HIV/AIDS

INVITED ARTICLE

Kenneth H. Mayer, Section Editor

Tuberculosis in Pregnant and Postpartum

Women: Epidemiology, Management, and
Research Gaps
Jyoti S. Mathad1 and Amita Gupta2,3
1

Division of Infectious Diseases, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York; 2Division of Infectious Diseases, Johns Hopkins University
School of Medicine, and 3Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland

Tuberculosis kills approximately 500 000 women annually, a disproportionate number of them during
their reproductive years [14], yet there are critical research gaps regarding the epidemiological and clinical
features of tuberculosis in pregnant and postpartum
women. In this article, we review the current state of
knowledge, highlighting those gaps.
WHAT IS THE GLOBAL BURDEN OF
TUBERCULOSIS AND LATENT
TUBERCULOSIS AMONG PREGNANT
AND POSTPARTUM WOMEN?
The human immunodeciency virus (HIV) epidemic,
reduced healthcare access, and hormonal changes
likely make tuberculosis a leading cause of morbidity
and mortality in women of reproductive age [57].

Received 3 April 2012; accepted 16 August 2012; electronically published 31

August 2012.
Correspondence: Jyoti S. Mathad, MD, Division of Infectious Diseases, Weill
Cornell Medical College, 525 E 68th St, Box 125, New York, NY 10065
([email protected]).
Clinical Infectious Diseases 2012;55(11):153249
The Author 2012. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Infectious
Diseases Society of America. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please e-mail:
[email protected].
DOI: 10.1093/cid/cis732

1532

CID 2012:55 (1 December)

HIV/AIDS

Burden of Active Tuberculosis

Table 1 summarizes the prevalence of active tuberculosis in pregnant and postpartum women from highburden (>60 cases per 100 000 population per year)
and low-burden tuberculosis countries (<20 cases per
100 000 population per year or <10 cases total). Rates
of active tuberculosis ranges from 0.7% to 7.9% among
HIV-positive women in high-burden countries, and is
as high as 11% if they are positive for tuberculin skin
test (TST) [8] (Table 1). High-burden countries may
underestimate prevalence because many women do
not have access to healthcare when pregnant [1]. Few
national programs collect or report pregnancy-specic
tuberculosis data to the World Health Organization
(WHO).
Burden of Latent Tuberculosis

Latent tuberculosis prevalence in pregnancy likely

mirrors that of the general population, which is 4.2%
in the United States [22]. It is up to 10 times higher
among foreign-born Americans [23], including pregnant women [11], regardless of HIV status. Inconsistent screening complicates estimates of latent
tuberculosis prevalence in high-burden countries.
Small studies report prevalence in pregnancy of 19%
34% among HIV-negative women in India [24] and

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Tuberculosis is most common during a womans reproductive years and is a major cause of maternalchild
mortality. National guidelines for screening and management vary widely owing to insufcient data. In this
article, we review the available data on (1) the global burden of tuberculosis in women of reproductive age;
(2) how pregnancy and the postpartum period affect the course of tuberculosis; (3) how to screen and diagnose pregnant and postpartum women for active and latent tuberculosis; (4) the management of active and
latent tuberculosis in pregnancy and the postpartum period, including the safety of tuberculosis medications;
and (5) infant outcomes. We also include data on HIV/tuberculosis coinfection and drug-resistant tuberculosis. Finally, we highlight research gaps in tuberculosis in pregnant and postpartum women.

Table 1. Prevalence of Active Tuberculosis Among Pregnant and Postpartum Women

Prevalence

Study Site

Author

Low-burden countries
United States
Good et al4

Sample
Size, No.

HIV
Positive, %

Locations of
Tuberculosis
Screening

Site of
Infection

Tuberculosis
Case Definition

Overall %

Drug
Resistant, %

371

Unknowna

Inpatient

PTB

TST+ or clinical features

with sputum AFB+/positive
culture or gastric washing

7.20b

59.20

51 983

63 (7/11)c

Inpatient

PTB, EPTB

Positive culture of sputum,

urine, or CSF

0.06

NA

United States

Margono et al9

United States

Schulte et al10

207

100

ANC

Unspecified

Positive sputum culture

1.00

NA

United States

Schwartz et al11

3847

ANC

PTB

Symptoms or TST+/CXR+
with sputum AFB+

0.13

NA

United Kingdom

Llewelyn et al12

9069

0 (0/10)d

Inpatient

PTB, EPTB

0.14

United Kingdom

Kothari et al13

12 697

4 (1/24)e

ANC, inpatient,
postpartum clinic

PTB, EPTB

Symptoms with CXR+/response

to treatment or positive
culture/biopsy
Symptoms with TST+
and sputum AFB+/positive
culture or CXR+/US+
with positive biopsy/bronch

0.25f

NA

Symptoms or TST+ with sputum

AFB+/positive culture/biopsy
Symptoms with sputum
AFB+/positive culture or CXR

3.40

NA

2.80

NA

High-burden countries

HIV/AIDS

Gupta et al14

715

100

ANC, inpatient

PTB, EPTB

Kenya

Jonnalagadda et al15

393

100

ANC

Unspecified

Rwanda

Leroy et al16

431

49

Inpatient

PTB, EPTB

Symptoms with sputum

AFB+/positive culture
or biopsy

HIV+: 7.90,
HIV : 0.46

NA

Tanzania

Sheriff et al17

396

ANC

PTB

Nachega et al8

120h

100

Postpartum clinic

PTB, EPTB

HIV+: 10.0g,
HIV: 0.53g
11.00

NA

South Africa

Symptoms or TST+ with

sputum AFB+ or CXR+
TST+, CXR+, or symptoms with
sputum AFB+/positive culture

South Africa

Pillay et al18

50 518

29

ANC, inpatient

PTB, EPTB

Symptoms with sputum AFB+,

CXR+, or positive
culture/biopsy

HIV+: 0.77,
HIV: 0.07

1.30

South Africa

Kali et al19

370

100

Unspecified

NA

Gounder et al20

3963

36

Symptoms with sputum

AFB+/positive culture 1 (MGIT)
Symptoms with sputum
AFB+/positive culture 1 (MGIT)

2.16

South Africa

ANC, posttest
counseling
ANC pretest
counseling

HIV+: 0.69,
HIV: 0.20

0.00

India

CID 2012:55 (1 December)

PTB

NA

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CID 2012:55 (1 December)

Pregnancy suppresses the T-helper 1 (Th1) proinammatory

response, which may mask symptoms while increasing susceptibility to new infection and reactivation of tuberculosis
[3032]. (These effects are seen in other infectious diseases,
such as inuenza and Mycobacterium leprae, which are more
common and severe during pregnancy [33].) After delivery,
Th1 suppression reversessimilar to immune reconstitution
syndrome in HIV patients starting antiretroviral therapy
(ART)and symptoms are exacerbated [31]. A large study recently found that early postpartum women are twice as likely
to develop tuberculosis as nonpregnant women [34]. This and
other studies suggest that biologic changes in pregnancy and
postpartum inuence tuberculosis epidemiology [4, 14, 35, 36],
challenging the ndings of earlier, smaller studies that found
no effect [37, 38]. Practitioners should be cognizant of the unpredictable symptomatology of tuberculosis during pregnancy.
SCREENING PREGNANT WOMEN FOR ACTIVE
AND LATENT TUBERCULOSIS

All diagnosed with AFB-negative tuberculosis.

All TST-positive women.

h

Only 24 women tested for HIV.

A total of 38% were pulmonary, 53% extrapulmonary.

f

Only 10 women tested for HIV.

HIV/AIDS

A total of 78% of those diagnosed were postpartum.

Only 11 women tested for HIV.

c

No HIV testing performed.

Active Tuberculosis Screening

Abbreviations: AFB, acid-fast bacilli; ANC, antenatal clinic; CSF, cerebrospinal fluid; CXR, chest radiograph; EPTB, extrapulmonary tuberculosis; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; MGIT, Mycobacteria growth
indicator tube (liquid medium); NA, not applicable; PTB, pulmonary tuberculosis; TST, tuberculin skin test; US, ultrasound.

3.00
2.10
Symptoms with response
to treatment
Unspecified
ANC
100
1536
Toro et al21

HIV
Positive, %
Sample
Size, No.
Author
Study Site

Sub-Saharan
African
countries

Drug
Resistant, %
Overall %
Site of
Infection

Tuberculosis
Case Definition

Prevalence

Locations of
Tuberculosis
Screening

Table 1 continued.

DOES PREGNANCY OR THE POSTPARTUM

PERIOD AFFECT THE COURSE OF
TUBERCULOSIS?

Tuberculosis increases mortality during pregnancy or postpartum, especially in HIV-positive women [14, 3941]. Pregnant
women with pulmonary or extrapulmonary tuberculosis, other
than lymphadenitis, also have increased risk of complications
including antenatal hospitalization and miscarriages (Table 3)
[3, 4, 4248].
Lack of awareness is a barrier to diagnosis in low-burden
countries. In high-burden countries, healthcare workers often
lack diagnostic tests, relying on clinical presentation. Women
are less likely than men to present with symptoms like hemoptysis, fever, and night sweats [49], and pregnancy further
masks these symptoms. In South Africa, 60% of antenatal
women diagnosed with tuberculosis reported cough of 2
weeks, but <30% had fevers or night sweats [20]. In Tanzania,
the most common tuberculosis symptoms were malaise and
anorexia [17].
Many tuberculosis-endemic countries also have a high prevalence of HIV, which further masks symptoms and causes
atypical symptoms. Acid-fast bacilli stains and chest radiographs are less sensitive in HIV-infected patients [50], and
cultures can take 410 weeks to become positive.
The complex symptomatology notwithstanding, WHO recommends screening for symptoms of cough of any duration,

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1534

up to 49% in HIV-positive women in South Africa [8]

(Table 2).

Table 2.

Prevalence of Latent Tuberculosis Infection Among Pregnant and Postpartum Women

Prevalence

Study Site
Low-burden countries
United States

Sample
Size, No.

Author
Mofenson et al25

HIV Positive, %

Location of Tuberculosis
Screening

TST+, %

IGRA, %

46

100

ANC, inpatient,
postpartum clinic

11

United States
United States

Medchill et al26
Schulte et al10

1497
176

0
100

ANC
ANC

15
26

United States

Schwartz et al11

3847

ANC

50a

27

Chehab et al
Worjoloh et al28

102
199

0
0

ANC
ANC

10
23b

7
14c

India
India

Gupta et al14
Mathad et al24

688
152

100
0

ANC, inpatient
ANC

21
18

34

Kenya

Jonnalagadda et al15

333

100

ANC

36d

318
286

100
14.5

Postpartum clinic
ANC

49
HIV+: 23, HIV : 31

United States
United States
High-burden countries

South Africa
Tanzania

Nachega et al
Sheriff et al29

A total of 89% were foreign-born.

A total of 65% were born in tuberculosis-endemic countries.

QuantiFERON-TB In-Tube.

TSPOT.TB (on cryopreserved peripheral blood mononuclear cells).

fever, night sweats, and weight loss [51]. The absence of these
symptoms has a negative predictive value of 90%97.7% [52],
even in peripartum women [53], but poor sensitivity and positive predictive value [52, 53].
In symptomatic women and asymptomatic women with a
recent tuberculosis contact, the Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention (CDC) and others recommend a shielded
chest radiograph, which poses minimal risk to the fetus [54
56]. If ndings are abnormal, sputum samples should be submitted for microscopy and culture [56]. The British Health
Protection Agency has similar guidelines, but adds sputum
studies in all women with HIV [57]. Note that chest radiography and sputum examination may miss miliary and extrapulmonary tuberculosis disease. Common extrapulmonary sites
of tuberculosis in pregnancy include lymph nodes, intestines,
and bones [44, 58]. Additional diagnostic testing (eg, biopsy)
should be pursued if clinical suspicion is high.
Some experts advocate integrating active tuberculosis casending into peripartum care, but best approaches are
unknown. Universal antenatal tuberculosis screening in South
Africa found that symptoms of tuberculosis were common
whether or not the patient had tuberculosis, wasting resources
on unnecessary evaluations [19, 20]. Cost-effective tuberculosis
screening approaches are urgently needed.

Latent Tuberculosis Screening

Screening for latent tuberculosis should identify patients at

high risk of developing active disease who would benet
from prophylactic therapy. Current latent tuberculosis screening toolsthe TST and the newer interferon (IFN) release
assays (IGRAs)do not sufciently differentiate between
latent tuberculosis and active tuberculosis. Both tests have
other limitations. TST, because of potential cross-reactivity
with BCG and environmental mycobacteria, as well as challenges with proper test placement, has low specicity and
sensitivity, particularly among HIV-positive patients [59, 60]
and possibly among pregnant women [24, 60]. TST requires
reagents, trained operators, and a return visit within 72
hours, which does not happen in 20%30% of pregnant
women [8, 10].
IGRAs, such as QuantiFERON Gold Test In-Tube (QGIT;
Cellestis) and Tspot.TB (Oxford Immunotech), measure IFN released from white blood cells when exposed to tuberculosis-specic antigens. IGRAs do not cross-react with BCG or
environmental bacteria and do not require a return visit; but
are costly, require blood collection, proper processing, and lab
infrastructure, and have not been widely validated in highburden settings or among pregnant women [61, 62], although
a study group of pregnant HIV-positive Kenyan women with

HIV/AIDS

CID 2012:55 (1 December)

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Abbreviations: ANC, antenatal clinic; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; IGRA, interferon- release assay; TST, tuberculin skin test.

1536

Table 3. Outcomes for Pregnant Women With and Without Active Tuberculosis Disease and Their Infants

CID 2012:55 (1 December)

Site
Case-control
Norway

Author
Bjerkedal
et al42

Cases
PTB

Controls/
Comparison
Group
No TB

Maternal
Sample
Size
542

HIV
Positive,
%

Maternal
Mortality,
Case % vs
Control %

RR (95% CI)

Infant
Mortalitya,
Case % vs
Control %
(RR [95%
CI])

NR

NR

1.5 vs 1.1

RR (95% CI)
1.3 (0.62.6)b

Other
Outcomes,
Case % vs
Control %
Vaginal hemorrhage:
4.1 vs 2.2c

HIV/AIDS

Maternal toxemia:
7.4 vs 4.7c
Miscarriage:
2.0 vs 0.2c
Premature:
5.2 vs 5.0
LBW: 3.9 vs 3.7
Congenital defect:
2.9 vs 2.2
Mexico

FigueroaDamin &
ArredondoGarca3

TB

No TB

35

2.8

NR

8.6 vs 0.9c

3.1 (1.14.9)

Maternal medical
complications:
23 vs 3.8c
Premature:
14.3 vs 4.8c
Birthweight (mean):
2.9 kg vs 3.1 kgc

India

Jana et al43

PTB

No TB

79

NR

0.0 vs 0.0

10.1 vs 1.6c

6.4 (2.119)b,d Antenatal

hospitalization:
3.8 vs 0.0
Perinatal TB:
0.0 vs NA
Premature:
22.8 vs 11.1c
LBW: 34.2 vs 16.5c,
SGA: 20.2 vs 7.9c

Jana et al44

EPTB

No TB

33

NR

0.0 vs 0.0

10.0 vs 2.0

4.0 (0.527)b Antenatal

hospitalization
24.0 vs 2.0c
Perinatal TB:
0.0 vs NA
Premature:
10.0 vs 8.0
LBW: 33.0 vs 11.0c

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India

Table 3 continued.

Site
Taiwan

Author
45

Lin et al

Controls/
Comparison
Group

Cases
TB

No TB

Maternal
Sample
Size
761

HIV
Positive,
%

Maternal
Mortality,
Case % vs
Control %

RR (95% CI)

Infant
Mortalitya,
Case % vs
Control %
(RR [95%
CI])

0.0

NR

NR

RR (95% CI)

Other
Outcomes,
Case % vs
Control %
Premature: 8.0 vs 7.9
LBW: 8.5 vs 6.4c
SGA: 19.7 vs 16.7c

Cohort
United States

Ratner et al39

TB and
preterm
infant

TB and full
term infant

55

NR

16.3 vs
3.6c

5.8 (1.324)b

7 vs 0e

11.5
(0.65204)b

Premature: 44.0 vs NA

Birthweight (mean):
4.2 lbs vs 7.0 lbs
United States

Schaefer
et al46

TB from
19521972

TB from
19331951

1565

NR

0.4 vs 0.5

1.4 (0.27.0)b

NR

Perinatal TB: 0.0 vs NA

United
Kingdom

Kothari et al13

Delay in TB
diagnosis

No delay in TB
diagnosis

32

3.1

0 vs 0

0 vs 0

Miscarriage: 6.3
(overall)

Premature: 3.7 vs 9.1

Premature: 6.7 (overall)

India

Sub- Saharan
Africa

Gupta et al14

HIV+ with TB

HIV+ without
TB

24

100.0

12 vs 1

12.2
(2.053.3)g

17 vs 4f

4.7
(1.113.5)g

HIV/AIDS

Toro et al21

HIV+ on ART
and TB
treatment

HIV+ on ART
treatment

33

100.0

3 vs NR

15.2 vs 5.9c,e

2.6
(1.16.1)b

Pillay et al47

HIV+ with TB

HIV negative
with TB

107

77.0

1.2 vs 0.0

0.93
(0.0322)b

7.3 vs 0

4.0
(0.2369)b

IUGR: 16.0 (overall)

Perinatal TB: 0.8 vs NA
Perinatal HIV:
37.5 vs 9.1c
Perinatal HIV: 4.0 vs NR

Prospective
case series
South Africa

CID 2012:55 (1 December)

Maternal Hb: 9.4 g/dL

vs 10.6 g/dLc
Vaginal hemorrhage:
4.0 vs 0.0
Postpartum
complications:
5.0 vs 0.0
Perinatal TB:
14.0 vs 11.0
Premature: 46.0
(overall)

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1538

CID 2012:55 (1 December)

Table 3 continued.

Controls/
Comparison
Group

Author

Cases

HIV
Positive,
%

Maternal
Mortality,
Case % vs
Control %

RR (95% CI)

RR (95% CI)

Other
Outcomes,
Case % vs
Control %
LBW: 49.0
(overall)
IUGR: 66.0
(overall)

Retrospective case series

United
Kingdom
United States

Lowe48

Treated TB

Untreated TB

253

NR

NR

3.6 (overall)f

Good et al4

DR TB

DS TB

27

NR

17 vs 0

3.5 (0.18
67)b

19 vs 9f

2.0 (0.24
17)b

Congenital
defect: 2.7 vs. 4.1
Perinatal TB:
19.0 vs 9.0

United States

Margono
et al9

TB

None

16

64.0h

6.3

NR

Preterm labor: 31.0

Perinatal TB: 0.0
IUGR: 31.3

Abbreviations: ART, antiretroviral therapy; CI, confidence interval; DR, drug resistant; DS, drug sensitive; EPTB, extrapulmonary tuberculosis; Hb, hemoglobin; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; IUGR,
intrauterine growth retardation; LBW, low birth weight; NA, not applicable; NR, not reported; PTB, pulmonary tuberculosis; RR, relative risk; SGA, small for gestational age; TB, tuberculosis.
a

Infant mortality defined as stillbirth greater than 28 weeks or death within 7 days of birth.

RRs and CIs calculated from data reported.

Statistically significant, P < .05.

RR 6.3 (95% CI, .942.5) if tuberculosis lymphadenitis excluded.

Infant mortality defined as stillbirth or death within 24 hours of birth.

Infant mortality defined as stillbirth or death within 1 year of birth.

Incident relative risk.

Only 11 women tested.

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HIV/AIDS

Site

Maternal
Sample
Size

Infant
Mortalitya,
Case % vs
Control %
(RR [95%
CI])

ACTIVE TUBERCULOSIS MANAGEMENT

DURING PREGNANCY
Adequate data assessing the safety, tolerability, and long-term
treatment outcomes of pregnant and postpartum women with
tuberculosis are lacking, particularly for HIV-positive women
on ART. The benets of treatment during pregnancy,
however, outweigh the risks [69].
Pregnancy changes tuberculosis treatment very little. CDC
and WHO guidelines are shown in Table 4 [70, 71]. INH, rifampin (RIF), and ethambutol (EMB) are all Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) pregnancy category C (Table 6), but
available data do not suggest any signicant adverse maternal
fetal effects or need for dose adjustment in pregnancy. INH
rarely causes peripheral neuropathy in well-nourished adults.
Pregnancy may increase risk, but this is not well studied.

Pregnant women on INH should take pyridoxine to prevent

this complication. Some experts recommend vitamin K for
infants born to mothers taking RIF because of its potential association with hemorrhagic disease in newborns [72, 73]. RIF also
has drug interactions, including decreased efcacy of oral contraceptives. Adjunctive nonhormonal contraceptive methods in
postpartum women are advisable [74]. High doses of EMB are
associated with retrobulbar neuritis in adults, but no ndings
have been reported in infants of mothers taking EMB [72, 73].
Most individuals with active tuberculosis become sputum
smear-negative within a few weeks of antituberculosis therapy
(ATT). Pregnant and postpartum women should submit
sputum samples at least every 2 months until 2 consecutive
samples are negative. Failure to become sputum-negative may
indicate poor adherence or drug resistance. More frequent
sputum checks may help determine when the mother is no
longer infectious to her infant, but no evidence-based guidance exists. Follow-ups are essential to monitor maternal treatment response and assess for tuberculosis infection or disease
in the infant [70, 71].
HIV-Positive Women

Management of tuberculosis/HIV coinfection in pregnancy is

complicated. It remains unknown whether pregnancy affects
the metabolism of ATT or whether ART interacts with ATT
differently during pregnancy. From a study in Soweto, South
Africa, HIV-positive pregnant women on efavirenz-based
ART and rifampin-based ATT had no signicant differences
in efavirenz levels, HIV virologic suppression, or 6-week HIV
transmission rates as compared with HIV-positive women
without tuberculosis [77]. Efavirenz is usually delayed until
the second trimester because of neural tube defect concerns.
Recent data, however, suggest that efavirenz may be safe in all
trimesters [78] and, as of 2012, the British HIV Associations
guidelines no longer prohibit its use in pregnancy [79].
Nevirapine-based ART is generally not recommended in
women with tuberculosis, as rifampin signicantly reduces nevirapine concentrations [80]. Rifampin also decreases protease
inhibitor (PI) levels by 80%. Rifabutin can be substituted for
rifampin if a PI is used, but optimal dosing of rifabutin is
unknown and, in many settings, rifabutin is not readily available [81]. Some physicians double the PI dose when using rifampin-based ATT, but tolerability is a concern, particularly
in the third trimester when the recommended PI dosing is
50% higher than normal [81]. The dose of raltegravir, an integrase inhibitor, should be doubled with rifampin-based ATT,
but the pharmacokinetics (PK), drug interactions, and outcomes remain inadequately studied in pregnant and postpartum women [82].
If neither nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors nor
PIs are appropriate, triple or quadruple nucleoside reverse

HIV/AIDS

CID 2012:55 (1 December)

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a positive IGRA showed a 4.5-fold increased risk of developing

active tuberculosis [15].
IGRAs demonstrate only fair concordance with the TST in
pregnancy. Two US studies screening pregnant women for
latent tuberculosis found that most discordance was IGRA
negative/TST positive [27, 28], attributed to previous BCG vaccination among the foreign-born [28]. In contrast, in India,
discordance was largely IGRA positive/TST negative [24]. Epidemiological (eg, recent tuberculosis exposure) and biological
factors (eg, malnutrition, immune changes of pregnancy) may
explain this, although the signicance of this discordance
needs further study [61, 63, 64].
In low-burden countries, the CDC recommends latent tuberculosis screening only for high-risk womenthose with
known or suspected tuberculosis contacts, injection drug use,
HIV or other immunosuppression, foreign birth, and/or residence in congregate settings [65]. Pregnancy by itself is not
considered high-risk. In high-burden countries, latent tuberculosis screening is not routinely recommended, though TST
screening is useful for identifying the HIV-infected patients
most likely to benet from isoniazid (INH) preventive therapy
(IPT) [51, 66]. Thresholds for TST or IGRA interpretation do
not change during pregnancy; a positive TST is induration
10 mm for HIV-negative and 5 mm for HIV-positive pregnant women whereas a positive IGRA is a difference in IFN-
concentration of >0.35 IU/mL (QGIT) or >6 spots (Tspot.TB)
between the tuberculosis antigen and negative control sample,
regardless of HIV status [67].
The CDC states that IGRAs can be used in place of TST,
and are preferred in BCG-vaccinated individuals and those
unlikely to return for interpretation. WHO does not recommend routine use of IGRAs for latent tuberculosis screening
[62]. Neither organization comments on IGRAs in pregnancy
[62, 68].

Table 4.

Treatment of Active Pulmonarya Tuberculosis in Pregnant and Postpartum Women

Low-Burden Countriesb

HIV-negative

HIV-positive

High-Burden Countriesc

Isoniazid 5 mg/kg/d 9 mo

Isoniazid 5 mg/kg/d 6 mo

Rifampin 10 mg/kg/d 9 mo
Ethambutold 2 mo

Rifampicin 10 mg/kg/d 6 mo
Ethambutol 15 mg/kg/d 2 mo

Pyridoxine 25 mg/d 9 mo

Pyrazinamide 25 mg/kg/d 2 mo

Isoniazid 300 mg/d 6 mo

Pyridoxine 1025 mg/d 6 mo

Isoniazid 5 mg/kg/d 6 mo

Rifampin 600 mg/d 6 mo

Rifampicin 10 mg/kg/d 6 mo

Ethambutold 2 mo
Pyrazinamidee,f 2 mo

Ethambutol 15 mg/kg/d 2 mo
Pyrazinamide 25 mg/kg/d 2 mo

Pyridoxine 25 mg/d 6 mo

Pyridoxine 1025 mg/d 6 mo

Abbreviation: HIV, human immunodeficiency virus.

a

Treatment of extrapulmonary tuberculosis involves the same medications as pulmonary tuberculosis, but many experts recommend 912 mo of treatment
for tuberculosis meningitis (plus steroids) or tuberculosis bone/joint infections [70, 71].

Based on recommendations of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, American Thoracic Society, and Infectious Diseases Society of America
[70].
Based on recommendations of the World Health Organization and International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease [71].

Ethambutol weight-based dosing: 800 mg/d for 4055 kg, 1200 mg/d for 5675 kg, 1600 mg/d for 76 kg.

Pyrazinamide weight-based dosing: 1000 mg/d for 5055 kg, 1500 mg/d for 5675 kg, 2000 mg/d for 76 kg.

Pyrazinamide is only recommended in HIV-positive women because the benefit of potent 4-drug therapy in HIV-positive women outweighs the potential risk
of pyrazinamide use during pregnancy [70].

transcriptase inhibitor therapy may be considered, but higher

virological failure rates are a concern [70, 71]. Despite the
challenge of nding an optimal treatment regimen for pregnant women with HIV/tuberculosis, coinfected women should
be treated for both diseases [83].

Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis

Only case reports provide guidance for management of multidrug-resistant (MDR) tuberculosis in pregnancy [8491]
(Table 7). Most second-line agents are FDA pregnancy class
C, except for aminoglycosides, which are mainly class D
(Table 6).
Some women terminate their pregnancy to avoid teratogenicity of ATT. While there are obstetric, fetal, and infant complications associated with MDR tuberculosis regimens, small
case series suggest that good outcomes are achievable [88, 91],
but close monitoring is essential. Among 38 Peruvian pregnant women treated for MDR tuberculosis, 23 (60%) were
cured, 5 (13%) died (4 from tuberculosis), and 2 experienced
treatment failure. Eight (21%) experienced pregnancy complications, such as spontaneous abortion and vaginal bleeding.
No infants displayed teratogenic effects [91] (Table 7).
Among 5 South African pregnant women with MDR tuberculosis, 3 of whom had HIV, 2 experienced adverse drug
events (deafness and drug-induced hepatitis). The infants
showed no evidence of teratogenicity [89].

1540

CID 2012:55 (1 December)

HIV/AIDS

Should a Woman With Active Tuberculosis Breastfeed?

The CDC encourages breastfeeding if a woman has been on

rst-line ATT and is no longer infectious [70]. WHO recommends breastfeeding once the mother is smear-negative
[71, 92], because breastfeeding prevents other infections and
malnutrition in resource-limited countries. There have been
no documented cases of tuberculosis transmission via breast
milk since the development of ATT [93]. Women with tuberculosis mastitis should breastfeed from the unaffected breast.
Small concentrations of ATT are secreted into the breast milk
(Table 6), posing minimal risk to the infant.
More caution is required with second-line ATT as there are
minimal data regarding breast milk concentrations or potential adverse effects on infants (Table 6). Breastfeeding women
should be advised of potential risks, but there are no absolute
contraindications [75].
LATENT TUBERCULOSIS MANAGEMENT IN
PREGNANCY
Women with latent tuberculosis have a 10% lifetime risk of
reactivation. With HIV, the risk is 5%10% per year without
ART and approximately 2% on ART [92, 93]. These statistics
demonstrate the need to treat latent tuberculosis, but there is
disagreement over whether to do so during pregnancy
(Table 5). WHO does not comment on whether to offer HIVnegative women INH during pregnancy, whereas the CDC

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recommends delaying treatment of latent tuberculosis until 2

3 months postpartum, unless the patient has had a recent
known tuberculosis contact [96].
One study from the pre-HIV era suggested that pregnant
women treated with IPT had a 2.54 times increased risk of
hepatitis and death compared with nonpregnant women [97].
The results, however, were not statistically signicant.
Treatment regimens are described in Table 5, but there is a
lack of clinical trial data in this area. Pregnant women were
excluded from the recent trial demonstrating the efcacy of a
3-month INH/rifapentine regimen for latent tuberculosis [98].
Rifapentine is FDA category C and carries a risk of bleeding
similar to its close relative, rifampin (Table 6) [99].
Safety Monitoring During Treatment

Table 5.

HIV-Positive Women

Although the CDC and WHO recommend early treatment of

latent tuberculosis in HIV-positive pregnant women [51, 96],
they may be at particular risk for drug-induced liver injury.
HIV-positive pregnant women had 3.8 times increased risk of
severe elevated LFTs compared to nonpregnant women, and
hepatotoxicity from ART during pregnancy ranged from 0.5%
to 25.9% [105, 106]. A recent study showed that concurrent
ART with INH in nonpregnant adults is associated with increased rates of LFT abnormalities [107]. No preventive trials
involving INH have included HIV-positive pregnant women.
A trial funded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH),
IMPAACT P1078, is assessing the safety of antepartum vs
postpartum initiation of IPT in HIV-infected women residing
in tuberculosis-endemic settings.
WHAT ARE THE INFANT OUTCOMES WITH
TUBERCULOSIS DURING PREGNANCY?
Congenital Tuberculosis

Tuberculosis can be transmitted through hematogenous

spread during pregnancy, aspiration of amniotic uid during
delivery, or respiratory droplets postpartum. Although congenital tuberculosis appears rare, in one small study in South
Africa, vertical tuberculosis transmission occurred at a 16%
rate, independent of maternal HIV status [47].
Infant Mortality and Other Complications

Infant mortality rates from tuberculosis vary dramatically

between studies. In one study of 29 cases of perinatal tuberculosis, infant mortality was 38% [108]. In a separate study, of

Preventive Tuberculosis Therapy in Pregnant Women

Low-Burden Countriesa

Regimen

High-Burden Countriesb

Isoniazid 300 mg/d 69 mo

Isoniazid 300 mg/d 6 mo or 36 moc

Pyridoxine 25 mg/d 69 mo
OR

Pyridoxine 1025 mg/d 6 mo or 36 mo

Isoniazid 900 mg twice weekly 9 mo

HIV-negative

Pyridoxine 25 mg/d 9 mo
Defer treatment for TST+ or IGRA+ until 23 mo
postpartum unless recent known tuberculosis contact

HIV-positive

Immediate treatment for TST+ or IGRA+

No recommendations
Immediate treatment for all HIV- positive
without active tuberculosis

Abbreviations: HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; IGRA, interferon- release assay; TST, tuberculin skin test.
a

Based on recommendations of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [96].

Based on recommendations of the World Health Organization [51].

Consider 36 months if in a setting with high tuberculosis prevalence and transmission.

HIV/AIDS

CID 2012:55 (1 December)

1541

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INH-associated hepatotoxicity ranges from 0.1% to 4%, but

data from pregnant women are inadequate [72, 100]. Pregnancy induces cytochrome P450 [101], which may increase the
risk of developing drug-induced liver injury. Although not formally validated, the American Thoracic Society/CDC/Infectious Diseases Society of America recommend assessment of
baseline liver function tests (LFTs) prior to treatment initiation and every 4 weeks thereafter in pregnancy and early postpartum. If symptoms of hepatitis (eg, nausea, vomiting)
develop, INH should be suspended and LFTs checked [102]. If
the alanine aminotransferase level surpasses 5 times the upper
limit of normal (ULN), or 3 times the ULN with symptoms,
INH should be discontinued.
Because symptoms of pregnancy overlap with those of hepatitis, some experts recommend monitoring labs every 12
weeks in pregnancy for at least the rst 8 weeks of therapy
regardless of symptoms [72, 103]. A decision analysis found
that antepartum IPT had a higher mortality rate from hepatitis than postpartum, but proper monitoring negates this effect

[104]. Moreover, antepartum IPT resulted in the lowest

number of tuberculosis cases, the lowest cost, and the highest
life expectancy if the case fatality rate was >0.45%.

1542

CID 2012:55 (1 December)

Table 6. Pregnancy Safety and Breast Milk Information for Tuberculosis Medications

FDA
Categorya

Drug
First-line medications

Crosses Placenta
(Cord:Maternal Ratio)

Fetal Toxicity

AAP Compatible
With Breastfeeding

Present in
Breast Milk (%
of Infant Dose)

Yes
Yes

Yes (6.425)
Yes (0.577.3)

Other Information

CNS defectsc
Hemorrhage

C
C

Yes (0.73)
Yes (0.120.33)

EMB

Yes (0.75)

Unknown

Jaundice

Yes (<0.5)72

Ototoxicity,
thrush, diarrhea

INH
RIFd

Yes

Yes (2.86.9)

Unknown

Yes (0.751.5)

Yes

Yes (0.9522.5)

Monitor PZA levels if on AZTe

Aminoglycosidesf
Streptomycin
Capreomycin

Yes (Unknown)

Kanamycin

Yes (Unknown)

Ototoxicity

Unknown

Amikacin
Ethionamide/
prothionamidef

D
C

Yes (<0.5)73
Unknown

Ototoxicity likely
Developmental
anomalies

Unknown
Unknown

Unknown
Unknown

PAS

Unknown

Diarrhea

Unknown

Yes (0.050.95)

Cycloserine

Unknown

Yes

Levofloxacin
Moxifloxacin

C
C

Yes (0.66)
Yes (0.74)

Yes

Unknown
Yes (0.9518)
Monitor LFTs if on PZA, INH, RIF,
EMB, or PAS; avoid use with
cycloserine if seizure disorder
Monitor LFTs if on ethionamide
and INH toxicity

Yes (1128)

Avoid use with ethionamide

if seizure disorder. Monitor
for CNS toxicity with INH

Unknown
Unknown

Yes
Unknown

Absorption inhibited by ddI

Absorption inhibited by ddI

Unknown

Unknown

Absorption inhibited by ddI

Unknown

Unknown

Fluoroquinolones

Gatifloxacin

Unknown

Other
Thioacetazone

N/A

Unknown

Clofazimine

Unknown

Clarithromycin

Yes (0.15)

Reversible skin
pigmentation

No
Unknown

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HIV/AIDS

PZA
Second-line medications

Monitor maternal LFTs

May require vitamin K; monitor
HIV viral load if on NNRTIs
and PIs; causes decreased
efficacy of hormone-based
contraceptives

Yes
Unknown

Reduced if given with PIs or RIF,

decreases maraviroc

Table 6 continued.

Drug

FDA
Categorya

Amoxicillinclavulanic acid

Crosses Placenta
(Cord:Maternal Ratio)

Fetal Toxicity

Yes

Present in
Breast Milk (%
of Infant Dose)

Yes (0.56)

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Rifapentine

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Linezolidg

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Rifabutinf

Necrotizing
enterocolitis,
transaminitis

AAP Compatible
With Breastfeeding

Other Information

Yes

Monitor for neutropenia with PIs,

monitor HIV viral load on AZT
and maraviroc
Monitor clotting factors; not
recommended w/NNRTIs, PIs,
monitor HIV viral load w/AZT
Reduced efficacy with RIF

Abbreviations: AAP, American Academy of Pediatrics; AZT, zidovudine, antiretroviral; CNS, central nervous system; ddI, didanosine, antiretroviral; EMB, ethambutol; FDA, Food and Drug Administration; LFT, liver
function test; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; INH, isoniazid; NNRTI, nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor, antiretroviral; PI, protease inhibitor, antiretroviral; PAS, para-aminosalicylic acid; PZA,
pyrazinamide; RIF, rifampin.
Sources: AAP Statement (2001); Micromedex 2.0; www.fda.gov.
a

FDA category definitions:

A.

Adequate and well controlled (AWC) studies in pregnant women have failed to demonstrate a risk to the fetus in the first trimester of pregnancy;

B. Animal reproduction studies have failed to demonstrate a risk to the fetus and there are no AWC studies in humans AND the benefits from the use of the drug in pregnant women may be acceptable
despite its potential risks;

HIV/AIDS

C. Animal reproduction studies have shown an adverse effect on the fetus, there are no AWC studies in humans AND the benefits from the use of the drug in pregnant women may be acceptable despite its
potential risks;
D. There is positive evidence of human fetal risk based on adverse reaction data from investigational or marketing experience or studies in humans BUT the potential benefits from the use of the drug in
pregnant women may be acceptable despite its potential risks.
b

Doses for first-line therapy for pregnant women are: INH 5 mg/kg (max: 300 mg orally daily), RIF 10 mg/kg (max: 600 mg orally daily), EMB 15 mg/kg, and PZA 25 mg/kg (max: 2 g orally daily). Treatment of
MDR tuberculosis in pregnancy should be individualized but there are no established dosage adjustments for pregnancy.

CID 2012:55 (1 December)

Earlier studies found increased frequency of mental retardation and seizures but more recent studies have not.

Potent inducer of cytochrome P450. It is critical to check drug interactions with all medications patient is taking.

No standard way to reliably measure PZA levels.

Decreases efficacy of BCG vaccine.

Not yet approved for tuberculosis treatment.

1543

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1544

Table 7. Outcomes for Pregnant Women With Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis and Their Infants

Study

INH: 16, PZA:

3, EMB: 1

Average Time to
Sputum Conversion,
mo (Range)

2 dead (miliary TB
and TB meningitis)

3 pulmonary
insufficiency

2 TST positive

1 deaf from
streptomycin
3 LTF

1 pulmonary TB

healthy

Healthy

Unknowna

INH, PZAb

United
Nitta
States
and Milligan83

INH, RIF: 4, EMB:

2, Cyse, PAS,
Stm, Eth-1

United
Lessnau and
States
Qarah84
Peru
Shin et al85

INH, RIF, EMB,

Stm
INH, RIF, EMB: 7,
Stm: 6, PZA: 5,
Eth: 3, Cpm: 1

RIF/EMB in
C-section
pregnancy,
at 35 wk
Stm postpartum
Variable (incl. Clof,
1 abortion
Cpm, Cyse, Ofx,
(elective)
PAS, Ami,
Eth, high-dose INH)

4.3 (112)

Infant Outcome

2 dead

Signorini
et al82

1 spontaneous
abortion

Maternal
Outcome

11 healthy

Italy

Variable

Pregnancy
Outcome

HIV/AIDS

16

Treatment
Regimen

7 healthy

United
Good
States
et al4

16

Resistance
Profile, No.

CID 2012:55 (1 December)

Site

History of
Sample Tuberculosis,
Size, No.
No.

2.75

4 (35)

Healthy, completed
3 healthy
1724 mo treatment

2 TST positive
Cpm, Cyse, Levo,
PAS, PZA
Variable (incl Stm,
PAS, Cyse, Cpm,
Ofx, Cipro,
Eth, Amox-CA)

Spontaneous
@ 35 wk
Normal term
deliveries

NR
1.8 (13)

Drobac
et al86

healthy, completed
18 mo treatment
3 healthy

LBW

1 death

2 reversible skin
bronzing
from Clof
1 MDR TB

7 healthy

1 speech delay
South
Africa

Khan
et al87

5 (3
HIV+)

INH, RIF, Stm: 5,

EMB: 3, Eth,
Thia: 1

NR

3 drug-related
complications

13 (1014)

1 elective abortion
(HIV pos)

Tabarsi
et al88

INH, RIF,
EMB, Stm

Ofx, Ami, PZA, Pth,

Amox-CA,
high-dose INH

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Iran

1 preterm delivery
@34 wk (HIV neg)
Normal term
delivery

HIV-exposed:
HIV+: 1 healthy,
1 discharged
2 growth
to other clinic, 1 LTF
restricted; tx
for TB
HIV: 2 healthy

HIV-unexposed:
2 healthy

Healthy,
completed
18 mo treatment

Healthy, empirically
given EMB/
PZA 2 mo

Table 7 continued.

Site
Peru

Study
Palacios
et al89

History of
Sample Tuberculosis,
Size, No.
No.
38 (3
HIV+)

34

Resistance
Profile, No.

Treatment
Regimen

Pregnancy
Outcome

Average Time to
Sputum Conversion,
mo (Range)

MDR TB: 31, XDR Variable, incl INH,

10 postpartum
TB: 1, DR TB: 4,
RIF, EMB, PZA,
surgeries for TB
clinical history: 3
Stm, Cpm, Ofx,
Levo, Eth, Pth,
Cyse, PAS,
Amox-CA, Clarithro

NR

Maternal
Outcome
23 cured

5 dead

Infant Outcome
25 healthy

5 spontaneous
abortions
4 worsened TB

3 LBW

5 LTF

2 latent TB

2 vaginal bleeding

2 treatment failure

2 premature rupture
of membranes

2 still on treatment

2 meconium
aspiration
1 active TB
1 stillborn
1 fetal distress
1 dead

HIV/AIDS

Abbreviations: DR, drug resistant; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; LBW, low birth weight; LTF, lost to follow-up; MDR, multidrug resistant; NR, not reported; TB, tuberculosis; TST, tuberculin skin test; XDR,
extremely drug resistant.
Drugs: Ami, amikacin; Amox-CA, amoxicillin-clavulanic acid; Cipro, ciprofloxacin; Clarithro, clarithromycin; Clof, clofazimine; Cpm, capreomycin; Cyse, cycloserine; EMB, ethambutol; Eth, ethionamide; INH, isoniazid;
Levo, levofloxacin; Ofx, ofloxacin; PAS, para-amino salicylic acid; Pth, prothionamide; PZA, pyrazinamide; Stm, streptomycin; Thia, thiacetazone.

Patient had received ceftriaxone, Ami, and Clarithro for bacterial pneumonia.

CID 2012:55 (1 December)

Diagnosed with Mycobacterium bovis.

Two died after treatment completion: 1 from tuberculosis, 1 from HIV.

1545

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32 infants born to 38 mothers with MDR tuberculosis, only 1

infant died of pneumonia [91].
Studies are similarly inconsistent on other adverse effects of
maternal tuberculosis on the infant. There was no difference
in outcomes among infants born to mothers treated for tuberculosis during pregnancy vs without tuberculosis in the
United States [46], nor were there differences in perinatal
complications in Indian women with tuberculosis lymphadenitis vs without tuberculosis [44]. However, babies born to
Indian mothers with pulmonary or extrapulmonary tuberculosis other than lymphadenitis had increased risk of fetal
distress, low birth weight, prematurity, and infant mortality
[43, 44] (Table 3). Of infants born to mothers with MDR
tuberculosis in Peru, similar complications occurred, although
the rate was comparable to that of the general population [91].
HIV-Positive Women

IPT AND BCG VACCINATION

IPT reduces the negative consequences of infant exposure to
maternal tuberculosis, but it has been poorly implemented in
high-burden countries [110]. If the mother has received tuberculosis treatment for <2 months before delivery or remains
potentially infectious, the child should be given IPT rst.
Several tuberculosis endemic countries only recommend IPT
for children <5 years as they are at highest risk of developing
tuberculosis [111].
In endemic countries, WHO recommends BCG vaccination
in infants born to mothers with active tuberculosis after completion of infant IPT, as INH inhibits vaccine efcacy [92].
BCG vaccination is not recommended in HIV-infected infants
because of the risk of disseminated BCG disease [112, 113].
FUTURE RESEARCH NEEDS
Womenespecially pregnant and postpartum womenhave
been underrepresented in clinical trials, although progress has
been made. In 1993, the FDA recommended including pregnant women in clinical trials of any medication likely to be
used in pregnancy [114]. In 2009, the Medication Exposure in
Pregnancy Risk Evaluation Program was launched to study
prescription medications during pregnancy [115], but little information on tuberculosis medications has been collected.

1546

CID 2012:55 (1 December)

HIV/AIDS

Epidemiology of active tuberculosis and latent

tuberculosis
Immunology and pathogenesis of tuberculosis
Cost-efcacy of screening methods for active tuberculosis
and latent tuberculosis
Performance of IGRAs with follow-up of persons with
discordant IGRA/TST results
Development of low-cost assays that distinguish active tuberculosis from latent tuberculosis
PK, safety, and optimal timing of latent tuberculosis regimens, including INH and INH/rifapentine
PK, safety, and outcome studies of rst-line ATT and
MDR tuberculosis medications
Epidemiology and management of active tuberculosis
and latent tuberculosis in infants born to mothers with
tuberculosis
NIH-funded studies are under way to assess optimal timing of
INH for HIV-infected women (IMPAACT P1078), pharmacology of ATT in HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected pregnant and
postpartum women (IMPAACT P1026s), and outcomes of pregnant women with tuberculosis (RO1HD06435). Studies of PK
and outcomes of novel combinations for latent tuberculosis and
MDR tuberculosis are lacking. A tuberculosis pregnancy register,
similar to the FDA ART pregnancy register, should be created to
collect safety and outcome data from pregnant women taking
ATT. Tuberculosis is the third leading cause of maternal mortality in the world. To stay on track with the Millennium Development Goal to decrease maternal mortality by 75% by 2015 and
reduce tuberculosis-related infant morbidity and mortality, more
focused attention on tuberculosis in pregnant and postpartum
women is critical.
Notes
Financial support. This work was supported by the National Institute
of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, the National Institutes of Health (NIH;
grant number U01 AI069497 for the Byramjee Jeejeebhoy Medical College
HIV Clinical Trials Unit and grant number R01 AI45462 to A. G.), and
the Gilead Foundation. A. G. also has received funding from the World
Health Organization (WHO) to review literature on tuberculosis in
women. J. S. M. is supported by a training grant from the NIH (grant
number T32 AI007613).
Disclaimer. The contents of this publication are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the ofcial views of the
NIH, the Gilead Foundation, or WHO.
Potential conicts of interest. A. G. has received funding from the Gilead
Foundation and WHO. All other authors report no potential conicts.
All authors have submitted the ICMJE Form for Disclosure of Potential
Conicts of Interest. Conicts that the editors consider relevant to the
content of the manuscript have been disclosed.

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Perinatal mortality, intrauterine growth restriction, and low

birth weight are higher among women with tuberculosis/HIV
coinfection as compared with HIV or tuberculosis monoinfection [47]. Infants of HIV-positive women who developed tuberculosis in the rst year were more likely to die and to be
HIV-infected than infants born to mothers with HIV alone
[14, 109]. Larger prospective studies are ongoing.

Interventions affecting pregnant women also affect neonates. There is an urgent need for research in pregnant and
postpartum women, including those who are HIV-positive, in
these areas:

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