Introduction To Hydraulics

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General Hydraulics Table of Contents
Chapter
1
Introduction to Hydraulics
This chapter covers many basic hydraulic principles that you will need to understand before you use the General Hydraulics Manual. After a brief description of
hydraulics concepts, the following topics will be covered in this chapter along
with the calculations for each one:
Area
Force
Pressure
Effective area
Hydrostatic pressure
Differential pressure
Pipe capacity
Pipe fill-up
Buoyancy
Open-ended pipe hydraulics
This manual provides examples and practice problems for the calculations. Use
the areas labelled Work Space for your personal calculations. Then compare
your answers to the Solutions to Problems section beginning on Page 1-61.
Essential Hydraulics Concepts

Hydraulics are the principles governing the power generated by the movement
and force of liquid.
Hydraulics concepts are primarily an application of Pascals Law: if a fluid has a
constant density and the fluid is at rest, all points at the same depth below the
liquids surface are under equal pressure. For example, studying a cross-sectional slice of a cylinder of water demonstrates that all points on the crosssectional surface are under equal pressure. Familiarity with fluid pressures is
important for understanding how oilfield tools work.
Force is another important concept in hydraulics. To calculate force, multiply
pressure by area as stated in Equation 1.1:
Force = Pressure x Area ........................................................................................... (1.1)
Most tool hydraulics can be calculated with Pascals Law and the force formula.
Some additional basic calculations are covered in this chapter. The first calculation is area, including cross-sectional and effective areas.
October 1996
1-1
Calculating Area
Definition of Area
Since downhole tools are usually round, in oilfield applications the term area
generally refers to the area of a circle. A related concept, cross-sectional area, is the
area of an exposed surface.
Calculating the Area of a Circle

The area of a circle equals pi () times the radius times the radius, as stated in
Equation 1.2:
Area of a circle = r2 ...................................................................................................................................................................... (1.2)
The value of pi is 3.141592654. Example 1 is an application of Equation 1.2.
Example 1: How to calculate the area of a circle
What is the area of the circle in Figure 1.1?

Hint: The radius (r) of a circle is
half its diameter.
Solution
Area = r 2 .......................................................... (1.2)
= 3.141592654 x 1.25 in. x 1.25 in.
= 4.9087 in.2 4.909 in.2
NOTE
2 1 /2-in. Diameter
Figure 1.1
In this manual, all areas are rounded to three decimal places.

Most downhole tools are measured by diameter rather than radius. Use Equation
1.3 to calculate the area of a circle using the circle's diameter rather than its
radius. Since pi divided by 4 equals 0.7854, and radius times radius multiplied
by 4 equals diameter times diameter, a simpler equation is
Area of a circle = ( 4) x D2
or
Area of a circle = 0.7854 x D ................................................................................... (1.3)
Example 2 is an application of Equation 1.3.
1-2
General Hydraulics Manual
October 1996
Example 2: How to calculate the area of a rod end
What is the area of the rod end in Figure 1.2?

Solution
Area = 0.7854 x D ...................... (1.3)
= 0.7854 x 4.375 in. x 4.375 in.
= 15.033 in.2
4 3/ 8-in. Diameter
Figure 1.2
NOTE
If diameter is expressed in inches, area will be expressed in square inches (in.2).

If diameter is expressed in units such as feet or centimeters, area will be expressed in square feet (ft2) or square centimeters (cm2), respectively. All examples and problems in this manual show diameters in inches.
Practice calculating the areas of two rod ends in Problems 1 and 2 on Page 1-4.
Use the Work Space area to work out the problems; then compare your answers
to the Solutions to Problems on Page 1-61.
October 1996
1-3
Problem 1
Work Space
1 /2 -in. Diameter
Figure 1.3
Answer _______________
(See Page 1-61 for the solution to
Problem 1.)
Problem 2
Work Space
2 7/8 -in. Diameter
Figure 1.4
Answer _______________
(See Page 1-61 for the solution to
Problem 2.)
Calculating Cross-Sectional Area

Sometimes it is necessary to calculate cross-sectional area of pipe. For example,
tubings cross-sectional area is equal to the area of the tubings outside diameter
(OD) minus the area of the tubings inside diameter (ID) or
Cross-sectional area of pipe = Pipe OD area - Pipe ID area............................. (1.4)
The formula for calculating a pipes OD area or ID area is the same as for calculating the area of a circle: OD area (or ID area) = 0.7854 x D2 where D is the OD
(or ID).
The OD is the size of the pipe. For example, the OD of 10 3/ 4-in., 55.5-lb/ft casing
is 10 3/4 in.
When you know the OD and weight of a pipe, its ID can be found in several
sections in the Halliburton Cementing Tables manual including Displacement,
Dimensions and Strengths, Capacity, and Volume and Height.
NOTE
1-4
You can order a copy of the Halliburton Cementing Tables from Mastercraft.
October 1996
Problem 3
What is the ID area of 10 3/4-in., 55.5-lb/ft casing? The ID of this casing is 9.760
in. (from the Halliburton Cementing Tables).
Work Space
Answer _______________
(See Page 1-61 for the solution.)
An easy way to understand a tubing cross section is to look at the end of a piece
of pipe. The hatched portion in Figure 1.5 is the cross section.
NOTE
The laws of mathematics do not allow you to subtract the diameters of the circles
and then find the area of that difference.
Example 3: How to calculate the cross-sectional area of tubing
What is the cross-sectional area of this tubing?

Solution
= 0.7854 x 7 in. x 7 in. = 38.485 in.
Tubing ID area = 0.7854 x 6.366 in. x
6.366 in. = 31.829 in.
Tubing cross-sectional area = OD area
- ID area
= 38.485 in. - 31.829 in. = 6.656 in.
Figure 1.5
Problem 4
What is the cross-sectional area of 2 3/8-in., 4.7-lb/ft tubing? The ID of this tubing
is 1.995 in. (from Halliburton Cementing Tables).
Work Space
Answer _______________
October 1996
1-5
Estimating Tensile Strength with the Cross-Sectional Area

Being able to calculate cross-sectional area is sometimes useful when an oilfield
handbook is not available. For example, if you know the cross-sectional area, you
can quickly estimate the tensile strength of drillpipe, tubing, or casing with
Equation 1.5.
Tensile strength (estimated) = Yield strength x Cross-sectional area ............ (1.5)
Tensile strengths of tubing and casing are particularly easy to calculate since the
grade designation indicates the yield strength of the pipe in thousands of
pounds-per-square inch (psi) of cross-sectional area. For example, new N-80
tubing or casing has a yield strength of 80,000 psi. Example 4 illustrates the
calculation for tensile strength.
Example 4: How to calculate tensile strength
What is the approximate tensile strength of the pipe body of

2.875-in. OD, 2.441-in. ID, 6.5-lb/ft, N-80 tubing?
Solution
Tubing OD area = 0.7854 x 2.875 in. x 2.875 in. = 6.492 in.2
Tubing ID area = 0.7854 x 2.441 in. x 2.441 in. = 4.680 in.2
Cross-sectional area = Tubing OD area - Tubing ID area
= 6.492 in.2 - 4.680 in.2 = 1.812 in.2
Yield strength = 80,000 psi
Tensile strength (estimated) = Yield strength x Cross-sectional area (1.5)
= 80,000 psi x 1.812 in.2 = 144,960 lb
NOTE
1-6
Use these calculations carefully since no safety factor is included. Be aware that
the threaded sections on nonupset tubing, casing, etc., have a thinner wall than
the pipe body. Use the thinner section for calculating tensile strength since it will
be the weakest point.
October 1996
Calculating Force and Pressure

This section defines force and pressure and gives examples and problems for
calculating force in hydraulic cylinders.
Definition of Force
Force is defined in the dictionary as active power. This definition means that an
item, such as the piston in a hydraulic cylinder, will move when a force adequate
to overcome the resistance is applied. Usually, force is expressed in pounds (lb),
and its upward or downward direction on the equipment is specified (lb or
lb).
Definition of Pressure
A liquid or gas exerts a force against any surface it contacts; the force per unit
area is defined as pressure. Pressure is usually expressed in pounds per square
inch (psi). Pascals Law states that pressure acts equally in all directions. In other
words, pressure in a hydraulic cylinder is acting (or exerting a force) equally on
each square inch of the piston, cylinder cap, and cylinder walls.
A force may be created when pressure acts across an area, such as in a hydraulic
cylinder or a hydraulic jack. The amount of force created by a hydraulic cylinder
is equal to the pressure multiplied by the area of the piston.
Force = Pressure x Area of piston .......................................................................... (1.6)
NOTE
Pressure and area must be expressed in comparable units for calculations to be

accurate. In this text, pressure is expressed in pounds per square inch (psi), and
area is expressed in square inches (in.2).
Figure 1.6 on Page 1-8 shows a hydraulic cylinder mounted on a solid wall. The
piston rod acts against a set of scales that measures force.
October 1996
1-7
Calculating Force in a Hydraulic Cylinder

Example 5: How to calculate force in a hydraulic cylinder
What force is created in the

cylinder in Figure 1.6?
Solution
Piston OD area = 0.7854 x 3.0 in. x
3.0 in. = 7.069 in.2
Pressure = 3,000 psi
Force = Pressure x Area (1.6)
Force = 3,000 psi x 7.069 in.2
= 21,207 lb
Figure 1.6
Problem 5
What force is exerted by the cylinder in Figure 1.7?
Work Space
Answer _______________
Figure 1.7
1-8
October 1996
Calculating Pressure in a Hydraulic Cylinder

Pressure multiplied by area equals force; therefore, force divided by area equals
pressure.
When force is applied to the rod on a hydraulic cylinder, pressure is created. Pull
applied to a hydraulic jar creates pressure in the hydraulic chamber of the jar. To
calculate the amount of pressure created, divide force by area:
Pressure = Force Area ........................................................................................... (1.7)
Example 6 and Problem 6 are applications of Equation 1.7.
Example 6: How to calculate pressure in a hydraulic cylinder
What is the pressure created when a 3,142-lb force is applied to the

2.0-in. diameter piston in Figure 1.8?
Solution
Piston OD area = 0.7854 x 2.0 in. x 2.0 in.
= 3.142 in.2
Force = 3,142 lb
Pressure = Force Area .................. (1.7)
Pressure = 3,142 lb 3.142 in.2
= 1,000 psi
Figure 1.8
October 1996
1-9
Problem 6
If the force in Figure 1.9 is 1,000 lb and the diameter of the piston is 3.0 in., what
is the pressure in the cylinder?
Work Space
Answer _______________
(See Page 1-61 for the
solution.)
Figure 1.9
Calculating Effective Area

Definition of Effective Area
As shown in Figure 1.10, Page 1-11, pressure applied to the pistons back side
cannot act over the entire cross-sectional area of the piston because of the rod
position. The area on which the pressure acts is known as the effective area.
In Figure 1.10, the effective area is equal to the difference in the piston OD area
and the rod OD area. This difference is the effective area that the pressure works
against in a hydraulic cylinder.
1-10
October 1996
Figure 1.10
Example 7: How to calculate the effective area
What is the effective area of the pressure on the cylinder in Figure

1.11?
Solution
Piston OD area = 0.7854 x 3.0
in. x 3.0 in. = 7.069 in.2
Rod OD area
= 0.7854 x 1.5 in. x 1.5 in.
= 1.767 in.2
Effective area = Piston OD area
- Rod OD area
= 5.302 in.2
Figure 1.11
Problem 7
Applying 1,000 psi to the cylinder will exert what pull (force) on the scales in
Figure 1.11?
Work Space
Answer _______________
October 1996
1-11
Problem 8
Figure 1.12 shows different pressures
acting on each side of the piston.
What force is registered on the
scales? Is this force up or down?
Hint: Work this problem as if it
were two separate problems. One
force is upward and the other force is
downward. Subtract the smaller
force from the larger force. The
remaining force on the scales will be
in the same direction as the larger
force.
Work Space
Figure 1.12
Answer _______________
Problem 9
Assume both pressures in Figure
1.13 are 1,000 psi and that the
cylinder is the one from Problem 8.
What is the force, and in which
direction does it act?
Work Space
Figure 1.13
Answer _______________
(See Page 1-62 for the solution and
alternate solution.)
1-12
October 1996
Calculating Differential Areas and Differential

Pressure
The Solution and Alternate Solution (Page 1-62) of Problem 9 (Page 1-12) show
that you can eliminate calculation time by canceling opposing forces. Situations
with equal pressures acting on different areas, as in Problem 9, are normally
called differential areas. If equal pressures act on different areas, you can cancel
the opposing forces in the equation. Example 8 demonstrates differential
pressure on a double-rod cylinder.
Example 8: How to calculate force in a double-rod cylinder
In Figure 1.14, what force is exerted on the scale? Does the net force
act in an upward or downward direction?
Solution
Working with top side of
piston:
Piston area = 0.7854 x 4 in. x
4 in. = 12.566 in.
Rod area = 0.7854 x 1.5 in. x
1.5 in. = 1.767 in.
Effective area
= Piston area - Rod area
= 12.566 in. - 1.767 in.
= 10.799 in.
Force = 1,500 psi x 10.799
in. = 16,198.5 lb
Working with bottom side of
piston:
Figure 1.14
Effective area = 10.799 in.
(calculated above)
Force = 2,000 psi x 10.799 in. = 21,598 lb
Net force = 21,598 lb - 16,198.5 lb = 5,399.5 lb
Alternate Solution
Pressure on bottom side = 2,000 psi
Pressure on top side = 1,500 psi
Differential pressure = Pressure on bottom side - Pressure on top side
= 500 psi
Effective area = 10.799 in. (from Solution)
Net force = 500 psi x 10.799 in. = 5,399.5 lb
October 1996
1-13
Example 8 demonstrates how you can save calculation time by canceling

pressures or forces. Equal amounts of opposing pressures can be canceled if the areas
are equal.
Since the pressures in Figure 1.14, Page 1-13 are acting on equal areas, 1,500 psi
of the pressure on the bottom side will be balancing the 1,500 psi on the top side.
This situation leaves only 500 psi effective pressure on the bottom sidethis is
the differential pressure.
Problem 10
What force is the conventional hydraulic cylinder in Figure 1.15 exerting on the
scale?
Work Space
Answer _______________
Figure 1.15
1-14
October 1996
Problem 11
While the cylinder illustrated in Figure 1.15, Page 1-14 is being used, the rod
breaks. Since the piston and rod on this cylinder are one solid piece, both are
replaced. The new piston is not machined correctly. Instead of having a diameter
of 3 3/4 in., the new piston end has a 3 5 /8-in. diameter. The new rod end has a
1 5/8-in. diameter, as specified. What effect, if any, do the new piston and rod
have on the system?
Work Space
Answer _______________
Calculating Hydrostatic Pressure

This section introduces the concepts necessary to convert mud weight to
hydrostatic pressure.
Definition of Hydrostatic Pressure

Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure created by a column of fluid. This column of
fluid may be the mud in a well or the water in a lake. The taller the column or
the heavier the fluid, the higher the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the
column. Hydrostatic pressure is usually expressed in pounds per square inch
(psi).
Definition of Mud Weight

Mud weight, as the term implies, is the weight of a standard volume of mud. In
the United States, mud weight is usually expressed in pounds per gallon
(lb/gal). In a few areas, such as California and some international locations, mud
weight is expressed in pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft).
Converting Mud Weight to Hydrostatic Pressure

To convert mud weight to hydrostatic pressure, multiply mud weight by a
constant, 0.05195, and then multiply by depth in feet.
Hydrostatic pressure = Mud weight in lb/gal x 0.05195 x Depth in ft ........... (1.8)
October 1996
1-15
Example 9: How to calculate hydrostatic pressure from mud weight
What is the hydrostatic pressure of a column of 9.6-lb/gal mud at

6,450 ft?
Solution
Hydrostatic pressure = Mud weight x 0.05195 x Depth ......................... (1.8)
= 9.6 lb/gal x 0.05195 x 6,450 ft = 3,216.744 psi
Problem 12
What is the hydrostatic pressure of a column of 16.5-lb/gal mud at 10,000 ft?
Work Space
Answer _______________
Calculating Hydrostatic Pressure from Fluid

Gradients
Multiplying 0.05195 by the mud weight (lb/gal) yields a fluid gradient
hydrostatic pressure in psi per foot of depth (psi/ft). These fluid gradients
simplify hydrostatic pressure calculations.
Fluid gradients for a range of fluid weights have been calculated and can be
found in Table 4.1, Page 4-2 (lb/gal) and Table 4.2, Page 4-3 (lb/ft 3) of this
manual (or at the back of the Halliburton Cementing Tables in the Hydrostatic
Pressure and Fluid Weight Conversion Tables). Chapter 4 of this manual
contains this table and many others for reference.
NOTE
When using oilfield handbooks to look up fluid gradients, check the unit of
measurement because many handbooks express fluid gradients in psi per hundred feet.
To use Table 4.1, find the mud weight in the left column of the table, then read
the fluid gradient in the right column. For example, the fluid gradient for
12.4-lb/gal mud is 0.6442 psi/ft of depth. To change the fluid gradient to
hydrostatic pressure, multiply by the depth as in Equation 1.9.
Hydrostatic pressure = Fluid gradient x Depth .................................................. (1.9)
1-16
October 1996
Example 10: How to calculate hydrostatic pressure using fluid gradients
Using Equation 1.9, what is the hydrostatic pressure at 12,650 ft in a

well containing 10.6-lb/gal mud?
Solution
Fluid gradient for 10.6-lb/gal mud = 0.5506 psi/ft (from Table 4.1, Page 4-2)
Hydrostatic pressure = 0.5506 psi/ft x 12,650 ft = 6,965.09 psi
Problem 13
What is the hydrostatic pressure at 6,000 ft in a well containing 12.5-lb/gal mud?
Work Space
Answer _______________
Problem 14
A drillstem test has just been run on the well in Problem 13. As equipment is
removed from the hole, the hole is not kept full. The fluid level in the well drops
1,500 ft. What is the hydrostatic pressure at the 6,000-ft depth now?
Work Space
Answer _______________
October 1996
1-17
Calculating Hydrostatic Pressure with Different

Fluids in a Fluid Column
Often, several different fluids are present in a fluid column. To calculate total
hydrostatic pressure, calculate the hydrostatic pressure for each fluid, then add
these hydrostatic pressures together.
Problem 15
The 10,000-ft tubing string in
Figure 1.16 contains 9,000 ft of
15.6-lb/gal cement; the
remainder of the tubing
contains 9.0-lb/gal water.
What is the total hydrostatic
pressure at the bottom of the
tubing?
Work Space
Figure 1.16
Answer _______________
It is possible for parallel columns of different-weight fluids to exist. This

situation occurs when cement is spotted in or reversed out of tubing. Fluids of
different weights in parallel columns have different hydrostatic pressures. These
differences can be equalized when pressure is trapped or applied to the lighterweight fluid.
To calculate the amount of pressure needed to equalize the hydrostatic pressure
of two fluid columns, find the difference between the hydrostatic pressures. For
more information about this type of calculation, see Calculating Changes in
Hydrostatic Pressure, Page 1-21 and Calculating Weight-Indicator Readings
when Spotting Fluids, Page 1-54.
1-18
October 1996
Problem 16
If the well described in Problem 15 has 9.0-lb/gal water on the outside of the
tubing, how much surface pressure is needed to reverse the cement out of the
tubing?
Hint: The pressure needed to reverse the cement out of the tubing equals the
difference in the hydrostatic pressures of fluids in the tubing and casing
(without accounting for friction).
Work Space
Answer _______________
If mud weight is expressed in pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3), calculate the fluid
gradient by dividing the mud weight by 144. Then, to obtain hydrostatic
pressure, multiply this fluid gradient by the depth in feet.
When mud weight is given in lb/ft3, use Equation 1.10 to find hydrostatic
pressure.
Hydrostatic pressure = Mud weight in lb/ft x Depth in ft ........................ (1.10)
144
Equation 1.11 is another way of calculating hydrostatic pressure:
Hydrostatic pressure = Mud weight in lb/ft x 0.006944 x Depth in ft ......... (1.11)
Example 11: How to calculate hydrostatic pressure using

Equation 1.11
Using Equation 1.11, what is the hydrostatic pressure at 6,000 ft in a
well containing 72-lb/ft mud?
Solution
Hydrostatic Pressure
= Mud weight in lb/ft x 0.006944 x Depth in ft .................................. (1.11)
= 72 lb/ft x 0.006944 x 6,000 ft = 2,999.808 psi
October 1996
1-19
Problem 17
What is the hydrostatic pressure at 8,000 ft in a well containing 104-lb/ft mud?
Use Equation 1.11.
Work Space
Answer _______________
Use Table 4.2, Page 4-3 to eliminate part of Equation 1.11. The numbers in Table
4.2 reflect the mud weight (in lb/ft) already multiplied by 0.006944 (or divided
by 144) to give the fluid gradient in psi/ft of depth.
To use Table 4.2, find the mud weight in the left-hand column, and read the
fluid gradient in the right column. For example, the fluid gradient for 100-lb/ft
mud is 0.6944 psi/ft. To translate this psi/ft to hydrostatic pressure, multiply
the fluid gradient by the depth.
Example 12: How to calculate hydrostatic pressure
What is the hydrostatic pressure at 10,000 ft in a well containing

120-lb/ft mud? Use Table 4.2, Page 4-3.
Solution
Fluid gradient for 120-lb/ft3 mud = 0.8333 psi/ft (from Table 4.2, Page 4-3)
Hydrostatic pressure = 0.8333 psi/ft x 10,000 ft = 8,333 psi
1-20
October 1996
Problem 18
What is the hydrostatic pressure created by a 9,000-ft column of 80-lb/ft fluid?
Use Table 4.2, Page 4-3.
Work Space
Answer _______________
Calculating Changes in Hydrostatic Pressure

There are at least two ways to calculate a change in hydrostatic pressure; one
method is shorter than the other one.
To determine changes in hydrostatic pressures, calculate the hydrostatic
pressure before and after the change, and find the difference.
Long Method
Change in hydrostatic pressure= Hydrostatic pressure after - Hydrostatic
pressure before ........................................................................................................ (1.12)
Find the fluid gradients in Table 4.1, Page 4-2 (for lb/gal fluid weights) or
Table 4.2, Page 4-3, (for lb/ft3 fluid weights).
Short Method
First, find the difference in the fluid gradients of the two fluids; then multiply
this difference by the length of fluid column changed. Equation 1.13 expresses
this calculation.
Change in hydrostatic pressure = (Fluid 1 gradient - Fluid 2 gradient)
x Length of fluid column changed ...................................................................... (1.13)
Compare the long and the short methods of calculating changes in hydrostatic
pressure by studying the solutions for Example 13 on Page 1-22. Example 14,
Page 1-23, explains how to calculate change in hydrostatic pressure when only
part of the fluid column changes.
October 1996
1-21
Example 13: How to calculate change in hydrostatic pressure when

the entire fluid column changes
If the 8.33-lb/gal water in a 10,000-ft well is replaced with 10.0-lb/gal

salt water, what is the change in hydrostatic pressure?
Solution (Long Method)
Fluid gradient for 8.33-lb/gal water = 0.433 psi/ft (from Table 4.1, Page 4-2)
Hydrostatic pressure before changing fluids = 0.433 psi/ft x 10,000 ft =
4,330 psi
Fluid gradient for 10.0-lb/gal salt water
= 0.5195 psi/ft (from Table 4.1, Page 4-2)
Hydrostatic pressure after changing fluids = 0.5195 psi/ft x 10,000 ft =
5,195 psi
Change in hydrostatic pressure= Hydrostatic pressure after - Hydrostatic
pressure before ................................................................................. (1.12)
= 5,195 psi - 4,330 psi = 865 psi
Alternate Solution (Short Method)
Fluid gradient for 10.0-lb/gal salt water
Fluid gradient for 8.33-lb/gal water = 0.4330 psi/ft
(from Table 4.1, Page 4-2)
Length of fluid column changed = 10,000 ft
Change in hydrostatic pressure = (Fluid gradient - Fluid gradient)
x Length of fluid column changed ........................................................ (1.13)
= (0.5195 psi/ft - 0.4330 psi/ft) x 10,000 ft
= 0.0865 psi/ft x 10,000 ft = 865 psi
1-22
October 1996
Example 14: How to calculate hydrostatic pressure change when part

of the fluid column changes
With 10,000 ft of tubing in the hole, enough 15.6-lb/gal cement is

spotted to the bottom to fill 5,000 ft of tubing. The original fluid in the
hole is 10.0-lb/gal brine water. What is the change in hydrostatic
pressure?
Solution
Fluid gradient for 15.6-lb/gal cement
Fluid gradient for 10.0-lb/gal brine = 0.5195 psi/ft (from Table 4.1,
Page 4-2)
Length of column changed = 5,000 ft
Change in hydrostatic pressure = (Fluid gradient - Fluid gradient)
x Length of fluid column changed ........................................................ (1.13)
= (0.8104 psi/ft - 0.5195 psi/ft) x 5,000 ft
= 0.2909 psi/ft x 5,000 ft = 1,454.5 psi
Problem 19
What is the change in hydrostatic pressure if a 10,000-ft column of 8.33-lb/gal
fluid is replaced with a 16.0-lb/gal fluid?
Work Space
Answer _______________
October 1996
1-23
Problem 20
During a flow test with a packer set at 5,000 ft with 10.0-lb/gal brine in the hole,
what is the change in hydrostatic pressure when all the 10.0-lb/gal brine in the
tubing has been replaced with 42 API oil weighing 6.8 lb/gal?
Work Space
Answer _______________
Hydrostatic Pressure in Directionally Drilled Holes

This part of Chapter 1 explains how to calculate hydrostatic pressure in
directionally drilled holes.
In directionally drilled holes, actual vertical depth may vary greatly from drilled
depth. In a directional hole, only the vertical depth is used to calculate
hydrostatic pressureregardless of the path taken to reach this depth, the true
vertical height of the fluid column is equal to the vertical depth. Example 15
shows that the vertical depth measurement provides accurate results.
Example 15: How to calculate hydrostatic pressure in a directionally
drilled hole
Figure 1.17 illustrates an angled 30-ft joint of tubing in a lake. The bottom of
the tubing is 20 ft below the lakes surface.
What is the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the tubing joint?
Solution
Fluid gradient of fresh
water = 0.433 psi/ft
(from Table 4.1, Page
4-2)
= 0.433 psi/ft x 20 ft
= 8.66 psi
Figure 1.17
1-24
October 1996
Figure 1.17, Page 1-24 shows that the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the
tubing is equal to the hydrostatic pressure in 20 ft of water. In Example 15, if the
30-ft length of the tubing had been used for the calculation instead of the 20-ft
actual vertical depth, the hydrostatic pressure would have been 12.99 psi50%
too high.
In the oilfield, only vertical depth and mud weight influence hydrostatic
pressure. Hole volume and diameter do not influence hydrostatic pressure, as
demonstrated by Figure 1.18.
Figure 1.18 shows four pieces of pipe with lengths of 1,000 ft and diameters of
1 ft. Pipes A, B, and C contain fresh water, and pipe D contains mud. Since all
four pipes contain equal volumes of fluid, any difference in hydrostatic pressure
is not influenced by volume.
First, compare the hydrostatic pressures of pipes B and C, and note the
importance of calculating hydrostatic pressure based on true vertical depth
rather than total depth. Although the two pipes are the same length, the true
vertical depth of pipe C is half that of pipe B. Therefore, the hydrostatic pressure
of pipe C is half that of pipe B.
Notice that pipe A has the lowest hydrostatic pressure because of its shallow
vertical depth.
Also compare pipes B and D, and note how mud weight greatly influences
hydrostatic pressure.
Figure 1.18
October 1996
1-25

drilled well
Figure 1.19 is a schematic of a directionally drilled well that was drilled
straight down for 1,500 ft, kicked out (off vertical) for 10,000 ft, and then
straightened up for the last 2,000 ft. The actual vertical depth of the well is
8,000 ft. If the fluid in the hole is 15.0-lb/gal mud, what is the hydrostatic pressure at the total depth (TD)?
Solution
Vertical depth = 8,000 ft
Hydrostatic pressure at TD = 0.7792 psi/ft x 8,000 ft = 6,233.6 psi
If the calculation for the solution for Example 16 had been based on total depth
(TD) instead of vertical depth, the hydrostatic pressure would be calculated as
0.7792 psi/ft x 13,500 ft = 10,519.2 psi
The calculation based on TD results in an incorrect and significantly higher
pressure than the calculation based on actual vertical depth.
Figure 1.19
1-26
October 1996
Problem 21
What is the hydrostatic pressure at TD for the well illustrated in Figure 1.20?
Work Space
Answer _______________
Figure 1.20
October 1996
1-27
To find the total hydrostatic pressure of a slanted pipe at TD, follow these steps:
1. Determine a factor for the slanted portion of the hole using Equation 1.14.
Slant factor = True vertical height of slant Length of slant .............. (1.14)
2. Calculate the length of the cement in the slanted pipe using Equation 1.15.
Length of cement column in slant
= Total cement length - Length of straight hole with cement .............. (1.15)
3. Determine the height of the cement in slant using Equation 1.16.
Height of cement in slant
= Slant factor x Length of cement column in slant................................. (1.16)
4. Calculate the hydrostatic pressure of the cement.
Hydrostatic pressure of cement = Total cement height x Cement fluid
gradient
5. Calculate the hydrostatic pressure of the brine.
Hydrostatic pressure of brine = Height of brine column x Brine fluid gradient
6. Find the total hydrostatic pressure.
Total hydrostatic pressure = Hydrostatic pressure of brine + Hydrostatic
pressure of cement

drilled well (slant factor considered)
Figure 1.21, Page 1-29 illustrates a 10,000-ft TD hole. Since the hole is
directionally drilled, the actual vertical depth is only 8,000 ft. The bottom
4,500 ft of tubing is spotted with 15.6-lb/gal cement.
What is the hydrostatic pressure at TD?
Solution
When the geometry of the hole is not available, estimate the hydrostatic
pressure by making a schematic as shown in Figure 1.21. Then proceed
with Steps 1 through 6 above.
1. Use Equation 1.14 for slant factor: 4,000 ft 6,000 ft = 0.6667
2. Use Equation 1.15 for length of cement column in slant:
4,500 ft - 3,000 ft = 1,500 ft
The true vertical height of the cement in the slant is proportional to the
length of cement in the slant by the same factor. To find the vertical height
of the cement in the slant, use Equation 1.16.
Solution for Example 17 continued on Page 1-29
1-28
October 1996
Example 17 Solutioncontinued
3. Height of cement in slant = 0.6667 x 1,500 ft = 1,000 ft
4. Total height of cement
= Height of cement in slant + Length of straight hole containing cement
= 1,000 ft + 3,000 ft = 4,000 ft
Fluid gradient for 15.6-lb/gal cement = 0.8104 psi/ft
Hydrostatic pressure of cement = 0.8104 psi/ft x 4,000 ft = 3,241.6 psi
5. Height of brine column = True vertical depth - Total cement height
= 8,000 ft - 4,000 ft = 4,000 ft
Fluid gradient for 10.0-lb/gal brine = 0.5195 psi/ft
Hydrostatic pressure of brine = 0.5195 psi/ft x 4,000 ft = 2,078 psi
6. Total hydrostatic pressure = 3,241.6 psi + 2,078 psi = 5,319.6 psi
Figure 1.21
October 1996
1-29
Problem 22
Figure 1.22 illustrates the conditions for a 9,000-ft TD hole. The vertical depth is
7,000 ft. Enough 9.0-lb/gal fluid is spotted to fill the bottom 6,000 ft of tubing.
What is the hydrostatic pressure inside the tubing at TD?
Work Space
Answer _______________
Figure 1.22
1-30
October 1996
Problem 23
Figure 1.23 shows a well with a 10,000-ft vertical depth. Drilled depth (TD) is
15,000 ft. If enough 15.6-lb/gal cement to fill 5,000 ft of tubing is spotted to the
bottom, what is the hydrostatic pressure at TD if the cement is displaced with
18.0-lb/gal mud?
Work Space
Answer _______________
Figure 1.23
October 1996
1-31
Measurements for Directionally Drilled Holes

Following is a list of terms that refer to various measurements for directionally
drilled holes. Be familiar with these terms, and correct all data for calculations
accordingly.
VSS (vertical subsea)VSS refers to the vertical depth of the well measured
from sea level. Geologists generally use this concept to identify and correlate
formations.
VSF (vertical depth from surface flange)Many oil companies currently
measure vertical depth from the surface flange since the flange will be a
permanent part of the completion.
MSF (measured depth from surface flange)MSF is the total drilled depth
measured from the surface flange.
MKB (measured depth from kelly bushing)Some companies use the kelly
bushing as a reference point. These companies use MKB to abbreviate total
depth measured from the bushing.
VKB (vertical depth from kelly bushing)VKB refers to vertical depth
measured from the kelly bushing.
Calculating Pipe Capacity

Definition of Pipe Capacity
Pipe capacity is the volume of fluid or cement required to fill a specified length of
pipe. Capacity, therefore, depends upon the pipes ID and length in each situation. Since pipe ID is determined by pipe weight, capacity is also determined by
pipe weight.
The Halliburton Cementing Tables list capacities of most commonly used pipes in
several units of measure including bbl/ft, gal/ft, and ft/ft. Since the most
common measure of capacity and displacement volumes is barrels, most examples in this manual use barrels (bbl).
Using Capacity Factors to Calculate Pipe Capacity

A capacity factor allows you to calculate easily the amount of fluid required to
fill a pipe string. Use Equation 1.17 to calculate capacity.
Capacity = Capacity factor x Pipe length ........................................................... (1.17)
Capacity factors can be found in the Halliburton Cementing Tables.
Example 18 shows a calculation for pipe capacity.
1-32
October 1996
Example 18: How to calculate tubing capacity
What is the capacity of 6,000 ft of 3 1/2 -in., 9.3-lb/ft tubing, expressed in

barrels?
Solution
Capacity factor for 3 1/2-in., 9.3-lb/ft tubing = 0.00870 bbl/ft (from the
Halliburton Cementing Tables)
Capacity = Capacity factor x Pipe length............................................. (1.17)
= 0.00870 bbl/ft x 6,000 ft = 52.20 bbl
Calculating Capacity Factors

Here are the equations used to calculate pipe capacity factors. The capacity
factors listed in the Halliburton Cementing Tables are based on these equations.
You may need them to calculate factors if the book is not available or if it does
not list a factor for the specific type of pipe on the job.
Capacity factor of pipe in gal/ft = ID (gal) ............................................... (1.18)
77 (ft)
Capacity factor of pipe in bbl/ft = ID (bbl) ............................................... (1.19)
3,234 (ft)
Capacity factor of pipe in ft/ft =
ID (ft)
............................................... (1.20)
576 (ft)
where
= 3.141592654
ID = internal diameter of the pipe
Problem 24
What is the capacity (bbl) of 10,000 ft of 3 1/2-in., 15.50-lb/ft drillpipe? The
capacity factor for this drillpipe is 0.00658 bbl/ft (from the Halliburton Cementing
Tables).
Work Space
Answer _______________
October 1996
1-33
Problem 25
What is the capacity in barrels of 600 ft of 6.0-in. OD, 2 1/2-in. ID drill collars? The
capacity factor for these drill collars is 0.0061 bbl/ft (from the Halliburton
Cementing Tables).
Work Space
Answer _______________
NOTE
To find capacity factors for drill collars in the field, find the capacity factor for an
open hole or tubing with the same ID in the Halliburton Cementing Tables.
Calculating Pipe Fill-Up

Definition of Pipe Fill-Up
Fill-up is the length of pipe that a given volume of fluid will fill. Fill-up factors
simplify fill-up calculations and may be found in the Capacity section of the
Halliburton Cementing Tables. These fill-up factors are expressed in various units:
ft/gal, ft/ft,3 and ft/bbl.
Calculating Pipe Fill-Up using Fill-Up Factors

To calculate fill-up, multiply the fill-up factor (in ft/bbl) by volume (in bbl) to
obtain the length of pipe filled (in ft). If volumes are measured in gallons or
cubic feet, multiply the appropriate fill-up factor by the volume to yield the
length of pipe filled (Equation 1.21).
Length of pipe fill-up = Fill-up factor x Volume ............................................. (1.21)
Fill-up factors can be found in the Halliburton Cementing Tables in the Capacity
section (in the lin. ft/bbl column).
1-34
October 1996
Example 19: How to calculate fill-up
How many feet of 2 7/8-in., 10.4-lb/ft internal upset drillpipe will 60 bbl
of cement fill?
Solution
Fill-up factor for 2 7/8-in., 10.4-lb/ft drillpipe = 222.49 ft/bbl (from the
Halliburton Cementing Tables)
Length of pipe fill-up = Fill-up factor x Volume .................................... (1.21)
Fill-up = 222.49 ft/bbl x 60 bbl = 13,349.4 ft
Problem 26
How many feet of 2 3/ 8-in., 4.7-lb/ft tubing will 50 bbl of oil fill? The fill-up factor
for this tubing is 258.65 ft/bbl (from the Halliburton Cementing Tables).
Work Space
Answer _______________
October 1996
1-35
Problem 27
On a squeeze job, the bottomhole pressure is limited to 9,000 psi. Conditions are
as follows:
Packer depth = 10,000 ft

Mud weight = 14.0 lb/gal
Cement weight = 16.0 lb/gal
Spacer fluid (water) = 8.33 lb/gal
Tubing = 2 3/8 in., 4.7 lb/ft (from the Halliburton Cementing Tables, capacity
factor = 0.00387 bbl/ft; fill-up factor = 258.65 ft/bbl)
The job involves (1) placing 10 bbl of water ahead of the cement, (2) following
the water with 50 bbl of cement, (3) placing 10 bbl of water, and (4) displacing
the cement with mud.
A. What is the capacity of the tubing?
Work Space
Answer _______________
B. What is the maximum pump pressure with a full column of mud?

Work Space
Answer _______________
C. What is the maximum pump pressure when cement mixing begins?

Work Space
Answer _______________
Problem 27 continued on Page 1-37
1-36
October 1996
Problem 27continued
D. What is the maximum pump pressure when the water ahead of the cement
reaches the tool?
Work Space
Answer _______________
E. What is the maximum pump pressure with a full column of cement?
Work Space
Answer _______________
F. What is the maximum pump pressure when all the water behind the cement
is in the tubing?
Work Space
Answer _______________
G. What is the maximum pump pressure when the water behind the cement
reaches the tool?
Work Space
Answer _______________
H. What is the maximum pump pressure when the mud behind the cement
reaches the tool (with a full column of mud)?
Work Space
Answer _______________
(See Pages 1-66 and 1-67 for the solutions to Problem 27, Parts A through H.)
October 1996
1-37
Calculating Buoyancy
Definition of Buoyancy
The dictionary defines buoyancy as the power of a fluid to exert an upward force
on a body placed in it. Fluid tries to float anything placed in it. In oilfield applications, buoyancy is the force that causes even very heavy items, such as
drillpipe and drill collars, to weigh less in fluid than in air.
The buoyant, or upward force on pipe is equal to the weight of fluid displaced
when pipe is run in the hole. Normally, weights for tubing and drillpipe are
given in pounds per foot (lb/ft), as weighed on dry land (or air).
This section of Chapter 1 provides examples and problems for calculating
weights of both steel and aluminum pipe in liquid. Later, two methods of
calculating the weight of pipe in fluid are described: the buoyancy-factor
method and the area/hydrostatic-pressure method.
Calculating Weight in Fluid for Steel Pipe

When mud weight is expressed in pounds per gallon (lb/gal), the weight of openended steel pipe suspended in fluid can be calculated with Equation 1.22.
WL = (WA) x [1 - (0.01528 x MW)] ....................................................................... (1.22)
where:
WL = weight of pipe suspended in liquid (lb/ft)
WA = weight of pipe in air (lb/ft)
MW = mud weight (lb/gal)
NOTE
Equation 1.22 applies only to steel pipe. The mud weight must be expressed in
pounds per gallon.
Examples 20 and 21 show applications of Equation 1.22.

Example 20: How to calculate weight of steel pipe in fluid
What does 2 3/ 8-in., 4.70-lb/ft tubing weigh in 12.3-lb/gal mud?

Solution
WL = (WA) x [1 - (0.01528 x MW)] ...................................................... (1.22)
= 4.70 x [1 - (0.01528 x 12.3)]
= 4.70 x (1 - 0.1879)
= 4.70 x 0.8121 = 3.8167 lb/ft
1-38
October 1996
Example 21: How to calculate the reading of the total-weight indicator
1,000 ft of 2 3/8-in., 4.70-lb/ft tubing is suspended in

12.3-lb/gal mud. What is the reading of the total-weight indicator?
Solution
In Example 20, the weight of 4.7-lb/ft pipe suspended in 12.3-lb/gal mud
was calculated to be 3.8167 lb/ft. For the 1,000 ft of this tubing, the weight
indicator would show
3.8167 lb/ft x 1,000 ft = 3,816.7 lb
NOTE
To simplify the above calculations, find the buoyancy factor in a chart such as
Table 4.3, Page 4-4. This method will be explained on Page 1-42.
Problem 28
A. What does 1,700 ft of 3 1/2-in., 15.50-lb/ft drillpipe weigh in 14.7-lb/gal mud?
Work Space
Answer
_______________
B. What does the same drillpipe weigh in air?

Work Space
Answer
_______________
(Solutions for Problem 28 are on Page 1-67).
When mud weight is expressed in pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3), the weight of
open-ended steel pipe suspended in fluid can be calculated with Equation 1.23.
WL = WA [1 - (0.002045) x (MC)] .......................................................................... (1.23)
where:
MC = mud weight (lb/ft)
NOTE
October 1996
Equation 1.23 applies only to steel pipe. Mud weight must be expressed in pounds
per cubic foot.
1-39
Calculating Weight in Fluid for Aluminum Pipe

Calculate the weight of open-ended aluminum pipe suspended in fluid by using
Equation 1.24 when mud weight is expressed in lb/gal.
WL = WA [1 - (0.044) x (MW)] .............................................................................. (1.24)
where:
MW = mud weight (lb/gal)
NOTE
Equation 1.24 applies only to aluminum pipe. Mud weight must be expressed in
pounds per gallon.
Buoyancy Factors
Table 4.3, Page 4-4 lists the buoyancy factors for various weights of fluids.
These buoyancy factors are based on calculations for [1 - (0.01528) x (MW)] from
Equation 1.22, Page 1-38. To use Table 4.3, find the mud weight in the left
column, and read the buoyancy factor in the right column.
Table 4.4, Page 4-5 lists buoyancy factors when mud weight is expressed in
lb/ft. Buoyancy factors for aluminum drillpipe are not provided because they
are not used often.
You can simplify calculations for steel pipe weight in fluid with Equation 1.25.
Pipe weight in liquid = Buoyancy factor x Pipe weight in air ...................... (1.25)
1-40
October 1996
Example 22: Calculating pipe weight in liquid with Equation 1.25
What is the weight-indicator reading when 1,500 ft of 3 1 /2-in.,

15.50-lb/ft drillpipe is suspended in 10.2-lb/gal mud?
Solution
Buoyancy factor for 10.2-lb/gal mud = 0.8441 (from Table 4.3, Page 4-4)
Pipe weight in 10.2-lb/gal mud = 0.8441 x 15.50 lb/ft = 13.08355 lb/ft
Pipe weight in liquid = Buoyancy factor x Pipe weight in air................ (1.25)
= 13.08355 lb/ft x 1,500 ft = 19,625.325 lb
Alternate Solution
If you use a calculator, you may prefer to make the calculation in one step
as follows.
Indicator reading = Buoyancy factor x Pipe lb/ft x Pipe ft
= 0.8441 x 15.50 lb/ft x 1,500 ft = 19,625.325 lb
Problem 29
What does 7,000 ft of 4 1/2-in., 16.60-lb/ft drillpipe weigh in 19.0-lb/gal mud?
Work Space
Answer _______________
The following examples and problems demonstrate how weight-indicator

readings with fluid in the pipe can be calculated with two methods. These two
interchangeable methods are the buoyancy-factor method and the
area/hydrostatic-pressure method.
October 1996
1-41
Buoyancy-Factor Method
Often in the oilfield, the hole is not completely full of fluid. Pipe weight can be
calculated with the buoyancy factor for only the portion of pipe that is suspended
in fluid. The remainder of the pipe's weight in air must be accounted for. After
calculating the weights of the portion of pipe in fluid and the portion of pipe in
air, add the two results together for the total pipe weight in the hole.
Example 23: How to calculate pipe weight in fluid with the buoyancyfactor method
Figure 1.24 shows a well filled to 4,000 ft with 8.33-lb/gal water. Then
10,000 ft of 2 3/8-in., 4.7-lb/ft tubing is run in the well. What is the weightindicator reading?
Solution
Calculate pipe weight in water:
Buoyancy factor (8.33 lb/gal)
= 0.8727 (from Table 4.3,
Page 4-4)
Pipe weight in liquid
= 0.8727 x 4.7 lb/ft = 4.10169 lb/ft
Pipe length in fluid
= 10,000 ft - 4,000 ft = 6,000 ft
Indicator reading for pipe in liquid
= 6,000 ft x 4.10169 lb/ft
= 24,610.14 lb
Figure 1.24
Calculate pipe weight in air:
Length of pipe in air = 4,000 ft
Indicator reading from pipe in air = 4.7 lb/ft x 4,000 ft = 18,800 lb
Total indicator reading = 24,610.14 lb + 18,800 lb = 43,410.14 lb
Area/Hydrostatic-Pressure Method
Another way to calculate the weight-indicator reading for pipe in fluid is the
area/hydrostatic-pressure method. The basis for this method is that the upward
(buoyant) force acting on the pipe is equal to the hydrostatic pressure at the
lower end of the tubing that is acting on the area of the pipe-wall thickness.
Pipe-wall thickness equals pipe OD area minus pipe ID area. Subtracting the
buoyant force from the pipe weight in air yields the weight-indicator reading or
string weight.
1-42
October 1996
To find the string weight using the area/hydrostatic-pressure method, follow

these steps.
1. Calculate the hydrostatic pressure.
Hydrostatic pressure = Fluid gradient x Pipe length
2. Determine the pipes effective area.
Effective area = Pipe OD area - Pipe ID area
3. Calculate the buoyant (upward) force by multiplying the answers to Steps 1
and 2.
Buoyant force = Hydrostatic pressure x Effective area
4. Determine pipe weight in air.
Pipe weight in air = Pipe weight in lb/ft x Pipe length
5. Calculate total weight-indicator reading by subtracting the buoyant force
(Step 3) from the pipe weight in air (Step 4).
Indicator reading = Pipe weight in air lb- Buoyant force lb
Example 24: Calculating pipe weight in liquid using the area/
hydrostatic-pressure method.
In Figure 1.25, 1,000 ft of 2 3/8in., 4.7-lb/ft tubing is suspended
in 12.3-lb/gal mud. What is the
weight-indicator reading?
Solution
Fluid gradient for
12.3-lb/gal mud
= 0.6390 psi/ft (from
Table 4.1, Page 4-2)
= 0.6390 psi/ft x 1,000 ft
= 639 psi
Tubing OD area
= 4.430 in. (from
Tubing ID area
Figure 1.25
= 3.126 in. (from
Effective area = 4.430 in. - 3.126 in. = 1.304 in.
Buoyant force = 1.304 in. x 639 psi = 833.256 lb
Pipe weight in air = 4.7 lb/ft x 1,000 ft = 4,700 lb
Indicator reading = 4,700 lb - 833.256 lb = 3,866.744 lb
October 1996
1-43
NOTE
Small variations in the calculated indicator readings result from rounding off
buoyancy factor, areas, and other measurements, and from neglecting the small
buoyant force on each collar. The buoyant force on each collar could be calculated, and all calculations could be carried to more decimal places; however,
numbers rounded off as shown in the examples and problem solutions in this
text are adequate for oilfield applications.
Calculating Weight-Indicator Readings for MixedPipe Strings

A mixed-pipe string is made up of two or more sizes or weights of pipe. When
fluid is in the hole, a mixed strings weight can be calculated with either of the
two methods previously described, the buoyancy-factor method or the area/
hydrostatic-pressure method.
Figure 1.26 illustrates a mixed string of pipe made up of 1,500 ft of 4 1/2-in.,
16.60-lb/ft drillpipe on top and 1,000 ft of 3 1/2-in., 15.50-lb/ft drillpipe on
bottom. Figure 1.27, Page 1-45, shows where hydrostatic pressures are acting on
the string in Figure 1.26.
Looking only at the 3 1/2-in. drillpipe in Figure 1.27, the hydrostatic pressure at
1,500 ft is pushing down across the pipe wall thickness. Since the areas at the top
and bottom of the 3 1/2-in. pipe are equal, use differential pressures to calculate
force.
Examining the joint between the two sizes of pipe in Figure 1.27 reveals that the
only downward force not accounted for is the area between the 3 1/2-in. pipe OD
and the 4 1/2-in. pipe ID. Since the hydrostatic pressures inside and outside are
Figure 1.26
1-44
October 1996
Figure 1.27
equal, the downward force from the 3 1/2-in. pipe OD to the 4 1/2-in. pipe ID is
canceled by an equal upward force. The only remaining force is the upward
force from hydrostatic pressure at 1,500 ft across the wall thickness of the 4 1/2-in.
drillpipe.
To calculate the actual string weight in fluid for a mixed string of pipe, follow
these steps:
1. Multiply the fluids buoyancy factor by the pipe weight in air (lb/ft) to
obtain the pipes weight in liquid.
2. For each size of pipe, multiply the pipes weight in liquid by the length of
that size of pipe (ft).
3. Add the weight of each string to obtain the total weight-indicator reading.
Example 25 on Page 1-46 is an application of these calculations.
October 1996
1-45
Example 25: How to calculate weight-indicator reading for a mixedpipe string
What is the weight-indicator reading for the mixed string in Figure

1.26 on Page 1-44?
Solution
Buoyancy factor for 10.0-lb/gal fluid = 0.8472 (from Table 4.3, Page 4-4)
Weight of 3 1/2-in. pipe in fluid = 15.50 lb/ft x 0.8472 = 13.1316 lb/ft
Actual weight of 1,000 ft of 3 1/ 2-in. pipe = 1,000 ft x 13.1316 lb/ft
= 13,131.6 lb
Weight of 4 1/2-in. pipe in fluid = 16.60 lb/ft x 0.8472 = 14.06352 lb/ft
Actual weight of 1,500 ft of 4 1/ 2-in. pipe = 1,500 ft x 14.06352 lb/ft
= 21,095.28 lb
Indicator reading = 13,131.6 lb + 21,095.28 lb = 34,226.88 lb
Problem 30
If the fluid in the hole is 10 lb/gal, what is the indicator reading for a mixed
string consisting of
1,000 ft of 4 1/2-in., 16.60-lb/ft drillpipe on top

1,000 ft of 3 1/2-in., 15.50-lb/ft drillpipe in the middle
1,000 ft of 2 7/8-in., 10.40-lb/ft drillpipe on bottom?
Work Space
Answer _______________
1-46
October 1996
Problem 31
If the fluid level in the well in Problem 30 is at 1,500 ft and the same mixed string
of pipe is run in the hole, what is the weight-indicator reading?
Work Space
Answer _______________
Example 26: How to calculate the effect of a shoe on the weightindicator reading
How does adding a shoe on the bottom of the tubing in Figure 1.28
affect the weight-indicator reading?
Solution
Figure 1.29 (Page
1-48) shows the
hydraulic forces
acting on the shoe.
Notice the downward
force from
hydrostatic pressure
acting across the
area from the shoe
OD to the tubing OD.
Note the equal
upward force on the
shoe bottom. These
forces cancel each
other, leaving only
the upward force to
act across the area
from the tubing OD
Figure 1.28
to the tubing ID. In
Example 24 on
Page 1-43, this upward force (hydrostatic pressure acting from tubing OD
to tubing ID) was defined as buoyancy; therefore, the shoe will have no
effect on the weight-indicator reading.
October 1996
1-47
Figure 1.29
Problem 32
Does the 2 1/8-in. OD, 1.0-in ID stinger in Figure 1.30 affect the weight-indicator
reading?
Answer _______________
Figure 1.30
1-48
October 1996
Other Factors Influencing Weight Calculations

All weight-indicator calculations presented have assumed the same fluid was
inside and outside the tubing. However, when tubing is run in dry (no fluid
inside), other forces must be considered. Hydrostatic pressure changes when dry
tubing, such as bull-plugged tubing, a string of testing tools, or a retrievable
packer with a closed tubing valve, is run in.
Figure 1.31 illustrates bull-plugged tubing. Notice that with the bottom of the
tubing bull-plugged, hydrostatic pressure works across the entire tubing OD
area. Example 27 shows the calculation of the weight-indicator reading.
Example 27: How to calculate the indicator reading in bull-plugged

tubing
Figure 1.31 shows 1,000 ft of 2 3/8-in., 4.7-lb/ft bull-plugged tubing run in
8.33-lb/gal water. What does the weight indicator read?
Solution
Pipe weight in air
= 4.7 lb/ft x 1,000 ft
= 4,700 lb
Area tubing OD
= 4.430 in.
Fluid gradient for
8.33 lb/gal fluid
Hydrostatic pressure at
1,000 ft = 0.433 psi/ft x
1,000 ft = 433 psi
Upward force on tubing OD
Figure 1.31
= 4.430 in. x 433 psi =
1,918.19 lb
Indicator reading = 4,700 lb - 1,918.19 lb = 2,781.81 lb
October 1996
1-49
Calculating Hydraulics of Open-Ended Pipe

You can apply the principles of area, pressure, and buoyancy to downhole
conditions when pumping through open-ended tubing.
Calculating Surface Pressures

When pipe rams are closed around tubing, the casing becomes a large hydraulic
cylinder, and the tubing acts as a piston. Applying pump pressure to the system
can move the piston (tubing) upward. To actually move the piston, the weight of
the piston itself (pipe weight minus the buoyant forces) must be overcome. In
other words, to pump tubing out of the hole, pump pressure must create an
upward force equal to or greater than the weight-indicator reading with the
tubing in fluid.
For these calculations, assume that there is no friction between the pipe and
rams. Friction varies widely depending on factors such as the types of rams used
and the condition of the pipe.
Since pressure acts equally in all directions, any surface pressure acts at the
bottom of the tubing, across the area from tubing OD to tubing ID. Pressure also
acts at the top of the tubing across the tubing ID. The effective area is equal to
the tubing OD. Figure 1.32 illustrates this force. The upward force caused by the
surface pressure that acts on open-ended pipe is measured on the weight
indicator because this force supports a portion of the pipe weight.
Table 4.5, Page 4-6 of this manual lists the OD and ID areas of most common
Figure 1.32
1-50
October 1996
drillpipe and tubing sizes. To use Table 4.5, locate the pipe OD in the left column. Next, find pipe weight in the second column, and move horizontally
across the columns. The third column is the OD area in square inches. The
fourth column gives ID in inches, and the fifth column is ID area in square
inches. The two right columns repeat the weight and ODs.
Example 28 shows the calculation of an indicator reading during pumping
operations.
Example 28: How to calculate weight-indicator readings for openended tubing during pumping
Figure 1.33 shows 1,000 ft of 2 3/8-in., 4.7-lb/ft of open-ended tubing
hanging in fresh water.
If 500-psi surface pressure is applied, what does the weight indicator

read?
Solution
Buoyancy factor for fresh
water = 0.8727 (from
= 0.8727 x 4.7 lb/ft
= 4.10169 lb/ft
Indicator reading before
pumping = 1,000 ft x
4.10169 lb/ft
= 4,101.69 lb
Tubing OD area = 4.430 in.2
Figure 1.33
Force = 500 psi x 4.430 in.2
= 2,215 lb
Indicator reading while pumping = 4,101.69 lb - 2,215 lb
= 1,886.69 lb
October 1996
1-51
Problem 33
As shown in Figure 1.34, 4,000 ft of 2 3/8-in., 4.7-lb/ft tubing is hanging in
10.2-lb/gal mud.
A.
What is the weight-indicator

reading before the pump is
started?
Work Space
Answer ______________
Figure 1.34
B. What is the indicator reading if the system is pumped at 4,000 psi?

Work Space
Answer _______________
(See Page 1-68 for solutions to Parts A and B.)
Calculating Maximum Pump Pressures

The maximum allowable surface pressure (without pumping the pipe out of the
hole) can be calculated as the pressure required to create a force equal to the pipe
weight in liquid (weight accounting for buoyancy). This pressure is equal to
floating pipe weight divided by tubing OD area (Equation 1.26).
Maximum allowable surface pressure = Pipe weight in liquid ................ (1.26)
Tubing OD area
1-52
October 1996
Example 29: How to calculate maximum pump pressure

The well in Figure 1.35 has 1,000 ft of 2 3/ 8-in., 4.7-lb/ft of open-ended
tubing hanging in fresh water. Use Equation 1.26 to find the maximum
pump pressure that can be applied without pumping the tubing out of
the hole.
Solution
Buoyancy factor for 8.33-lb/gal
fluid = 0.8727 (from Table 4.3,
Page 4-4)
Pipe weight in liquid = 4.7 lb/ft
x 0.8727 = 4.10169 lb/ft
Available weight = 4.10169 lb/ft
x 1,000 ft = 4101.69 lb
Tubing OD area = 4.430 in.2 (from
Maximum pump pressure
= 4,101.69 lb 4.430 in.2
= 925.890 psi
Figure 1.35
Problem 34
Figure 1.36 shows 1,000 ft of 4 1/2-in., 16.60-lb/ft of open-ended drillpipe hanging
in fresh water. What is the maximum pump pressure that can be applied without
pumping the drillpipe out of the hole?
Work Space
Answer _______________
Figure 1.36
October 1996
1-53
Calculating Weight-Indicator Readings when

Spotting Fluids
Sometimes a heavier fluid, such as heavy mud or cement, is pumped down
tubing or drillpipe while the original, lighter fluid remains between the pipe and
casing. In such a case, it is necessary to hold surface pressure on the casing side
to help prevent the heavier inside fluid from U-tubing or equalizing.
By holding surface pressure on the casing, total pressure at bottom (on the casing
side) is made equal to the hydrostatic pressure of the heavier fluid at bottom. A
pressure equal to the hydrostatic pressure of the heavier fluid exerts an upward,
buoyant force across the area from the tubing OD to tubing ID.
In this case, you have changed the buoyant force on the tubing by filling the
tubing with a heavier fluid and holding pressure on the casing. The weight
indicator will now show the pipe weight to be the same as if it were suspended
with heavier fluid both inside and outside of the drillpipe or tubing. Example 30
shows the relevant calculations.
Example 30: Calculating weight-indicator readings when spotting
heavy fluids
Figure 1.37 illustrates a well with 1,000 ft of 2 3/8-in., 4.7-lb/ft of open-ended
tubing hanging in fresh water. After the rams are closed, a full column of
15.6-lb/gal cement is spotted in the tubing, as shown in Figure 1.38. The
casing valve is pinched down until enough pressure is trapped on the
casing to hold the cement in place in the tubing.
A. What is the weightindicator reading before

the cement is placed in
the tubing?
B. How much pressure
should be trapped on the
casing to hold the cement
in place?
C. What is the weightindicator reading while
the cement is held in
place?
D. How much surface
pressure can operators
apply to the tubing to put
away the cement without
pumping the tubing out of
the hole?
Figure 1.37
Example 30 continued on Page 1-55
1-54
October 1996
Example 30continued
Solution
A. Buoyancy factor for
8.33-lb/gal fluid = 0.8727
Pipe weight in 8.33-lb/gal
fluid = 4.7 lb/ft x 0.8727
= 4.10169 lb/ft
Indicator reading =
4.10169 lb/ft x 1,000 ft
= 4,101.69 lb
B. Fluid gradient for
15.6-lb/gal cement)
Fluid gradient for
8.33-lb/gal water =
0.433 psi/ft (from
Figure 1.38
Change in fluid gradient

= 0.8104 psi/ft - 0.433 psi/ft
= 0.3774 psi/ft
Length of fluid column changed to heavier fluid = 1,000 ft
Pressure required on casing = 1,000 ft x 0.3774 psi = 377.4 psi
C. Buoyancy factor for 15.6-lb/gal cement = 0.7616 (from Table 4.3,
Page 4-4)
Pipe weight in 15.6-lb/gal cement = 4.7 lb/ft x 0.7616 = 3.57952 lb/ft
Indicator reading = 1,000 ft x 3.57952 lb/ft = 3,579.52 lb

D. Available weight = 3,579.52 lb (from Part C)
Tubing OD area = 4.430 in.2 (from Table 4.5, Page 4-6)
Maximum allowable pressure = 3,579.52 lb 4.430 in.2 = 808.018 psi
October 1996
1-55
Problem 35
Figure 1.39 illustrates a well with 1,000
ft of 1.315-in. OD, 1.80-lb/ft of openended tubing hanging in fresh water.
After the rams are closed and a full
column of 15.6-lb/gal cement is spotted, the casing valve is pinched down
to hold the cement in place in the
tubing.
A. What does the weight
indicator show before
the cement is pumped (when
first on bottom)?
Work Space
Figure 1.39
Answer _______________
B. How much pressure should be trapped on the casing to hold the cement in
place?
Work Space
Answer _______________
C. How much surface pressure can you apply to tubing containing a full column of cement without pumping the tubing out of the hole?
Work Space
Answer _______________
(See Page 1-69 for the solutions to Problem 35.)
NOTE
1-56
The buoyancy-factor method is better when the pipe contains full columns of
heavier fluid. The area/hydrostatic-pressure method is better for pipe containing
partial columns of heavier fluid.
October 1996
Spotting a light fluid into a heavy mud system results in somewhat different
conditions than spotting the heavier fluids discussed. For example, spotting light
fluids occurs when acid or a completion fluid is pumped into a formation or a
cushion is pumped for a flow test. Example 31 shows calculations for spotting
light fluids.
Example 31: Calculating weight-indicator readings when spotting
light fluids
Figure 1.40 illustrates a well with 1,000 ft of 2 3/8-in., 4.7-lb/ft open-ended
tubing hanging in 16.0-lb/gal mud.
A. What does the weight indicator read before pumping (when first on
bottom)?
B. If tubing is spotted with fresh water until full, what is the tubing
pressure if the pumps are shut down?
C. What does the indicator read with the pumps shut down and the
tubing valve
closed?
D. What is the
maximum pressure
(total gauge) that
you can apply to
displace the water
without pumping
tubing out of the
hole?
Solution
A. Buoyancy factor for
16.0-lb/gal mud
= 0.7555 (Table 4.3,
Page 4-4 )
Figure 1.40
= 0.7555 x 4.7 lb/ft =
3.55085 lb/ft
Original weight-indicator reading = 3.55085 lb/ft x 1,000 ft
= 3,550.85 lb
October 1996
1-57
B. Fluid gradient for 16.0-lb/gal mud = 0.8312 psi/ft (Table 4.1, Page 4-2)
Fluid gradient 8.33-lb/gal water = 0.433 psi/ft (Table 4.1, Page 4-2)
Change in fluid gradient = 0.8312 psi/ft - 0.433 psi/ft = 0.3982 psi/ft
Change in tubing hydrostatic pressure = 0.3982 psi/ft x 1,000 ft
= 398.2 psi
Tubing pressure = Change in tubing hydrostatic pressure = 398.2 psi
C. Figure 1.41 shows that pressure at bottom outside the tubing is
the hydrostatic pressure of the 16.0-lb/gal mud. Pressure at bottom
inside the tubing is the hydrostatic pressure of fresh water plus 398.2
psiequal to the hydrostatic pressure of 16.0-lb/gal mud. When the
original weight-indicator reading was calculated (in Part A), total pres
sure at bottom was the hydrostatic pressure of 16.0-lb/gal mud; there
fore, the buoyant force on bottom was accounted for in the original
calculation with the buoyancy factor for the 16.0-lb/gal mud. The only
force not accounted for is the trapped tubing pressure pushing up across
the ID area of the tubing.
2 3/8-in., 4.7-lb/ft OD tubing ID area = 3.126 in. 2 (from Table 4.5,
Page 4-6)
Force resulting from trapped pressure = 398.2 psi x 3.126 in.2
= 1,244.773 lb
Weight-indicator reading = Original indicator reading - Force caused by
trapped tubing pressure = 3,550.85 lb (from Part A) - 1,244.773 lb
= 2,306.077 lb
D. 2,306 lb is the weight
available to counteract displacement
pressure. 398.2 psi
already on the tubing
was accounted for
during available
weight calculations;
the displacement
pressure calculated
(based on this weight)
represents the maximum increase in
tubing pressure. So,
Figure 1.41
the total maximum
tubing gauge pressure is the trapped pressure plus the calculated pressure increase. Ap
plied tubing pressure (pump pressure) acts across the tubing OD area as
shown in Figure 1.41.
1-58
October 1996
2 3/8-in., 4.7 lb/ft tubing OD area = 4.430 in. (from Table 4.5, Page 4-6)
Maximum increase in pressure = 2,306.0768 lb (from Part C) 4.430 in.
= 520.559 psi
Maximum tubing pressure = 398.2 psi (from Part A) + 520.559 psi
= 908.759 psi
Problem 36
Figure 1.42 illustrates the conditions for a well with 3,000 ft of
3 1/ 2-in., 13.30-lb/ft drillpipe
hanging open-ended in
18.0-lb/gal mud.
A. What does the indicator read

when first on bottom?
Work Space
Figure 1.42
Answer _______________
Problem 36 continued on Page 1-60
October 1996
1-59
Problem 36continued
B. If the drillpipe is spotted with 9.0-lb/gal acid until full, what is the drillpipe
pressure if the pumps are shut down?
Work Space
Answer _______________
C. What does the indicator read when the pumps are shut down and the
drillpipe valve is closed?
Work Space
Answer _______________
D. What maximum pressure (total gauge) can be applied to displace acid without pumping the drillpipe out of the hole?
Work Space
Answer _______________
(Solutions to Problem 36 are on Page 1-69.)
1-60
October 1996
Solutions to Problems
Pages 1-61 through 1-70 provide the solutions to the problems in Chapter 1.
Most of the problems can be solved more than one way. Different methods may
give slightly different answers, depending on how the numbers are rounded off.
NOTE
If you use and understand a particular method, always use it, even if it is not
used in this text.
Solution for Problem 1

Area = 0.7854 x D2 ...................................................................................................... (1.3)
= 0.7854 x 1.5 in. x 1.5 in. = 1.767 in. ............................................................... Answer

Area = 0.7854 x D2 ...................................................................................................... (1.3)
= 0.7854 x 2.875 in. x 2.875 in. = 6.492 in. ....................................................... Answer

Casing ID area = 0.7854 x 9.760 in. x 9.760 in. = 74.815 in. .......................... Answer

Tubing OD area = 0.7854 x 2.375 in. x 2.375 in. = 4.430 in.
Tubing ID area = 0.7854 x 1.995 in. x 1.995 in. = 3.126 in.
Tubing cross-sectional area = Pipe OD area - Pipe ID area ................................ (1.4)
= 4.430 in. - 3.126 in. = 1.304 in. .................................................................... Answer

Piston area = 0.7854 x 3.5 in. x 3.5 in. = 9.621 in.
Force = Pressure x Area ............................................................................................ (1.1)
................................................................. Answer
= 3,000 psi x 9.621 in. = 28,863 lb

Piston OD area = 0.07854 x 3 in. x 3 in. = 7.069 in.
Pressure = Force Area ............................................................................................ (1.7)
= 1,000 lb 7.069 in. = 141.463 psi .................................................................. Answer
October 1996
1-61

Area = 5.302 in. (from Example 7)
= 1,000 psi x 5.302 in. = 5,302 lb ................................................................... Answer

Top side of the cylinder
Piston OD area = 0.7854 x 4 in. x 4 in. = 12.566 in.
Pressure = 500 psi
Force = Pressure x Area ..................................................................................... (1.1)
= 500 psi x 12.566 in. = 6,283 lb
Bottom side of the cylinder
Piston OD area (from above) = 12.566 in.
Rod area = 0.7854 x 1 in. x 1 in. = 0.785 in.
Effective area = Piston area - Rod area
= 12.566 in. - 0.785 in. = 11.781 in.
= 1,000 psi x 11.781 in. = 11,781 lb
Total force = 11,781 lb - 6,283 lb = 5,498 lb .......................................... Answer

Top side of the cylinder
Piston OD area = 12.566 in. (from Problem 8)
= 1,000 psi x 12.566 in. = 12,566 lb
Lower side of the cylinder
Effective area = 11.781 in. (from Problem 8)
= 1,000 psi x 11.781 in. = 11,781 lb

Total force = 12,566 lb- 11,781 lb = 785 lb ............................................ Answer
Alternate Solution for Problem 9

Rod area = 0.785 in. (from Problem 8)
= 1,000 psi x 0.785 in. = 785 lb ...................................................................... Answer
1-62
October 1996

Piston OD area = 0.7854 x 3.750 in. x 3.750 in. = 11.045 in.
Rod area = 0.7854 x 1.625 in. x 1.625 in. = 2.074 in.
Effective area = 11.045 in. - 2.074 in. = 8.971 in.
Pressure = 200 psi
= 200 psi x 8.971 in. = 1,794.2 ...................................................................... Answer

Pressure in the system acts on both sides of the piston since the piston does not
touch the cylinder. This gives an effective area equal to the rod diameter. Rod
area was calculated in Problem 10 to be 2.074 in.
Force on the scale is now:
= 200 psi x 2.074 in. = 414.8 lb ...................................................................... Answer
When comparing this problem with Problem 10, you can see that not having a
seal has actually reversed the load on the scales.

Hydrostatic pressure = Mud weight x 0.05195 x Depth ...................................... (1.8)
= 16.5 lb/gal x 0.05195 x 10,000 ft = 8,571.75 psi............................................ Answer

Hydrostatic pressure = Fluid gradient x Depth ................................................... (1.9)
= 0.6493 psi/ft x 6,000 ft = 3,895.8 psi ............................................................. Answer

Height of fluid column = 6,000 ft - 1,500 ft = 4,500 ft
Fluid gradient for 12.5-lb/gal fluid = 0.6493 psi/ft (from Table 4-2, Page 4-3)
Hydrostatic pressure = Fluid gradient x Depth ................................................... (1.9)
= 0.6493 psi/ft x 4,500 ft = 2,921.85 psi ........................................................... Answer

Fluid gradient for 9.0-lb/gal fluid = 0.4675 psi/ft (from Table 4.1, Page 4-2)
Height of 9.0-lb/gal fluid = 1,000 ft
Hydrostatic pressure of 9.0-lb/gal fluid = 0.4675 psi/ft x 1,000 ft = 467.5 psi
Fluid gradient for 15.6-lb/gal cement = 0.8104 psi/ft (from Table 4.1, Page 4-2)
Height of 15.6-lb/gal cement = 9,000 ft
Hydrostatic pressure of 15.6-lb/gal cement = 0.8104 psi/ft x 9,000 ft = 7,293.6 psi
Total hydrostatic = 467.5 psi + 7,293.6 psi = 7,761.1 psi ............................... Answer
October 1996
1-63

Casing hydrostatic pressure = 10,000 ft x 0.4675 psi/ft = 4,675 psi
Reversing pressure = Total hydrostatic pressure (from Problem 15) - Casing
hydrostatic pressure
= 7,761.1 psi - 4,675 psi = 3,086.1 psi................................................................ Answer

Mud weight = 104 lb/ft3
Depth = 8,000 ft
Hydrostatic pressure = Mud weight x 0.006944 x Depth .................................. (1.11)
= 104 lb/ft3 x 0.006944 x 8,000 ft = 5,777.408 psi ............................................ Answer

Fluid gradient for 80-lb/ft fluid = 0.5556 psi/ft (from Table 4.2, Page 4-3)
Hydrostatic pressure = 0.5556 psi/ft x 9,000 ft = 5,000.4 psi ...................... Answer

Change in hydrostatic pressure
= (Fluid gradient - fluid gradient) x Length of fluid column changed ........... (1.13)
= (0.831 psi/ft - 0.433 psi/ft) x 10,000 ft
= 0.3982 psi/ft x 10,000 ft = 3,982 psi .............................................................. Answer

Fluid gradient for 6.8 lb/gal oil = 0.3533 psi/ft (from Table 4.1, Page 4-2)
Change in hydrostatic pressure
= (Fluid gradient - fluid gradient) x Length of fluid column changed ........... (1.13)
= (0.5195 psi/ft - 0.3533 psi/ft) x 5,000 ft
= 0.1662 psi/ft x 5,000 ft = 831 psi ................................................................... Answer

Vertical depth = 1,000 ft + 8,000 ft + 1,000 ft = 10,000 ft
Hydrostatic pressure = 0.7273 psi/ft x 10,000 ft = 7,273 psi ....................... Answer
1-64
October 1996

1. True vertical height of slant = 7,000 ft - 1,000 ft = 6,000 ft
Slant factor = True vertical height of slant Length of slant ..................... (1.14)
= 6,000 ft 8,000 ft = 0.750
2. Length of 9.0-lb/gal fluid in slant = 6,000 ft
3. Height of 9.0-lb/gal fluid = Slant factor x Length of 9.0 lb/gal in slant .. (1.16)
= 0.750 ft x 6,000 ft = 4,500 ft
4. Fluid gradient for 9.0-lb/gal fluid = 0.4675 psi/ft (from Table 4.1, Page 4-2)
Hydrostatic pressure of 9.0-lb/gal fluid = 0.4675 psi/ft x 4,500 ft
= 2,103.75 psi
Height of 15.0-lb/gal fluid = True vertical depth - Height of 9.0 lb/gal
= 7,000 ft - 4,500 ft = 2,500 ft
5. Fluid gradient for 15.0-lb/gal fluid = 0.7792 psi/ft (from Table 4.1, Page 4-2)
Hydrostatic pressure of 15.0-lb/gal fluid = 0.7792 psi/ft x 2,500 ft = 1,948 psi
6. Total hydrostatic pressure = 2,103.75 psi + 1,948 psi = 4,051.75 psi.... Answer

1. True vertical height of cement = 10,000 ft - 1,000 ft - 2,000 ft = 7,000 ft
Slant factor = True vertical height of slant Length of slant .................... (1.14)
= 7,000 ft 12,000 ft = 0.5833
2. Length of cement column in slant = Total cement length
- Length of straight hole with cement = 5,000 ft - 2,000 ft = 3,000 ft
3. Height of cement in the slant
= Slack factor x Length of cement in slant ................................................... (1.16)
= 0.5833 x 3000 ft = 1,750 ft
4. Total cement height = 1,750 + 2,000 ft = 3,750 ft
Hydrostatic pressure of cement = 0.8104 psi/ft x 3,750 ft = 3,039 psi
5. Mud height = 10,000 ft - 3,750 ft = 6,250 ft
Hydrostatic pressure of mud = 0.9351 psi/ft x 6,250 ft = 5,844.375 psi
6. Total hydrostatic pressure = 3,039 psi + 5,844.375 psi = 8,883.375 psi Answer

Capacity of 10,000 ft of drillpipe = 10,000 ft x 0.00658 bbl/ft = 65.8 bbl ... Answer

Capacity of 600 ft of 6-in. OD, 2 1/2-in. ID drill collars
= 600 ft x 0.0061 bbl/ft = 3.66 bbl .................................................................... Answer
October 1996
1-65

Fill-up of 50 bbl of oil in 2 3/8-in., 4.7-lb/ft tubing
= 50 bbl x 258.65 ft/bbl = 12,932.5 ft ................................................................ Answer

A. Tubing capacity = 10,000 ft x 0.00387 bbl/ft = 38.7 bbl ......................... Answer
B. Maximum pump pressure with a full column of mud (total pumped = 0 bbl)
Mud hydrostatic pressure = 10,000 ft x 0.7273 psi/ft = 7,273 psi
Maximum pump pressure = 9,000 psi - 7,273 psi = 1,727 psi................ Answer
C. Maximum pump pressure when starting to mix cement (total pumped
= 10 bbl of water)
1. Fill-up of 10 bbl of water = 10 bbl x 258.65 ft/bbl = 2,586.5 ft
2. Hydrostatic pressure of 10 bbl of water = 2,586.5 ft x 0.433 psi/ft
= 1,119.955 psi
3. Length of mud column = 10,000 ft - 2,586.5 ft = 7,413.5 ft
4. Hydrostatic pressure of mud = 7,413.5 ft x 0.7273 psi/ft = 5,391.839 psi
5. Total hydrostatic pressure = 1,119.955 psi + 5,391.839 psi = 6,511.794 psi
6. Maximum pump pressure = 9,000 psi - 6,511.794 psi
= 2,488.206 psi ........................................................................................ Answer
D. Maximum pump pressure when water ahead of cement reaches tool (total
pumped = 38.7 bbl [10 bbl of water and 28.7 bbl of cement])
1. Fill-up of 10 bbl of water = 2,586.5 ft (from Part C)
2. Hydrostatic pressure of 10 bbl of water = 1,119.955 psi (from Part C)
The cement will more than fill the tubing. The amount of cement in the
tubing is
3. Cement column length = 10,000 ft - 2,586.5 ft = 7,413.5 ft
4. Cement hydrostatic pressure = 7,413.5 ft x 0.8312 psi/ft = 6,162.101 psi
5. Total hydrostatic pressure = 1,119.955 psi + 6,162.101 psi = 7,282.0556 psi
6. Maximum pump pressure = 9,000 psi - 7,282.056 psi
= 1,717.944 psi ........................................................................................ Answer
1-66
October 1996
Solution for Problem 27continued

E. Maximum pump pressure with full cement column
(Total pumped = 48.7 bbl to 60 bbl; 10 bbl of water and 38.7 to 50 bbl of
cement; 38.7 bbl of cement in the tubing)
1. Hydrostatic pressure of 10,000 ft of cement = 10,000 ft x 0.8312 psi/ft
= 8,312 psi
2. Maximum pump pressure = 9,000 psi - 8,312 psi = 688 psi ............ Answer
F. Maximum pump pressure when all water behind cement is in tubing
(Total pumped = 70 bbl; 10 bbl of water, 50 bbl of cement, and 10 bbl of
water; 28.7 bbl of cement and 10 bbl of water in the tubing)
Maximum pump pressure = 1,717.944 psi ............................................... Answer
(same as D-1 through D-6)
G. Maximum pump pressure when water behind cement reaches the tool
(Total pumped = 98.7 bbl; 10 bbl of water, 50 bbl of cement, 10 bbl of water,
and 28.7 bbl of mud; 10 bbl of water and 28.7 bbl of mud in the tubing)
Maximum pump pressure = 2,488.206 psi ............................................... Answer
(same as C-1 through C-6)
H. Maximum pump pressure when mud behind cement reaches the tool
(Total pumped = 108.7 bbl; 10 bbl of water, 50 bbl of cement, 10 bbl of water,
and 38.7 bbl of mud; 38.7 bbl of mud in the tubing)
Maximum pump pressure = 1,727 psi ...................................................... Answer
(same as B-1 and B-2)

A. Length = 1,700 ft
WA = 15.50 lb/ft
MW = 14.7 lb/gal
WL = (WA) x [1 - (0.01528) x (MW)] .............................................................. (1.22)
= 15.50 x [1 - (0.01528) x (14.7)]
= 15.50 x (1 - 0.2246) = 15.50 x 0.775 = 12.018 lb/ft in 14.7-lb/gal mud
Weight in 14.7-lb/gal mud = WL x Length
= 12.018 lb/ft x 1,700 ft = 20,430.6 lb ..................................................... Answer
B. Total weight in air = WA x Length = 15.50 lb/ft x 1,700 ft
= 26,350 lb .................................................................................................. Answer

Buoyancy factor for 19.0-lb/gal mud = 0.7097 (from Table 4.3, Page 4-4)
Pipe weight in 19.0 lb/gal mud = Buoyancy factor x Pipe weight in air ........ (1.25)
= 0.7097 x 16.60 lb/ft= 11.78102 lb/ft
Total pipe weight in fluid = Length x Pipe weight in fluid per foot
= 7,000 ft x 11.78102 lb/ft = 82,467.14 lb ..................................................... Answer
October 1996
1-67

Buoyancy factor for 10.0-lb/gal fluid = 0.8472 (from Table 4.3, Page 4-4)
Weight of 2 7/8-in. pipe in liquid = 0.8472 x 10.4 lb/ft = 8.811 lb/ft
Actual weight of 1,000 ft of 2 7/8-in. pipe = 1,000 ft x 8.811 lb/ft = 8,811 lb
Weight of 4 1/2-in. pipe in liquid = 16.60 lb/ft x 0.8472 = 14.064 lb/ft
Indicator reading = 8,811 lb + 13,132 lb + 14,064 lb
........................................................................................................ Answer
= 36,007 lb

Buoyancy factor for 10.0 lb/gal fluid = 0.8472 (from Table 4.3, Page 4-4)
Weight of 3 1/2-in. pipe in liquid = 15.50 lb/ft x 0.847 = 13.132 lb/ft
Actual weight of 3 1/2-in. pipe in liquid= 13.132 lb/ft x 500 ft = 6,566 lb
Actual weight of 500 ft of 3 1/2-in. pipe in air = 15.50 lb/ft x 500 ft = 7,750 lb
Actual weight of 1,000 ft of 4 1/2-in. pipe in air = 16.60 lb/ft x 1,000 ft = 16,600 lb
Indicator Reading = 8,811 lb + 6,566 lb + 7,750 lb + 16,600 lb
= 39,727 lb ........................................................................................................ Answer

Figure 1.30, Page 1-48 shows all the forces resulting from hydrostatic pressure.
The dashed forces on the stinger cancel out, leaving only the forces effective
from tubing OD to tubing ID.
Therefore, the stinger has no effect on the indicator reading. ................. Answer

A. Buoyancy factor for 10.2 lb/gal mud = 0.8441 (from Table 4.3, Page 4-4)
Pipe weight in liquid = 0.8441 x 4.7 lb/ft = 3.96727 lb/ft
Indicator reading = 3.96727 lb/ft x 4,000 ft = 15,869.08 lb ................. Answer
B. Tubing OD area = 4.430 in.2 (from Table 4.5, Page 4-6)
Force from pump pressure = 4,000 psi x 4.430 in. = 17,720 lb ......... Answer
Since the upward force resulting from pump pressure is greater than the
pipe weight, 4,000 psi would pump the tubing out of the hole.
1-68
October 1996

Buoyancy factor for 8.33-lb/gal water = 0.8727 (from Table 4.3, Page 4-4)
Pipe weight in fluid per foot = 16.60 lb/ft x 0.8727 = 14.487 lb/ft
Indicator reading before pumping = 14.487 lb/ft x 1,000 ft = 14,468.82 lb
4 -in. drillpipe OD area = 15.904 in. (from Table 4.6, Page 4-8)
Maximum pump pressure = Pipe weight in fluid Tubing OD area ............. (1.26)
= 14,486.82 lb 15.904 in. = 910.892 psi ......................................................... Answer

A. Buoyancy factor for 8.33-lb/gal water = 0.8727 (from Table 4.3, Page 4-4)
Pipe weight in 8.33-lb/gal water = 0.8727 x 1.80 lb/ft = 1.571 lb/ft
Indicator reading when first on bottom = 1.57086 lb/ft x 1,000 ft
................................................................................................... Answer
= 1,570.86
B. Fluid gradient for 15.6-lb/gal cement = 0.8104 psi/ft
Change in gradient = 0.8104 psi/ft - 0.433 psi/ft = 0.3774 psi/ft
Length of column changed from 8.33-lb/gal to 15.6-lb/gal fluid = 1,000 ft
Pressure required on casing = 1,000 ft x 0.3774 psi/ft = 377.4 psi ....... Answer
C. Buoyancy factor for 15.6-lb/gal cement = 0.7616 (from Table 4.3, Page 4-4)
Pipe weight in 15.6-lb/gal cement = 0.7616 x 1.80 lb/ft = 1.37088 lb/ft
Indicator reading when first on bottom = 1.37088 lb/ft x 1,000 ft
= 1370.88 lb
1.315-in. tubing OD area = 1.358 in. (from Table 4.5, Page 4-6)
Maximum allowable pressure = 1,370.88 lb 1.358 in.
= 1,009.485 psi .............................................................................................. Answer

A. Buoyancy factor for 18.0-lb/gal mud = 0.7249 (from Table 4.3, Page 4-4)
Pipe weight in liquid = 0.7249 x 13.30 lb/ft = 9.641 lb/ft
Original weight-indicator reading = 9.64117 lb/ft x 3,000 ft
= 28,923.51 lb ............................................................................................. Answer
B. Fluid gradient for 18.0-lb/gal mud = 0.9351 psi/ft (from Table 4.1, Page 4-2)
Fluid gradient for 9.0 lb/gal acid = 0.4675 psi/ft (from Table 4.1, Page 4-2)
Change in fluid gradient = 0.9351 psi/ft - 0.4675 psi/ft = 0.4676 psi/ft
Drillpipe pressure = 0.4676 psi/ft x 3,000 ft = 1,402.8 psi ..................... Answer
C. 3 -in. OD drillpipe ID area = 6.0 in. (from Table 4.6, Page 4-8)
Force caused by trapped drillpipe pressure = 1,402.8 psi (from Part B)
x 6.0 in. = 8,416.8 lb
Weight-indicator reading = 28,923.51 lb (from Part A) - 8,416.8 lb
= 20,506.71 lb ............................................................................................. Answer
Solution for Problem 36 continued on Page 1-70
October 1996
1-69
Solution for Problem 36 continued

D. 3 1/2-in. drillpipe OD area = 9.621 in. (from Table 4.6, Page 4-8)
Increase in drillpipe pressure = 20,506.71 lb (from Part C) 9.621 in.
= 2,131.453 psi
Maximum drillpipe pressure = 1,402.8 psi (from Part B) + 2,131.453 psi
= 3,534.253 psi .............................................................................................. Answer
1-70
October 1996

Introduction To Hydraulics

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What are the main hydraulic concepts covered in the document?

What are the main hydraulic concepts covered in the document?

What are the key formulas used for calculating hydraulic principles?

What are the key formulas used for calculating hydraulic principles?

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General Hydraulics Table of Contents

Essential Hydraulics Concepts

Calculating the Area of a Circle

What is the area of the circle in Figure 1.1?

In this manual, all areas are rounded to three decimal places.

General Hydraulics Manual

Example 2: How to calculate the area of a rod end

What is the area of the rod end in Figure 1.2?

If diameter is expressed in inches, area will be expressed in square inches (in.2).

2 7/8 -in. Diameter

Calculating Cross-Sectional Area

General Hydraulics Manual

Example 3: How to calculate the cross-sectional area of tubing

What is the cross-sectional area of this tubing?

Estimating Tensile Strength with the Cross-Sectional Area

What is the approximate tensile strength of the pipe body of

General Hydraulics Manual

Calculating Force and Pressure

Pressure and area must be expressed in comparable units for calculations to be

Calculating Force in a Hydraulic Cylinder

What force is created in the

General Hydraulics Manual

Calculating Pressure in a Hydraulic Cylinder

What is the pressure created when a 3,142-lb force is applied to the

Calculating Effective Area

General Hydraulics Manual

Example 7: How to calculate the effective area

What is the effective area of the pressure on the cylinder in Figure

General Hydraulics Manual

Calculating Differential Areas and Differential

Example 8 demonstrates how you can save calculation time by canceling

General Hydraulics Manual

Calculating Hydrostatic Pressure

Definition of Hydrostatic Pressure

Definition of Mud Weight

Converting Mud Weight to Hydrostatic Pressure

Example 9: How to calculate hydrostatic pressure from mud weight

What is the hydrostatic pressure of a column of 9.6-lb/gal mud at

Calculating Hydrostatic Pressure from Fluid

General Hydraulics Manual

Example 10 is an application of Equation 1.9.

Example 10: How to calculate hydrostatic pressure using fluid gradients

Using Equation 1.9, what is the hydrostatic pressure at 12,650 ft in a

Calculating Hydrostatic Pressure with Different

It is possible for parallel columns of different-weight fluids to exist. This

General Hydraulics Manual

Example 11: How to calculate hydrostatic pressure using

Example 12: How to calculate hydrostatic pressure

What is the hydrostatic pressure at 10,000 ft in a well containing

General Hydraulics Manual

Calculating Changes in Hydrostatic Pressure

Example 13: How to calculate change in hydrostatic pressure when

If the 8.33-lb/gal water in a 10,000-ft well is replaced with 10.0-lb/gal