Soc Psychol Educ (2009) 12:233249

DOI 10.1007/s11218-008-9079-6

Perceived Academic Control: mediating the effects

of optimism and social support on college students
psychological health
Joelle C. Ruthig Tara L. Haynes
Robert H. Stupnisky Raymond P. Perry

Received: 6 April 2008 / Accepted: 1 October 2008 / Published online: 13 November 2008
Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2008

Abstract The first year of college presents numerous challenges experienced as

overwhelming by some freshmen who may become overly stressed and depressed.
This longitudinal study examined perceived academic control (PAC) as a mediator of
optimism and social supports buffering effects on freshman students psychological
health. Multiple regressions assessed optimism and social support (at the start of the
academic year) as predictors of year-end stress and depression among 288 freshmen.
PAC (at the start of the year) was then examined as a mediator of the effects of
optimism and support. Lastly, stress and depression were assessed as predictors of
year-end degree commitment and cumulative GPA. As expected, optimism and support
predicted less stress and depression, yet their beneficial effects were mediated by
students PAC. Depression subsequently predicted less year-end degree commitment
and lower cumulative GPAs. PAC mediates the protective effects of optimism and
support, providing additional protection for students against poor psychological health.
Findings have implications for shielding students health against the demands of the
freshman year.
Keywords Perceived control Optimism Social support Stress Depression
College students
The critical transition from high school to college presents multiple new challenges that
can be overwhelming, compromising the psychological well-being of many freshman
students (Beck et al. 2003). Specifically, these students face major sources of stress
J. C. Ruthig (B)
Department of Psychology, University of North Dakota, 319 Harvard Street, Stop 8380, Grand Forks,
ND 58201, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
T. L. Haynes R. H. Stupnisky R. P. Perry
University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada R3T 2N2

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in terms of leaving home, new roommates, unfamiliar classes, and other important
life events, together with the strain of on-going academic, social, and financial pressures (Pearlin 1989; Perry et al. 2007). In addition, more than half of college students
experience depression (Furr et al. 2001) and the first few months of the freshman year
are particularly difficult (Baker et al. 1985). Thus, stress and depression are common
bi-products of the transition into college and are associated with negative outcomes,
ranging from unhealthy behaviors (e.g., poor diet, tobacco use, sleep deprivation) to
impaired concentration, attention, studying, and class attendance (Hudd et al. 2000;
Lumley and Provenzano 2003; Patterson et al. 2004).
Consequently, poor psychological health marked by high perceived stress and
depression can impede achievement and successful adjustment in college (Beyers
and Goossens 2002; Wolf et al. 1998), contributing to the high rate of attrition that
exists among freshman students (i.e., 2733%; Cravatta 1997; Feldman 2005). For
instance, greater stress during the freshman year predicts lower GPAs (Wintre and
Yaffe 2000). In fact, college students cite stress as the most common health problem impeding their academic success (American College Health Association 2006).
Similarly, many freshman students report that depression disrupts their academic
development (Lucas and Berkel 2005). Clearly, stress and depression are common
elements of poor psychological well-being that can negatively impact college performance.

1 Psychosocial resources: optimism and social support

Fortunately, a number of psychosocial resources can protect students well-being.
These resources include student characteristics such as optimism, effective coping
strategies, and high self-esteem that can buffer against poor psychological health when
facing the academic challenges of the freshman year in college (Brissette et al. 2002).
Psychosocial resources protecting against ill health also include various resources such
as social support, institutional programs, and campus counseling centers.
From the range of potential psychosocial resources, the current study focuses on
dispositional optimism and social support. These factors have been shown to buffer
individuals against stress and depression (Cohen and McKay 1984; OConnor and
Cassidy 2007) and may protect freshman students health when facing the challenges
of the transition year in college (Brissette et al. 2002). Students with greater optimism, or a general expectation that good things will happen (Scheier and Carver
1985, 1987), are likely to experience less stress and depression than their less optimistic counterparts. Likewise, students with strong support systems of family, friends,
and significant others are likely to experience lower levels of stress and depression
compared to those with weaker social support. Freshman students who lack social
support are vulnerable to loneliness (Wei et al. 2005) and especially susceptible to
depression.
Although optimism and social support may benefit students psychological wellbeing by protecting them against excessive stress and depression, these psychosocial
factors are somewhat difficult for college educators to enhance among their freshman
students. Dispositional optimism is thought to be trait-like and is resistant to change

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(Makikangas et al. 2004; Norlander et al. 2002). Thus, it would not be feasible for
educators to attempt to increase students dispositional optimism. Similarly, it can be
difficult for educators to try to enhance students social support outside of offering
formal academic support or encouraging their participation in student activities in the
hope that they will form new supportive friendships.
Given the limitations to bolstering students optimism and social support, it would
be useful to identify other psychosocial factors that benefit well-being and protect
students against stress and depression during the freshman year. It is particularly
useful to examine factors that are more malleable than optimism and support so that
educators may attempt to enhance such factors among their freshman students within
the academic context. One psychosocial factor that may fit these requirements, and is
the focus of the current study, is perceived academic control.

2 Perceived Academic Control (PAC)

Perceived academic control (PAC) refers to a belief in ones capacity to influence
or predict academic outcomes (Perry et al. 2007). As students advance through the
education system toward college they are presented with increased opportunity to
exert control. Thus, PAC is particularly important among college students who have
the largest amount of academic autonomy and responsibility. Despite the increased
opportunity to exert control, however, freshman students academic tasks are typically
completed under conditions that can make them feel out of control. These conditions
include heightened academic competition, more frequent failure, unfamiliar tasks, new
social networks, and critical career choices (Perry et al. 2007). As a result, students
who feel in control over their academic outcomes are in a position to excel, whereas
those who perceive college as a low-control environment are at-risk of academic
failure.
General perceived control tends to be positively associated with both optimism and
social support (Fontaine et al. 1993; Ruthig et al. 2007; Taylor et al. 1992; Tobvin
et al. 2003). Research has also shown that dispositional optimism and social support predict perceived control, so that optimistic individuals and those with strong
social support tend to have greater perceptions of control (e.g., Sinha et al. 2002).
Based on these findings, dispositional optimism and social support should also presumably predict domain-specific perceived academic control. Furthermore, whereas
optimism and social support remain fairly stable, when students transfer to a new learning environment such as the freshman year of college, PAC is relatively unstable due
to new learning realities and contingencies. During this transition period, students
PAC can be increased via cognitive interventions (Haynes et al. 2006; Perry et al.
1993, 2007; Ruthig et al. 2003) that may easily be administered within a classroom
setting.
The ability to enhance students PAC is important given that empirical research
has repeatedly shown PAC to have a powerful impact on college students academic development and success. Perry et al. (2001) found that students with high
levels of PAC reported greater intrinsic motivation, exerted more effort, used selfmonitoring strategies more often, and felt more control over their lives in general.

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Fig. 1 Conceptual model of perceived academic control mediating the effects of optimism and social
support on subsequent stress and depression

Cassidy and Eachus (2000) found that students with stronger perceptions of control
used more effective study strategies, resulting in greater academic achievement. Students PAC is also positively associated with feelings of enjoyment, hope, and pride
regarding scholastic performance and negatively associated with anger, boredom,
anxiety, shame, and hopelessness (Pekrun et al. 2004; Perry et al. 2001). Ruthig
et al. (2008) found that achievement-related emotions interacted with students PAC
to jointly predict later academic performance and persistence. Finally, over a threeyear period, college students with high PAC outperformed and withdrew from fewer
courses than their lower-control counterparts (Perry et al. 2005).
Clearly, academic control perceptions are critical to freshman students academic
success, yet little attention has been paid to PAC as it relates to students psychological
health. One exception is a study by Hall et al. (2006) who found that college students
who had a stronger sense of academic control had lower levels of stress, which in
turn, predicted better physical health. Hall et al.s study examined the PAC-stress
relationship cross-sectionally and to our knowledge, no other studies have focused on
the longitudinal link between freshmen students PAC and their later psychological
health.
To the extent that PAC predicts academic emotions, motivation, and performance,
and given that college is a significant component of freshman students lives, it is
likely that PAC also predicts students psychological health. We examined PAC as a
mediator of the relations between optimism and social support with later stress and
depression (see Fig. 1). According to the American College Health Association (2005,
2006), stress and depression are the biggest health-related hindrances to academic
achievement among college students. Thus, should PAC be found to predict stress
and depression, college educators may be able to protect student health and academic
development via increasing students sense of academic control in their courses.

3 Examining PACs mediating role in students well-being

The goal of the current longitudinal study was to determine whether first-year college
students perceptions of academic control mediate the effects of optimism and social
support on their subsequent psychological health. We began by assessing the direct
effects of optimism and social support on PAC. Although these three constructs were
all assessed at the start of the academic year, our measure of optimism is assumed

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to be trait-like and fairly stable over time, likely preceding students domain-specific
PAC. Similarly, we presume that social support networks of family, friends, and peers
are largely shaped before students enter college. Both optimism and social support
were expected to predict PAC such that global positive expectations and strong social
support should contribute to greater perceptions of control.
Next, we explored the effects of dispositional optimism and social support on subsequent perceived stress and depression six months later. Based on research demonstrating the protective roles of optimism and social support (Cohen and McKay 1984;
Sarason and Sarason 1985; Scheier and Carver 1985, 1987), greater optimism and
social support were expected to predict better psychological health in terms of less
stress and depression. We then turned to the main objective of examining PAC as
a potential mediator of the protective effects of optimism and social support. Based
on the beneficial effects of PAC on students overall academic development (Cassidy
and Eachus 2000; Perry et al. 2001, 2005) and the fact that college is a significant
component of freshman students lives, we expected that PAC would mediate the
effects of optimism and support and would predict lower levels of stress and depression.
A subsequent objective was to examine the impact of students stress levels and
depression on their cumulative year-end GPA and their year-end commitment to pursuing an undergraduate degree. Based on findings that poor mental health can impede
students academic development (Beyers and Goossens 2002; Wolf et al. 1998), we
expected greater stress and depression to predict lower year-end GPAs and less degree
commitment.
In examining the previously stated hypotheses we statistically adjusted for the
number of course credits students were enrolled in for the academic year and students gender, which can relate to their psychological well-being (Adlaf et al. 2001;
Hudd et al. 2000). This statistical adjustment allowed us to identify the effects of
optimism, social support, and PAC beyond the effects of these background
variables.

4 Method
4.1 Participants and procedure
A sample of 288 first-year students from a large Midwestern Research-1 university
were recruited from several sections of an Introductory Psychology course to participate in exchange for course credit. Participants were 175 women and 111 men (1 did
not specify) and their average age was 18.94 (SD = 2.62).
The study was conducted in three phases. Phase 1 took place at the start of the academic year (late September) when groups of 2550 freshman college students completed
a survey that included measures of their dispositional optimism, social support, PAC,
and sociodemographics: age, gender, and course credit hours. In Phase 2 (late March),
the same students completed a second survey that assessed their perceived stress,
depression, and commitment to obtaining their university degree. Upon completion of

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the spring semester, Phase 3 (late May) consisted of obtaining students cumulative
GPA for the entire academic year.
4.2 Phase 1 measures
4.2.1 Optimism
Scheier et al. (1994) 6-item Revised Life Orientation Test (LOT-R) was used to assess
students dispositional optimism. Three items are positively worded (e.g., Im always
optimistic about my future) and three are negatively worded (e.g., If something can
go wrong for me, it will), with responses ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to
5 (Strongly agree). Responses to negatively worded items were reverse coded then
responses to all six items were summed: higher scores indicated greater optimism
(inter-item reliability: = .73).
4.2.2 Social support
Based on Zimet et al. (1988), Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support
(MSPSS), we created four general items to assess students perceived social support.
Participants were told: When answering the following questions, someone may
refer to a friend, family member, or significant other, and then indicated their level
of agreement (i.e., 1 = Strongly disagree; 7 = Strongly agree) with the following statements: There is someone who is around when I am in need; There is someone with
whom I can talk about my problems; I have someone who is a real source of comfort
to me; and There is someone in my life who is willing to help me make decisions.
Item responses were summed to create a total social support score for each participant
( = .90). The internal reliability of this shortened, general measure of social support
is similar to that of the full version of Zimet et al.s MSPSS ( = .91.95; Zimet et al.
1990).
4.2.3 Perceived academic control (PAC)
Consistent with past college student research (Perry et al. 2005; Ruthig et al. 2007),
we used the Perceived Academic Control Scale ( Perry et al. 2001) to assessed PAC.
Four items are positively worded (e.g., The more effort I put into my courses, the
better I do in them) and four are negatively worded (e.g., No matter what I do, I cant
seem to do well in my courses), with responses ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree)
to 5 (Strongly agree). Responses for negatively worded items were reversed then all
item responses were summed: higher scores indicate greater PAC ( = .75).
4.2.4 Course credits (covariate)
In addition to the aforementioned predictor variables assessed in Phase 1, we also
obtained institutional records of participants course credits for the academic year of
the study.

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4.3 Phase 2 measures

4.3.1 Perceived stress
Students self-reported stress was measured using seven items from Cohen et al. (1983)
Perceived Stress Scale (PSS). Participants were asked: During the last month, how
often have you: . . .been upset because of something that happened unexpectedly; . . .
felt that you were unable to control the important things in your life; . . . felt nervous and
stressed; . . .found that you could not cope with all the things that you had to do; . . .been
angered because of things that happened that were outside of your control; . . .found
yourself thinking about things that you would have to accomplish; . . . felt difficulties
were piling up so high that you could not overcome them? Responses (1 = Never;
5 = Very often) were summed so that higher scores indicated greater perceived stress
( = .83). Internal reliability of this shortened measure is similar to that of the full
version PSS ( = .84.86; Cohen et al. 1983).

4.3.2 Depression
Participants depression was examined using 14 items adopted from Goldbergs (1993)
Depression Scale (see Holm et al. 2001). Participants were instructed: The following
items refer to how you have felt and behaved during the past week. For each item,
indicate the extent to which it is true (1 = Not at all; 6 = Very much). Sample items
are: I do things slowly and I feel depressed even when good things happen to
me. Responses to all items were summed to create a depression score: higher scores
reflected greater depression ( = .88).

4.4 Academic outcome measures

4.4.1 Degree commitment
Also in Phase 2, students commitment to continue their university degree was assessed
by a single self-report item asking How committed are you to getting a university
degree? Students indicated their level of commitment by choosing a number between
1 (Not at all committed) and 7 (Highly committed).

4.4.2 Cumulative grade point average (GPA)

In Phase 3, students cumulative GPAs at the end of the school year were obtained
from institutional records. GPA is calculated by summing and averaging grades for
each course students were enrolled in (A+ = 4.5, A = 4.0, B+ = 3.5, etc.) and represents an aggregate of academic achievements across all courses for the entire school
year.

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Table 1 Descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations of all study variables

1. Gender
female
2. Credit hours
3. Support
4.Optimism
5. PAC
6. Stress
7. Depression
8. GPA
9. Degree
commit

M(n) SD
(%)

Range

(175) (61)

n/a

.02 .21** .01

24.82 4.99
330
22.86 5.28
428
20.14 4.29
630
33.21 4.34
1740
22.14 5.28
935
36.50 12.52
1776
2.90 8.13 0.734.50
6.28 1.06
17

6
.04 .05

7
.02

.02 .08

.14* .01
.12* .01 .06
.32** .25**

.29** .29**.15* .24** .11

.11

.35**.24**.39** .12* .17**

.25**.27** .22** .19**

.73**.06 .06

.14* .15*

.31**

* p .05; ** p < .01

5 Results
Table 1 presents descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations for all variables in the
study. In line with our hypotheses, greater optimism and social support respectively
were significantly associated with less stress, (r = .24, p < .01 and r = .15, p <
.05), less depression (rs = .39 and .24, p < .01), as well as greater PAC (rs = .35
and .29, p < .01). In turn, greater perceived control was also associated with less
stress (r = .25, p < .01) and less depression (r = .27, p < .01).
5.1 PAC mediating the effects of optimism and social support on psychological
well-being
Our main objective was to determine whether perceived academic control (PAC)
mediates the effects of optimism and social support, on students well-being (stress and
depression). According to Baron and Kenny (1986), three statistical requirements establish partial mediation: (1) the initial variables must significantly predict the dependent
measure (direct effect); (2) the initial variables must significantly predict the mediator;
and (3) the mediator must significantly predict the dependent measure when statistical
control is exerted over the initial variables. Following Baron and Kenny (1986) guidelines, we began with Step 2: assessing the relationships among optimism, social support
(i.e., initial variables), and PAC (i.e., mediating variable). Multiple regression analysis
in which optimism and social support were predictors, along with gender and course
credits as covariates, confirmed our initial hypothesis. As shown in Table 2, greater
optimism and social support among freshman students at the start of the academic year
were associated with stronger control perceptions ( = .28, p < .001 and .20, p < .01
for optimism and support, respectively), beyond the effects of gender and course
credit.
Next, to examine the effects of optimism or social support at the start of the academic
year on subsequent psychological well-being at the end of the year, we computed four
separate regression models, two for each independent variable (optimism or support)

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Table 2 Optimism and social support as predictors of students PAC

Predictors

Gender
Course credits
Optimism
Social support
R2

Perceived Academic Control

B

SE

.51
.08
.25
.14

.44
.04
.05
.04
.15

.07
.11+
.28
.20

+ p = .06; ** p < .01; *** p < .001

on each dependent variable (depression or stress). In each model, participants gender

and number of course credits were entered as predictors in Step 1, along with either
the optimism or social support predictors. PAC was added in Step 2 of the regression
models to determine whether it predicted stress or depression, and whether the Step 1
effects changed. Where mediation was found, its significance was tested using Sobels
(1982) z-test.
5.1.1 Perceived stress
As shown in Table 3, optimism predicted less perceived stress in Step 1 of Regression
Model 1 ( = .25, p < .001). The addition of PAC to the model in Step 2, resulted in
a significant increment to R 2 : Finc (1, 275) = 11.56, p < .01; and perceived control predicted less stress ( = .21, p < .01). The effect of optimism was reduced ( = .25
in Step 1 to = .18 in Step 2). Thus, PAC significantly mediated the effect of optimism (z = 2.80, p < .01). In Model 2 (Table 3) social support also predicted less
perceived stress in Step 1 ( = .19, p < .01). The addition of PAC to the model
in Step 2, resulted in a significant increment to R 2 : Finc (1, 268) = 13.56, p < .001,
wherein perceived control predicted less stress ( = .23, p < .001). The effect of
social support was reduced ( = .19 in Step 1 to = .12 in Step 2). Therefore,
PAC mediated the effect of support (z = 2.53, p < .05). Gender and course credits
did not significantly predict perceived stress in either regression model.
5.1.2 Depression
In Model 3 (Table 3 ) optimism negatively predicted depression ( = .39, p < .001).
The addition of PAC in Step 2 resulted in a significant increment to R 2 : Finc (1,
253) = 7.64, p < .01, in which PAC also negatively predicted depression ( = .17,
p < .01). Again, in Step 2 the buffering effect of optimism was reduced ( = .39 in
Step 1 to = .33 in Step 2). Thus, the effect of optimism was significantly mediated by students PAC (z = 2.42, p < .05). In the final model, (Model 4, Table 3)
social support negatively predicted depression ( = .25, p < .001). The addition
of PAC resulted in a significant increment to R 2 : Finc (1, 247) = 11.85, p < .01, wherein PAC also negatively predicted depression ( = .22, p < .01). Again, in Step 2
the buffering effect of social support was reduced ( = .25 in Step 1 to = .19 in

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Table 3 Optimism, social support, and PAC predicting students perceived stress and depression
Step 1
B

Step 2
SE

Model 1: optimism predicting stress

Gender
.52
.63
Course credits
.02
.06
Optimism
.31
.07
Perceived Academic Control
R2
.06**
Model 2: social support predicting stress
Gender
1.05
.66
Course credits
.05
.06
Social support
.18
.06
Perceived Academic Control
R2
.04*
Model 3: optimism predicting depression
Gender
.39
1.48
Course credits
.12
.15
Optimism
1.14
.17
Perceived Academic Control
R2
.15***
Model 4: social support predicting depression
Gender
.70
1.58
Course credits
.06
.15
Social support
.56
.15
Perceived Academic Control
R2
.06**
* p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001

SE

.05
.44
.02
.05
.25*** .23
.29
.10***

.62
.06
.08
.09

.04
.04
.18**
.21**

.10
.05
.19**

.64
.06
.06
.09

.08
.07
.12*
.23***

.02
.50
1.46
.05
.07
.15
.39*** .98
.18
.57
.21
.18***

.02
.03
.33***
.17**

.03
.32
1.55
.02
.01
.15
.25*** .42
.15
.73
.21
.10***

.01
.01
.19**
.22**

.84
.07
.12
.32
.08***

Step 2), indicating that the effect of support was mediated by students PAC (z = 2.45,
p < .05). Neither gender nor course credits significantly predicted depression in either
model.
For the dependent measures in our study, each of Baron and Kenny (1986) mediation
requirements were met, indicating that the protective effects of optimism and social
support on later psychological health were partially mediated by PAC. In addition,
each of these mediating effects was statistically significant according to established
standards (Sobel 1982).
5.2 Psychological well-being predicting academic performance
To examine the effects of Phase 2 stress and depression on year-end academic performance, separate multiple regression analyses were conducted for the dependent
measures of cumulative GPA and degree commitment. Participants gender and course
credits were entered along with perceived stress and depression as predictors in the
two regression models.
Depression predicted degree commitment ( = .20, p < .05) and cumulative GPA
( = .16, p = .06) even when gender and course credits were accounted for, supporting our hypothesis that poor psychological health can have detrimental consequences

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Table 4 Time 2 Perceived Stress and Depression Predicting GPA and Degree Commitment
Predictors

Degree Commitment
B

SE

Gender
.15
.16
Course Credits
.06
.02
Perceived Stress
.02
.02
Depression
.02
.01
R2
.08***
+ p = .06; p < .05; *** p < .001

Cumulative GPA

SE

.06
.22***
.09
.20*

2.18
5.67
0.69
1.02
.14***

9.55
0.96
1.30
0.55

.01
.34***
.05
.16+

for academic achievement and persistence (see Table 4). Stress did not significantly
predict degree commitment or GPA.
6 Discussion
The multiple life events and on-going academic, social, and financial challenges that
characterize the transition into college can overwhelm many freshman students, resulting in compromised psychological health and in turn, academic failure and college
attrition. The current longitudinal study examined psychosocial resources that protect against poor mental health. Consistent with past research linking optimism and
support to psychological health outcomes (Brissette et al. 2002; Cohen and McKay
1984; Sarason and Sarason 1985; Scheier and Carver 1985), we found that dispositional optimism and social support predicted less stress and depression six months
later. Freshman students entering their first year of college with greater optimism and
strong social support experienced significantly lower levels of stress and depression
compared to their less optimistic counterparts and those with weaker social support.
6.1 The mediating role of PAC
The primary study goal was to extend past research by examining another, more
modifiable psychosocial predictor of students well-being, namely perceived academic
control (PAC). We found that PAC mediated the effects of optimism and social support
on students later psychological health. These findings are important for three main
reasons. First, PAC predicted lower levels of depression and stress, thereby helping
to shield students against the pressures of the freshman year. Second, because PAC is
more malleable than optimism or social support it is possible that interventions aimed
at increasing a sense of academic control can be influential in boosting students
psychological well-being. Third, enhancing PAC to reduce depression and stress may
not only protect students psychological health but may also indirectly lead to greater
achievement and degree commitment via reduced depression, as suggested by our
findings.
PACs mediating role indicates that optimism and a strong support network may
not be sufficient to protect the psychological health of freshman students if they feel

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out of control in their academic endeavors. Such a lack of perceived control can lead
to feelings of helplessness ( Perry et al. 2001) and other negative consequences including greater stress and depression, as our findings indicate. Alternatively, if students
enter college with low optimism and little or no social support, a strong sense of
academic control may be sufficient to buffer their health against the pressures of the
freshman year. This second point has stronger implications for academic instructors
and administrators because it is more viable for them to attempt to enhance students
PAC relative to their optimism or social support.
As mentioned earlier, cognitive interventions can be used to increase students PAC
(Haynes et al. 2006; Ruthig et al. 2003). One intervention in particular, attributional
retraining (AR), enhances PAC by reducing students endorsement of uncontrollable
attributions for their academic performance, increasing endorsement of controllable
attributions for performance, or both. Briefly, students are primed to think about their
academic performance and their attributions for that performance. Then a video and/or
handout encourages students to make adaptive attributions for their academic performance. The message is solidified when students participate in group discussions or
complete writing assignments or aptitude tests to facilitate them in applying the AR
information to their own academic experiences. See Perry et al. (2007) for a detailed
description of AR and its effects.
Thus, assessing freshman students PAC early in this critical transition period
would allow educators to determine the need for cognitive interventions such as
AR to boost students sense of academic control and protect their psychological
health throughout the school year. Moreover, the primary targets of AR intervention efforts should be those students with low PAC. Past research has demonstrated
that AR interventions modify both attributional schemas (Hall et al. 2006; Haynes et
al. 2006; Menec et al. 1994; Perry and Penner 1990) and increase perceived control
(Hall et al. 2004; Haynes et al. 2006). Thus, incorporating AR principles within freshman level courses would benefit those students who need enhanced PAC the most but
who are least likely to initiate assistance seeking on their own.
Likewise, informal discussions with students regarding the controllability and
predictability of the courses they are enrolled in may also help to increase their sense of
control. As recommended by Perry et al. (1996) and Ruthig et al. (2008), instructors can
foster students control and responsibility in a course by being organized and informing
students of the best approach to preparing for tests and assignments. This information
provided by the instructor allows academic tasks to be predictable, thereby enabling
students to better anticipate and influence the outcome (i.e., task performance). In
addition, institutional administrators can monitor the quality of teaching among their
faculty members, as research shows that ineffective teaching diminishes the achievement benefits of PAC (Magnusson and Perry 1989; Perry 2003). Administrators can
also support incorporating the principles of AR into freshman-level college course for
incoming students. By providing new freshman students with these resources to foster
PAC early in their undergraduate training, they will have the necessary knowledge to
seek assistance to enhance their achievement and diminish academic failure.
Aside from PAC predicting lower depression and stress, our findings also indicate
that depression predicted cumulative academic performance and degree commitment.
Thus, PAC not only directly impacts college students achievement as demonstrated in

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245

past research (Cassidy and Eachus 2000; Perry et al. 2005), it also indirectly contributes
to students academic performance through buffering them against depression. This
finding extends the benefits of PAC to include indirect positive consequences for
students academic performance and persistence.

6.2 Limitations and future research

Because optimism, social support, and PAC were not experimentally manipulated in
the current study, we cannot make definite causal claims about the mediating role of
PAC in the associations of students optimism and social support with their psychological health. We presume that optimism and social support influenced PAC and that
PAC then influenced psychological health but other causal explanations are also possible (Knoll et al. 2007). For instance, a history of poor psychological health among
some freshmen may have eroded their optimism, social support, and PAC. Alternatively, factors such as students family dynamics growing up may have contributed to all
of the psychosocial factors in our study. However, based on the established stability of
dispositional optimism (Makikangas et al. 2004; Norlander et al. 2002), it is unlikely
that poor psychological health led to decreased optimism among participants in the
current study. Likewise, students support systems presumably exist prior to the start
of their post-secondary education. That being said, future experimental research examining the effects of changes in PAC, via cognitive interventions such as attributional
retraining, on levels of depression and stress would strengthen the posited links among
optimism, social support, PAC, depression, and stress presented in the current paper.
Another study limitation was the relatively small amount of variance explained by
the variables predicting depression and stress (i.e., 418%). The magnitude of this
explained variance likely reflects the fact that other background factors such as selfesteem or family history also contribute to students psychological health. However, the
variance predicted by the psychosocial variables in our study is appreciable when compared to other, more established, predictors of psychological health including hopelessness predicting suicide (r = .08), parental divorce predicting well-being among
children (r = .09), or the impact of relapse prevention on substance abuse (r = .14)
as reported by Meyer et al. (2001). Nonetheless, future research could build on the
current findings by including additional background predictors such as self-esteem,
family history, race, and socioeconomic status when exploring freshman students
depression and stress.
Despite these limitations, the present research identified PAC as an important contributor to students psychological well-being. This line of research would benefit from
future studies examining the mediating role of PAC on depression and stress levels
among sophomore, junior and senior undergraduate students, as well as K-12 students.
This expanded focus would allow researchers to determine whether PACs mediating
role generalizes to other achievement situations or whether it is specific to the critical
transition period from high school into college.
In conclusion, the pressures of the freshman year of college may overwhelm some
students as manifest in poor psychological health, academic failure, and reduced

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commitment to completing a degree. We identified the mediating role of PAC in

the protective effects of optimism and social support on freshman students depression and stress. The fact that PAC acts as a mediator between psychological resources
and student well-being is critical because although many psychological resources are
stable and enduring, PAC is malleable. Indeed, PAC can be enhanced among freshman
students with brief interventions, thus resulting in better psychological health, higher
achievement, and continued commitment to completing ones undergraduate degree.
Acknowledgements Special thanks to Dr. Steve Hladkyj for providing ongoing technical support with
the data. This project was partially funded by Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada
(SSHRC) Canada Graduate Scholarships and Manitoba Graduate Scholarships to the second and third
authors, and research grants 410-2007-2225 from SSHRC to the fourth author.

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Author Biographies
Joelle C. Ruthig is an Assistant Professor of Psychology at the University of North Dakota. Her research
primarily focuses on psychosocial factors such as optimism and perceptions of control involved in achievement motivation, physical health, and psychological well-being.
Tara L. Haynes is a doctoral candidate in Social Psychology at the University of Manitoba. Her research
interests are in social cognition with a particular focus on perceived control, causal attributions, and attributional retraining interventions.
Robert H. Stupnisky is a doctoral candidate in Psychology at the University of Manitoba. His research
interests concern cognitions, emotions, and motivation in achievement settings, with a focus on the roles of
perceived control, self-esteem, critical thinking, and attributions in the academic development and wellbeing
of students.
Raymond P. Perry is a Professor of Social Psychology at the University of Manitoba. His research focuses
mainly on social cognition, emotion, and motivation in social and achievement settings.

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