Waste Management

Waste Management is an international journal devoted to the presentation and discussion of

information on the generation, prevention, characterization, monitoring, treatment,
handling, reuse and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes, both in industrialized and in
economically developing countries. The journal addresses various types of solid wastes including
municipal (e.g., residential, institutional, commercial, light industrial), agricultural, and special
(e.g., C and D, health care, household hazardous wastes, sewage sludge).
Waste Management is designed for scientists, engineers, and managers, regardless of their
discipline, who are involved in scientific, technical and other issues related to solid waste
management. Emphasis is placed on integrated approaches. These approaches require the
blending of technical and non-technical factors. Although the dissemination and application of
innovative technical information is extremely important, the implementation of sustainable waste
management practices also requires a thorough understanding of the pertinent legal, social,
economic, and regulatory issues involved.
This strives to present a mix of subject matter that will best serve to help the reader understand
the breadth of issues related to solid waste management. The following are some of the major
areas in which this are solicited:
Generation and characterization
Minimization
Recycling and reuse
Storage, collection, transport, and transfer
Treatment (mechanical, biological, chemical, thermal, other)
Landfill disposal (including design, monitoring, remediation of old sites)
Environmental considerations
Financial and marketing aspects
Policy and regulations
Education and training
Planning and implementation.
Importance of Proper Waste Disposal
Public health importance of waste management
How does waste management affect public health and the environment? Improper disposal of
wastes, such as solid waste, human excreta and sewage, is one of the major risk factors that
affect the health and comfort of individuals in rural Ethiopia where municipal or onsite facilities
do not exist, or are not functional.

Name three diseases or pathogens that are transmitted in human waste.

Poor waste handling and disposal can lead to environmental pollution, encourage the breeding of
disease-vector insects, animal scavengers and rodents, and result in a range of diseases through
different routes of exposure such as faeco-oral and soil transmitted mechanisms.
Figure 18.2 shows these routes of exposure diagrammatically; you may remember this diagram
from Study Session 1. In this figure, you can see that faeces are the common source of
contamination to the other Fs fluids, fingers, fomites and flies. These then contaminate our
food and, consequently, a new susceptible human host.

Figure 18.2 The F-diagram showing the faeco-oral disease transmission pathways.
Survey studies conducted in different parts of Ethiopia indicate that there are many highly
prevalent faeco-orally transmitted intestinal parasites and other infectious agents (bacteria and
viruses) in our environment. To break the transmission route of these disease agents, there needs
to be total sanitation, which means prevention of any human contact with waste, i.e. no open
defecation and the proper handling of solid waste. The broken lines in Figure 18.2 show the
points at which a barrier or intervention can be made to prevent transmission. The first line of
defence is to contain the faeces. The second is to protect the food from contamination and the
third is to protect the potential host, the person who may become infected, from contaminated
food, fingers, drinking water or other objects. To achieve total sanitation, the community needs
to be involved in any plan to clean the local environment and must initiate its own waste disposal
methods. You will learn some of the techniques that are used to encourage this sort of
behavioural change in Study Session 21.
In addition to the dangers of disease transmission, health hazards associated with improper solid
or liquid waste disposal include:

Public or community nuisance due to foul odour and unsightliness of open defecation
faecal matter and openly dumped solid wastes.

Obstruction of drainage systems leading to creation of favourable conditions for disease

vector breeding sites.

Fire hazards.

Psychological health hazards.

Effects of waste to the ozone layer

The more waste we generate, the more we have to dispose of. Some methods of waste
disposal release air pollutants and greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Waste recycling
offers one means of reducing the impacts of waste disposal on the atmosphere, but there
are other methods of waste disposal which are more environmentally friendly.

The most common disposal methods, particularly in the UK, are landfill and to a lesser
extent incineration. Each year approximately 111 million tonnes of controlled waste
(household, commercial and industrial waste) are disposed of in landfill sites in the UK.
Some waste from sewage sludge is also placed in landfill sites, along with waste from
mining and quarrying. There are over 4000 landfill sites in the UK. As landfill waste
decomposes, methane is released in considerable quantities. Currently it is estimated that
over 1.5 million tonnes of methane are released by landfill sites in the UK each year.
Methane is a strong greenhouse gas and contributes to global warming. Furthermore, the
leachate fluids formed from decomposing waste can permeate through the underlying and
surrounding geological strata, polluting groundwater which may be used for drinking
water supplies. Containment landfills however, can limit the spread of this waste
leachate.

Incineration is the second largest waste disposal method in most countries. In the UK,
approximately 5% of household waste, 7.5% of commercial waste, and 2% of industrial
waste is disposed of by incineration. When burning waste, a large amount of energy,
carbon dioxide and other potentially hazardous air pollutants is given off. Modern
incinerators however, can use this waste energy to generate electricity and hence prevent
the energy from being wasted. Incineration plants range from large scale, mass-burn, and
municipal waste incinerators to smaller clinical waste incinerators used in hospitals.
During the 1990s many UK hospital incinerators were forced to close owing to tougher
emissions legislation introduced by the 1990 Environmental Protection Act. Today,
hospitals tend to share one large incinerator to dispose of the wastes for a number of
hospitals.

A less common but more sustainable method of waste disposal is anaerobic digestion. In
this process waste decomposes in an enclosed chamber, unlike in a landfill site. Digestion
takes place in an oxygen-free environment. Bacteria thrive in this environment by using
the oxygen that is chemically combined within the waste. They decompose waste by
breaking down the molecules to form gaseous by-products (methane) and small quantities
of solid residue. Anaerobic sewage plants produce significant quantities of methane,
which can be burnt to generate electricity. Liquid and solid organic fertilisers are also
formed, and can be sold to cover operating costs. For several years, sewage sludge and
agricultural waste has been treated by anaerobic digestion, and the process is now being

used for municipal solid waste. It requires the biodegradable section of the waste to be
separated from other material and put into digestion chambers. Currently, the UK has
only a small number of plants, and each can handle only a few hundred tonnes of waste
each year. However, the usage of anaerobic digestion as a sustainable waste disposal
method is forecast to increase. Many other countries already utilise anaerobic digestion to
dispose of large amounts of waste. Denmark for example, treats 1.1 million tonnes of
waste by anaerobic digestion every year.

As well as recycling waste, individuals can adopt more sustainable ways of disposing it.
One way is to compost any organic waste such as food and garden waste. Organic waste
breaks down over a few weeks into a mulch which can be used as a soil fertiliser.
Individual households have practiced small-scale composting for many years, and the UK
Government is now encouraging this on a wider scale. Large-scale composting schemes
are also being developed, with the collection of organic waste from parks and civic
amenity sites. Garden and food wastes are collected directly from households in separate
kerbside collections. Large central facilities can then compost the collected organic
waste. These schemes are to help the UK meet its target of recycling and composting
33% of household waste by 2015.

Garbage segregation
Most Indian households are in the habit of using one garbage bin for all their waste, and
therefore understanding garbage segregation can become problematic. But with recycling and
waste management becoming major concerns, now is the time to start segregation. Here are
some guidelines to help you segregate garbage at home.
What is garbage segregation?
Garbage segregation is a process of dividing garbage into reduce, reuse and recycle
materials. We in India, see garbage in every nook and corner of the road. With new garbage
segregation rules, the government is attempting to clean up our cities., The biggest challenge,
however, is to get regular folks like you and me to understand the rules of segregation, how
many garbage bins to use and what to dump where.
Importance of garbage segregation
We have learned to dump trash and we have learned to get rid of the trash but we still need to
learn how to do it right. In the 90s, in the US, Captain Planet was an animated television series
that introduced kids to the phrase, Reduce, reuse and recycle. However, the movement has on
really caught on in India very recently.

The food we eat, the air we breathe and the water we drink are all polluted, thanks to our careless
behaviour. We see heaps and piles of garbage lying on every street and the stink is unbearable!
Even landfills are filling up and waste management is now a giant problem facing our nation. It
is time for change and no government can bring this change without the support of the people.
This garbage is polluting the soil, water and in turn coming back to us in a harmful way. The
medical waste is causing a lot of harm, it is, in fact helping the diseases to spread.
Garbage segregation can make our streets cleaner, it can help us recycle things, reduce the use of
certain raw materials and hence in making our country and planet a better place to live in.

How to segregate garbage

Understanding segregation is not so difficult. There are four types of garbage
1. Wet waste
2. Sanitary waste
3. Dry waste
4. Hazardous household waste or E-waste
Wet waste
Rotten fruits, vegetable and their peels, left-over food, egg shells and rotten eggs, mango seeds,
tea bags, used coffee powder, coconut shell and fibre, used flowers, non-veg food remains,
bones, spoiled spices, chewing gum, garden waste, rangoli colours and dust come under wet
waste. Spoiled or expired food should be removed from its packet and discarded. Nails must be
wrapped in a paper. Anything liquid amongst these must be drained and the remaining must be
wrapped in a newspaper.
Sanitary waste
Used sanitary napkins, panty liners, sanitary cloths, condoms, syringes, cotton and bandages,
diapers, tissue papers, ear buds, dental floss, blood-stained cloth, etc., is sanitary waste. This
should be wrapped properly in newspapers and marked with a red cross before handing over to
garbage collectors.
Dry waste
Mop stick and mop clothes should be handed over directly. Toilet cleaning brushes, other
brushes, toothbrushes and scrubs must be dried first and then wrapped in newspapers. Doormats
and containers of pesticides, various papers and stationery, razors and blades, various bottles
should be kept separate. All the covers of various food/dairy items like tetra packs etc must be

cleaned, dried and handed over separately. Hair, waste pet food and thermocol should be
wrapped in paper
Hazardous household waste
Mosquito repellent bottles and mats, used phenyl air fresheners, expired medicines, tablet covers,
syrup bottles, injection bottles and other medical discards, old paints, fluorescents and button
cells should be separately handed to the collectors. Batteries, CDs and cassettes, CFL, tube
lights, printer cartridges, broken clocks and thermometers should be packed in newspaper or
cardboard box and handed over. Cosmetics should be wrapped in the newspaper marked with red
cross on it.

You will need four dustbins and absolutely no plastic bags for this kind of garbage segregation.
Though it is not practically possible to do follow all the above-mentioned steps to a T, we must
try our best to get as close as possible.
Recycling
Paper
Paper recycling uses mechanical processes to chew up paper into individual fibers, creating a
pulp that can be made into new paper. Products made from recycled paper can come completely
from recycled sources or contain a mixture of new and recycled paper. Unlike many other
products, paper cannot be recycled indefinitely. The recycling process breaks the fibers,
eventually making a product suitable only for lower-quality papers, such as newsprint. (See
References 3)
Metals
Ninety-nine percent of beer cans and 97 percent of soda cans in the United States are made from
aluminum (see References 4). However, more steel -- used primarily for food storage containers,
construction materials and automobile parts -- ends up in the waste stream (see References 5).
Aluminum and steel are both sorted during the recycling process and melted down to produce
new items, such as new beverage cans or automobile parts. Recycling metals saves the cost and
environmental impact of mining virgin materials. (See References 4 and 5)
Glass
Recycling facilities crush glass and melt it down for use in new glass products. Since recycled
glass melts at lower temperatures than new glass, it takes less energy and creates less pollution to
make a product out of recycled glass. Most glass goes toward making beverage containers, but

recycled glass has other applications, such as safety reflectors for roads (see References 6).
Although many curbside programs accept glass, in 2009 Americans only recycled about 31
percent of glass containers (see References 1, page 3).
Plastics
Plastics make up more than just water bottles; they also form durable goods like appliances and
medical devices, and nondurable goods like bags and diapers. U.S. use of plastics has risen in
recent decades, and recycling plastics helps offsets the negative impacts of high use. Recycled
plastics are ground into flakes that go into making new plastic products. You can identify the
type of plastic and its recyclability by checking the numeric code that appears within a triangle
on the container. Municipalities don't always recycle all types of plastic, so check with your local
sanitation department before tossing all plastics into the recycling bin. (See References 7)
Hazardous Wastes
Hazardous wastes contain corrosive, toxic, ignitable or reactive ingredients and can threaten the
safety of people and the environment if improperly handled. Common household hazardous
wastes include motor oil, pesticides, batteries and paints. Municipalities differ in how they
handle hazardous wastes, but you may have recycling services available in your area. Contact
your local environmental, health or waste management agency for instructions on how to
properly dispose of hazardous wastes. (See References 8)
Organic Wastes
Organic wastes -- including yard trimmings, paper and food scraps -- made up over half of the
solid waste stream in 2009 (see References 1, page 3). Depending on its original form, organic
waste can be recycled into mulches and composts for gardening uses, or even be reborn as
biodegradable products, paperboard, wood packaging, fiberboard and particle board. (See
References 9)

Composting At Home
Composting Resources
Compost is organic material that can be added to soil to help plants grow. Food scraps and yard
waste currently make up 20 to 30 percent of what we throw away, and should be composted
instead. Making compost keeps these materials out of landfills where they take up space and
release methane, a potent greenhouse gas.
All composting requires three basic ingredients:

Browns - This includes materials such as dead leaves, branches, and twigs.

Greens - This includes materials such as grass clippings, vegetable waste, fruit scraps,
and coffee grounds.

Water - Having the right amount of water, greens, and browns is important for compost
development.

Your compost pile should have an equal amount of browns to greens. You should also alternate
layers of organic materials of different-sized particles. The brown materials provide carbon for
your compost, the green materials provide nitrogen, and the water provides moisture to help
break down the organic matter.
Benefits of Composting

Enriches soil, helping retain moisture and suppress plant diseases and pests.

Reduces the need for chemical fertilizers.

Encourages the production of beneficial bacteria and fungi that break down organic
matter to create humus, a rich nutrient-filled material.

Reduces methane emissions from landfills and lowers your carbon footprint.

How to Compost at Home

There are many different ways to make a compost pile; we have provided the following for
general reference. Helpful tools include pitchforks, square-point shovels or machetes, and water
hoses with a spray head. Regular mixing or turning of the compost and some water will help
maintain the compost.
Backyard Composting

Select a dry, shady spot near a water source for your compost pile or bin.

Add brown and green materials as they are collected, making sure larger pieces are
chopped or shredded.

Moisten dry materials as they are added.

Once your compost pile is established, mix grass clippings and green waste into the pile
and bury fruit and vegetable waste under 10 inches of compost material.

Optional: Cover top of compost with a tarp to keep it moist. When the material at the
bottom is dark and rich in color, your compost is ready to use. This usually takes
anywhere between two months to two years.

Indoor Composting
If you do not have space for an outdoor compost pile, you can compost materials indoors using a
special type of bin, which you can buy at a local hardware store, gardening supplies store, or
make yourself. Remember to tend your pile and keep track of what you throw in. A properly
managed compost bin will not attract pests or rodents and will not smell bad. Your compost
should be ready in two to five weeks.
Build Your Own Indoor Bin

Drill half-an-inch diameter holes in the bottom and sides of a plastic garbage can. The
size of the garbage can depends on how much compost you'd like to make.

Place a brick in the bottom of a larger garbage can, surround the brick with a layer of
wood chips or soil, and place the smaller can inside on top of the brick.

Wrap insulation around the outer can to keep the compost warm and cover the cans with
a lid.

Sanitary landfills are sites where waste is isolated from the environment until it is safe.
It is considered when it has completely degraded biologically, chemically and physically. In
high-income countries, the level of isolation achieved may be high. However, such an expensive
high level of isolation may not be technically necessary to protect public health. Four basic
conditions should be met before a site can be regarded as a sanitary landfill (see following.) The
ways of doing this should be adapted to local conditions. The immediate goal is to meet, to the
best extent possible, the four stated basic sanitary landfill conditions, with a longer term goal to
meet them eventually in full.
Small incremental improvements in landfill design and operation over several years are
more likely to succeed than attempts to make a single, large leap in engineering
expectations.
Large landfills will require more investment to improve standards than smaller sites. However,
the unit cost of these improvements (measured per tonne of waste landfilled or per head of
population served) will decrease with increasing site size. There are financial and other benefits
to sites with long operating lifetimes (ten years or more). Large regional sites serving two or
more cities could be economically beneficial, providing waste transport costs are not too high.

Basic requirements
As a minimum, four basic conditions should be met by any site design and operation before it
can be regarded as a sanitary landfill:
Full or partial hydrogeological isolation: if a site cannot be located on land which
naturally contains leachate security, additional lining materials should be brought to the
site to reduce leakage from the base of the site (leachate) and help reduce contamination
of groundwater and surrounding soil. If a liner - soil or synthetic - is provided without a
system of leachate collection, all leachate will eventually reach the surrounding
environment. Leachate collection and treatment must be stressed as a basic requirement.
Formal engineering preparations: designs should be developed from local geological
and hydrogeological investigations. A waste disposal plan and a final restoration plan
should also be developed.
Permanent control: trained staff should be based at the landfill to supervise site
preparation and construction, the depositing of waste and the regular operation and
maintenance.
Planned waste emplacement and covering: waste should be spread in layers and
compacted. A small working area which is covered daily helps make the waste less
accessible to pests and vermin.