

260

*Lateral-05: The contribution of cohesion to reduce the force on the wall.

(Revision: Sept-08)

A 21 foot high retaining wall supports a purely cohesive soil ( = 0) with a cohesion of 630 psf and
a unit weight of 113 pcf. Find:
(a) The Rankine active earth pressure on the wall.
(b) Estimate the depth of separation of the clay from the wall, and (c) find the lateral force upon
the wall whilst considering the clay separation.

21 ft

zK a

2c K a

Solution:

a) The coefficient of active earth pressure is,

K a = tan 2 45 = tan 2 45 = tan 2 45 = 1

2
2

The net active earth pressure pa on the wall is,

pa = 3 = hK a 2c K a
= ( 0.113 kcf )( 21 ft )(1) 2 ( 0.630ksf ) 1 = 2.37 1.26 = 1.11 ksf
b) The crack stops where the pressure is zero, pa = 0,
pa = hK a - 2c K a hK a = 2c K a
hcrack =

2c K a

Ka

2 ( 0.630ksf )
2c
=
= 11.2 feet
K a ( 0.113kcf )(1)

c) The total (Rankine) active earth force upn the wall Fa is,
1
Fa = H 2 K a 2cH K a
2
but there is no contact on the wall where the tension crack exists, therefore
Fa =

1
HK a 2c K a
2

2c 1
2c 2
2
H
= H 2cH K a +

K a 2

2 ( 0.63ksf )
1
2
= 5.48 k / ft of wall
Fa = ( 0.113kcf )( 21 ft ) (1) 2 ( 0.63ksf )( 21 ft )(1) +
2
( 0.113kcf )
2

261

**Lateral-06: The effect of a rising WT upon a walls stability.

(Revision: Sept-08)

A 4 m wall retains a dry sand backfill with a unit weight of 18.3 kN/m3, an angle of internal
friction of 36 and a porosity of 31%. The backfill is fully drained through weep holes.
1) What is the magnitude of the backfill force on a 1 m wide slice of wall if it is not allowed to
deflect?
2) What is the magnitude of the backfill force on the same 1 m wide slice, if the wall does deflect
enough to develop a Rankine active earth pressure condition?
3) What is the new force on the wall, and its location from its heel, if the walls weep holes are
clogged and the water table now rises to within 1 m of the ground surface behind the wall?

Solution:
1) No deflection of the wall means the soil is "at rest" and K 0 = 1 - sin = 1 - sin 36 = 0.41
kN
2

The forc e Fo = d h 2 K o = 18.3 3 ( 4 m ) (0.41) = 60 kN per meter of wall

m

2) When th e wall deflects to the left sufficiently to develop an active pressure condition,
36

K a = tan 2 45 = tan 2 45
= 0.26
2
2

kN
2

The force Fa = d h 2 K a = 18.3 3 ( 4 m ) (0.26) = 38 kN per meter of wall

m

3) The buoyant weight ' of the flooded sand is,

kN
m3
The stress at point "a" is a =0, and at "b" which is 1 meter below the surface,

' = sat w = d n w w = 18.3 + (0.31) ( 9.81) ( 9.81) = 11.5

b = d hK a = (18.3

kN
)(1m )(0.26) = 4.8 kN / m 2
m3

F1 = (4.8 kN / m 2 )(1m ) = 2.4 kN / m

262

kN
)(1m)(0.26) = 4.8 kN / m 2 F2 = (4.8kN / m 2 )(3m) = 14.4 kN / m
3
m
kN
c = ' hK a = (11.5 3 )(3m)(0.26) = 9.0 kN / m 2 F3 = (9.0kN / m 2 )(3m) = 13.5 kN / m
m
The water pressure and force,
kN
F4 = (29.4kN / m 2 )(3m) = 44.1 kN / m
w = w h = (9.81 3 )(3m) = 29.4 kN / m 2
m

bc = d hK a = (18.3

R =

Therefore

= 74.4 kN / m

i =1

The location of the resultant is y,

F1d1 + F2 d 2 + F3 d3 + F4 d 4 ( 2.4 )( 3.33m ) + (14.4 )(1.5m ) + (13.5 )(1m ) + ( 44.1)(1)
=
74.4
R
y = 1.17 m from the bottom of the wall.

y=

The percent increase in load upon the wall due to flooding is,
F =

263

( 74.4kN 38kN ) =
38kN

96% increase.

*Lateral-07: The effects of soil-wall friction upon the lateral pressure.

(Revision: Sept-08)

A 7.0 m high retaining wall has a horizontal backfill of dry sand with a unit weight of 17.2 kN/m3
and an angle of internal friction = 32. The wall is cast-in-place concrete, with a friction angle
= 20. Ignoring the effect of the passive pressure upon the toe of the footing, find the magnitude of
the active earth force upon a length of wall equal to 3.5 m assuming Rankine conditions.

Solution:
The force applied to the wall first requires the coefficient of active earth pressure,

32
K a = tan 2 (45 ) = tan 2 (45
) = 0.307
2
2
The horizontal force FH per unit width of wall is,
FH = h 2 K a = (17.2kN / m3 )(7 m) 2 (0.307) = 129.5 kN / m
The FH is related to the total force R on the wall as a function of the angle of wall friction ,
FH
129.5kN / m
=
= 138 kN / m
cos
cos 20
We are asked what is the total force every 3.5 m,
FH = R cos R =

Total Active Force every 3.5 m = (138 ) (3.5m) = 482kN

FH
FV

264

*Lateral-08: What happens when the lower stratum is stronger?

(Revision: Sept-08)

Calculate the active force Fa and its location with respect to the heel of the 6 m wall (point A), for
the worst case (clogged weep holes).

1m
WT

worst load case

sat = 18.5 kN/m3

Medium dense sand

3m

= 30

H=6m
Weep holes

= 21.2 kN/m3

3m

= 90

P
A

li

S o lu tio n .
T h e w o r s t a c tiv e p r e s s u r e lo a d o c c u r s w h e n th e w a te r ta b le r a is e s to th e to p o f th e w a ll.
30

) = ta n 2 ( 4 5
) = 0 .3 3 3
K a sand = ta n 2 ( 4 5
2
2

90
) = ta n 2 ( 4 5
) = 0 th e lim e s to n e d o e s n o t lo a d th e w a ll.
K a lim e s to n e = t a n 2 ( 4 5
2
2
T h e = 9 0 is r e a lly a c o m b in a tio n o f s h e a r a n d c o h e s io n ( " c e m e n ta tio n " ) .
p 1 = ' h1 K
p2 =

= (

SAT

) h1 K

= (1 8 . 5 - 9 . 8 ) ( 3 ) ( 0 . 3 3 ) =

8 .7 k N / m

5 8 .8 k N / m

H = (9 .8 ) ( 6 m )

F1 = p 1 h1 = ( 0 . 5 ) ( 8 . 7 ) ( 3 m )

= 1 7 6 .4 k N / m
= 1 8 9 .5 k N / m

T h e lo c a tio n y =

h1

y 1 F1 + y 2 F 2
=
F to ta l

+
F1

(4 m

) (1 3 . 1 ) + ( 2 m
(1 8 9 . 5 )

Ftotal

p1
h2

F2
A

265

1 3 .1 k N / m

F 2 = p 2 H = ( 0 .5 )(5 8 .8 ) ( 6 m )
F to ta l

p2

) (1 7 6 . 4

= 2 .1m f ro m A .

*Lateral-09: Strata with different parameters.

(Revised Oct-09)

Draw the pressure diagram on the wall in an active pressure condition, and find the resultant Ftotal
on the wall and its location with respect to the top of the wall.
q = 2.5 ksf

w.t.

0.83

c=0
= 115 pcf

H = 20

10

= 30
b
c=0
= 125 pcf
= 40

0.83
0.66

10

0.18

+
5

1.25
0.66

0.13

Solution:

Step 1
Ka1 = tan2 (45- 30/2) = 0.333
Ka 2 = tan2 (45- 40/2) = 0.217
Step 2
The stress on the wall at point a is:
The stress at b (within the top stratum) is:

pa = q Ka 1 = (2.5) (0.333) = 0.83 ksf

pb+ = (q + h) Ka 1

= [2.5 + (0.115 - 0.0624) (10)] [0.333]

= 1.01 ksf

The stress at b (within bottom stratum) is:

pb - = (q + h) Ka 2

= [2.5 + (0.115 0.0624) (10)] [0.217]

= 0.66 ksf

The stress at point c is:

pc = [q + (h)1 + (h)2] Ka 2

= [2.5 + (0.115 0.0624) (10) + (0.125 0.0624)(10)] [0.217]

The pressure of the water upon the wall is:

= 0.79 ksf

pw = wh = (0.0624) (20) = 1.25 ksf

Step 3
266

The forces from each area:

F1 = (10) (0.83)

= 8.30 kips/ft

F2 = (10)(0.18) = 0.90 kips/ft

F3 = (10) (0.66)

= 6.60 kips/ft

F4 = (10)(0.13) = 0.65 kips/ft

F5 = (1.25) (20) = 12.5 kips/ft
Ftotal

= 29.0 kips/ft

Step 4
The location of forces is at:
y =

5 8.3 + 20 0.9 + 15 6.6 + 50 0.65 + 40 12.5

3
3
3
29

The stress at point c is:

267

= 0.66 ksf

= 11.2 feet from top of wall

*Lateral-10: The effects of a clay stratum at the surface.

The sheet pile wall shown below is flexible enough to permit the retained soil to develop an active
earth pressure condition. Calculate the magnitude of the resultant Ftotal of the active force above
the point A upon the wall. Assume Rankine conditions.
Solution:

Notice that the vertical pressure diagram will always increase in magnitude, but the horizontal pressures
are governed by the Ka coefficient, which may increase or decrease the pressures on the wall.

Surcharge q = 0.84 ksf

-0.84

c+

3.25

no water present
20

-0.25

Sandy clay

16.75

c = 500 psf

10

= 10

b+

Dense sand

+0.48

b-

+1.29

c=0

= 40

= 130 pcf

+0 48

+0 77

Lateral load from the surcharge

c+ = Ka1 q = (0.70)(0.84 kcf)

= 0.59 ksf

c- = -2c K a1 = -2(0.5) 0.70 = -0.84 ksf

c = 0.59 - 0.84

= -0.25 ksf

b+ = Ka 1 h 2c K a 1 + q Ka
= (0.7) (0.11) (20) (2) (0.50) 0.70
= 1.29 ksf

268

b- = Ka 2 h 0 = (0.22) (0.11) (20)

= 0.48 ksf

a = 0.48 + Ka 2 h = 0.48 + (0.22)(0.13)(10) = 0.48 + 0.29 = 0.77 ksf

Ka 1 = tan2 (45 - /2)

= tan2 40 = 0.70

F1 = (-0.25)(3.25)

= - 0.41 k/ft (tension).

Ka 2 = tan2 (45 - 40 / 2) = tan2 25 = 0.22

F2 = (1.29)(16.75)

= +10.80 k/ft

F3 = (0.48)(10)

= + 4.80 k/ft

F4 = (0.29)(10)

= + 1.45 k/ft

Ftotal

269

= +16.6 kip/ft

**Lateral-11: Anchoring to help support a wall.

(Revision: Sept.-08)

The wall shown below will be used to retain the sides of an excavation for the foundations of a
large building. The engineer has decided to use earth anchors in lieu of braces or rakers to
stabilize the wall.
(1) What is the minimum distance x from the anchor to behind the wall?
(2) What is your recommended factor of safety for the anchor? What is an economical load for
the anchor?
x

Grouted anchor A

24

= 30
c = 150 psf
O

Solution:

(1) The anchor must be beyond the passive slip plane, or (x) tan 30 = 19 or x = 33 feet.
(2) Ka = tan2(45 - /2) = 0.33 and Kp = tan2(45 + /2) = 3.0
The active force upon the wall per unit width Fa is:
Fa = H2Ka -2cH K a = (0.105)(24)2(0.33) - 2(0.15)(24) 0.33 = 5.84 kip/ft

with the force

located at = (19) = 6.33 above point O (note that the tensile portion does not load the wall).
The potential passive failure force (from the anchor) on the wall Fp is:
Fp = H2Kp + 2cH K p = (0.105)(24)2(3) + 2(0.15)(24) 3 = 103 kip/ft

270

The factor of safety should be the same for an active failure as a passive failure. Therefore, a simple
Fp
F
103 kips
equation could be written as, Fa ( FS ) =
=17.6 FS = 4.2
or (FS)2 = p =
Fa 5.84 kips
( FS )
Note that this corresponds to a load in the anchor of (5.84)(4.2) = 24.5 kips/ft (which is the same as
using the passive force = (103)/(4.2) = 24.5 kips/ft). The horizontal spacing of the anchors is not
influenced by this analysis, and depends on cost factors. A common spacing would be 10 feet, which
means A = 245 kips.

271

**Lateral-12: The effect of five strata have upon a wall.

(Revision Oct-09)

Plot the pressure diagram and find the resultant force F and its location under an active pressure
condition.

At h=0

p1 = q K1a = (2) (0.307) = 0.614 ksf

at h = -6

p2 = 1h K1a = (0.110)(6) (0.307) = 0.203 ksf

at h = -8

p3 = (2 - w)h K2a = (0.125 - 0.0624)(2)(0.333) = 0.417 ksf

= [q + (1) 6 + (2 - w) 2] K3a 2c (K3a

at h = -(8+dh)

from p = h Ka - 2cKa

= [2 + (0.11)6 + (0.125 0.0624)2](0.704) 2(0.6)(0.84) = 0.95 ksf

at h= -17

p4 = (3 - w)h K3a = (0.126-0.0624)(9)(0.704) = 0.403 ksf 0.95+0.403 = 1.35 ksf

at h = -(17 + dh)
at h = -25

p5 = (4 - w)h K4a = (0.120 - 0.0624)(8)(1) = 0.46 ksf 1.76 + 0.46 = 2.22 ksf

at h = -(25 + dh)
at h = -30

= [2 + 0.66 + 0.125 + (0.0626) (9)](1) 2(0.8)(1) = 1.76 ksf

= [2 + 0.66 + 0.125 + 0.572 + 8(0.120 0.0624)](0.49) 2(0.4)(0.7) = 1.13 ksf

p6 = (5-w)h K5a = (0.120-0.0624)(5) (0.49) = 0.141 ksf 1.31+0.14 = 1.45 ksf

272

F1 = (0.614)(6) = 3.68 kips

The resultant R is, R = Fi = 57.1 kips

F2 = 0.5(0.203)(6) = 0.61 kips

F3 = (0.817)(2) = 1.63 kips
F4 = 0.5(0.042)(2) = 0.04

The location of R is.M0 = 0 (about 0)

F5 = (0.95)(9) = 8.55 kips 57.09(y) = (3.68)(27) + (0.61)(26) = (1.63)(23)

F6 = 0.5(0.40(9) = 1.80 kip
F7 = (1.758)(8) = 14.1 kips
F8 = 0.5(0.461)(8) = 1.84 kips
F9 = (1.31)(5) = 6.55 kips
F10 = 0.5(0.141)(5) = 0.35 kips
F11 = 0.51(1.50)(24) = 18.0 kips
57.1 kips

273

y = 611 / 57.1 = 10.7 feet above 0

**Lateral-13: The stability of a reinforced concrete wall.

(Revised Oct-09)

Calculate the Factor of Safety against, (a) overturning, (b) sliding, and (c) bearing capacity
failures.

0.4

= 10
0.62m

H = 8
m

1
H = 9.58m

2
1.5 m 0.6 m

3.5 m

0.75
m

0.96m

1 =

16.8

yc

kN
m

conc =

2 =

17.6

kN
m

23.6

kN
m

1 =

32

2 =

28

c1 =

c2 =

30

kN
m

274

Ka = cos

cos cos 2 cos 2 '

cos + cos 2 cos 2 '

= cos10o

cos10o cos 2 10o cos 2 32o

cos10o + cos 2 10o cos 2 32o

= 0.322

Fa = (1/2) H2 1 Ka = (1/2)(9.58 m)2(16.8 kN/m3)(0.322) = 248 kN/m

Fv = Fa sin10 = (248 kN/m)(0.174) = 43.1 kN/m
Fh = Fa cos10 = (248 kN/m)(0.985) = 244 kN/m
a) The factor of safety against overturning is found by taking moments about point O.
The resisting moment against overturning is MR,
MR = 23.6 kN/m3[(0.4m)(8m)(1.90m) + (1/2)(0.2m)(8m)(1.63m) + (0.96m)(5.6m)(2.8m)] (1m)
+ 16.8 kN/m3 [(3.5m)(8m)(3.85m) + (1/2)(0.617m)(3.5m)(4.43m)] (1m)
+ 43.1 kN/m (5.6m)(1m) = 2661 kN-m
and the overturning moment is MO = Fh (1/3) H = 244 kN/m (9.58m)(1/3) = 777 kN-m
FSO = MR / MO = 3 .42

b) The factor of safety (FSS) against sliding failure,

K1 = K2 = 2/3
Kp = tan2( 45 + 28/2 ) = 2.77
Fp = (1/2) 2 H2 Kp + 2 c2 H

Kp

= (0.5)(2.77)(17.6 kN/m3)(1.75 m)2 + (2)(30kN/m2) 2.77 (1.75 m) = 249 kN/m

the driving force = Fh = 244 kN/m
the resisting force = FR = V tan(2/3)(28) + (5.6)(2/3)(30) = 355 kN/m
FSS = Fh / FR = 1.46

c) the factor of safety (FSBC) against a bearing capacity failure,

275