Acca p5 Notes j15

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P5
Ju Lec
ne tu
20 re
15 No
ex tes
am
s
Advanced
Performance
Management
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June 2015 Examinations
P5 Advanced Performance Management
Contents
1.
The Nature of Performance Management
2.
Strategic Management Accounting
11
3.
Performance Management and Control of the Organisation
21
4.
Learning Curves
29
5.
Business Structure, Management Accounting and Change
33
6.
Eect of Information Technology on Strategic Management Accounting
39
7.
External Influences on Organisational Performance
43
8.
Risk and Uncertainty
51
9.
Sources of Management Information
55
10.
Financial Performance Measurement
63
11.
Divisional Performance Measurement
69
12.
Non-Financial Performance Measurement
79
13.
Performance in the Not-For-Profit Sector
85
14.
Transfer Pricing
87
15.
Predicting and Preventing Corporate Failure
95
16.
Discounted Cash Flow Techniques
99
17.
Behavioural Aspects of Performance Management
103
18.
Current Developments in Management Accounting
105
19.
Answers to Examples
113
20.
Practice Questions
127
21.
Practice Answers
141
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Syllabus
1. The aim of the paper
The aim of this paper is to apply relevant knowledge, skills and exercise professional judgement in
selecting and applying strategic management techniques in dierent business contexts and to
contribute to the evaluation of the performance of an organisation and its strategic development.
2. The syllabus and the exam

2.1
Syllabus overview
There are six areas detailed in the syllabus:
Strategic planning and control
External influences on organisational performance
Performance measurement systems and design
Strategic performance measurement
Performance evaluation and corporate failure
Current developments and emerging issues in performance management
Each of these areas are dealt with in the following chapters of these Course Notes.
2.2
The examination will be a three hour paper in two sections:

Marks
Section A: one compulsory question
50
Section B: two from three question of 25 marks each
50
Total
2.3
100
Paper F5
Paper P5 builds on Paper F5 (Performance Management) and you are expected to have a thorough
understanding of the Paper F5 syllabus. Although some of the topics from Paper F5 are revised in these
notes, it is impossible to revise all of them. If (because of previous syllabus changes) you did not take
Paper F5, or if you have forgotten F5, then it is vital that you obtain a set of F5 notes and work through
them properly yourself. F5 Notes and lectures are available on the Opentuition.com site.
Free ACCA course notes t Free ACCA lectures t Free tests t Free tutor support t StudyBuddy t Largest ACCA forums
2.4
Paper P3
In addition, there is considerable overlap between Papers P5 and P3 in the area of strategic planning and
control. Although this area is revised briefly in these notes you should make sure that you are prepared to
demonstrate your P3 knowledge in the Paper P5 exam.
2.5
Finally!
Because of the overlap of P5 with both F5 and P3, it will appear that there is not a lot new to learn for P5.
In one way that is true with respect to the technical content of the syllabus, but it is certainly not true
with respect o the style of questions and skills needed to pass this exam. Question practice is essential.
The examiner has written an article explaining his approach to the exam You can find the article on the
ACCA website:
(http://www.accaglobal.com/uk/en/student/acca-qual-student-journey/qual-resource/acca-qualification/
p5/technical-articles/examiner-approach-to-paper-p5.html)
It is strongly recommended that you read this article before (and after!) your studies.
Chapter 1
THE NATURE OF PERFORMANCE
MANAGEMENT
1. Introduction
This chapter looks at what is meant by performance management. It is essential to understand that term
if you are going to succeed in this paper as questions are directed at describing, improving and reporting
on performance management systems.
2. Performance management
It is presumably obvious that organisations will want to improve their performance. However, it is not at
all obvious how good performance should be defined. This will dier between organisations and
departments within those organisations, and will often vary over time within a single organization or
department.
For example:
Type of organisation
Possible signs of good performance
Profit seeking/commercial
Rising share price, increasing profits, dividends and EPS.
A city councils waste management services
Regular rubbish collection, clean streets, few

complaints, no smell.
A school
Good exam results, good pupil attendance, low rates of

bullying, success at sport.
A charity for the supply of medicines and

medical care
Number of patients helped, number of patients cured,

number of people vaccinated.
You might disagree with some of the signs of good performance listed. For example, not everyone might
think that good sports performance is relevant to schools; others feel strongly that it is. Some people
might believe that vaccination is wrong. Additionally, some indicators can be contradictory. For example,
the relationship between increasing profits, increasing dividends and increasing share value is complex.
Furthermore, identifying desirable performance such as an increasing share price does not say anything
about what behaviours are needed to produce that. For example, it could be dependent on more
advertising, cost cutting, moving-up market, withdrawing certain products and from certain markets,
spending on research and development to invent new unique and popular products. If increased share
price depends on innovation then successful innovation becomes essential performance.
So, to where do managers look to see what might be regarded as markers of performance? The answer is
that they must look to the organisations mission and its stakeholders.
3. Performance management
Once desirable performances have been defined, the next step is to manage it so that individuals, cost
centres, divisions and subsidiaries all work towards achieving those behaviours and targets. This requires
three steps:
1.
Design ways in which to measure the desired behaviours and achievements
2.
Measure them
3.
Provide suitable feedback
There can be many measures in a large company, but the most important are called key performance
indicators (KPIs). These are just what the name implies: measurements, or indicators, of performance
where the organization must do well if it is to succeed. Achievement of the KPIs should be high on
everyones agenda.
4. The mission statement, goals and objectives

4.1
The mission statement

In section 2, above, we asked how good performance could be identified or defined and the mission or
mission statement is very important here.
The mission statement is an expression of the overall purpose and scope of the organisation, which is in
line with the values and expectations of the stakeholders.
It answers the question: What sort of business are we, or do we want to be?
A mission statement will generally contain four elements:
a purpose
What, and for whom, the company exists for.
a strategy
The range of businesses in which the firm seeks to compete

and some indication of how it intends to compete.
Guidelines which help sta decide what to do on a day-today basis to carry out the strategy.
The beliefs and moral principles which lie behind the firms
culture.
policies and behaviour standards
values
So a mission and mission statement is a public statement about what the organisation is for, how it
intends to achieve those aims and also statements about its ethics and values.
Achieving the mission can therefore be taken as a strong indication of what is meant by of good
performance.
Examples of three real-life mission statements are reproduced below:
Mission Statement
The mission of The Walt Disney Company is to be one of the worlds leading producers
and providers of entertainment and information. Using our portfolio of brands to
dierentiate our content, services and consumer products, we seek to develop the
most creative, innovative and profitable entertainment experiences and related
products in the world.
McDonalds vision is to be the worlds best quick service restaurant experience. Being
the best means providing outstanding quality, service, cleanliness, and value, so that
we make every customer in every restaurant smile.
The mission of the Oce of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights
(OHCHR) is to protect and promote all human rights for all.
So, performance in The Walt Disney Company includes:
Creativity
Innovation
Dierentiated content
Profit
Macdonalds lists:
Quality
Service
Cleanliness
Value
Customer satisfaction (smiles!)
No doubt profit is also important to MacDonalds, but some companies are reluctant to refer to that in
their mission statements.
The mission of the Oce of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) is to
protect and promote all human rights for all is somewhat fuzzy. It would be better if it were more precise
in defining human rights and how it might resolve conflicting views.
Although the purpose of the Mission Statement is to communicate to stakeholders the nature of the
organisation, and to focus strategy, in practice they are often full of meaningless phrases!
4.2
Goals and objectives

Missions can be very grand and not very specific. Its all very well for a company to say that it has quality
as one of its mission, but what does quality mean? What frequency and type of defect must be
eliminated and which will be tolerated? By when must a quality level be attained? Something more
specific is needed.
Goals and objectives are often put together with no distinction made between them. However, strictly
speaking, goals are statements of general intentions (not that much dierent to a mission), whereas
objectives are more specific.
An example of a goal is:
to improve profits
An example of an objective is:
to achieve a Return on Capital Employed of 25% within two years.
4.3 Good objectives should be SMART:

Specific: sales, rejects, cost per unit are all specific. Better and improve are not
Measurable: usually that the specific aspects of performance have to be quantified
Agreed/accepted/achievable: imposing an unrealistic or impossible target will be ineective
Relevant: relevant to the person responsible (ie they can aect it); relevant to the organisations mission. If
objectives are seen as irrelevant, arbitrary and merely an exercise in management power they will fall into
disrepute.
Time-bound: objectives should be attained within a specified time frame.
An example of real-life objectives is printed below:
Financial objectives over the next 3 years:
4.4
To increase the operating profit before taxes by 15%
Return on equity of at least 20%
Cost-income ratio below 45%
Net credit losses below 0.5%
Critical success factors

An organisation can easily end up with many objectives and there is a danger that the more easily
attained objectives is what people concentrate on. However, there are some objectives which are more
important or fundamental to success than others. These are the organisations critical success factors.
Here are two definitions:
Johnson, Scholes & Whittington:
'Those product features that are particularly valued by a group of customers, and, therefore, where
the organisation must excel to outperform the competition
Or:
Where an organisation must perform well if it is to succeed.
The second definition is simpler, but the first is more useful because is places emphasis on the idea that
success is caused by customers: it is vital (critical) to meet customers expectations.
Examples of critical factors could be:
Profitability
Market position
Reputation
Market share
Productivity
Product leadership
Personnel development
Employee attitudes
Public responsibility
They depend on:
Structure of the industry
Competitive strategy
Industry position
Geographical location
Environmental factors
Temporary factors
Functional managerial position
Classification:
Internal eg inventory control; delivery times
External eg exchange rates
Monitoring eg actual vs budget
Building eg targets to launch new products or updates
Johnson and Scholes suggested a six step process for developing CSFs:
1.
Identify the success factors that are critical for profitability.
2.
Identify what is necessary (the critical competencies) in order to achieve a superior performance in
the critical success factors.
3.
Develop the level of critical competence so that a competitive advantage is obtained.
4.
Identify appropriate key performance indicators for each critical competence.
5.
Give emphasis to developing critical competencies that competitors will find it dicult to match.
6.
Monitor the firms and competitors achievement.
4.5
Stakeholders
A stakeholder is anyone, or any organization, aected by an organization.
Stakeholders include: shareholders, employees, suppliers, customers, the local populace, government.
Stakeholders have dierent requirements and these will aect what is meant by performance.
Consideration of stakeholders is important because:
Generally, the organization is being run for the benefit of at least some stakeholders. For example, a
profit-seeking organization is run primarily for the benefit of shareholders; a hospital is run primarily
for the benefit of patients.
Other stakeholders can influence the success of the organization. For example, if employees go on
strike then this will put the organisations profits at risk or might prevent further admissions of
patients to a hospital
Therefore, when devising strategies, managers must bear in mind:
What the principal stakeholders want
What the stakeholders will tolerate.
Mendelows matrix can help managers to decide on how best to handle stakeholders:
Interest
Low
High
Low
Minimal Eort
Keep Informed
High
Keep Satisfied
Key Players
Power
Power = the amount of power a stakeholder can exercise

Interest = how likely a stakeholder is to take action
The four categories of stakeholder are:
Key players: these people have the power and will take action. Therefore management needs to
keep them happy.
Keep satisfied: they have power but are reluctant to exercise that power provided they are kept
satisfied. If really unhappy, they might turn into key players.
Keep informed: no power, but lots of noise. Management will aim to keep them informed as a
matter of politeness.
Minimal eort: this group is at the back of the queue when management is making decisions.
10
Chapter 2
STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT
ACCOUNTING
1. Introduction
This chapter contains a general review of the dierent levels at which planning, decision making and
control take place within an organization so as to manage both its long-term and short term
performance.
Additionally, more detailed consideration is given to the nature and purpose of strategic planning.
2. Hierarchy of management
Planning, decision making and control can be classified into three levels:
Strategic
Tactical
Operational
2.1
Strategic planning:
This is the process of developing the long-term (for example 5 to 10 years) plans for the company.
For example: what new products to launch?
what new markets to develop?
This sort of planning, together with the decision making involved, will be done at Board level. It tends to
be more outline rather than detailed planning.
11
2.2
Management control / Tactical planning:

This is the more detailed, short-term planning (for example, the one year budgets) in order to ensure
resources are obtained and used eectively in order to achieve the long-term plans of the company
For example: how many sta will the company need next year?
Control will be exercised against budget using, for example, variance analysis.
2.3
Operational control:
This is the day-to-day management of the business in order to ensure that specific tasks are carried out
eectively and eciently.
For example: ensuring that the budgeted production is achieved each day.
The information used will be very detailed and will be quantitative, but will often we expressed in terms
of (for example) units or hours instead of purely in monetary terms.
3. The work of Burns and Scapens

Burns and Scapens have studied changes in the management accounting function and noted that it has
changed focus from
financial control
to
business support.
This means that management accountants have become more generalists within businesses and are
providing an internal consulting service for managers. They have named this new role a hybrid
accountant.
Burns and Scapens state that there are three main forces for change:
Technology,
Management structure
Competition.
Technology:
Over the past 20 years in the quality and quantity of information

technology has dramatically increased. In the past, the accountant was
one of the few people in the organisation who had access to the IT
system and the information generated, as the outputs from the IT system
and data input was strictly controlled. Now, however, management
information systems (MIS) and Decision Support Systems (DSS) allow
users throughout the organisation to input data and run analyses to
produce reports once only provided by the management accountant.
So, the management accountant now just acts as another user of the
system.
Management structure:
Changes in management structure have forced change on the

accountant. For example, responsibility for budgeting has often moved
from the head oce to operational management, and strategic business
unit managers take more of the decisions that would have been reserved
for the head oce management accountant. These managers will be
12

using financial and non-financial indicators and they will be producing
forecasts. The management accountant will be providing reports
alongside the SBU reports, often trying to provide a link between the
operational reports, the financial consequences and the strategic
outcomes desired by the board.
Competition:
Over the last 20 years increasing competition has forced organisations to

adopt a more strategic focus and for competitive advantage to be
understood and emphasised. As a result, the traditional accountants
focus on the final profit figure has been seen as short term and this has
led organisations to focus on a range of measures to try to capture the
longer-term trends in their performance.
These changes mean that management accountants have to understand the needs of particular
managers and then work with them to extract valuable reports from the MIS. It may also require the
development of dierent performance measures beyond the traditional measure of profit. From the
organisations perspective, the accountant will be a guide to the SBU manager to ensure that strategic
goals are reflected in their performance management
4. Strategic planning
As previously stated, strategic planning is the developing of a long-term plan for the company. The
various stages involved are illustrated in the diagram below (P3 revision):
4.1
Strategic planning model

MISSION STATEMENT
Stakeholders
Goals and Objectives
Ethical
Environmental Analysis
Corporate Appraisal
Internal Factors
Strategic Choice
Strategy Implementation
Each of the stages involved is explained in the following paragraphs.
13
4.2
Mission statement
As described above:
4.3
the mission tries to encapsulate the purpose and values of the organization.
Stakeholders
As described above:
4.4
strategy should be determined by what stakeholders want or tolerate.
Ethics
Strategic decisions cannot be separated from a consideration of the ethical consequences of those
decisions. For example, if management decides to close down an operation, employees there will lose
their jobs and there is an ethical issue there. Similarly, starting to drill for oil in an area of natural beauty
will also have an ethical dimension.
Ethics will have been comprehensively covered in P1. In P5, you are simply expected to be aware that
strategies can have ethical repercussions and you should be able to discuss those at a relatively simple
level. In particular unethical; behavior can have serious financial consequences such as reputational
damage, fines, compensation payments and loss of trading licences.
4.5
Corporate Appraisal
Corporate appraisal is a critical assessment of the strengths and weaknesses, opportunities and threats in
relation to the internal and external (environmental) factors aecting an organisation. The purpose is to
establish the condition of the organisation prior to preparing a long-term, strategic plan.
The term Position Audit is sometimes used as an alternative to Corporate Appraisal and sometimes used
to refer to an organisations internal factors.
Corporate appraisal requires organization to look at:
4.6
External (environmental) factors.
Internal factors (resources and competences).

weaknesses.
These can be categorized as opportunities or threats

These can be categorized as strengths or
External factors can be assessed using PESTEL or a Porters five forces analysis:
PESTEL
Political
Economic
Social
Technological
Environmental/ecological
Legal
Although organisations usually cant do much to change PESTEL factors, they might be able to avoid
threats (for example do not try to develop markets which technology is likely to make redundant) or
make use of opportunities (for example, expand into a country that has become economically and
politically attractive).
14
Porters five forces (industry level): looks at industry attractiveness.
Threat of new entrants
Threat of substitutes
Bargaining power of buyers
Bargaining power of suppliers
Rivalry between existing competitors
Oganisations can assess which industries are most attractive and may also be able to change the eect of
the five forces. So, if competition (rivalry) is fierce perhaps the organisation should consider a takeover or
merger; if there is intense bargaining power from suppliers, performance might be improved by
backwards integration by setting up or taking over a supplier.
4.7
Internal factors resource analysis (M words)
Money
Men and women
Manufacturing/machinery
Material
Methods (knowhow)
Management
Management information systems
Marque/make (brand)
Markets and marketing
MIS (IT)
15
4.8
Internal factors - produce life cycle

This helps an organization to decide on which products should be continued and promoted, and which
products should perhaps be phased out or abandoned as this is influenced by where products are
positioned on its product life cycle.
Sales
time
Introduction Growth
Maturity
Decline
Senility
Profit
Remember this is not very good at forecasting when a new phase might start.
It can be useful to think about what aspects of performance should be concentrated on at each phase of
the life cycle to try to maximise performance:
Introduction:
It is vital that the product has a successful launch. Successful

advertising and promotion to generate good early sales is
essential. If the product does not have a successful launch it can
be very dicult to rescue it later. Essential performance measures
could be advertising eectiveness and sales volumes achieving
their budget levels. Profits are note really expected at this stage.
Growth:
The product is going to be successful. Copycats will enter the

market. Continuing good performance depends on trying to stay
in the lead. The company should be keeping a careful watch on
competitors activities: prices, promotions, sales volumes.
Maturity:
The market has stopped growing and there will be considerable

competition. Prices will be forced down and good performance
(profits) depends on large ecient operations, often global, with
low unit costs.
Decline:
Decline can be slow and profitable and performance depends on

hanging onto a niche market. Alternatively, the company could
decide to exit from the industry.
16
4.9
Boston consulting group (BCG) matrix.

A potentially useful approach to considering each existing product is to position them on a Boston Matrix
(or Boston Grid).
high
Market growth
rate
low
Star
Question Mark
Cash Cow
Dog
high
low
Relative market share
Having positioned the products on the grid, it can then be used to consider future strategies for each of
them.
Question mark:
Because there is a high growth rate, this product is relatively new

with (perhaps) a big future. Its a product the company should be
interested in selling. However, BCG places a lot of emphasis on big
is beautiful and says that there is no hope of profitable survival if
the market share is low. Therefore decide whether to withdraw or
to work to increase market share. This will be cash negative and
profits are unlikely to be made as the company fights for an
increased market share. Suitable performance will be successful
market growth. Profit targets would not be very relevant.
Star:
Not as good as it sounds. Usually cash neutral as the company

fights to keep market dominance. Sustained market share is whats
wanted here.
Cash cow:
now the payback for all that earlier eort. Conserve cash, go for
profits and set appropriate targets. You should not expect a major
assault on this product because it is perceived as an old product
on its way out. Stretch its life out as long as you can.
Dog:
Divest either by closure or sale. No growth and a small market

share going nowhere
17
4.10 SWOT analysis

Having analysed the internal and external factors, they can be arranged as a SWOT analysis
(S = strengths, W = weaknesses, O = opportunities, T = threats).
It can be useful to arrange these factors in a grid as follows so that appropriate responses can be
generated - again with the hope of optimising performance:
Opportunities
Threats
Strengths
This is a perfect match:

strengths can be used
Use strengths to
to exploit
defend against threats.
opportunities.
Weakness
An opportunity will be The organization could

dicult to exploit if it
be in trouble: it must
depends on an area of
defend itself, but is
weakness.
weak.
4.11 Gap analysis

A gap analysis compares what an organization is likely to do it is continues more or less as it is doing, and
what its owners (or other stakeholders) want to organization to achieve.
objective/required performance
gap
current
Current performance extrapolated
It is often very useful to think of the organization as having a gap in the profits expected and required so
that the organization must close a profit gap. Anso s product-market matrix sets out how this might be
achieved.
18
4.12 Ansos matrix

Anso s matrix is commonly used by businesses that have growth as their main objective, and is used to
focus managements attention on the four main alternative strategic options available for growth,
particularly profit growth:
Existing markets
New markets
Existing products
New products
Market penetration/growth
Eciency gains/cost savings
Withdrawal
Consolidation
Product development
Market development
Diversification
Ansos matrix is very useful: in a simple diagram all classifications of growth options are set out.
In general, staying with existing markets and products is a low-risk, low-return strategy. Exploring new
markets or new products will be higher risk and return. Venturing into diversification might be sometimes
seen as a sign of desperation: what is driving an organisation to risk so much on the success of a radically
dierent business?
5. Strategic choice
Having carried out a corporate appraisal and having identified potential strategies, it is then necessary to
appraise them and formulate a strategic plan. The types of techniques that may be employed in
appraising the strategies are discussed in the chapter on decision making.
6. Strategy implementation
The strategic plan will generally be formulated at Board level. Once it has been prepared, it will normally
be the managers of the company who will be expected to implement it. This then becomes the second
tier of decision making identified at the start of this chapter Management control / Tactical planning.
7. Special considerations for multinational companies

A multinational company is one which undertakes a substantial proportion of its business in countries
other than the one in which it is based.
The strategic planning process in these companies and the strategic choices made must take account of
certain special features, and you must be able to briefly describe these for the examination.
Process specialisation
e.g. place labour intensive operations in countries with low wage rates
Product specialisation
e.g. consumers in dierent countries have dierent requirements and tastes
19
International trade issues

e.g. the economics of a business may be particularly sensitive to exchange rate fluctuations. There
could be import restrictions. There might be transportation problems.
Political sensitivities
e.g. particular countries may have particular political risks.
Administrative issues
e.g. the transfer of profits may result in tax being payable twice. Ownership of foreign companies
might be subject to special rules.
8. Benchmarking
An organisations objectives, capabilities, performance and strategic plans should be be assessed in
relative terms since its success depends on beating competitors or on improvement of previous
performance. Benchmarking means comparing performances and there are a number of bases that can
be used:
Historical: compare to own performance in previous periods.
Industry/sector: compare to the performance seen in other similar industries.
Best-in-class: compare to the performance seen in the best competitor.
Additionally, the factors that are benchmarked can be:
Functional benchmarking: comparing specific functions with the same functions in other
companies (which do not have to be in the same industry)
Product benchmarking: comparing specific products with those produced by competitors

(sometimes involving reverse engineering)
Financial benchmarking: comparing financial performance with that of competitors
Strategic benchmarking: comparing with how other companies compete.
The typical stages involved are:
The identification of problem areas
The identification of other industries with similar processes, and from them the industry leaders
The detailed surveying of the other companys business practices.
The implementation of new, improved business practices.
The monitoring of improvements.
There can be considerable diculties in obtaining from competitors data needed for benchmarking. For
example, no competitor is likely to volunteer how long it takes to make a product or what internal quality
standards it sets. Even not-for profit organisations can be reluctant to supply benchmarking data as they
are sensitive about their performance. Sometimes governments step in to ensure that comparative data
is made available. For example, in the UK the government insists that schools and hospitals publish
performance data. School head teachers and hospital administrators often disapprove, stating that the
published data does not take into account many important factors, such as the nature of the population
making use of the school or hospital.
20
Chapter 3
PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT AND
CONTROL OF THE ORGANISATION
1. Introduction
This chapter looks at budgeting used as a method of control within an organisation.You will already have
been examined on budgeting in previous examinations, and much of this chapter is therefore revision.
In this examination, questions are more likely to focus on written aspects, and the syllabus includes
budgeting in not-for-profit organisations; modern developments; and behavioural aspects.
2. Functions of budgeting
Forecasting
Planning
Communication
Co-ordination
Control
Authorising and delegating
Motivation
Evaluation of performance
[Mnemonic: Few People Can Comfortable Carry A Male Elephant!]
21
3. Principal budget factor

The principal budget factor is the factor that limits the activity for the budget period. Normally this is the
level of sales and therefore the sales budget is usually the first budget to be prepared this then leads to
the others.
However, it could be (for example) a limit on the availability of raw materials that limits activity. In this
case raw materials would be the principal budget factor, and this would be the first budget to be
prepared.
4. The preparation of budgets

Sales Budget
Production Budget
Raw materials
Labour
Factory overheads
Cost of goods sold

budget
Selling and distribution

expenses
General and administrative

expenses
Budgeted Income
Statement
Cash Budget
Capital expenditure budget
Budgeted Statement of
Financial Position
22
5. Types of budget
5.1
Fixed budget
This is a budget prepared at the anticipated level of activity.
If the expected level of activity changes during the period, then the fixed budget becomes unrealistic
and will usually be flexed (see below) for use as control.
However, the original fixed budget still very often remains as an overall target for instance, the profit
from the fixed budget will often have been given to head oce and used as the target for the period.
5.2
Flexed budget
A flexed budget is when the budget is revised (or flexed) to reflect the actual level of activity.
This budget is useful particularly for control purposes and is what we use in our variance analysis.
5.3
Rolling budget
A rolling budget is one that is kept continually up-to-date by revising at the end of each month and also
adding a further month.
For example, on 1 January 2008 prepare a budget for the year to 31 December 2008.
At the end of January 2008, revise the budget for the remaining 11 months of 2008 (in the light of what
happened in January), and also prepare a budget for January 2009.
In this way there is always a budget for the coming 12 month period.
The benefits of rolling budgets are that they are likely to be more accurate, and also the work-load of
budgeting is spread throughout the year and becomes part of the normal job again leading to more
accurate budgeting.
Example 1
A company has prepared the following fixed budget for the coming year.
Sales
10,000 units
Production
10,000 units
$
Direct materials
50,000
Direct labour
25,000
Variable overheads
12,500
Fixed overheads
10,000
$97,500
Budgeted selling price $10 per unit.

At the end of the year, the following costs had been incurred for the actual production of 12,000 units.
23

$
Direct materials
60,000
Direct labour
28,500
Variable overheads
15,000
Fixed overheads
11,000
$114,500
The actual sales were 12,000 units for $122,000

(a)
(b)
Prepare a flexed budget for the actual activity for the year
Calculate the variances between actual and flexed budget, and summarise in a form
suitable for management.
(Use a marginal costing approach)
24
6. Methods of budgeting
6.1
Incremental budgeting
This approach is to take the previous years results and then to adjust them by an amount to cover
inflation and any other known changes.
It is the most common approach, is a reasonably quick approach, and for stable companies it tends to be
fairly accurate.
However, one large potential problem is that it can encourage the continuation of previous problems and
ineciencies. All too often the new budget is worked out by taking last years figures, then adding an
amount for inflation (and often adding another amount for padding). If we require a wages budget, we
will probably ask the wages department to produce it and they (using an incremental approach) will
assume that our workers will continue to operate as before. They will therefore simply adjust by any
expected wage increases.
As a result, the plan for our workers stays the same as before. Nobody has been encouraged to consider
critically dierent ways of operating that may be more ecient. It is at budget time that we perhaps
should be considering dierent ways of operating.
6.2
Zero-based budgeting
With zero-based budgeting we do not consider the previous period. Instead, we consider each activity on
its own merits and draw up the costs and benefits of the dierent ways of performing it (and indeed
whether or not the activity should continue).
We then decide on the most eective way of performing each activity.
Clearly any changes to the way an activity is performed may require funding, and there may not be
sucient funding available for all changes proposed, and therefore they are ranked to decide which
changes are made.
Although this approach is in principle a much better approach to budgeting, it is time-consuming and
also requires much more expertise than incremental budgeting. For this reason, it is often restricted just
to a few activities each year in order that training and help may be given to the people involved. Other
activities are budgeted using the incremental approach.
6.3
Activity Based budgeting

This is the application of the idea of Activity Based Costing to the process of budgeting, and as such has
particular relevance to budgeting for fixed overheads.
At the planning stage, attempts are made to identify which activities drive (cause) various overheads.
Costs are spread over these cost drivers using whatever basis appears to be appropriate in the
circumstances. A better understanding between costs and their causes should result in better budgets
better decision making and better performance.
25
7. Behavioural aspects
7.1
Participation
If the budget process is not handled properly, it can easily cause dysfunctional activity. It is therefore
necessary to give thought to the behavioural aspects.
Top-down budgeting
This is where budgets are imposed by top management without the participation of the people
who will actually be involved in implementing it.
Bottom-up budgeting
Here the budget-holders do participate in the setting of their own budgets.
7.2
Target setting and motivation

Targets can assist motivation and appraisal if they are set at the right level.
if they are too dicult then they will demotivate
if they are too easy then managers are less likely to strive for optimal performance
ideally they should be slightly above the anticipated performance level
Good targets should be:
7.3
agreed in advance
dependent on factors controllable by the individual
measurable
linked to appropriate rewards and penalties
chosen carefully to ensure goal congruence
Budgets and evaluation

Budgets are often used for the evaluation of performance: hit a budget and youve done well, miss it and
you could be in trouble. However, proper evaluation requires care as performance might not be
controllable and, indeed the budget could have been or could become incorrect.
Hopwood identified three approaches to the use of budget information by managers in performance
evaluation:
Budget constrained style:
A cost overrun or a revenue shortfall is always bad and is always

the subordinates fault. Even if the subordinate had spent more for
a good reason (for example to appease a very important customer
who had had poor service), that expenditure would be criticized even though it might have led to the customer being retained.
This approach leads to very bad relations between superior and
subordinate; it can also lead to misreporting.
Profit conscious style:
Longterm profitability and long term performance are the

important measures. Cost overruns will be looked at, but will
usually be tolerated for the sake of long-term success. This is
probably how most of us would like to be managed.
Non-accounting style:
Here, the manager is not particularly interested in accounting and

budgets. At one stage this approach would have been found in
many hospitals in the UK. Treatments were relatively basic and
26

cheap and expenditure didnt have to be watched. Now with
more expensive treatments and an aging population, financial
budgets have become much more important.
7.4
Responsibility accounting
A system of accounting that separates revenues and costs into areas of separate responsibility, which can
then be assigned to specific managers. This can improve performance provided there is no doubt about
who is in charge of achieving results and provided that person can influence the results.
7.5
Management by objectives
A system of management incorporating clearly established objectives at every level of the organisation.
Here there is less emphasis on monetary budgets and more emphasis on taking action which helps the
business to achieve its objectives.
Employees are given objectives then it is substantially left up to them to decide how to achieve those
objectives. It can be very motivating because employees are given the responsibility to choose how best
to meet their objectives.
8. Budgeting in not-for-profit organisations

Issues that tend to arise in budgeting that are specific to not-for-profit organizations include the
following:
There might be little control over revenue. For example, it might arise from an allocation of
government money.
There might be no revenue because goods and services are provided free. Therefore, how is
success to be identified?
The organisation may be prevented from borrowing funds or from budgeting for a deficit.
The organisation may not be allowed to transfer funds from one budget head to another.
The budgeting tends to be just for one financial year (i.e. short-term rather than long-term)
incremental budgeting is the method most widely used
9. Beyond budgeting
There has been much recent criticism of the annual budgeting process for many reasons, including the
following:
1.
Time consuming and costly to put together
2.
Constrains responsiveness and flexibility and is a barrier to change
3.
Rarely strategically focused (many budgets are for one year only)
4.
Add little value
5.
Concentrate on cost reduction, not value creation
6.
Strengthen vertical control and command (many are top-down)
7.
Encourage gaming and perverse behavior just to meet the budget.
8.
Developed and updated too infrequently
9.
Based on unsupported assumptions, estimates and guesses
10.
Reinforce departmental barriers rather than sharing and cooperation
27

11.
Make people feel undervalued: the budgets is seen as a strict control mechanism and employees
have to stick to the budget no matter what.
Several companies are adopting a beyond budgeting approach whereby instead of preparing budgets
and measuring the performance of managers by reference to the budget, managers are measured by
comparison with other similar companies or by comparison with other similar divisions of the same
company.
The annual budgeting process is a trap. Pressured by fixed targets and performance incentives,
managers focus on making the numbers instead of making a dierence, meeting set goals instead of
maximizing potential. With their compensation at stake, managers often resort to deceitful - even
unethical-behaviour. In the end, everybody loses-the employee, the company, and ultimately the
customer. The Beyond Budgeting model argues that companies must abandon traditional budgeting in
favour of a new model that links performance measurement to evolving competitive benchmarks-and
shifts the firms focus from controlling employee behaviour to delivering customer value.
10. Principles of beyond budgeting

Creation of a performance management climate that measures success against the competition and not
against an internally focused budget. The motivation and reward process is based on the success of the
team compared to the competition.
The target setting process is based on the agreement of external benchmarks.
Motivation through challenges and delegating responsibility to operational managers, who can make
decisions themselves.
Empowerment of operational managers by giving them the means to act independently (access to
resources). The resource utilization process is based on direct local access to resources (within agreed
parameters). The coordination process coordinates the use of resources on the basis of internal markets
Organization based on customer-oriented teams, who are responsible for satisfied and profitable
customers. Strategy and action planning is delegated to operational managers and takes place
continuously
Creation of a single truth in the organization with open and transparent information systems. The
measurement and controlling process provides quick and open performance information for multilevel
control.
The two fundamental elements of the Beyond Budgeting model are:
New leadership principles based on the principle of the empowerment of managers and
employees, and
New more adaptive management processes.
The new leadership principles (devolution) should unlock the full potential of managers and employees
in order to enable the organization to react in an appropriate way and as quickly as possible to new
chances and risks in the market environment.
Adaptive management processes are not based on fixed targets and resource plans like under the
budgeting model. Instead, they enable an organization for a high degree of flexibility.
28
Chapter 4
LEARNING CURVES
1. Introduction
You have been examined on learning curves previously. Although they are a little less likely in this
examination, they are still relevant and this chapter is included as revision there is nothing new to learn.
2. Learning
In most budgeting techniques we assume that the total variable cost is reasonably linear that the
variable cost per unit is fixed.
In the case of labour, this is very often not the case in the early stages of a new product. If we were
intending to start production of a new product, then the obvious thing to do would be to produce a
prototype in order to assess how long it would take to produce each unit. However, this would be
dangerous because as we were to produce more and more units it is likely that the time taken for each
unit would reduce as the workers gained experience. This reduction in time per unit is known as the
learning eect.
2.1
Conditions
The theory of learning curves will only hold if the following conditions apply:
2.2
1.
There is a significant manual element in the task being considered.
2.
The task must be repetitive and complex.
3.
Production must be at an early stage so that there is room for improvement.
4.
There must be consistency in the workforce.
5.
There must not be extensive breaks in production, or workers will forget the skill.
6.
Workforce is motivated.
Theory
As cumulative output doubles, the cumulative average time per unit falls to a given percentage of the
previous average time per unit.
Example 1
The time taken to produce the first unit is 100 hours. There is a learning rate of 75%.
How long will it take to produce an additional 7 units?
29
2.3
Steady State
Eventually, the time per unit will reach a steady state where no further improvement can be made.
2.4
Cessation of learning eect

Practical reasons for the learning eect to cease are:
2.5
1.
When machine eciency restricts any further improvement
2.
The workforce reach their physical limits
3.
If there is a go-slow agreement among the workforce
4.
Physical processes (e.g. drying)
5.
Employee turnover
Formula
y = axb
where
y = cumulative average time per unit

x = cumulative output
a = time taken for 1st
b = a learning factor which is given by the formula
logr
log2
r = learning rate expressed as a %.
30
Example 2
Flogel Ltd has just produced the first full batch of a new product taking 200 hours. Flogel has a learning
curve eect of 85%.
(a)
(b)
How long will it take to produce the next 15 batches?

Flogel expects that after the 30th batch has been produced, the learning eect will cease.
From the 31st batch onwards, each batch will take the same time as the 30th batch. What time
per batch should be budgeted?
31
32
Chapter 5
BUSINESS STRUCTURE, MANAGEMENT
ACCOUNTING AND CHANGE
1. Introduction
This chapter looks at the dierent types of business structure, and the eect the structure has on the
information needed. It also looks at the types of changes that business might implement to improve their
performance.
2. The information needs of different business structures

2.1
Functional structure
One of the common structures found in medium-sized organisations is the functional structure. This
means that people within an organisation are organised by function. So, for example, there is a finance
department, a manufacturing department, a sales department, and so on.
Main board
Production
Sales
Finance
IT
The advantages of such a structure are:
The organisation gains economies of scale
Each of these department is likely to be large enough to be headed by a well-qualified manager
Sta within each department are dealing with like-minded individuals with similar skills and
motivation.
The disadvantages of such a structure are:
As the organisation grows, each of the functional departments can become very powerful and can
begin to concentrate on their own interests rather than those of the organisation as a whole. This is
sometime known as a silo mentality in which departments do not wish to share information others
in the same company. This type of mentality will reduce eciency, morale and company
performance.
It is not easy to identify where profits and losses are made eg are production costs too high sales
too low or has not enough been spent on research and development.
33
Information needs of functional structures:

Because top management in functional organisations is centralised, data from each department needs to
be aggregated before top management can review and give feedback on it.
The aggregation can introduce delays in responding to the information. In addition, top management
needs the skills to deal with many departments, markets and issues.
2.2
Divisional structure
As organisations grow they will often develop a divisional structure, where each division has its own
functional departments and where the divisional manager has a degree of autonomy.
Divisions can be on the basis of:
Products.
Geography.
Type of customer.
Divisional managers are more motivated as they are provided with performance targets that are
easier to define, measure and evaluate.
Decisions are made closer to the action so that faster decisions can be made.
Divisions can specialize. For example, the N American division can concentrate making goods to
suit that market, pricing them competitively and countering the competition there.
Junior managers have more responsibility and get training for more senior positions in the future
Head oce management may need to restrict the autonomy of divisional managers, which can
reduce motivation and cause dissatisfaction
Divisional managers are concerned about their own divisions performance rather than that of the
organisation as a whole, which can lead to a loss of goal congruence.
Poorer coordination.
There can be transfer pricing issues.
There can be some duplication of service departments eg to finance departments.
Information needs of divisional structures:

Each divisional manager needs information about the performance of his division aggregating the data
from each department within the division. This aggregated information is then passed upwards to head
oce.
Head oce does however need to aggregate the information received from each division in order to
assess the overall performance of the organisation.
34
2.3
Network (or matrix) structure

An example of this may be found in firms of accountants, where there may be managers responsible for
each individual oce within a country, but at the same time there may be managers responsible for
dierent activities in all oces throughout the country.
As a result, an employee working in the tax department of an oce in one town will be reporting both to
the manager of that oce, and to the nationwide tax manager.
Another example is that of employees being assigned to a project.
Engineering
Finance
Quality control
Purchasing
Project A
Project B
Project C
These employees are responsible to both the project leader of project B and to the quality control
manager.
Communication is encouraged between various departments and activities
Employees are encouraged to be more concerned for the organisation as a whole instead of simply
there geographical division
There can be conflicting pressures brought to bear on employees by the dierent managers to
whom they report (but that might happen even in a conventional structure.
There can be confusion over which boss has the ultimate say.
Information needs of network structures:

Data needs to be aggregated in two ways both for the manager of the division and for the manager of
the activity.
As with a divisional structure, the aggregated information is passed upwards to head oce, and head
oce need to be able to aggregate it in order to assess the performance of the organisation as a whole.
35
3. Business change
3.1
Types of change
Changes can be categorized as:
3.1
Automation
Rationalisation
Business process engineering
Increasing degree of change
Automation
Doing by machine what had previously been done manually. Examples include:
Wage and salary calculations
Receivables processing
Supermarket stock ordering
These changes are should improve performance through saving labour costs, increased processing speed
(so fewer delays), greater accuracy and improved management information. For example, the receivables
ledger has been computerized it is possible to easily obtain management reports such as aged analysis
and sales analyses.
3.2
Rationalisation
Improving performance by carrying out a process in a more logical way to reduce bottle-necks and
increase eciency. For example, asking airline passengers to check-in on-line, and to print (or have sent to
a smart phone) their boarding cards. Airlines are experimenting with self-printing of luggage tags at the
airport and also with labelling luggage in a completely dierent way, such as each piece having an
electronic identifier tag.
3.3
Business Process Reengineering

Business process reengineering involves re-thinking and radically re-designing of the way an
organisations processes operate.
It is not simply attempting to improve the existing way of doing things, but starting almost with a blank
piece of paper and designing how best to operate the business. The starting point it to determine what
the desired outcome is of the organisation and then to design how best to achieve it.
It focuses on maximising customer value and removing non-value adding work.
A leading advocate of business process reengineering Michael Hammer claimed that most of the
work being done does not add any value for customers, and that this work should be removed, rather
than simply speeded up, using technology. Information technology in particular has been used primarily
for automating existing processes whereas us should be used as a way of making non-value added work
obsolete.
Business process reengineering opportunities can be identified by the following approaches:
Zero-based: if you were starting the business now, how would you choose to organize it?
Simplification eliminate duplication and redundant steps
36
2.5
Value-added analysis remove non-value adding activities
Gaps and disconnects check flows between departments
McKinseys 7S model
This model represents organizations using the following inter-related elements. To carry out a strategy
successfully, consideration has to be given to getting each element correct:
Structure
Strategy
Systems
Shared
values
Skills
Style
Staff
Strategy
Plans on how to reach identified goals and for dealing with the environment, competition, customers,
new technology and so on
Structure
The way the organizations units relate to each other: centralized, functional divisions, divisionalisation,
tall/narrow or wide/flat, decentralized (the trend in larger organizations); matrix etc.
Systems
The procedures, processes and routines define how work is to be done: financial systems, quality control
systems, recruitment, promotion and performance appraisal systems, information systems, safety
procedures.
Skills
Distinctive competences of personnel or of the organization as a whole.
Sta
Numbers and types of personnel within the organization.
Style
Cultural style of the organization and how key managers behave in achieving the organizations goals. For
example an organisation could adopt a role culture or a task culture.
Shared Values
What the organization stands for and what it believes in. Central beliefs and attitudes.
37
The upper three elements on the dark background are the hard Ss , meaning that they are relatively easy
to describe and define. Many organization focus too much on these because they are easy to define and
describe.
The lower three on the white background and the central element are the soft Ss and are less easy to
describe and define. Therefore, these tend to be ignored.
Additionally, all the elements are all inter-dependant so that changing one will aect others. For example,
the introduction of a new production system will probably aect skills structure, style and sta. It could
even have an impact on strategy if it allowed, for example, more flexible production.
2.6
The value chain

Firm Infrastructure
Support
activities
Technology Development
Human Resource Management
Procurement
Inbound
Logistics
Operations
Outbound
Logistics
Marketing
& Sales
Service
Profit, or margin
Primary activities
This model represents organizations by setting out the activities they carry out.
Firm infrastructure, technology development, human resources and procurement are known as support
activities (mostly indirect-costs). The other activities are primary activities.
By carrying out these activities organization can manage to make profits. However, it is essential for the
organization to know what gives the right (or ability) to make profits.
Why do customers pay enough to allow a profit to be made? It might be because:
The organization possesses knowhow that customers pay for
The organization oers flexibility
The organization oers economies of scale
The organization take on risks
Whatever it i s t h a t customers value is the key to an organisations success and its performance there
needs to be carefully managed. The organisation also has to be careful about changing or removing
activities or performance that customers value. If an organisation is left carrying out tasks that are not
valued by customers, how will the organisation survive? Short term performance improvements in one
area might lead to long-term performance decreases in another.
38
Chapter 6
EFFECT OF INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY ON STRATEGIC
MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING
1. Introduction
This chapter considers the impact of IT on management accounting. There is a lot of terminology, which
may or may not be already familiar to you. You are unlikely to be tested on specific terminology, but you
should be aware of the various items listed in this chapter.
2. Information needs of traditional manufacturing businesses

Manufacturing businesses need information areas:
Costs: material, labour overheads
Eciency
Orders
Inventory (raw material, work-in-progress, finished goods)
Quality
Major customers and their buying habits
Sales by product, customer, season, country.
Time for the manufacturing process to allow scheduling
Resources
Competitors products and prices
Innovation: new products being developed
39
3. Service oriented businesses

The nature of what is provided by service orientated businesses is often dierent to what manufacturing
businesses provide in the following respects:
Heterogeneity:
manufacturing often produces many identical units; service

industries often produce tailored products eg an audit. Costing
information and eciency measurement will be quite dierent.
Pricing will be very dierent as customer (or clients) will find it
more dicult to judge prices.
Perishability:
many services are perishable ie they lose their value after a certain
time. An example is airline seats: once the aircraft departs the seats
have no value. Again, this presents interesting pricing challenges.
Performance will be improved by attracting each extra passenger
at the maximum marginal price, but if everyone knows that prices
will fall near the departure date, passengers will be encouraged to
postpone booking until prices reduce.
Intangibility:
it is dicult to show potential customer what they will get for their
money. Auditing firms cannot show clients an audit or audit file so
how can potential clients judge value for money?
Simultaneity:
in manufacturing, production and sale can be separated. This

allows products to be quality checked before dispatch and allow
flexibility in timing. For example, production can be carried out
steadily throughout the year and inventory can be stored until
busy sales periods. Services cannot be stored and are often
instantly delivered. This places additional demands on scheduling,
pricing and quality control information
No transfer of ownership.
Often services or the use of a service provider is for a limited

period of time. Pricing and demand information has to reflect this.
For example, the pricing of hotel rooms will vary from week-days
to weekends. In addition because a service is being provided for a
limited period only, consumers are likely to be very demanding
during that period.
The information needed to perform well when providing a service will often be more related to
qualitative than quantitative aspects. For example, reputation, customer satisfaction, availability of the
service when required,
40
4. Instant access to data

IT has made it possible to access data and information instantly. This should mean that delays between
events, processing the results of those events and feedback to alter future events should be much
shorter. With manual accounting systems it took significant time to collect and process results, prepare
reports and for those reports to be distributed to managers. Now is common for managers to have daily
update on events (for example sales of many dierent products in supermarkets) and to take action to
improve performance much more quickly. Indeed this can often be in real time. For example, as a
particular airline flight receives bookings, air fares can be changed many times per day to try to maximize
the marginal revenue that can be earned.
You should be aware of the following terminology:
Databases:
large amounts of data are held in a way that allows many diverse
users to access the data and to update it. Every will see the data in
the same state ie it is consistent. Controls are needed to ensure
that the data is held securely and confidentially.
Data warehouse:
a vast amount of data. For example, supermarkets recording every

loyalty card owners purchases.
Data mining:
searching through a data warehouse in the hope of finding

information of use particularly unexpected useful information.
Groupware:
allows users to collaborate. An example is Lotus Notes.
Internet:
gives access to websites. Searches can be made on keywords (eg

using Google) to find sites that might be of use.
Intranets:
an internal internet. Very useful for distributing information within

an organisation
Extranets:
an organisations intranet given access to anothers intranet.
ERP
(Enterprise resource planning). A system that integrates internal

and external management information across an entire
organization, including: finance/accounting, manufacturing, sales
and service, customer relationship management, etc. ERP systems
automate these activities with an integrated software application
and they facilitate the flow of information between all business
functions of the organization.
MIS:
(Management information systems). Used for structured decisionmaking ie where there is a correct answer.
DSS:
(Decision support system). Helps managers to cope with

unstructured decisions such as what should next years budget
show. Spreadsheets are a good example.
EIS:
(Executive information systems). Used by top management.

Flexible with the ability to drill down to more and more detailed
information. Access to external information is essential at this level.
ES:
(Expert systems). These can make decisions that replicate the

decisions an expert would make. They rely on extracting
knowledge from the expert and storing this in a knowledge base.
41

Situations can then be presented to the system which uses the
knowledge base to come to a conclusion or recommendation.The
type of data needed depends on the management level:
Management level
Characteristics of the information
Strategic
Highly summarised
Often using estimates about the future
Often non-routine
High need for external information
Tactical
A mix of the characteristics of strategic and operational
Operational
Very detailed
Usually historical
Routine
Mostly internal
5. Remote input of data

Traditionally, data was input into the computer systems using a keyboard. This takes time, and inevitably
results in input errors.
IT has enabled more and more data to be input remotely and/or automatically. You should be aware of
the uses of the following:
Laptop/notebook computers often with WiFi or 3G (or 4FG) connectabiity allow sales personnel to
contact head oce to check on inventory and to enter new orders.
Handheld devices (including smartphones and iPads) can be used to input inventory counts and
update production statistics
Barcodes (standard super-market technology)
RFID tags (radio frequency identification tags). RFID tags are tracking consumer products
worldwide. Many manufacturers use the tags to track the location of each product they make from
the time it's made until it's pulled o the shelf and tossed in a shopping cart.
6. The need for continual development

However well a management accounting system has been designed, it is vitally important that it is
continually re-appraised, refined and developed if a business is to maintain or improve its performance.
The marketplace is increasingly competitive and increasingly global, creating dierent information needs
for management.
42
Chapter 7
EXTERNAL INFLUENCES ON
ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE
1. Introduction
The business environment has been changing rapidly in recent years due to factors such as:
Increased competition
Globalisation
Privatisation
Technology in general; information technology; the Internet
Rapid changes in customer requirements
New approaches to manufacturing e.g. just-in-time; dedicated cells.
2. Government influences
Government policies and decisions can aect organizations in the following ways:
Environmental protection
The level of public expenditure
Incentive schemes (eg to set up businesses in certain areas)
Exchange rates
Interest rates
Tax rates
Consumer and employee protection legislation
Legislation on restrictive practices (eg industries protecting themselves)
Monopolies and merger legislation.
Michael Porter has identifies seven ways in which a government can aect the structure of an industry:
Capacity expansion eg encouraging new businesses
Demand eg more government spending can increase demand
Divestment and exit from industries
Control of emerging industries
Entry barriers to products (quotas and taris)
Competition policy
New product adoption eg how approval is given.
43
3. Fiscal and monetary policy

These are the two economic tools that governments use to regulate the economy
3.1
Fiscal policy
Expenditure
Income
Borrowing
The government balances income, expenditure and borrowing. Income arrises mainly from taxation. If
the government wants to spend more it either has to increase its income from taxes or it must borrow
more.
The financial crisis has shown that many governments had created very high borrowings and to reduce
these, particularly in Europe, austerity measures had to be introduced and governments were forced to
reduce their expenditure.
In most Western countries, government expenditure is about 40 - 50% of all expenditure, so governments
policies and spending decisions have a very powerful eect on organizations
3.2
Monetary policy
This approach to economic control attempts to manage the supply of money. This can be done through:
Interest rates.
Money supply (eg governments printing money).
Reserve requirements (what proportion of money deposited by customers may banks lend to
other customers).
Credit controls (eg if a person is buying an item on credit, what is the minimim deposit they must
give)
4. The limitations of traditional management accounting

techniques
You have studied traditional management accounting techniques, such as variance analysis, for earlier
examinations.
It has however been argued that in todays environment they are less than adequate. Listed below are
some examples of areas where traditional management accounting is criticised.
Absorption of overheads
Traditional product costing tends to be absorption costing, absorbing the overheads on a labour
hour basis. In a modern environment, with more automation and a higher proportion of fixed costs,
an activity based costing approach is more appropriate.
44
Process costing
The traditional approach to cost accounting in a manufacturing business involves accounting for
costs process by process as raw materials are transformed into finished goods.
In the modern environment with just-in-time systems there is very little work-in-progress and the
conventional process costing approach involves a great deal of work but gains little. A backflush
costing approach would be more appropriate.
Designing costs out of production

The focus of traditional management accounting tends to be on reducing costs at the production
stage, whereas most costs tend to be determined at the design stage. Therefore a product lifetime
costing approach is needed.
Over-focusing on production costs

Many costs are driven by customers (such as service delivery costs and discounts), but traditional
management accounting tends to focus on production costs. It may not therefore be realised that
the company is trading with some customers at a loss. A customer profitability analysis approach
would be more appropriate.
Variance analysis
Traditional variance analysis tends to focus on direct costs rather than on overheads, whereas in
most businesses overheads are more controllable than direct costs.
Labour costs
Often more like fixed costs than their conventional treatment as variable
5. Customer profitability analysis (CPA)

CPA is an application of Activity Based Costing techniques to customers.
Traditionally, ABC is applied to products but in a modern business environment in which it is vital that
organisations respond promptly to the demands of customers, analysis on the basis of customers can
provide vital management information.
The approach is exactly the same as the normal activity based approach, except that we attempt to
identify the profitability of each type of customer.
We can then identify unprofitable types of customer and attempt to persuade them to alter their buying
behaviour so they become profitable customers.
This approach also identifies where we should focus our cost reduction eorts.
Example 1
Vilnius Ltd manufactures components for the heavy goods vehicle industry.
The following annual information regarding three of its key customers is available.
Gross margin
Orders placed
Sales visits
Invoices raised
$897,000
$1,070,000
$1,056,000
200
320
700
80
100
140
200
320
700
45
The company uses an activity based costing system and the analysis of customer-related costs is as
follows.
Sales visits
Order processing
Despatch costs
Billing and collections
$420 per visit

$190 per order placed
$350 per order placed
$97 per invoice raised
Using customer profitability analysis, how would the customers be ranked?
5.1
Customer profitability statement

There is no set format for the statement, but it would normally be similar to the one below.
$000
$000
Revenue at list prices
100
Less: discounts given
Net revenue
92
Less: cost of goods sold
50
Gross margin
42
Less: customer specific costs
28
financing costs:
credit period
customer specific inventory
3
2
33
Net margin from customer
46
Example 2
Frodo Ltd supplies shoes to Sam Ltd and Gollum Ltd. Each pair of shoes has a list price of $50 and costs
Frodo Ltd $25. As Gollum buys in bulk it receives a 10% trade discount for every order for 100 pairs
of shoes or more. Sam receives a 15% discount irrespective of order size, because that company collects
the shoes, thereby saving Frodo Ltd any distribution costs. The cost of administering each order is $50
and the distribution cost is $1,000 per order. Sam makes 10 orders in the year, totalling 420 pairs of shoes,
and Gollum places 5 orders of 100 pairs each.
Which customer is the most profitable for Frodo Ltd?
6. Activity-based costing and activity-based management

Traditional accounting for production overheads lumps them together and then usually absorbs them on a
labour hour or machine hour basis. This is a very crude approach.
Modern manufacturing techniques are much more automated than previously and this increases the
proportion of manufacturing costs that are fixed (whereas there is lower proportion of costs from direct
labour). It is therefore that fixed costs are accounted for as accurately as possible.
Activity based costing tries to identify what activities causes costs (the cost drivers) then accounts for the
fixed costs on the appropriate bases.
Example 3
Product A
Demand (units)
Unit cost card
Marginal cost
Fixed cost
Total absorption cost
Mark-up (50%)
Selling price
Product B
1,000
200
$
50
30
$
80
60
80
40
140
70
120
210
Investigation shows that 1/3 of fixed costs relate to batch set-up costs and 2/3 relate to time in the factory.
Each unit of B takes twice as long to make as a unit of A. Product A is made in batches of 500 units; Product
B in batches of 1,000 units.
Recalculate the data using an activity based costing approach.
47
Activity-based management (ABM) is a method of identifying and evaluating activities that a

business performs using activity-based costing to carry out a value chain analysis or a re-engineering
initiative to improve strategic and operational decisions in an organization. Activity-based costing
establishes relationships between overhead costs and activities so that overhead costs can be more
precisely allocated to products, services, or customer segments. Activity-based management focuses on
managing activities to reduce costs and improve customer value.
Operational ABM is about doing things right, using ABC information to improve eciency. Those
activities which add value to the product can be identified and improved. Activities that dont add
value are the ones that need to be reduced to cut costs without reducing product value.
Strategic ABM is about doing the right things, using ABC information to decide which products to
develop and which activities to use. This can also be used for customer profitability analysis, identifying
which customers are the most profitable and focusing on them more.
7. Value analysis
Value analysis is the examination and assessment by an organization of a products features to ensure that
its cost is no greater than is necessary to carry out its functions.
The products functions are again determined by customers and the company must examine the factors
aecting the cost of a product or service in order to attempt to reduce costs whilst still delivering the
required standard of quality and reliability.
Note that some costs are associated with a products functional and some with its esteem value. Luxury
and cheap products might carry out the same function but the styling or quality of the luxury product
might be essential in the eyes of consumers. It is important for the manufacturer damages neither
function nor esteem value when trying to reduce costs.
A value added activity is one which adds value to the customers perception of a product or
service, whereas a non-value added activity is one that does not add value in the eyes of the
customer.
48
Costs that do not add value to the product should be targeted for elimination. However, this is not always
the case the removal of some non-value added activities (such as quality control) could add further
costs.
A further classification is the breakdown of activities between core (such as time spent with potential
customers), support (such as travelling time to customers), and discretionary (such as correcting
accounting errors).
Effective cost management is about reducing or eliminating costs spent on non-core activities.
8. Dedicated cells
Many production lines involve many separate processes for example, cutting, painting, drilling. The
traditional approach is often to have teams of people for each separate process. The material
is cut in one process by one team of people, then moves to the next process where it is painted by
another team of people, and so on.
This production line approach does mean that each team becomes very skilled at their particular task,
which can lead to eciency savings.
However, a downside of this approach is that employees lose motivation and lose concern for quality,
because they do not feel any responsibility for the final product (and in fact often will not even see the
finished product).
A potential remedy for this is the dedicated cell approach. Here the workforce is split into small teams
comprising workers skilled at each of the various functions. For example one team might comprise one
cutter, one painter, and one driller.
Each team is therefore responsible for all aspects of the production up to the finished product. Each
member of the team feels more responsibility to other members of their team, and for the overall quality
of the finished product.
9. Contingency Theory
The contingency approach to management accounting is based on the idea that there is no universally
appropriate accounting system applicable to all organisations in all circumstances. Ecient systems
depend on the awareness of the system designer of the specific environmental factors which influence
their creation.
The following is a very simplified illustration of the idea:
Petras makes three dierent products: X, Y and Z. He has never had any competitors, and every month
the managing director receives a report in the following form:
$
Sales
10,000
Production costs
5,000
Gross profit
5,000
Administrative costs
1,000
Net profit
4,000
Another company, Quixas, has entered the market for products X and Y, undercutting the prices charged
by Petras, and has started to win some of Petrass customers.
49
The managing director asks the management accountant for information about the profitability of X and
Y. Sales information is easy to analyse, but to analyse cost information requires a new system of coding to
be introduced. Eventually the management accountant comes up with the following report:
Sales
Production costs
Gross profit
Administrative costs
Net profit
X
3,000
500
Y
3,000
500
Z
4,000
4,000
Total
10,000
5,000
2,500
2,500
5,000
1,000
4,000
As a result of receiving this information, the managing director reduces the prices of X and Y, and also
divides the production function into two divisions, one of which will concentrate exclusively on reducing
the costs of product Z while maintaining quality.
This is a simple illustration of contingency theory in that the original design of the accounting system was
determined by the fact that Petras faced a highly predictable environment, and was a highly centralised
organisation.
The design of the new system is the result of a new set of contingent variables the entry of Quixas
into two of Petrass markets requires the system to adopt a dierent reporting structure for X and Y, and
more detailed analysis of costs in the case of Z. This is matched by a change in the structure of the
organisation as a whole.
To recap, the aim of contingency theory is to identify specific features of an organisations context that
aect the design of particular features of that organisations accounting system.
10. Institutional theory

You might have heard a phrase such as He/she has become institutionalised. It is often used in the
context of someone who has spent a long time in hospital, care or prison. When we say that they have
become institutionalised we mean that they have been conditioned to act in a particular way and they
would find it hard to change if given the opportunity.
Procedures and people in commercial organisations become institutionalised. For example, management
accounting systems are influenced by legal requirements, culture and the copying of successful firms.
This can mean that it is dicult for accounting systems to break free from what is accepted as normal
and this could hinder organisations progress.
Burns and Scapens (2000) sought to provide a framework describing the process of institutionalisation.
The main concern of their framework was to understand the processes through which management
accounting rules and routines become taken-for-granted assumptions and so become institutionalised
within the organisation.
As such, management accounting systems, for example the budgeting system, carry the values of
rationality and financial orientation, which if taken-for-granted can become institutionalised.
However, Burns and Scapens also note that not all newly introduced accounting rules and routines will
necessarily become institutionalised. In particular, if new management accounting systems and practices
challenge the prevailing institutions (ie the currently accepted way of doing things) in the organisation,
they may not be widely adopted and may fail to become an institutionalised basis for behaviour. This
framework has been used by various researchers to study management accounting change or lack of it.
50
Chapter 8
RISK AND UNCERTAINTY
1. Introduction
Risk and uncertainty is a topic on which you have been examined previously, but is deemed knowledge
and it therefore repeated here as revision.
Decision making involves making decisions now which will aect future outcomes which are unlikely to
be known with certainty.
Risk exists where a decision maker has knowledge that several possible outcomes are possible usually
due to past experience. This past experience enables the decision maker to estimate the probability or
the likely occurence of each potential future outcome.
Uncertainty exists where the future is unknown and where the decision maker has no past experience on
which to base predictions.
Whatever the reasons for the uncertainty, the fact that it exists means that there is no rule as to how to
make decisions. For the examination you are expected to be aware of, and to apply, several dierent
approaches that might be useful.
2. Risk preference
As will be illustrated by an example, the approach taken to make the decision will depend on the
decision-makers attitude to risk.
A risk seeker will be interested in the best possible outcome, no matter how small the change that they
may occur.
Someone who is risk neutral will be concerned with the most likely or average outcome.
A risk avoider makes decisions on the basis of the worst possible outcomes that may occur.
Example 1
John has a factory capacity of 1,200 units per month.
Units cost him $6 each to make and his normal selling price is $11 each. However, the demand per
month is uncertain and is as follows:
Demand
400
500
700
900
Probability
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.1
He has been approached by a customer who is prepared to contract to a fixed quantity per month at a
price of $9 per unit. The customer is prepared to sign a contract to purchase 300, 500, 700 or 800 units per
month.
51
The company can vary production levels during the month up to the maximum capacity, but cannot
carry forward any unsold units in stock.
(a)
(b)
Calculate all possible profits that could result

Determine for what quantity John should sign the contract, under each of the following
criteria:
i) expected value
ii) maximin
iii) maximax
iv) minimax regret
(e)
What is the most that John would be prepared to pay for perfect knowledge as to the
level of normal demand?
52
3. The limitations of expected values.

Although we say that someone who is risk neutral would take an expected value approach to decision
making, there three two serious limitations of this approach:
The expected value is not usually expected.
The expected value gives no indication of the risk.
The estimation of the probabilities is very unreliable
Example: mutually exclusive projects ($000)

Project cost = 3,800
State of the
world
Project A
income
Project B
income
P x Project A
P x Project B
0.6
2,000
4,000
1,200
2,400
II
0.4
10,000
6,500
4,000
2,600
Expected values
5,200
5,000
The expected value of the income from both projects is greater than the cost of 3,800 so both appear
worthwhile and Project A seems to be preferable as it has a higher expected value.
However neither of the expected values of 5,200 or 5,000 is expected to occur: the only possible results
seem to be 2,000, 4,000, 6,500 and 10,000. If Project A were chosen, there is a greater than evens chance
that only 2,000 will be earned, creating a loss of 1,800 (ie 2,000 3,800). Project B is never expected to
produce a loss. Perhaps Project B is preferable?
53
54
Chapter 9
SOURCES OF MANAGEMENT
INFORMATION
1. Introduction
This chapters considers the information needs of an organisation, particularly in respect of control
systems to ensure that the organisation maintains performance.
2. Information needs for different levels of decision making

The dierent levels of decision making were discussed in the previous chapter. The information needs of
the decision makers will be dierent and depend on the type of decision.
2.1
Strategic planning
The information needed at this level is likely to be more external information and is likely to be more
forecasts of the future.
2.2
Management control / Tactical planning

At this level there will be a need for both external and internal information. The focus is also more likely to
be on current information.
2.3
Operational control
Here the information needs will almost exclusively be internal, and will be past and current information.
55
3. Sources of information
3.1
Internal sources of information

Source
Information
Sales ledger system
Number and value of invoices

Volume of sales
Value of sales, analysed by customer
Value of sales, analysed by product
Purchase ledger
system
Number and value of invoices
Payroll system
Number of employees
Value of purchases, analysed by supplier
Hours worked Output achieved Wages earned

Tax deducted
Fixed asset system
Date of purchase Initial cost Location

Depreciation method and rate
Service history
Production capacity
In addition the following internal, non-accounting sources may be used

Source
Information
Production
Machine breakdown times

Output achieved
Number of rejected units
Sales and marketing
Types of customer
Market research results
Demand patterns, seasonal variations etc
56
3.2
External courses of information

There is much information to be obtained from external sources as illustrated below:
Source
Information
Suppliers
Product prices
Product specifications
Newspapers, journals
Share price
Information on competitors Technological developments
National and Market surveys
Government
Industry statistics Taxation policy Inflation rates

Demographic statistics
Forecasts for economic growth
Customers
Product requirements
Price sensitivity
Employees
Wage demands
Working conditions
Banks
Information on potential customers

Information on national markets
Business enquiry agents
Information on competitors
Information on customers
Internet
Almost everything via databases (public and private),

discussion groups and mailing lists.
4. Attributes of good information

In order to be useful to management, information should possess the following attributes: [ACCURATE]
Accurate:
Sucient for its purpose. Note that at higher managerial levels

information does not normally need to be as accurate as at lower
levels
Complete:
Obviously, incomplete information is likely to mislead
Cost-beneficial:
Benefits should exceed costs
User-targeted:
It should provide the information by needed by the user to make

the decision/perform the job
Relevant:
Irrelevant information distracts and wastes peoples time.
Authoritative:
Well, you know how unreliable some web-site data is: sometimes
deliberately misleading, sometimes sloppy, sometimes out-ofdate.
Timely:
Information should be received quickly enough to enable better

decisions. There is no need for all information to be instantly
available and speed often has a cost.
Easy to use:
Well-set out and annotated.
57
Another mnemonic is PAIL. This can be used to assess the quality of reports:
Purpose
What is the purpose of the information or report. What should it

highlight? What is the important information it has to get convey?
Audience
Care has to be taken to assess the appropriate level of detail,

layout and terminology used in reports so that users will properly
understand the information that is provided.
Information.
The information provided must match the purpose of the

performance report. In particular, non-financial performance is a
very important determinant of the long term success of any
enterprise.
Layout.
Layout must help users to understand the information presented

and to see quickly the important amounts, trends, results and
explanations.
One of the most common criticisms of reports is that they present too much information and are much
too cluttered. There might be valuable information there but it is almost impossible to find and interpret
it. There is always the suspicion that large volumes of information have been deliberately provided to
obfuscate the facts and to blunt the message.
Although graphical information can be presented in a misleading way, graphical displays can be used to
greatly enhance the impact and understanding of information.
58
5. Control systems
Control systems are necessary throughout an organisation in order to monitor performance so that
corrective action may be taken where appropriate.
An example is a budgetary control system, where costs might be compared against budget and action
taken to attempt to correct any over-spends.
Another example is a quality control system, where production is compared against pre-defined
standards, and again appropriate action is taken when the quality deviates from the standard.
All control systems operate in the same basic way, and you should be aware of the diagram below and
the terminology.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
STANDARD
EFFECTOR / ADJUSTOR
INPUTS
COMPARATOR
PROCESS
OUTPUT
SENSOR
6. Feedback / feedforward control

Feedback control is where the outputs of a process are measured and information is then provided
regarding corrective action, after the outputs have been produced.
Variance analysis is an example of this. At the end of (say) each month, variances are calculated. If there is
an overspend in January, then attempts will be made to correct the problem for the future. It is however
too late to do anything about January!
Feed forward control is where a problem is identified in advance and corrective action taken before the problem occurs.
An example of this is one use of the budgeting process. If a budget is prepared for the coming year and
forecasts an unacceptably low profit, then ways will be looked for of changing plans in order to increase
the profit. For example, increasing selling prices or cutting costs.
59
7. Negative / positive feedback

These terms refer to the way that feedback results in control.
Negative feedback is where the control mechanism reduces the problem, and is what we would desire
to achieve. For example if actual costs are above budgeted costs, negative feedback would be applied
Positive feedback however, is where the departure from the plan is to be encouraged. For example, if
sales are ahead of budget the organisation would try to encourage that behaviour.
8. Integrated reporting
8.1
Definition
Integrated reporting:
Is a concise communication of an organisations strategy, governance and performance.
Demonstrates the links between its financial performance and its wider social, environmental and
economic context.
Shows how organisations create value over the short, medium and long term.
Its aim is to:
Enable more eective decision making at board level.
Improve the information available to investors.
Encourage more integrated thinking and business practices.
It is encouraged by the International Integrated Reporting Council.
60
8.2
Guiding principles
The following Guiding Principles underpin the preparation of an integrated report, informing the content
of the report and how information is presented:
Strategic focus and future orientation

An integrated report should provide insight into the organizations strategy, and how it relates to
the organizations ability to create value in the short, medium and long term, and to its use of and
eects on the capitals
Connectivity of information
An integrated report should show a holistic picture of the combination, interrelatedness and
dependencies between the factors that aect the organizations ability to create value over time
Stakeholder relationships
An integrated report should provide insight into the nature and quality of the organizations
relationships with its key stakeholders, including how and to what extent the organization
understands, takes into account and responds to their legitimate needs and interests
Materiality
An integrated report should disclose information about matters that substantively aect
theorganizations ability to create value over the short, medium and long term
Conciseness
An integrated report should be concise.
Reliability and completeness

An integrated report should include all material matters, both positive and negative, in a balanced
way and without material error
Consistency and comparability

The information in an integrated report should be presented:
(a)
on a basis that is consistent over time; and
(b)
in a way that enables comparison with other organizations to the extent it is material to the
organizations own ability to create value over time.
61
8.3
Content elements
An integrated report includes eight Content Elements that are fundamentally linked to each other and
are not mutually exclusive:
Organizational overview and external environment

What does the organization do and what are the circumstances under which it operates?
Governance
How does the organizations governance structure support its ability to create value in the short,
medium and long term?
Business model
What is the organizations business model?
Risks and opportunities

What are the specific risks and opportunities that aect the organizations ability to create value
over the short, medium and long term, and how is the organization dealing with them?
Strategy and resource allocation

Where does the organization want to go and how does it intend to get there?
Performance
To what extent has the organization achieved its strategic objectives for the period and what are its
outcomes in terms of eects on the capitals?
Outlook
What challenges and uncertainties is the organization likely to encounter in pursuing its
strategy,and what are the potential implications for its business model and future performance?
Basis of presentation
How does the organization determine what matters to include in the integrated report and how
are such matters quantified or evaluated?
62
Chapter 10
FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE
MEASUREMENT
1. Introduction
It is very common in the examination to be given information about a company and to be asked to
comment on the performance. It is clearly important in practice to have measures in order to determine
whether or not the company is performing well.
It is important to measure both financial and non-financial performance, but in this chapter we will
consider only financial performance. You will be given extracts from the companys accounts for several
years and be expected to analyse and interpret this information.
2. Approach
Although you must be aware of several key measures of financial performance, it is important that you do
not fall into the trap of simply calculating every ratio imaginable for every year available. What the
examiner is after is much more of an over-view and being able to determine the key measures and to
comment adequately.
The following points should be considered:
2.1
What is it that you are being asked to comment on?

For example, if you are looking at the information from the shareholders perspective, then growth (or
otherwise) in the share price will be of great interest.
However, if you are looking at how well the managers are performing, the growth (or otherwise) in the
profit (to the extent to which they control it) is perhaps of more importance.
2.2
Growth:
Always make some comment as to the level of growth. The amount of detail required depends on the
information available and the number of marks allocated, but growth in turnover, in profit, and in share
price are all potentially relevant.
Look at the overall level of growth and look for any trends, do not waste time doing detailed year- by-year
analysis.
63
2.3
Areas for analysis:

Subject again to exactly what you are being asked to comment on, the following areas are likely to be
worthy of consideration:
2.4
Profitability
how well a company performs, given its asset base
Liquidity
the short term financial position of the company
Gearing
the long-term financial position of the company
Investors ratios
how well investors will appraise the company
Bases for comparison:

Most measures mean little on their own, and are only really useful when compared with something.
Depending on the information given in the question, any comparison is likely to be with one of the
following:
Previous years for the same company
Other similar companies
Industry averages
3. Common ratios
The following is a list of the most common ratios that may be appropriate. However, do not simply
calculate every ratio for every question think about what you are trying to consider and choose the
most appropriate ratios. If relevant by all means calculate additional ratios there is no one set of ratios.
3.1
Profitability ratios
(a)
Profit before interest and tax (PBIT)

Return on capital employed (ROCE) =
Capital employed
PBIT
(b) Net profit margin =
Turnover
Gross profit
(c)
Gross profit margin =
Turnover
Turnover
(d) Asset turnover =
Note:
Capital employed
Capital employed = shareholders funds plus creditors amounts falling due after more than
one year plus long term provisions for liabilities and charges.
Net profit margin asset turnover = ROCE

PBIT
Turnover
Turnover
Capital employed
PBIT
=
Capital employed
64
3.2
Liquidity ratios
Current assets
(a) Current ratio =
Current liabilities
Current assets less stock
(b) Acid test (quick ratio) =
Current liabilities
Average debtors
(c) Debtors payment period =
365
Credit sales
Average stock
(d) Stock days =
Cost of sales
365
Average creditors
(d) Creditors payment period =
3.3
Purchases
365
Gearing ratios
(a) Gearing ratio =
Prior charge capital (long term debt)

Long term debt + equity (shareholders funds)
PBIT
(b) Interest cover =
Interest
Contribution
(c)
3.4
Operating gearing =
PBIT
Investor ratios
Market price (pence)
(a) P/E ratio =
EPS (pence)
Earnings available for distribution to equity
(b) Earnings per share (EPS) =
Number of shares in issue and ranking for dividend

Dividend per share (pence)
(c)
Dividend yield =
Market price (pence)
65
4. EBITDA
EBITDA is a financial performance measure that has appeared relatively recently. It stands for
earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and amortisation and is particularly popular with high-tech
startup businesses.
Consideration of earnings before interest and tax has long been common before interest in order to
measure the overall profitability before any distributions to providers and capital, and before tax on the
basis that this is not under direct control of management.
The reason that EBITDA additionally considers the profit before depreciation and amortisation is in order
to approximate to cash flow, on the basis that depreciation and amortisation are non-cash expenses.
A major criticism, however, of EBITDA is that it fails to consider the amounts required for fixed asset
replacement.
Example 1
Summary financial information for Repse plc is given below, covering performance over the last four
years.
$ thousands
Year 1
Year 2
Year 3
Year 4
Turnover
43,800
48,000
56,400
59,000
Cost of sales
16,600
18,200
22,600
22,900
Salaries and Wages
12,600
12,900
11,900
11,400
Other costs
5,900
7,400
12,200
13,400
Profit before interest and tax
8,700
9,500
9,700
11,300
Interest
1,200
1,000
200
150
Tax
2,400
2,800
3,200
3,600
Profit after interest and tax
5,100
5,700
6,300
7,550
Dividends payable
2,000
2,200
2,550
3,600
Average debtors
8,800
10,000
11,100
11,400
Average creditors
3,100
3,800
5,000
5,200
Average total net assets
33,900
35,000
47,500
50,300
Shareholders funds
22,600
26,000
44,800
48,400
Long term debt
11,300
9,000
2,700
1,900
9,000
9,000
12,000
12,000
Repse plc
17.0
18.0
18.4
19.0
Industry
18.0
18.2
18.0
18.2
Number of shares in issue (000)

P/E ratio (average for year)
The increase in share capital was as a result of a rights issue.

Review Repses performance in light of its objective being to maximise shareholder wealth.
66
67
68
Chapter 11
DIVISIONAL PERFORMANCE
MEASUREMENT
1. Introduction
In this chapter we will consider the situation where an organisation is divisonalised (or decentralised) and
the importance of proper performance measurement in this situation.
We will also consider the possible problems that can result from the use of certain standard performance
measures.
2. The meaning of divisionalisation

As mentioned earlier, divisionalisation is the situation where managers of business areas are given a
degree of autonomy over decision making i.e. they are given the authority to make decision without
reference to senior management. In eect they are allowed to run their part of the business almost as
though it were their own company.
2.1
2.2
Advantages of divisionalisation:
Specialism in product/country/customer
Greater motivation for managers
Allows divisions to be profit centres (motivating and promotes eciency)
Allows performances between divisions to be compared
Clearer objectives for managers (concentrate on one area of the business only)
Usually accompanied by decentralization, so potentially better decisions.
Problems with divisionalisation:
Coordination diculties
Requires transfer prices to be established
Lack of goal congruence/dysfunctional decision-making
Diculties in fair comparison of divisions.
Potential duplication of some services
3. The use of performance measures to control divisional

managers
If managers are to be given autonomy in their decision making, it becomes impossible for senior
management to watch over them on a day-to-day basis this would remove the whole benefit of
having divisionalised!
69
The way to control their performance is to establish in advance a set of measures that will be used to
evaluate their performance at (normally) the end of each year. These measures provide a way of
determining whether or not they are managing their division well, and also communicate to the
managers how they are expected to perform.
It is of critical importance that the performance measures are designed well.
For example, suppose a manager was simply given one performance measure to increase profits. This
may seem sensible, in that in any normal situation the company will want the division to become more
profitable. However, if the manager expects to be rewarded on the basis of how well he achieves the
measure, all his actions will be focussed on increasing profit to the exclusion of everything else. This
would not however be beneficial to the company if the manager were to achieve it by taking actions that
reduced the quality of the output from the division. (In the long- term it may not be beneficial for the
manager either, but managers tend to focus more on the short-term achievement of their performance
measures.)
It is therefore necessary to have a series of performance measures for each division manager.
Maybe one measure will relate to profitability, but at the same time have another measure relating to
quality. The manager will be assessed on the basis of how well he has achieved all of his measures.
We wish the performance measures to be goal congruent, that is to encourage the manager to make
decisions that are not only good for him but end up being good for the company as a whole also.
In this chapter we will consider only financial performance. However, non-financial performance is just as
important and we will consider that in the next chapter.
4. Controllable profits
The most important financial performance measure is profitability.
However, if the measure is to be used to assess the performance of the divisional manager it is important
that any costs outside his control should be excluded.
For example, it might be decided that pay increases in all division should be fixed centrally by human
resources sta at Head Oce. In this case it would be unfair to penalise (or reward) the manager for any
eect on the divisions profits in respect of this cost. For these purposes therefore a profit and loss
account would be prepared ignoring wages and it would be on the resulting controllable profit that the
manager would be assessed.
5. Investment centres and the problem with measuring

profitability.
As stated earlier, divisionalisation implies that the divisional manager has some degree of autonomy.
In the case of an investment centre, the manager is given decision-making authority not only over costs
and revenues, but additionally over capital investment decision.
In this situation it is important that any measure of profitability is related to the level of capital
expenditure. Simply to assess on the absolute level of profits would be dangerous the manager might
increase profits by $10,000 and be rewarded for it, but this would hardly be beneficial to the company if it
had required capital investment of $1,000,000 to achieve!!
The most common way of relating profitability to capital investment is to use Return on Investment as a
measure. However, as we will see, this can lead to a loss of goal congruence and a measure known as
Residual Income is theoretically better.
70
6. Return on Investment (ROI)

ROI is defined as: Controllable division profit as a percentage of divisional investment
It is equivalent to Return on Capital Employed and this is one of the reasons that it is very popular in
practice as a divisional performance measure.
Example 1
Arcania plc has divisions throughout the Baltic States.
The Ventspils division is currently making a profit of $82,000 p.a. on investment of $500,000. Arcania has a
target return of 15%
The manager of Ventspils is considering a new investment which will require additional investment of
$100,000 and will generate additional profit of $17,000 each year/
(a)
(b)
Calculate whether or not the new investment is attractive to the company as a whole.
Calculate the ROI of the division, with and without the new investment and hence
determine whether or not the manager would decide to accept the new investment.
In the above example, the manager is motivated to accept an investment that is attractive to the
company as a whole. He has been motivated to make a goal congruent decision.
Note that in this illustration we have used the opening book value for capital invested. In practice it may
be more likely that we would use closing book value (which would be lower because of depreciation).
There is no rule about this in practice we could do whichever we thought more suitable. However, in
examinations always use opening book value unless, of course, you are told to do differently.
71
However, there can be problems with a ROI approach as is illustrated by the following example:
Example 2
The circumstances are the same as in example 1, except that this time the manager of the Ventspils
division is considering an investment that has a cost of $100, 000 and will give additional profit of $16,000
p.a.
(a)
(b)
Calculate whether or not the new investment is attractive to the company as a whole.
Calculate the ROI of the division, with and without the new investment and hence
determine whether or not the manager would decide to accept the new investment.
In this example the manager is not motivated to make a goal congruent decision. For this reason, a better
approach is to assess the managers performance on Residual Income.
72
3. Residual Income (RI)

Instead of using a percentage measure, as with ROI, the Residual Income approach assesses the manager
on absolute profit. However, in order to take account of the capital investment, notional (or imputed, or
pretend) interest is deducted from the Income Statement profit figure. The balance remaining is known
as the Residual Income.
(Note that the interest charge is only notional, and is only made for performance measurement
purposed).
Example 3
Repeat examples 1 and 2, but in each case assume that the manager is assessed on his Residual
Income, and that therefore it is this that determines how he makes decisions.
Note that in both cases the manager is motivated to make goal congruent decisions.
73
4. ROI vs RI
Note that both RI and ROI will favour divisions with older assets because those divisions will:
1.
Probably have bought the assets more cheaply than new divisions which buy at inflated prices.
2.
The assets are more heavily depreciated so that the capital employed figures is less in the division
with older assets and this aects both the denominator in ROI and the notional interest charge in
RI
Both methods can also suer distortions because of assets leased on operating leases and also if head
oce accounts for some divisional assets (for example HO holding all receivables).
In practice, ROI is more popular than RI, despite the fact that RI is technically superior in terms of
encouraging managers to make the correct investment decisions.
Pros and cons of ROI:
It seems familiar most managers will know about return on capital calculations.
Easy: compare ROI with a company target.
Encourages maximization of ROI which might be how congruent with shareholders judge the
company.
Good for comparing divisions of dierent sizes
BUT
Decisions will not necessarily maximize shareholder wealth.
Pros and cons of RI:
RI maximization tends to be congruent with decisions that maximise shareholder wealth
Dierent notional interest rates can be set for investment of dierent risk.
BUT
A less familiar calculation and concept
Not good at comparing divisions of dierent sizes. (Larger RIs might simply be a function of bigger
divisions).
74
5. Annuity Depreciation
Despite the points made above, even if we use a Residual Income approach there is a danger of non-goal
congruent decisions being made because divisional managers tend to think short-term. (The same
problem applies to ROI approaches also). This is because in early years the book value of any new
investment is high and this depresses both the ROI and RI.
A solution to this problem is to use annuity depreciation.
We will illustrate the nature of the problem, and the solution of annuity depreciation by means of an
example.
Example 4
Grip plc has a cost of capital of 10% p.a..
One of its divisions has the possibility of undertaking the following project:
Investment
Project life
Net cash inflow
Scrap value
$250,000
5 years
$72.500 p.a.
Nil
(a)
Calculate the Net Present Value of the project and assess therefore whether or not the
company as a whole wishes to invest in the project
(b)
Calculate the additional Residual Income generated by the project for each of the 5 years,
and comment as to whether or not the manager is likely to accept the project (assume
that the division depreciates on a straight line basis).
(c)
Recalculate the Residual Income each year using annuity depreciation, and comment as
to whether or not the manager is likely to accept the project.
75
6. Economic Value Added

Economic value added (EVA) is a performance metric that is very similar in approach to Residual
Income, and is defined as being:
EVA = Net operating profit after tax WACC x book value of capital employed
EVA is a trade-marked technique, developed by consultants called Stern Stewart and Co.
The principle behind it is that a business is only really creating value if its profit is in excess of the required
minimum rate of return that shareholders and debt holders could get by investing in other securities of
comparable risk.
The capital employed is the opening capital employed, adjusted fro the items set out below.
EVA allows all management decisions to be modelled, monitored, communicated, and compensated in a
single and consistent way always in terms of the value added to shareholder investment.
However, EVA makes certain adjustments because certain types of expenditure which appear in the
statements of profit and loss under ISAs and IFRSs are NOT regarded as expenses when using EVA and
cash accounting is regarded as more reliable than accruals accounting).
The major adjustments are:
Add back to profits:
Expenditure on building for the future (e.g. research expenditure, marketing expenditure and sta
training):
Non-cash expenses
Provisions
Goodwill written o
Depreciation: add back book depreciation and deduct economic depreciation. If economic
depreciation is not given, assume it is the same as book depreciation and that there is no net
adjustment.
Interest on debt capital

Add back to net profit after adjusting for any tax relief.
Treat the debt as part of capital employed
Adjustment to statement of financial position
Non capitalized leases
Research etc now capitalised
Goodwill written o
Provisions
76
Example 5
Extracts from the accounts of Value Co are as follows:
Income Statements:
2014
2013
$m
$m
Revenue
608
520
Pre-tax accounting profit (note 1)
134
108
Taxation
(46)
(37)
88
71
(29)
(24)
59
47
2014
2013
$m
$m
250
256
192
208
506
400
380
126
312
88
506
400
Profit after tax

Dividends
Retained earnings
Balance Sheets:
Non-current assets
Net current assets
Financed by: Shareholders funds
Medium and long-term bank loans
Note: After deduction of the economic depreciation of the companys non-current assets. This is also the
depreciation used for tax purposes. Other information is as follows:
1.
Capital employed at the end of 2012 amounted to $350m.
2.
Value Co had non-capitalised leases valued at $16m in each of the years 2012 to 2014. The leases
are not subject to amortisation.
3.
Value Cos pre-tax cost of debt was estimated to be 9% in 2013 and 10% in 2014.
4.
Value Cos cost of equity was estimated to be 15% in 2013 and 17% in 2014.
5.
The target capital structure is 70% equity and 30% debt.
6.
The rate of taxation is 30% in both 2013 and 2014.
7.
Economic depreciation amounted to $64m in 2013 and $72m in 2014. These amounts were equal
to the depreciation used for tax purposes and the depreciation charged in the income statements.
8.
Interest payable amounted to $6m in 2013 and $8m in 2014.
9.
Other non-cash expenses amounted to $20m in 2013 and $15m in 2014.
10.
Research and development expenditure on a new project started in 2013 and written o was $10
million in 2013 and $11 million in 2014
Calculate the Economic Value Added in each of 2014 and 2013.
77
7. Potential problems of EVA
It is dicult to use EVA to compare firms or divisions because it is an absolute measure and takes
no account of the relative size of the business.
Because EVA is a year-to-year measure, it could be improved in the short term but to the detriment
of the business in the long term.
Economic depreciation is dicult to calculate and conflicts with generally accepted accounting
principles.
Other factors that could be important but are not included in the accounts are ignored.
EVA is a short-term measure whereas performance measures should focus on the longer- term
forecasts. Ideally economic income would be used (by discounting estimated future cash flows)
but even ignoring the complexity of this, the person responsible for estimating it would very often
be the person being measured, which could lead to bias.
78
Chapter 12
NON-FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE
MEASUREMENT
1. Introduction
In the previous two chapters we were looking at measures of financial performance. However, as we
stated, it is important to have a range of performance measures considering non-financial as well as
financial matters.
In general, financial performance is easy to measure (earning per share, profit, dividends, EVA etc) but
these measurements do not tell managers why financial performance has improved. For example, sales
might have increased either because prices has been lowered or the company has spent money
developing a new, innovative product. In this chapter we will consider the various areas where
performance measures are likely to be needed.
Note that although we might all like to think that, for example, customer service is a foundation for
company success, it is not necessarily so. Some low-cost airlines have been very successful despite giving
poor customer service. Good customer service, and the other non-financial qualities which are
mentioned about below are not ends in themselves. They become important in profit seeking
organisations only if the enable financial success.
In not-for-profit organisations, non-financial measures can be ends in themselves. For example, in a
hospital patient service is likely to be a fundamental part of its mission.
Various authors have summarised the areas in dierent ways and the main approaches are summarised in
this chapter.
2. Fitzgerald and Moon building blocks

Fitzgerald and Moon focussed on performance measurement in service businesses. They said that
organizations need:
Measures: dimensions of performance that should be measured
Standards: KPIs need to be capable of ownership (ie the person responsible feels able to influence the
measure), should be achievable and should be fair.
Rewards: should be clear, provide motivation and controllable ie managers can influence their rewards
by their behaviour.
79
They suggested that the following dimensions need measures of performance:

Performance area
Possible measures
Financial performance
Profitability
Sales growth
ROI
Cash flow/liquidity
EVA
Competitive performance
Sales growth
Proportion of contracts won
Customer assessment/feedback
Market share
Quality
Rejects/reworks
Customer complaints/feedback
Claims for compensation
Peer review assessments
Flexibility
Spare capacity
Time order to delivery
Set-up time
% of work declined
Resource utilization
Idle time
Non-chargeable time
Machine utilization
Wastage
Innovation
New products brought to market

Patents files
R&D spend
80
3. Kaplan and Nortons Balanced Scorecard

The balanced scorecard (developed by Kaplan and Norton 1992) views the business from four
perspectives and aims to establish goals for each together with measures which can be used to evaluate
whether these goals have been achieved. These should be viewed as a hierarchy with good financial
performance depending on happy customers, who are happy if we do what we say we will do.
Continued success demands that organisations never stop trying to improve through learning and
innovation.
Perspective
Question
Possible Measures
Financial Perspective
How do we create value for

our shareholders?
Profitability
Sales growth
ROI
Cash flow/liquidity
Customer Perspective
What do existing and potential

customers value from us?
% Sales from new customers

% On time deliveries
% Orders from enquiries
Customers survey analysis
Internal Business
Perspective
What process must we excel at

to achieve our customer and
financial objectives?
Unit cost analysis

Process/cycle time
Value analysis
Efficiency
Innovation and
Learning Perspective
How c an we continue to
improve and create future
value?
Number of new products introduced

Time to market for new products
81
4. The Performance Pyramid

Lynch and Cross viewed business as a performance pyramid.
The pyramid views a range of objectives for both external eectiveness and internal eciency. The
objectives can be achieved through measures at various levels as shown in the pyramid below. These
measures are seen to interact with each other both horizontally at each level and vertically across levels in
the pyramid.
Corporate
vision
Objectives
flow down
Market
Customer
satisfaction
Quality
Delivery
Financial
Productivity
Flexibility
Measures
flow up
Business
units
Cycle time
Business operating
systems
Waste
Departments
and work
centers
Operations
External eectiveness
Internal eciency
Operations carried on in departments and work centres: quality, delivery, cycle time and waste. These
operations support the layers further up the pyramid.
Companies must achieve customer satisfaction, productivity and flexibility the ability to adapt to
dierent customer requirements and methods of production. Customer satisfaction arises from quality
and delivery. Productivity arises from system time and waste; flexibility arises from delivery and cycle time.
A strong performance in the market depends on customer satisfaction and flexibility towards dierent
environments. Financial performance depends on productivity and flexibility.
82
5. The Performance Prism

Stakeholder
satisfaction
Processes
Strategies
Capabilities
Stakeholder contribution
There are five areas that have to be measured and assessed:
Stakeholder satisfaction: who are they and what do they want?

For example, shareholders want profits and customer want high quality and value for money. There
will often be a conflict, so consider Mendelows Matrix and keep the keep players happy.
Stakeholder contribution: what does the organisation need and want from its stakeholders?
For example, large orders, prompt payment, large amounts invested, loyalty. If stakeholders re not
providing what the organisation wants, perhaps they should be dropped.
Strategies: what strategies are needed to satisfy both stakeholders requirements and the
organisations?
For example, cost leadership or dierentiation.
Processes: what is needed to enable the strategies?

For example, cost leadership would require processes that allow cheap, ecient manufacturing to
be carried out. Dierentiation would require innovation and tailoring.
Capabilities: what capabilities are needed to allow the processes to be carried out?
For example, for cost leadership, high automation, good purchasing skills, right first time.
83
84
Chapter 13
PERFORMANCE IN THE NOT-FORPROFIT SECTOR
1. Introduction
Non-profit seeking organisations are those whose prime goal cannot be assessed by economic means.
Examples would include charities and state bodies such as the police and the health service.
For this sort of organisation, it is not possible or desirable to use standard profit measures. Instead (in for
example the case of the health service) the objective is to ensure that the best service is provided at the
best cost.
In this chapter we will consider the problems of performance measures and suggestions as to how to
approach it.
2. Problems with performance measurement
Multiple objectives
Even if all objectives can be clearly identified, it may be impossible to identify an over-riding
objective or to choose between competing objectives
The diculty of measuring outputs

An objective of the health service is obviously to make ill people better. However, how can we in
practice measure how much better they are?
Financial constraints
Public sector organisations have limited control over the level of funding that they receive and the
objectives that they can achieve.
Political, social and legal considerations

The public have higher expectations from public sector organisations than from commercial ones,
and such organisations are subject to greater scrutiny and more onerous legal requirements.
Little market competition and no profit motive.
85
3. Value for money

Non-profit organisations, such as the health service, are expected to provide value for money. This can be
defined as providing a service in a way which is economical, ecient and eective. Performance should
be assessed under each of these 3 Es
Eectiveness
Determining how well the organisation has achieved its desired objectives.
Eciency
Maximising the output for a given input (or, for a given output achieving the minimum input).
Economy
Attaining the appropriate quantity and quality of inputs at the lowest cost
86
Chapter 14
TRANSFER PRICING
1. Introduction
Transfer prices were examined in a previous examination. It is, however deemed knowledge for this paper
and can be asked again. It is therefore repeated here for revision.
2. What is a transfer price?

The transfer price is the price that one division charges another division of the same company for goods
or services supplied from one to the other. It is an internal charge the sale of one division is the
purchase of the other. Although it will be reflected in the results for each division individually, there is no
eect in the accounts of the company as a whole.
Ideally transfer prices should:
Be perceived as fair to both divisions and therefore good for performance measurement and
management
Provide profits for both divisions because profits are motivating
Promote goal congruence so that divisions volunteer to do what is good for the group
Promote autonomy ie minimise head oce interference
Example 1
Division A produces goods and transfers them to Division B which packs and sells them to outside
customers. Division A has costs of $10 per unit, and Division B has additional costs of $4 p.u.. Division B
sells the goods to external customers at a price of $20 p.u.
Assuming a transfer price between the divisions of $12 p.u., calculate:
(a)
the total profit p.u. made by the company overall
(b)
the profit p.u. made by each division
87
3. Why have a transfer price?

The reason for having a transfer price is to be able to make each division profit accountable. If, in the
previous example, there was no transfer price and goods were transferred free of charge between the
division, then the overall profit for the company would be unchanged. However, Division A would only be
reporting costs, and Division B would be reporting an enormous profit. The problem would be
compounded if Division A was selling the same product externally as well as transferring to Division B.
4. Cost-plus transfer pricing

A very common way in practice of determining a transfer price is for the company to have a policy that all
goods are transferred at the cost to the supplying division plus a fixed percentage.
Example 2
Division A has costs of $15 p.u., and transfer goods to Division B which has additional costs of $5 p.u..
Division B sells externally at $30 p.u.
The company has a policy of setting transfer prices at cost + 20%.
Calculate:
(a)
the transfer price
(b)
the profit made by the company overall
(c)
the profit reported by each division separately
88
5. Other practical approaches
Market prices: perceived as fair to both parties and places them in a position as though they were
independent and trading on their own rather than part of a group.
Marginal cost: condemns selling divisions to making losses because fixed costs are not covered.
However, promotes goal congruent decisions
Marginal cost plus lump sum: during the year marginal costs are used (goal congruence). At the
end of the an additional lump sum is transferred between transferee and transferror to account for
profits.
Dual prices: transferee transfers at a markup (so makes a profit); transferee buys in at marginal cost
(so can make correct decisions for goal congruence)
6. Goal congruence
If we are properly divisionalised, then each divisional manager will have autonomy over decision making.
It will be therefore the decision of each manager which products are worth producing in their division
(for these purposes we assume that each division has many products and therefore stopping production
of one product will not be a problem).
A cost-plus approach, which easy to apply can lead to problems with goal congruence in that in some
situations a manager may be motivated not to produce a product which is in fact to the benefit of the
company as a whole.
Example 3
The company has a policy of setting transfer prices at cost + 20%.
Calculate:
(a)
the transfer price
(b)
the profit made by the company overall
(c)
the profit reported by each division separately
Determine the decisions that will be made by the managers and comment on whether or not goal
congruent decisions will be made.
89
7. Sensible transfer pricing to achieve goal congruence.

The previous example illustrates that unless care is taken to set the transfer price sensibly, decisions may be
made that are not goal congruent.
In the examination you can be asked to suggest sensible transfer prices. (As we will illustrate, you will
normally be asked to state a range rather than one specific price.)
There is a rule that may be applied. However, it is dangerous to simply learn a rule without fully
understanding the logic. We will therefore build up the rule using a series of small examples, and then
state the rule at the end.
Example 4
Determine a sensible range for the transfer price in order to achieve goal congruence.
Example 5
Division A has costs of $15 p.u., and transfers goods to Division B which has additional costs of $10 p.u..
A can sell part-finished units externally for $20 p.u.. There is limited demand externally from A, and A has
unlimited production capacity.
90
Example 6
A can sell part-finished units externally for $20 p.u.. There is unlimited external demand from A, and A has
limited production capacity.
Example 7
Determine a sensible range for the transfer price in order to achieve goal congruence, if Divison
B can buy part-finished goods externally for:
(a)
$14 p.u.
(b)
$18 p.u.
91
8. The rule for sensible transfer pricing

The following rule summarises the results from the previous examples:
8.1
Minimum transfer price:

(Determined by the transferor, or seller): MC + lost contribution from transferring internally
8.2
Maximum transfer price:

(Determined by the transferee, or buyer): Lower of nMR and external buy-in price.
(Note: we always assume that both divisions are manufacturing many products and that discontinuing
one product will have no eect on the fixed costs. It is therefore only the marginal costs that we are
interested in when applying the above rules.)
9. Capacity limitations
In one of the previous examples there was a limit on production in one of the divisions. This problem can
be made a little more interesting, although the same rule as summarised in Section 7 still applies.
92
Example 8
A is capable of making two products, X and Y. A can sell both products externally as follows:
External selling price
X
80
Y
100
Variable costs
60
70
Contribution p.u.
20
30
A has limited labour available. The labour hours required for each product are X: 5 hours p.u., Y: 10 hours
p.u.
A has unlimited external demand for both products. Division B requires product Y from Division A.
Calculate the minimum transfer price that should be charged by A for supply of Product Y to
Division B.
10. Multinational Transfer Pricing

Globalisation, the rise of multinational companies, and the fact that more than 60% of world trade takes
place within multinational organisations means that international transfer pricing is very important.
When transfers occur between different countries, then there are additional factors to take into account.
These include the following:
Taxation in the dierent countries
Import taris
93
Exchange controls
Anti-dumping legislation Competitive pressures Repatriation of funds

In practice, most countries tax laws will include rules about transfer pricing.
Usually they encourage a transfer price at market value to ensure that both countries receive a fair share of
the profits. However, it is not always easy to establish what is a fair market value.
A transfer price at full cost is usually acceptable to tax authorities, but transfer prices at variable cost are
unlikely to be acceptable.
94
Chapter 15
PREDICTING AND PREVENTING
CORPORATE FAILURE
1. Introduction
This chapter considers the reasons for companies failing, and various suggestions as to how corporate
failure might be predicted.
Finally we look at possible ways in which failure might be prevented.
2. Corporate failure models

There are two types of corporate failure models: quantitative models, which are based largely on
published financial information; and qualitative models, which are based on an internal assessment of the
company concerned.
3. Quantitative models
3.1
Beaver
Beaver looked at various financial ratios and concluded that the best predictor was the ratio of cash flow
to total debt.
The approach is simple, but suers as a result because in reality many factors are likely to result in failure
not just one factor (a univariate approach).
3.2
Altmans Z score
Altman took a multivariate approach by considering a combination of ratios and combining them to
produce a single score the Z score with a low score indicating poor financial health.
Z = 1.2 X1 + 1.4 X2 + 3.3 X3 + 0.6 X4 + 0.999 X5
Where:
X1 = working capital / total assets
X2 = retained earnings / total assets
X3 = profit before interest and tax / total assets
X4 = market value of equity / book value of debt
X5 = sales / total assets
A Z-score of less than 1.8 indicates strong potential for failure; between 1.8 and 2.99 is the
grey (or warning) zone; above 2.99 is the safe zone.
95
The model was devised many years ago specifically for the finance industry. Economic changes will mean
that the coecients are almost certainly out of date. The examiner will provide an equation for you to use.
There have been several refinements of the Z-score equation, but all have the same basic idea of
combining ratios.
4. Qualitative models
4.1
Argentis A-score
Argenti developed a model that looked at non-accounting variables. He produced a list of possible
defects, mistakes, and symptoms of failure with a mark against each.
If the defect etc. exists, then it scores the full mark. If it does not exist then it scores zero. There is a pass
mark for each section of the list, and an overall, total, pass mark.
Defects:
Chief Executive is an autocrat
8 marks
Chief Executive is also the chairman

Passive board of directors
Lack of skills balance in the board
Lack of management depth
No budgets or budgetary controls
No cash flow plans
No costing system
Poor response to change
4 marks
2 marks
2 marks
1 mark
3 marks
3 marks
3 marks
15 marks
The pass mark for this section is 10 marks (i.e. a mark of less than 10 is satisfactory)
Mistakes:
High gearing
15 marks
Overtrading
Too much reliance on one big project
15 marks
15 marks
The pass mark for this section is 15 marks

Symptoms:
Financial signs (such as the Z score)
5 marks
Creative Accounting
Non-financial signs (e.g. low morale)
Terminal signs
4 marks
3 marks
1 mark
There is no separate pass mark for this section.

The overall total pass mark is 25, and it is suggested that a score in excess of this is cause for concern, as is
a score above the pass mark in the first two individual sections.
96
5. Avoiding failure
Ross and Kami listed Ten Commandments that should be followed by a company to avoid failure:
You must have a strategy
You must have controls
The Board must participate
You must avoid one-man rule
There must be management in depth
Keep informed of, and react to, change
The customer is king
Do not misuse computers
Do not manipulate your accounts
Organise to meet employees needs
97
98
Chapter 16
DISCOUNTED CASH FLOW TECHNIQUES
1. Introduction
You have studied investment appraisal previously so most of this chapter will be revision for you. Of the
few new items in this chapter, the most important is Modified Internal Rate of Return and you should
make sure that you learn the technique involved.
2. Net present value calculations

Here is a list of the main points to remember when performing a net present value calculation. After we
will look at a full example containing all the points.
Remember it is cash flows that you are considering, and only cash flows. Non-cash items (such as
depreciation) are irrelevant.
It is only future cash flows that you are interested in. Any amounts already spent (such as market
research already done) are sunk costs and are irrelevant.
There is very likely to be inflation in the question, in which case the cash flows should be adjusted
in your schedule in order to calculate the actual expected cash flows. The actual cash flows should
be discounted at the actual cost of capital (the money, or nominal rate). (Note: alternatively, it is
possible to discount the cash flows ignoring inflation at the cost of capital ignoring inflation (the
real rate). We will remind you of this later in this chapter, but it is much less likely to be relevant in
the examination.)
There is also very likely to be taxation in the question. Tax is a cash flow and needs bringing into
your schedule. It is usually easier to deal with tax in two stages to calculate the tax payable on the
operating cash flows (ignoring capital allowances) and then to calculate separately the tax saving
on the capital allowances.
You are often told that cash is needed to finance additional working capital necessary for the
project. These are cash flows in your schedule, but they have no tax eects and, unless told
otherwise, you assume that the total cash paid out is received back at the end of the project.
Example 1
Rome plc is considering buying a new machine in order to produce a new product.
The machine will cost $1,800,000 and is expected to last for 5 years at which time it will have an
estimated scrap value of $1,000,000.
They expect to produce 100,000 units p.a. of the new product, which will be sold for $20 per unit in the
first year.
Production costs p.u. (at current prices) are as follows:
Materials
$8
Labour
$7
Materials are expected to inflate at 8% p.a. and labour is expected to inflate at 5% p.a..
99
Fixed overheads of the company currently amount to $1,000,000. The management accountant has
decided that 20% of these should be absorbed into the new product.
The company expects to be able to increase the selling price of the product by 7% p.a.. An additional
$200,000 of working capital will be required at the start of the project. Capital allowances: 25% reducing
balance
Tax: 25%, payable immediately
Cost of capital: 10%
Calculate the NPV of the project and advise whether or not it should be accepted.
100
3. Internal rate of return

One problem with decision making using the Net Present Value is that the Cost of Capital is at best only
an estimate and if it turns out to be different that the rate actually used in the calculation, then the NPV will
be different. Provided that the NPV remains positive then the project will still be worthwhile, but if the
NPV were to become negative that the wrong decision will have been made.
The Internal Rate of Return (IRR) is that rate of interest at which the NPV of the project is zero (i.e.
breakeven).
In order to estimate the IRR we calculate the NPV at two different rates of interest, and then
approximate between the two assuming linearity. (In fact, the relationship is not linear and so any
estimate will only be approximate)
Example 2
For the project in example 1, calculate the Internal Rate of Return.
101
4. Problems with the use of the internal rate of return

Although the IRR is the breakeven rate of interest for the project, and as such can be useful when we are
not certain of the Cost of Capital for the company, it does have many drawbacks.
It is only a relative measure of wealth creation, it can have multiple solutions, it is dicult to calculate,
and it does effectively assume that the cash flows produced by the project are re-invested at the IRR.
A possible better measure is the Modified Internal Rate of Return (MIRR).
5. Modified internal rate of return

The MIRR is quicker to calculate than the IRR and effectively assumes that the cash flows are re- invested
at the Cost of Capital.
There are several ways of calculating it, but the method suggested here is to calculate the Present Value
of the investment phase (the flows in the years when the company is investing in the project) and to
calculate the Terminal Value of the return phase (the flows in the years when the project is generating
returns) ie what the returns would have generated by the end of the project if invested as soon as
received. This reduces the problem to two flows only: an outflow at time 0 and an inflow at the
termination of the project. The IRR of these two flows can then be calculated.
Example 3
A project has the following cash flows:
Time
$0
-1,000
600
700
-200
The cost of capital and the rate at which cash can be invested is 10%
Calculate the MIRR
The MIRR is usually lower than the IRR, because it assumes that the proceeds are re-invested at the Cost of
Capital. However in practice the proceeds are often re-invested elsewhere within the firm. It does
however have the advantage of being much quicker to calculate than the IRR.
102
Chapter 17
BEHAVIOURAL ASPECTS OF
PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT
1. Introduction
This relates to the management part of performance management. If one knows that ones performance
is being measured (and very often ones rewards are tied into the performance measure) then it is human
nature to concentrate on those aspects of the work that are being measured. Indeed many would claim
that what you measure you change with the implication that what you do no measure will not change.
It is important therefore that the performance measures encourage goal congruence (i.e. encourage
working for the overall good of the company) and that they encourage long-term as opposed to shortterm thinking.
2. Recap of earlier chapters

We have already discussed in earlier chapters the use of Return on Investment, Residual Income, and
Economic Value Added, NPV and IRR as ways of measuring financial performance, and the effect of these
on long-term and short-term thinking.
We have also discussed in earlier chapters the importance of having a range of performance measures,
looking at non-financial as well as financial performance.
3. Potential benefits of reward schemes

Management encourage employees to achieve goals by having rewards linked to their success of failure
in achieving desired levels of performance.
Potential benefits of implementing a reward scheme include:
Rewards and incentives shape the behaviour of employees a well-designed scheme will be
consistent with the organisational objectives
A reward scheme provides an incentive to achieve good performance.
Key incentives can be emphasised in the reward scheme it is a way of communicating the goals
of the company to the employee.
An eective scheme will create an environment in which all employees are focussed on
continuous improvement.
Schemes that incorporate share ownership can encourage behaviour that in the longer-term
increases the market value of the business.
103
4. Specific behavioural problems

In one of his articles for Student Accountant, the previous examiner highlighted the following specific
problems that can occur with performance measurement schemes:
Tunnel vision
Undue focus on performance measures to the detriment of other areas (What you measure you
change)
Sub-optimisation
Ceasing eort when acceptable performance is achieved (eg when budgeted sales have been
achieved), even though better performance might be achievable.
Myopia
Focussing on the short-term resulting in the ignoring of the long-term
Measure fixation
Behaviour and activities in order to achieve specific performance measure that may not be
eective. For example, measuring behavior or results that iare not important
Misrepresentation
Using creative reporting to suggest that performance measures have been achieved
Gaming
Behaviour designed to achieve some strategic advantage. For example, not passing on sales leads
to a colleague so that your sales are comparatively higher.
Ossification
The unwillingness to change a performance measure scheme once it has been set up.
5. Suggested ways of addressing the problems
Involve sta at all levels in the development and implementation of the scheme
Be flexible in the use of performance measures
Keep the performance measurement system under constant review
104
Chapter 18
CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS IN
MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING
1. Introduction
In this chapter we will look at a few modern ideas in management accounting. Some of them you will
have seen before in your studies for Paper F5, but others are here for the first time.
2. The changing role of the management accountant

The traditional role of the management accountant has been to exercise control, and for this reason they
have been largely independent of the operational managers.
More recently management accounting has focussed more on business support. According to Burns and
Scapens, there are three main reasons for the change in the management accountants role:
Changes in technology
the changes in information technology have improved the amount of information available and
broadened the availability of it.
Changes in management structure

the responsibility for budgeting has moved from the centre to individual managers leaving the
management account to focus more on strategies for improvement.
Changes in the level of competition

Increase in competition has lead to a more commercial orientation and more long-term focus as
opposed to short-termism.
In addition, the following will have influenced the role of the management accountant:
Increasing internationalisation and globalisation
Deregulation and privatisation of industries
New business processes eg just in time
A need for more rapid responses
The increasing importance of non-financial indicators
105
3. Quality management
3.1
Definitions
Quality can be defined as:
Fitness for use (Juran)

Or
the totality of characteristicsability to satisfy customers stated or implied needs.. (ISO9000

handbook)
Quality control refers to the processes (such as sampling and testing) that an organisation employs to
check on quality.
Quality assurance is the sum of the management allow an organisation to dependably achieve a stated
level of quality
Quality management is the overseeing of all the activities needed to achieve and maintain the required
quality. It includes establishing the required quality level, setting quality control procedures and also
considering quality improvement
3.2
Costs associated with quality

Costs of conformance (i.e. of improving quality)
Prevention costs
Appraisal costs
Costs of non-conformance (i.e. of allowing poor quality)
Internal failure costs
External failure costs
Moving eort towards the top of this list should save costs. Hence the claim that quality is free
3.3
Total Quality Management (TQM)

TQM is defined as the continuous improvement in quality, productivity and eectiveness obtained by
establishing management responsibility for processes as well as outputs. In this, every process has an
identified process owner and every person in an entity operates within a process and contributes to its
improvement.
Any manufacturing company will want to deliver goods to the customer that are of suciently high
quality to avoid goods being returned. In order to check this, the company will have some form of quality
control checks on goods leaving the factory. However, even though good quality control will results in
poor quality goods being rejected, and therefore not reaching the customer, there remain the costs
associated with waste and poor quality work.
It is therefore important that all possible steps are taken not only to check quality at each stage, but to
design processes and educate the workforce to facilitate good quality production. If everything is done
right first time, there will be no quality control problems and no waste of materials or time.
TQM does not apply only to the manufacturing system. It will also apply to phone answering, provision of
information, the organisations web-site, order processing, invoicing, recruitment and training.
106
The implementation of TQM is never really complete and there is a culture within the organization of
continually achieving improvements. Often these are small, but nevertheless will add up to be significant.
The process of a continuous series of small improvements is known as Kaizen.
3.4
Six sigma
Six sigma is an approach to quality control that was originally devised by Motorola, a high tech
electronics company that manufactures, amongst other products, microprocessor chips. The aim of the
company was to achieve very low rejection rates, < 3.4 defects/million, though that specific objective is
not as important as their methodology, known as DMAIC: define, measure, analyse, improve, control.
Define:
define what is meant by quality. For example, reliability, style, fast

response, helpful service.
Measure
Ways of measuring the quality factors have to be devised. For

example, failure rate for reliability, customer surveys for style.
Measure both current performance and use the measurement
methods to better define what is meant by quality i.e. set targets.
Analyze
Investigate why current performance falls short of required

performance.
Improve
Attempt to improve performance.
Repeat the D, M, A, I cycle until the required standards have been achieved.
Control
Control is continuously applied to ensure, for example, that

definitions are still relevant, that costs are within budget and that
progress is being made.
DMAIC fits in with Kaizen ie a continuous series of improvements
4. Life-cycle costing
When seeking to make a profit on a product it is essential that the total revenue arising from the
product exceeds total costs, whether these costs are incurred during the phases of design, manufacture,
operation, end-of-life:
Phase
Examples of types of cost
Design
Research, development, design, tooling
Manufacture
Material, labour, overheads, machine set up, inventory, training, production machine
maintenance, depreciation, and environmental costs
Operation
Distribution, advertising, warranty claims
End of life
Environmental clean-up, disposal, de-commissioning,
107
There are three principal lessons to be learned from life-cycle costing:

1.
All costs should be taken into account when working out the cost of a unit and its profitability.
2.
Attention to all costs will help to reduce the cost per unit and will help an organization achieve its
target cost.
3.
Many costs will be linked. For example, more attention to design can reduce manufacturing and
warranty costs. More attention to training can machine maintenance costs. More attention to
waste disposal during manufacturing can reduce end-of life costs.
4.
Costs are committed and incurred at very dierent times. A committed cost is a cost that will be
incurred in the future because of decisions that have already been made. Costs are incurred only
when a resource is used.
Typically the following pattern of costs committed and costs incurred is observed:
Costs committed
100
% costs
committed
or incurred
80
60
Design
Manufacturing and
phase
operations
phase
End of life
Costs
phase
incurred
40
20
Time
The diagram shows that by the end of the design phase approximately 80% of costs are committed.
For example, the design will largely dictate material, labour and machine and environmental costs. The
company can try to haggle with suppliers over the cost of components but if, for example, the design
specifies ten units of a certain component, negotiating with suppliers is likely to have only a small overall
eect on costs. A bigger cost decrease would be obtained if the design had specified only eight units of
the component. The design phase locks the company in to most future costs and it this phase which
gives the company its greatest opportunities to reduce those costs.
Conventional costing records costs only as they are incurred, but recording those costs is dierent to
controlling those costs and performance management depends on cost control, not cost measurement.
Many costs in the manufacturing phase can only be controlled by what appened in the design phase.
108
5. Just-in-time ( JIT)
Traditionally, most manufacturing companies have considered it necessary to have a certain level of stock
of raw materials, work-in-progress, and finished goods.
However, not only may this be costly in terms of physically holding the stock and in terms of the
possibility of damage and obsolescence, but also the requirement to hold stock may be symptomatic of
ineciencies within the company.
For example, the level of work-in-progress is determined by the length of time of the manufacturing
process. If the process can be streamlined and production time reduced, then the level of work- inprogress will be reduced but the company will make additional gains as a result of greater eciency.
With a just-in-time approach, the focus is on allowing the demand to determine the production
(demand-pull production). This results in greater customer satisfaction, savings resulting from greater
eciency, and savings resulting from the need to have lower stock levels.
5.1
Conventional reasons for keeping stocks:

Raw materials
To deal with production needs
To safeguard supplies
To take advantage of low prices
Some materials produced seasonally, so has to be purchased when available
To obtain bulk discounts
Work-in-progress
To have some partially made inventory that will allow fast completion
Technical reasons (eg production maturing, chemical processes that take time to complete).
Finished goods
5.2
To deal with variable demand
To enable instant supply (might be required by customers)
To hold goods at dierent locations to reduce delivery times
Main features of a just-in-time approach:
Very little (or no) inventory held.
A pull approach: inventory is pulled in in response to orders received.
A very high degree of coordination is needed internally and with suppliers and customers. The
management information system has to be very good
Reliable suppliers and transportation
Flexible suppliers
Supplies of high quality
Supplies available quickly (often implies that manufacturers have to be close to both their suppliers
and customers).
Note that any disruption of the supply of raw materials and components quickly causes serious problems:
no raw materials implies no production, implies an idle work-force and unhappy customers.
109
6. Target costing
Traditionally it has been the cost of producing an item that has driven the selling price the first step was
to estimate the production cost and then to decide on a selling price. However, this approach ignored
the eect of the selling price on the demand for the product, and also gave no direct incentive to reduce
costs. Target costing is a market driven approach and consists of the following steps:
From research of the market determine a selling price at which the company expects to achieve
the desired market share the target selling price.
Decide on the profit required (e.g. a required profit margin, or a required return on investment)
Calculate the maximum cost per unit in order to achieve the required profit this is the target cost
Estimate the actual cost of production and compare with the target cost.
Example 1
Packard plc are considering whether or not to launch a new product. The sales department have
determined that a realistic selling price will be $20 per unit.
Packard have a requirement that all products generate a gross profit of 40% of selling price.
Calculate the target cost.
Example 2
Hewlett plc ia about to launch a new product on which it requires a pre-tax ROI of 30% p.a.. Buildings and
equipment needed for production will cost $5,000,000.
The expected sales are 40,000 units p.a. at a selling price of $67.50 p.u..
Calculate the target cost.
110
6.1
The use of the target cost

Once the target cost has been determined, it will be compared with the estimated actual cost of
production. Any excess of the actual cost over the target cost is known as the target cost gap and the
company will then be looking for ways of closing this gap.
Possible solutions to the target cost gap:
Cheaper materials
Fewer features
Outsource to a cheaper producer
More ecient production eg longer production runs
7. Kaizen costing
Is the process of cost reduction during the manufacturing phase of an existing product. The Japanese
word kaizen refers to continual and gradual improvement through small betterment activities, rather than
large or radical improvement made through innovation or large investments in technology. Kaizen
costing is most consistent with the saying slow and steady wins the race.
Whereas target costing is used during the design phase of a new product, Kaizen costing is used during
the manufacturing phase and involves team work by employees continually looking for ways of reducing
costs and improving quality
8. Environmental management accounting

Businesses have become increasingly aware of the environmental implications of their operations. Poor
environmental behaviour has an adverse impact on the business due to the possibility of fines, loss of
sales etc.. As a consequence, environmental issues need to be measured and managed.
Techniques that are useful for managing environmental costs include:
input / output analysis

record material flows in order to discover what happens to the material input what
proportion of it ends up in the final product, what proportion ends up as waste, etc..
flow cost accounting

concentrates more on where material losses are occurring within the business, with the aim of
reducing the quantities of materials used.
environmental activity based costing

ABC distinguishing between environment related costs (e.g. direct waste disposal costs) and
environment driven costs (more general overheads e.g. higher sta costs)
life cycle costing

e.g. Xerox developed new packing for photocopiers that could be used both for the delivery of
new machines and the return by customers of old machines the packaging was re-usable.
111
112
ANSWERS TO EXAMPLES
Chapter 1
No examples
Chapter 2
No examples
Chapter 3
Example 1
Fixed Budget
Sales
Flexed
Budget
Actual
Variances
100,000
120,000
122,000
2,000
Materials
50,000
60,000
60,000
Labour
25,000
30,000
28,500
1,500
Variable o/h
12,500
15,000
15,000
Fixed o/h
10,000
10,000
11,000
1,000
(A)
97,500
115,000
114,500
500
(F)
$2,500
$5,000
$7,500
2,500
(F)
Profit
Original budgeted profit
Sales volume variance
2,500
2,500
Flexed budget profit
5,000
Sales price variance
2,000
(F)
Labour variance
1,500
1,000
(F)
Fixed overhead variance

Actual profit
(F)
(F)
(F)
(A)
$7,50
0
113
Chapter 4
Example 1
units
1
Average time
100
Total time
100
75
150
56.25
225
42.1875
337.5
Hours
Time for 8
337.5
Time for first
100.0
Time for additional 7
237.5hours
Example 1
(a)
b=
log0.85
= 0.2345
log2
y = axb
for 16 batches y = 200 16-02345 = 104.3912
(b)
Total time for 16 = 16 104.4
1,670 hours
Time for first
200 hours
Time for next 15
1,470 hours
Average time for 30 = 200 30-0.2345 = 90.08

Total time for 30 = 30 90.08 = 2,703 hours
Average time for 29 = 200 29-0.2345 = 90.80
Total time for 29 = 29 90.80 = 2,633 hours
Time for 30th = 2,703 2,633 = 70 hours
Chapter 5
No examples
Chapter 6
No examples
114
Chapter 7
Example 1
X
$000
$000
$000
897
1,070.00
1,056.00
Sales visits (80/100/140 $420)
(33.60)
(42.00)
(58.80)
Order processing (200/320/700 $190)
(38.00)
(60.80)
(133.00)
Despatch costs (200/320/700 $350)
(70.00)
(112.00)
(245.00)
Billing and collections (200/320/700 $97)
(19.40)
(31.04)
(67.90)
Profit
736.00
824.16
551.30
Gross margin
Less: Customer specific costs
Ranking
Example 2
Revenue
Less: discount
Net revenue
Less: cost of shoes
customer transport cost
customer administration cost
Net gain
Gollum
Sam
25,000
21,000
2,500
3,150
22,500
17,850
(12,500)
(10,500)
(5,000)
(250)
(500)
4,750
6,850
500
420
$9.50
$16.31
The dierence on a unit basis is considerable.

Number of pair of shoes sold
Net gain per pair of shoes sold
115
Example 3
Total fixed costs must have been budgeted as: $30 x 1,000 + $60 x 200 = $42,000.
These are now split as 1/3 = $14,000 for set-up costs and the rest, $28,000 for other costs
The cost driver/causer for set-up costs will be the activity of setting-up. There are 1,000/500 200/100 = 4 set-ups
in the period, so the cost per set=up = $14,000/4 = $3,500.
For one set up, 500 units of A are made, so the cost per unit = $3,500/500 = $7.
For one set up, 100 units of B are made, so the cost per unit = $3,500/100 = $35.
$
Product Product
A
B
50
80
Marginal cost
Set-up costs
35
Other fixed costs $28,000/(1000 + 2 x 200) = $20 for A, $40 for B
20
40
Total absorption cost
77
155
50% mark-up
38.5
77.7
Selling price
115.5
232.5
It can now be more clearly seen that set-up costs are a major component of Product B. These could be reduced
if it were possible to have longer production runs.
Chapter 8
(a)
(b)
Contract size
300u
400u
2,900
Demand
500u 700u
3,400 4,400
900u
5,400
500u
3,500
4,000
5,000
5,000
700u
4,100
4,600
4,600
4,600
800u
4,400
4,400
4,400
4,400
(i)
Expected value if contract size =

300 units = (0.22,900) + (0.3 3,400) + (0.4 4,400) + (0.1 5,400) = $3,900
500 units = (0.2 3,500) + (0.3 4,000) + (0.5 5,000) = $4,400
700 units = (0.2 4,100) + (0.8 4,600) = $4,500
900 units = $4,400
Sign contract for 700 units
(ii)
Maximin
Worst outcome from:
300 units = $2,900
500 units = $3,500
700 units = $4,100
800 units = $4,400
116

(iii)
Best outcome from

300 units = $5,400
500 units = $5,000
700 units = $4,600
800 units = $4,400
(iii)
Regret table
Contract size
300u
400u
1,500
Demand
500u 700u
1,200
600
900u
0
500u
900
600
400
700u
300
400
800
800u
200
600
1,000
Worst regret for

300 units = $1,500
500 units = $900
700 units = $800
800 units = $1,000
Chapter 9
No examples
117
Chapter10
Example 1
Begin with a review of the summary information - notable points
Growth in turnover
Growth in PBIT
Growth in PAT
Growth in total assets, debtors approx. in line with turnover, creditors at a higher rate.
Reduction of gearing (result of rights issue?) and reduced interest charge
Dividend growth
P/E ratio has overtaken industry average.

Profitability
Year 1
Year 2
Year3
Year 4
ROCE
26%
27%
20%
22%
19.9%
19.8%
17.2%
19.2%
1.3
1.4
1.2
1.2
Gearing (book values)
50%
34.6%
6%
3.9%
Interest cover (times)
7.25
9.5
48.5
75.3
Debtor days
73
76
71
70
Creditor days
68
76
81
83
Share Price* $
9.63
11.40
9.66
11.95
Market Capitalisation $m
86.67
102.60
115.92
143.4
Divi per share (p)
22.2
24.4
21.65
30.0
Divi yield
2.3%
2%
2.2%
2.5%
Profit Margin
Asset Turnover
Gearing
Liquidity
Investor ratios
* EPS = 5,100,000/9,000,000 = $0.5666; P/e = 17. Therefore price = 17 x 0.5666 = $9.63
118
Chapter 11
Example 1
17,000
Return from new project =
= 17%
100,000
(a)
For company:
17% > 15% (target)
Therefore company wants to accept
(b)
For division
82,000
ROI (without project)
500,000
82,000 + 17,000
ROI (with project)
500,000 + 100,000
= 16.4%
= 16.5%
ROI of division increases therefore divisional manager motivated to accept.Example 2

16,000
Return from new project =
= 16%
100,000
(a)
For company: 16% > 15%

Company wants to accept
(b)
For division:
ROI (without project)
ROI (with project)
=16.4%
82,000 + 16,000
500,000 + 100,000
= 16.3%
Example 3
(1)
RI (without project)
Profit
82,000
Less: Interest
(75,000)
15% 500,000
$7,000
RI (with project)
Profit
99,000
Less: Interest
90,000
15% 600,000
$9,000
$9,000 > $7,000
(2)
RI (without project)
manager motivated to accept

$7,000
119
ROI (with project)

Profit
98,000
Less: Interest
90,000
15% 600,000
$8,000
$8,000 > $7,000
manager motivated to accept
In both cases the decisions are goal congruent
Example 4
(a)
0
d.f. at 10%
P.V.
(250,000)
(250,000)
72,500
3.791
274,847
15
24,847
NPV positive: company accepts
(b)
Bal sheet value
Net cash flow
Less: Depreciation
Profit
Less: Interest at 10%
1
250,000
2
200,000
3
150,000
4
100,000
5
50,000
72,500
(50,000)
72,500
(50,000)
72,500
(50,000)
72,500
(50,000)
72,500
(50,000)
22,500
(25,000)
22,500
(20,000)
22,500
(15,000)
22,500
(10,000)
22,500
(5,000)
(2,500)
2,500
7,500
12,500
17,500
Residual value
If manager thinks short-term, may reject project
250,000
(c)
Annual depreciation + interest
Bal sheet value

Net cash flow
Less: Depreciation
Profit
Less: Interest at 10%
Residual value
= $65,946
3.791
1
250,000
2
209,054
3
164,013
4
114,468
5
59,969
72,500
(40,946)
72,500
(45,041)
72,500
(49,545)
72,500
(54,499)
72,500
(59,949)
31,554
(25,000)
27,459
(20,905)
22,955
(16,401)
18,001
(11,447)
12,551
(5,997)
(6,554)
(6,554)
(6,554)
(6,554)
(6,554)
Even if manager thinks short-term, he is motivated to accept.
120
Example 5
2014
2013
$m
88
15
$m
71
20
11
5.6
10
4.2
$119.6
$105.2
Profit after tax

Non-cash expenses
Research and development
After tax interest (0.7 8); (0.7 6)
Adjusted profit
Adjusted Capital Employed

2014
Capital employed at start of the year
400
2013
350
Non cash expenses
20
Research and development
10
16
16
$446
$366
Non-capital leases
Weighted average Cost of Capital:
2013: (15% 0.7) + (9% 0.7 0.3) = 12.39%
2014: (17% 0.7) + (10% 0.7 0.3) = 14.00%
EVA 2013 = 105.2 (366 0.1239) = $59.85m
EVA 2014 = 119.6 (446 0.14) = $57.16m
Chapter 12
No examples
Chapter 13
No examples
121
Chapter 14
Example 1
(a)
Selling price
Costs:
20
A
B
10
4
$6
Profit
(b)
14
A
Selling price
12
Selling price
Transfer in price
Costs
10
Costs
Profit
$2
Profit
20
12
4
16
$4
Example 2
(a)
(b)
Transfer price = 15 1.2 = $18 p.u.

Selling price
Costs:
30
A
B
15
5
$10
Profit
(c)
20
A
Total Profit
B
Selling price
Cost
18
15
Profit
$3
Costs
Transfer in price
30
18
5
23
$7
Profit
Example 3
(a)
(b)
Transfer price = 20 1.2 = $24 p.u.

Selling price
Costs:
30
A
B
28
$2
Profit
(c)
20
8
A
Total Profit
B
Selling price
Cost
24
20
Profit
$4
Costs
Transfer in price
Loss
30
24
8
32
$(2)
122
Example 4
For A:
For B:
T.P.
> 20
T.P. < 30 - 8
< 22
Sensible T.P. between $20 and $22 p.u.
Example 5
For A:
For B:
T.P.
T.P.
> 15
< 35 - 10
< 25
Sensible range between $15 and $25 p.u.
Example 6
For A:
For B:
T.P.
T.P.
> 20
< 25 (as in previous example)
< 22
Sensible range. between $20 and $22 p.u.
Example 7
(a)
For A:
T.P.
>8
For B:
T.P.
< 14

(b)
For A:
T.P.
>8
For B:
T.P.
< 20 4
< 16
Example 8
Contribution
Hours
Contribution per hour
X
$20
5
$4
Y
$30
10
$3
Therefore, if no transfers to B then A would sell exactly and generate $4 per hour contribution.
To make transfers of Y worthwhile, A need to charge at least 70 + (10 4) = $110 p.u.
Chapter 15
No examples
123
Chapter 16
Example 1
0
Sales
2,000
2,140
2,290
2,450
2,622
Materials
(864)
(735)
(933)
(772)
(1,008)
(810)
(1,088)
(851)
(1,175)
(893)
401
435
472
511
554
(100)
(109)
(118)
(128)
(139)
Labour
Net operating flow
Tax on operating flow
Cost
(1,800)
Scrap
1,000
Tax on saving on capital allowed
113
84
63
47
(107)
200
(2,000)
414
410
417
430
1,508
.909
0.826
0.751
0.683
0.621
(2,000)
376
339
313
294
936
(200)
Working Capital
Net cash flow
d.f. @ 10%
P.V.
!
NPV = $258
The NPV is positive and so the project should be accepted.
0
Net cash flow
(3,000)
401
510
494
1,700
(167)
.952
0.907
0.864
0.823
0.784
(3,000)
382
463
427
1,399
(131)
d.f. @ 5%
P.V.
!
NPV = $258
Example 2
0
Net cash flow
(2,000)
414
410
417
430
1,508
.870
0.756
0.658
0.572
0.497
(2,000)
360
310
274
246
749
d.f. @ 15%
P.V.
!
NPV = $ (61) at 15%
NPV @ 10% =
$258
(from example 1)
IRR = 10% + [258/(258 +61)] x [15 - 10] = 14%
124
Example 3
0
Net cash flow
1
-1,000
Discount outflows to
time 0 at 10%@ 10%
2
600
3
700
-200
0.751
P.V.
-1,000
-150
PV outflows
-1,150
Invest inflows at 10%

until time 3
Terminal value of inflows
x 1.1 x 1.1
1,496
726
x 1.1
770
At IRR NPV = 0, so 1,150 = 1,496/(1 + r)3

(1 + r)3 = 1,496/1,150 = 1.3
1+ r = 31.3 = 1.09; r = 0.09 or 9%
Chapter 17
No examples
Chapter 18
Example 1
Selling price = $20 p.u.
Target return = 40% of selling price
Target Cost = $12 p.u.
Example 2
Target return = 30% 5M = $1.5M p.u.
Expected revenue = 40,000 $67.50 = $2.7M
Target cost = (2.7m - 1.5m)/40,000 = $30 pu
125
126
Paper P5
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Mission Statement
(a)
(b)
(c)
Explain the role and content of a Mission Statement.

Explain how a Mission Statement could contribute towards the planning and performance
measurement process.
Identify the potential problems arising from using a Mission Statement to manage performance.
2. The Rubber Group

The Rubber Group (TRG) manufactures and sells a number of rubber-based products. Its strategic focus is
channelled through profit centres which sell products transferred from production divisions that are operated as
cost centres. The profit centres are the primary value-adding part of the business, where commercial profit
centre managers are responsible for the generation of a contribution margin sucient to earn the target return
of TRG. The target return is calculated after allowing for the sum of the agreed budgeted cost of production at
production divisions, plus the cost of marketing, selling and distribution costs and central services costs.
The Bettamould Division is part of TRG and manufactures moulded products that it transfers to profit centres at
an agreed cost per tonne. The agreed cost per tonne is set following discussion between management of the
Bettamould Division and senior management of TRG.
The following information relates to the agreed budget for the Bettamould Division for the year ending 30 June
2009:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
The budgeted output of moulded products to be transferred to profit centres is 100,000 tonnes. The
budgeted transfer cost has been agreed on a two-part basis as follows:
(i)
A standard variable cost of $200 per tonne of moulded products;
(ii)
A lump sum annual charge of $50,000,000 in respect of fixed costs, which is charged to profit
centres, at $500 per tonne of moulded products.
Budgeted standard variable costs (as quoted in 1 above) have been set after incorporating each of the
following:
(i)
A provision in respect of processing losses amounting to 15% of material inputs. Materials are
sourced on a JIT basis from chosen suppliers who have been used for some years. It is felt that the
15% level of losses is necessary because the ageing of the machinery will lead to a reduction in the
eciency of output levels.
(ii)
A provision in respect of machine idle time amounting to 5%. This is incorporated into variable
machine costs. The idle time allowance is held at the 5% level partly through elements of real-time
maintenance undertaken by the machine operating teams as part of their job specification.
Quality checks are carried out on a daily basis on 25% of throughput tonnes of moulded products.
All employees and management have contracts based on fixed annual salary agreements. In addition, a
bonus of 5% of salary is payable as long as the budgeted output of 100,000 tonnes has been achieved;
Additional information relating to the points in (2) above (but NOT included in the budget for the year
ending 30 June 2009) is as follows:
(i)
There is evidence that materials of an equivalent specification could be sourced for 40% of the
annual requirement at the Bettamould Division, from another division within TRG which has spare
capacity.
(ii)
There is evidence that a move to machine maintenance being outsourced from a specialist
company could help reduce machine idle time and hence allow the possibility of annual output in
excess of 100,000 tonnes of moulded products.
127
(iii)
It is thought that the current level of quality checks (25% of throughput on a daily basis) is vital,
although current evidence shows that some competitor companies are able to achieve consistent
acceptable quality with a quality check level of only 10% of throughput on a daily basis.
The directors of TRG have decided to investigate claims relating to the use of budgeting within organisations
which have featured in recent literature. A summary of relevant points from the literature is contained in the
following statement:
The use of budgets as part of a performance contract between an organisation and its managers may be seen
as a practice that causes management action which might lead to the following problems:
(a) Meeting only the lowest targets
(b) Using more resources than necessary
(c)
Making the bonus whatever it takes
(d)
Competing against other divisions, business units and departments
(e)
Ensuring that what is in the budget is spent
(f )
Providing inaccurate forecasts
(g)
Meeting the target, but not beating it
(h)
Avoiding risks.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Explain the nature of any SIX of the eight problems listed above relating to the use of budgeting;
Illustrate EACH of the six problems chosen in (a) using the data from the Bettamould division/TRG
scenario; and
Suggest ways in which each of the six problems chosen in (a) above may be overcome.
128
3. Dental Health Partnership

The Dental Health Partnership was established in 1992 and provides dentistry and other related services to the
population of Blaintopia, a country in which the public health service is partially funded by the Government.
Additional information relating to the Dental Health Partnership for the year ended 31 May 2005 is as follows:
(1)
(2)
(3)
The partnership was open for five days per week during 48 weeks of the year.
Each dentist treated 20 patients per day. The maximum number of patients that could have been treated
by a dentist on any working day was 24 patients.
(i) The partnership received a payment from the government each time any patient was consulted as
shown in the following table:
Category of treatment
Payments from
Government ($s)
No treatment required
12
Minor treatment
50
Major treatment
100
(ii) In addition, adult patients paid a fee for each consultation which was equal to the amount of the
payment shown per category of treatment in the above table. Children and Senior Citizens were not
required to pay a fee for any dental consultations.
(4)
(5)
(6)
The partnership received an annual fee of $20,800 from a well-known manufacturer of dental products
under a fixed-term contract of three years duration. The contract commenced on 1 June 2004 and relates
to the promotion of the products of the manufacturer.
The total of material and consumable costs (which are 100% variable) during the year ended 31 May 2005
amounted to $446,400.
Sta costs were paid as follows:
Category of Employee
Salary per annum, per employee

($s)
Dentist
60,000
Dental Assistant
20,000
Administrator
16,000
Note: A fixed bonus payment amounting to 4% of their basic salary was paid to each Dental Assistant and
Administrator.
(7)
(8)
(9)
Establishment costs and other operating costs amounted to $85,000 and $75,775 respectively for the year
ended 31 May 2005.
All costs other than materials and consumables costs incurred by the Dental Health Partnership are
subject to contracts and are therefore to be treated as fixed costs.
A table of non-financial information relating to the Dental Health Partnership for the year ended 31 May
2005 is as follows:
Number of Dentists:
Dental Assistants
Administrators
Patient Mix:
Adults
50%
Children
40%
Senior Citizens
10%
129
Mix of patient appointments (%):

No treatment required
70%
Minor treatment
20%
Major treatment
10%
(a)
(b)
(c)
Prepare a summary Profit and Loss Account of the Dental Health Partnership for the year ended 31
May 2005 and calculate the percentage of maximum capacity that was required to be utilised in
order to break even in the year ended 31 May 2005.
Discuss FOUR factors that distinguish service from manufacturing organisations and explain how
each of these factors relates to the services provided by the Dental Health Partnership.
Excluding the number of complaints by patients, identify and briefly explain THREE quantitative
non-financial performance measures that could be used to assess the quality of service provided
by the Dental Health Partnership.
4. Dench
Dench manufacturing has received a special order from Sands Ltd to produce 225 components to be
incorporated into Sands product. The components have a high cost, due to the expertise required for their
manufacture. Dench produces the components in batches of 15, and as the ones required are to be custommade to Sands specifications, a prototype batch was manufactured with the following costs:
$
Materials
4 kg of A, $7.50/kg
30
2 kg of B, $15/kg
30
Labour
20 hrs skilled, $15/hr
5 hrs semi-skilled, $8/hr
300
40
Variable Overhead
25 labour hours, $4/hr
100
500
Additional information with respect to the workforce is noted below:

Skilled
virtually a permanent workforce that has been employed by Dench for a long period of time.
These workers have a great deal of experience in manufacturing components similar to
those required by Sands, and turnover is virtually non-existent.
Semi-Skilled
hired by Dench on an as needed basis. These workers would have had some prior
experience, but Dench management believe the level to be relatively insignificant. Past
experience shows turnover rate to be quite high, even for short employment periods.
Denchs plans are to exclude the prototype batch from Sands order. Management believes a 80% learning rate
eect is experienced in this manufacturing process, and would like a cost estimate for the 225 components
prepared on that basis.
(a)
Prepare the cost estimate, assuming an 80% learning rate is experienced, and
(b)
Briefly discuss some of the factors that can limit the use of learning curve theory in practice.
130
5. Spa
Spa Health Centre specialises in the provision of sports/exercise and medical/dietary advice to clients. The
service is provided on a residential basis and clients stay for whatever number of days suits their needs.
Budgeted estimates for the year ending 30 June 2001 are as follows:
(i)
(ii)
The maximum capacity of the centre is 50 clients per day for 350 days in the year.
Clients will be invoiced at a fee per day. The budgeted occupancy level will vary with the client fee level
per day and is estimated at dierent percentages of maximum capacity as follows:
Client fee
per day
Occupancy level
Occupancy as percentage of
maximum capacity
$180
High
90%
$200
Medium
75%
$220
Low
60%
(iii)
Variable costs are also estimated at one of three levels per client day. The high, most likely and low levels
per client day are $95, $85 and $70 respectively.
The range of cost levels reflects only the possible eect of the purchase prices of goods and services.
Required:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Prepare a summary which shows the budgeted contribution earned by Spa Health Centre for the
year ended 30 June 2001 for each of nine possible outcomes.
State the client fee strategy for the year to 30 June 2001 which will result from the use of each of
the following decision rules: (i) maximax; (ii) maximin; (iii) minimax regret.
Your answer should explain the basis of operation of each rule. Use the information from your
answer to (a) as relevant and show any additional working calculations as necessary.
The probabilities of variable cost levels occurring at the high, most likely and low levels provided in the
question are estimated as 01, 06 and 03 respectively.
Using the information available, determine the client fee strategy which will be chosen where
maximisation of expected value of contribution is used as the decision basis.
131
6. UKCOM
UKCOM is a large US owned company that was formed in 1997 and operates only within the UK. The company
has grown rapidly via acquisition and concentrates its activities in the rapidly growing and highly competitive
mobile phone market. The acquired companies have substantial infrastructure assets with only 10% of the
available network capacity being utilised in the provision of services to customers. 35% of the assets are
categorised as intangible and are composed of goodwill and license acquisition expenditures.
The Board has announced that it will not acquire any further companies and will maintain the same level of
debt for the next decade. The Board of Directors based in the US take all the strategic decisions concerned with
financing and acquisition policy but leave the operating activities to the UK based Chief Operating Executives
Financial Highlights ($millions)
1998
1999
2000
2001
173
491
747
1591
Operating
76
301
376
813
Selling
87
169
293
566
Depreciation
40
153
273
791
203
336
689
Profit/ (loss)
(30)
(335)
(531)
(1,268)
Average Net Assets (NBV)
463
2,347
6,318
12,261
Average Long Term debt
1,529
4,214
8,997
$5
$34
$76
$110
Turnover
Costs
Interest
Year End Share Price
Management have provided the following estimates of projected cash flows*:

Year
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Cash Outflows
2500
2600
2700
2800
2900
Cash Inflows
4100
4700
6100
7500
9000
These cash flows are based on the current level of competition and the current state of governmental
legislation.
*Received and paid at the end of each year
The cash outflows can be estimated with a high degree of certainty owing to the fixed nature of the costs. On
the other hand, the cash inflow estimates are subject to considerable uncertainty because of the alternative
outcomes that may arise. There are three possible market scenarios that are likely to impact on the inflows:
1)
Intensified competition there is a 40% probability of this occurring and the consequence will be a
reduction of 10% on the estimate of cash inflows.
2)
Government price regulation there is a 20% probability of this occurring and it will reduce the
estimated inflows by 20%.
3)
Less competition this would result in cash inflows increasing by 5%. There is a 40% probability of this
scenario developing.
The companys cost of capital is set at 4% above the average weighted cost of debt interest in the year prior to
the first year of the forecast period (rounded up to the nearest percentage point).
132
Required:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Provide a report on the financial performance of UKCOM from 1998 to 2001 from the perspective
of the parent company. (8 marks)
The UK based Chief Operating Executive maintains that his/her teams financial performance has
continued to improve throughout the period.
Explain how this claim might be substantiated. Your answer should include a relevant indicator for
each of the years 1998 - 2001 which the COE could use. (6 marks)
(i)
(ii)
Calculate the NPV of the future cash flows for the period 2002 2006.
Your answer should show all relevant working notes and explain the basis of your calculation (a
decision tree type analysis is not required). (4 marks)
Comment on the relevance of your answer in the evaluation of future performance. (2 marks)
(20 marks)
7. Nation
The owners of The Nation Restaurant have diversified business interests and operate in a wide range of
commercial areas. Since buying the restaurant in 2006 they have carefully recorded the data below.
Recorded Data for The Nation Restaurant (2007 - 2010)
Total meals served
Regular customers attending weekly
Number of items on oer per day
Reported cases of food poisoning
Special theme evenings introduced
Annual operating hours with no customers
Proposals submitted to cater for special events
Contracts won to cater for special events
Complimentary letters from satisfied customers
Average number of customers at peak times
Average service delay at peak times (mins)
Maximum seating capacity
Weekly opening hours
Written complaints received
Idle time
New meals introduced during the year
Financial Data
Average customer spend on wine
Total Turnover
Turnover from special events
Profit
Value of food wasted in preparation
Total turnover of all restaurants in locality
2007
3,750
5
4
4
0
380
10
2
0
18
32
25
36
8
570
16
$
3
83,000
2,000
11,600
1,700
895,000
2008
5,100
11
4
5
3
307
17
5
4
23
47
25
36
12
540
8
$
4
124,500
13,000
21,400
1,900
1,234,000
2009
6,200
15
7
7
9
187
29
15
3
37
15
40
40
14
465
27
$
4
137,000
25,000
43,700
3,600
980,000
2010
6,700
26
9
7
13
126
38
25
6
39
35
40
36
14
187
11
$
7
185,000
55,000
57,200
1,450
1,056,000
Required:
(a)
(b)
Assess the overall performance of the business and submit your comments to the owners. They
wish to compare the performance of the restaurant with their other business interests and require
your comments to be grouped into the key areas of performance such as those described by
Fitzgerald and Moon.
Identify any additional information that you would consider of assistance in assessing the
performance of The Nation Restaurant in comparison with another restaurant. Give reasons for
your selection and explain how they would relate to the key performance area categories used in
(a).
133
8. HFG
The Health and Fitness Group (HFG), which is privately owned, operates three centres in the country of Mayland.
Each centre oers dietary plans and fitness programmes to clients under the supervision of dieticians and
fitness trainers. Residential accommodation is also available at each centre. The centres are located in the towns
of Ayetown, Beetown and Ceetown.
The following information is available:
(1)
Summary financial data for HFG in respect of the year ended 31 May 2008.
Ayetown
Beetown
Ceetown
Total
$000
$000
$000
$000
Revenue:
Fees received
Variable costs
Contribution
Fixed costs
Operating profit
1,800
(468)
2,100
(567)
4,500
(1,395)
8,400
(2,430)
1,332
(936)
1,533
(1,092)
3,105
(2,402)
5,970
(4,430)
396
441
703
1,540
(180)
Interest costs on long-term debt at 10%

Profit before tax
1,360
(408)
Income tax expense
952
Profit for the year

Average book values for 2008: Assets
Non-current assets
Current assets
1,000
800
2,500
900
3,300
1,000
6,800
2,700
Total assets
1,800
3,400
4,300
9,500
Equity and liabilities:

Share capital
Retained earnings
2,500
4,400
Total equity
6,900
Non-current liabilities
Long-term borrowings
1,800
Total non-current liabilities
1,800
Current liabilities
80
240
480
800
Total current liabilities
80
240
480
800
Total liabilities
2,600
Total equity and liabilities
9,500
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
HFG defines Residual Income (RI) for each centre as operating profit minus a required rate of return of
12% of the total assets of each centre.
At present HFG does not allocate the long-term borrowings of the group to the three separate centres.
Each centre faces similar risks.
Tax is payable at a rate of 30%.
The market value of the equity capital of HFG is $9 million. The cost of equity of HFG is 15%.
The market value of the long-term borrowings of HFG is equal to the book value.
134

(8)
(9)
The directors are concerned about the return on investment (ROI) generated by the Beetown centre
and they are considering using sensitivity analysis in order to show how a target ROI of 20% might be
achieved.
The marketing director stated at a recent board meeting that The Groups success depends on the quality
of service provided to our clients. In my opinion, we need only to concern ourselves with the number of
complaints received from clients during each period as this is the most important performance measure
for our business. The number of complaints received from clients is a perfect performance measure. As
long as the number of complaints received from clients is not increasing from period to period, then we
can be confident about our future prospects.
(a)
The directors of HFG have asked you, as management accountant, to prepare a report providing
them with explanations as to the following:
(i)
Which of the three centres is the most successful? Your report should include a
commentary on return on investment (ROI), residual income (RI), and economic value
added (EVA) as measures of financial performance. Detailed calculations regarding each of
these three measures must be included as part of your report;
(ii) The percentage change in revenue, total costs and net assets during the year ended 31 May
2008 that would have been required in order to have achieved a target ROI of 20% by the
Beetown centre. Your answer should consider each of these three variables in isolation.
State any assumptions that you make.
(iii) Whether or not you agree with the statement of the marketing director in note (9) above.
(b)
The Superior Fitness Co (SFC), which is well established in Mayland, operates nine centres. Each of SFCs
centres is similar in size to those of HFG. SFC also provides dietary plans and fitness programmes to its
clients. The directors of HFG have decided that they wish to benchmark the performance of HFG with
that of SFC.
Discuss the problems that the directors of HFG might experience in their wish to benchmark the
performance of HFG with the performance of SFC, and recommend how such problems might be
successfully addressed.
135
9. Jim and Jam

(a)
The transfer pricing system operated by a divisional company has the potential to make a significant
contribution towards the achievement of corporate financial objectives.
Explain the potential benefits of operating a transfer pricing system within a divisionalised company.
(6 marks)
(b)
A company operates two divisions, Jim and Jam. Jim manufactures two products, X and Y. Product X is
sold to external customers for $42 per unit. The only outlet for product Y is Jam.
Jam supplies an external market and can obtain its semi finished supplies (product Y) from either Jim or
an external source. Jam currently has the opportunity to purchase product Y from an external supplier for
$38 per unit. The capacity of division Jim is measured in units of output, irrespective of whether product
X, Y or a combination of both are being manufactured. The associated product costs are as follows:
X
Variable costs per unit
32
35
Fixed overheads per unit
37
40
Total unit costs
Using the above information, provide advice on the determination of an appropriate transfer price for
the sale of product Y from division Jim to division Jam under the following conditions:
(i)
When division Jim has spare capacity and limited external demand for product X; (3 marks)
(ii)
When division Jim is operating at full capacity with unsatisfied external demand for product X. (4
marks)
The design of an information system to support transfer pricing decision making necessitates the
inclusion of specific data.
Identify the data that needs to be collected and how you would expect it to be used. (7 marks)
(20 marks)
(c)
10. CTC
The Childrens Toy Company (CTC) manufactures electrically-operated toy versions of animals. The activities of
CTC are confined to the country of Stableland, which has a zero-inflation economy. The government of
Stableland has granted tax-exempt status to CTC since it provides goods or services exclusively for children.
However, no tax allowances are available on investments made by CTC.
CTC has a total production capacity of 400,000 units which cannot be exceeded. The products to be
manufactured together with forecast sales volumes are as follows:
Product
Forecast sales units (000)

2008
2009
2010
2011
Bruno the Bear
180
120
100
60
Kong the Ape
150
48
24
Leo the Lion
60
72
76
30
136
Other relevant information relating to the products is as follows:

1.
Selling prices per unit and contribution to sales ratios (%) for 2008 and 2009:
Bruno
Selling price per unit

($)
40
Contribution to
sales ratio (%)
70
Kong
50
65
Leo
60
60
2008
2009
$000
$000
Bruno
3,800
2,400
Kong
2,400
1,340
Leo
2,040
2,100
Product:
2.
Product-specific fixed overheads:

Year
3.
The companys other fixed overheads are estimated at $165 million per annum.
Required:
(a) (i) Prepare a statement of product profitability for each of years 2008 and 2009 which also shows
the net profit or loss of CTC. (4 marks)
(ii) Comment on the figures in the statement prepared in (a)(i) above. (4 marks)
(b)
1.
The marketing director of CTC has suggested the introduction of a new toy Nellie the Elephant for which
the following estimated information is available:
Sales volumes and selling prices per unit
Year ending, 31 May
2009
2010
2011
Sales units (000)
80
180
100
Selling price per unit ($)
50
50
50
2.
3.
Nellie will generate a contribution to sales ratio of 50% throughout the three year period.
Product specific fixed overheads during the year ending 31 May 2009 are estimated to be $16 million. It is
anticipated that these fixed overheads would decrease by 10% per annum during each of the years
ending 31 May 2010 and 31 May 2011.
4.
Capital investment amounting to $39 million would be required in June 2008. The investment would
have no residual value at 31 May 2011.
5.
Additional working capital of $500,000 would be required in June 2008. A further $200,000 would be
required on 31 May 2009. These amounts would be recovered in full at the end of the three year period.
6.
The cost of capital is expected to be 12% per annum.
Assume all cash flows (other than where stated) arise at the end of the year.
Required:
(i)
(ii)
Determine whether the new product is viable purely on financial grounds.(4 marks)
Calculate the minimum target contribution to sales ratio (%) at which Nellie the Elephant will be
financially viable, assuming that all other data remain unchanged. (4 marks)
(iii) Identify and discuss an alternative strategy that may assist in improving the performance of CTC
with eect from 1 May 2009 (where only the products in (a) and (b) above are available for
manufacture). (4 marks)
(20 marks)
137
11. Costs And Quality

Performance through Quality has been a theme adopted by many successful organisations that operate in
highly competitive business environments. The diagram below entitled Costs and Quality illustrates the
alternative paths (as depicted by the arrows) that a business can take from a starting point A.
Costs and Quality
Cost per unit ($)
B
D
Service/product quality
0
(a)
(b)
Briefly explain the probable business consequences of pursuing the alternative paths available
and arriving at points B to F. Identify the path that is most likely to bring business success.
Traditional management accounting activities have had their original scope broadened by the
development of a variety of techniques that incorporate a growing recognition of the cost and quality
issue in the management decision making process.
Explain how contemporary management accounting/management techniques such as Total
Quality Management, Just In Time, Value Analysis, Activity Based Costing and The Balanced
Scorecard could contribute towards the analysis of the relationship between costs and quality.
12. Marge Ltd

Marge Ltd makes a butter substitute using sunflower seeds and a variety of synthetic ingredients. Butter
substitute is sold to wholesalers for $0.40 per 500g pack, while variable costs excluding those described below
amount to 65% of sales income. Thirty per cent of the sunflower seed input is converted to butter substitute,
the remainder being accounted for by losses in process.
The availability of sunflower seeds is dicult to control because of their perishability and because of the
variability of world-wide weather conditions. However, some other ingredients, including one called Duralin, are
freely available. Two kg of Duralin is used in the process per hundred kg of sunflower seeds.
To avoid some of the uncertainty Marge Ltd wishes to place an advance order for Duralin, but the
corresponding level of sunflower seeds available will not be known when the order for Duralin is placed.
Management estimate the likelihood of dierent levels of sunflower seeds being available as follows:
138
Availability
level
High
Medium
Low
Probability
0.2
0.6
0.2
Duralin
Sunflower seeds
costs per kg
$
1.50
1.75
2.00
purchased
000kg
72,000
65,000
54,000
If the wrong decision is made and too small a quantity of Duralin is ordered a discount on the whole quantity
actually needed will be allowed by the supplier when the order is changed. If the advance order is too large,
however, an extra amount will be payable for changing the order.
Nature of alteration to order size
Low to medium
Medium to high
Low to high
Medium to low
High to medium
High to low
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Discount
$
0.20
0.15
0.35
-
Premium
$
0.35
0.35
0.55
Calculate the contribution earned by Marge Ltd for each of the possible outcomes.
Advise Marge Ltd what level of Duralin order it should place, according to each of the following
decision criteria.
(i)
Maximax
(ii)
Maximin
(iii)
Maximum expected value
What attitude to risk is held by managers who work according to the maximax criterion as
opposed to those who prefer maximin?
If it were possible to know in advance what level of seeds would be available, how much should
Marge Ltd be prepared to pay for this information?
139
140
Paper P5
PRACTICE ANSWERS
1. Mission Statement
(a)
A Mission Statement describes the organisations basic function in society. What is it trying to accomplish?
The elements of a Mission Statement might include:
Purpose: Why does it exist? A company exists primarily to create wealth for its shareholders whereas a
hospital exists to care for the sick.
Strategy: It may specify the business that the organisation is in, the product and service areas it is going
to operate and the necessary competences that need to be present.
Values and Culture: It may state the beliefs, ethical standpoints and principles under which activity is to
be carried out.
The statement can range from short snappy sentences (Absolutely, Positively, Overnight for a parcel
courier service) to a page long description of business intentions (for, example, for public sector
organisations). Whatever the length, it should guide all employees at all levels to work collectively
towards the achievement of the corporate mission a guiding light.
It may attempt to incorporate several of the stakeholders (for example, shareholders, customers,
employees), and increasingly, the environment.
(b)
The Mission Statement can play an important part in the planning process by providing:
a framework within which the plans must be developed
a focus on strategies
a screening device for unacceptable projects, practices and activities
a communication device to establish a common acceptable corporate culture.
This framework should impact upon both high level strategic plans e.g. what areas of business are
acceptable, and on operational planning decisions such as sources of supply and the way customers are
dealt with by sta.
In terms of the owners, the statement may incorporate:
(i)
a broad intention to enhance shareholder wealth
(ii)
this then needs to be converted into specific goals such as to provide a return on investment and/
or increase share value
then measurable targets will be developed, e.g. 20% return on investment annually and/or a share
price increase of 5% in excess of the industry average
and to achieve the required 20% return on investment may necessitate the profit margin on sales
to be 43%.
(iii)
(iv)
The mission statement will therefore result in the cascading down of increasingly more detailed plans and
targets. These targets will be set for the corporate entity, business sub-units and individuals. They will
provide the basis of the performance measurement when they are compared with the outcomes.
141
Good performance might be concerned with the extent that we are achieving the mission, the
organisation never gets there, it is more of a journey that should be pursued. Performance is concerned
with assessing the extent that a desire, goal, objective or target has been achieved a comparative
judgement. To what extent have we achieved what was set out to be done?
(c)
Potential problem areas:
the wording of the statement may be rather vague and abstract and therefore provide limited
assistance in developing strategies
the content of the statement may provide the management with non-congruent goals. For
example, maximising shareholder wealth may conflict with any ethical statements made in the
mission. Trade-os between quantifiable financial targets and non-quantifiable goals complicate
the assessment of managerial performance
the potential for inconsistent goal setting can occur between departments, diering managerial
levels and over time
the Mission Statement is occasionally regarded by employees as political window dressing and
does not in their view reflect actual company strategy and the actions of management this may
result in adverse behavioural consequences
the statement does not normally stipulate a time horizon for the achievement of the mission
problems arise in assessing how well the organisation is doing.
2. The Rubber Group

Suggested answer content for each of the eight problems contained within the scenario is as follows:
(a)
The nature of each of the problems relating to the use of budgeting is as follows:
Meeting only the lowest targets
infers that once a budget has been negotiated, the budget holder will be satisfied with this level of
performance unless there is good reason to achieve a higher standard.
Using more resources than necessary
Once the budget has been agreed the focus will be to ensure that the budgeted utilisation of resources
has been adhered to. Indeed the current system does not provide a specific incentive not to exceed the
budget level. It may be, however, that failure to achieve budget targets would reflect badly on factors
such as future promotion prospects or job security.
A bonus system is linked to the budget setting and achievement process might lead to actions by
employees and management which they regard as fair game. This is because they view the maximisation
of bonuses as the main priority in any aspect of budget setting or work output.
Competition may manifest itself through the attitudes adopted in relation to transfer pricing of goods/
services between divisions, lack of willingness to co-operate on sharing information relating to methods,
sources of supply, expertise, etc.
Management may see the budget setting process as a competition for resources. Irrespective of the
budgeting method used, there will be a tendency to feel that unless the budget allowance for one year is
142
spent, there will be imposed reductions in the following year. This will be particularly relevant in the
case of fixed cost areas where expenditure is viewed as discretionary to some extent.
This infers that some aspects of budgeting problems such as Gaming and misrepresentation may be
employed by the budget holder in order to gain some advantage. Gaming may be seen as a deliberate
distortion of the measure in order to secure some strategic advantage. Misrepresentation refers to
creative planning in order to suggest that the measure is acceptable.
Meeting the target but not beating it
There may be a view held by those involved in the achievement of the budget target that there is no
incentive for them to exceed that level of eectiveness.
Avoiding risks
There may be a prevailing view by those involved in the achievement of the budget target that wherever
possible strategies incorporated into the achievement of the budget objective should be left unchanged
if they have been shown to be acceptable in the past. Change may be viewed as increasing the level of
uncertainty that the proposed budget target will be achievable.
(b)
An illustration of each of the problems using the data from the Battamould division/TRG scenario is as
follows:
In the scenario, the budgeted variable cost of $200 per tonne has been agreed. There is no specific
incentive for the Bettamould division to try to achieve a better level of performance.
In the scenario, the current budget allows for 5% machine idle time. There is evidence that a move to
outsourcing machine maintenance from a specialist company could help reduce idle time levels and
permit annual output in excess of 100,000 tonnes.
At present, the only sanction/incentive is to achieve 100,000 tonnes of output. There is no mention of any
sanction for example, if processing losses (and hence costs) rise to 20% of material inputs.
At present, the Bettamould division sources its materials from chosen suppliers who have been used for
some years. There is evidence that materials of equal specification could be sourced for 40% of the annual
requirement from another TRG division which has spare capacity. Why has this not been investigated?
In the Bettamould scenario, there is a fixed cost budget allowance of $50,000,000. We are told in the
question that salaries of all employees and management are paid on a fixed salary basis. Bettamoulds
management will not want a reduction in the fixed budget allowance, since this could lead to the need
to reduce the number of employees, which they may see as having a detrimental eect on the ability of
the division to meet its annual budget output target of 100,000 tonnes.
143

In the scenario there may have been deliberate eorts to increase the agreed budget level of aspects of
measures and costs. For example, by putting forward the argument that the budget requirement of 15%
processing losses is acceptable because of the likelihood that ageing machinery will be less eective in
the coming budget period.
In the scenario the bonus of 5% of salary is payable as long as the 100,000 tonnes of output is achieved.
This does not require that actual results will show any other aspects of the budget being improved upon.
For example there is no need to consider a reduction in the current level of quality checks (25% of daily
throughput) to the 10% level that current evidence suggests is achieved by competitor companies. The
current budget agreement allows the Bettamould division to transfer its output to market based profit
centres at $200 + $500 = $700 per tonne. There is no specified penalty if costs exceed this target level.
Avoiding risks
Bettamould has not yet incorporated the changes listed in note 4 in the question. For example why has
the sourcing of 40% of required materials from another TRC division not been quantified and evaluated. It
is possible that the division with spare capacity could supply the material at cost (possibly based on
marginal cost) which would be less than currently paid to a supplier external to TRC. It may be that
Bettamould have not pursued this possibility because of risk factors relating to the quality of the material
transferred or its continued availability where the supplying division had an upturn in the level of more
profitable external business.
(c)
Ways in which each of the problems might be overcome are as follows:

To overcome the problem there must be some additional incentive. This could be through a change in
the basis of bonus payment which currently only provides an incentive to achieve the 100,000 tonnes of
output.
Overcoming the problem may require a change in the bonus system which currently does not provide
benefit from any output in excess of 100,000 tonnes. This may not be perceived as suciently focused in
order to achieve action. It may be that engendering a culture of continuous improvement would help
ensure that employees actively sought ways of reducing idle time levels.
It is likely that eorts to change the work ethos at all levels is required, while not necessarily removing the
concept of a bonus payable to all employees for achievement of targets. This may require the fostering of
a culture for success within the company. Dissemination of information to all sta relating to trends in
performance, meeting targets, etc may help to improve focus on continuous improvement.
The problem may need some input from the directors of TRG. For example, could a dual-cost transfer
pricing system be explained to management at both the Bettamould division and also the Division with
spare capacity in order to overcome resistance to problems on transfer pricing and its impact on
divisional budgets and reported results? In this way it may be possible for the Bettamould division to
source some of its input materials at a lower cost (particularly from TRGs viewpoint) and yet be
acceptable to the management at the supplying division.
144

In order to overcome the problem it may be necessary to educate management into acceptance of
aspects of budgeting such as the need to consider the committed, engineered and discretionary aspects
of costs. For example, it may be possible to reduce the number of salaried sta involved in the current
quality checking of 25% of throughput on a daily basis.
In order to overcome this problem there must be an integrated approach to the budget setting process.
This may be achieved to some extent through all aspects of the budget having to be agreed by all
functions involved. For example, engineers as well as production line management in reaching the
agreed link between percentage process losses and the falling eciency of machinery due to age. In
addition, TRC may insist an independent audit of aspects of budget revisions by group sta.
To overcome the problem may require that the bonus system should be altered to reflect any failure to
control costs per tonne at the budget level.
Avoiding risks
In order to overcome such problems, TRC would have to provide some guarantees to Bettamould
management that the supply would be available during the budget period at the initially agreed price
and that the quality would be maintained at the required level. This would remove the risk element that
the management of the Bettamould division may consider currently exists.
3. Dental Health Partnership

Summary Profit and Loss Account for the year ended 31 May 2005
$
Fees received
Other Operating Income
1,226,880 (Note 1)
20,800
Total Income
1,247,680
Less: variable costs

Material and consumables
446,400
Less: fixed costs

Salaries
Establishment costs
Other operating costs
Total costs
Net profit for the period
538,880
85,000
75,775
1,146,055
101,625
Calculation of % of total capacity required to break-even during the year ended 31 May 2005.
Fees received
Less: variable costs
Contribution
Total number of consultations
$1,226,880
$446,400
$780,480
28,800
Weighted average contribution per patient visit= 780,480/ 28,800

Total fixed costs:
145
Salaries
538,880
Establishment costs
85,000
75,775
Other operating costs

Less: fixed income
699,655
20,800
Total fixed costs less fixed income
678,855
Divide by weighted average contribution per patient visit

$678,855/$2710 = 25,050 consultations.
Total capacity for patient visits = 28,800/08333 = 34,560 per annum
Therefore percentage of maximum capacity required in order to break-even is 25,050/34,560 = 725%
Note 1. Fees received:
Adult fees = Payment plus Government refund Children/Senior Citizens = Government refund
Adjusted patient mix is as follows:
Adults
50% x 2 =
Children
100%
40%
10%
Senior Citizens
150%
Total
The weighted average fee per patient is as follows:
Type of patient treatment:
None
070 x $12 =
840
Minor
020 x $50 =
Major
010 x $100 =
1000
1000
2840
Total
Therefore fees received during the year ended 31 May 2005 = 28,800 x 15 x $2840 = $1,226,880.
Note 2. Capacity:
Each dentist had a maximum of 24 patients per day but on average treated 20 patients per day which equates
to 83333% of maximum capacity.
(b)
The major characteristics of services which distinguish services from manufacturing are as follows:
Intangibility.
When a dentist provides a service to a client there are many intangible factors involved such as for
example the appearance of the surgery, the personality of the dentist, the manner and eciency of
the dental assistant. The output of the service is performance by the dentist as opposed to
tangible goods.
Simultaneity.
The service provided by the dentist to the patient is created by the dentist at the same time as the
patient consumed it thus preventing any advance verification of quality.
Heterogeneity.
Many service organisations face the problem of achieving consistency in the quality of its output.
Whilst each of the dentists within the Dental Health Partnership will have similar professional
qualifications there will be dierences in the manner they provide services to clients.
Perishability.
Many services are perishable. The services of a dentist are purchased only for the duration of an
appointment.
146
(c)
In order to assess the quality of patient care provided by the Dental Health Partnership the following
performance measures might be used:
The percentage of on time treatment of those patients who arrived prior to their appointment
time would provide an indication regarding the eectiveness of the scheduling of appointments
by the Dental Health Partnership.
the percentage of patient appointments which were re-arranged at the request of the Dental
Health Partnership. Rearranged appointments represent the provision of a lower level of service
provision to clients who may, as a result, switch to an alternative dental practice.
the percentage of patients who return for treatment after their first appointment would provide an
indication that they were satisfied with the service they received.
the percentage of patients who were able to gain an appointment at their preferred date and time
is an indication of the availability of the service to clients.
Note: Candidates were only required to discuss three measures.
4. Dench
(a)
Cost estimate for 225 components is based upon the following assumptions:
(1)
the first batch of 15 is excluded from the order (and total cost for first batch is likewise excluded);
and
(2)
the 80% learning rate only applies to the skilled workforce, (and related variable overhead) due to
their high level of expertise/low turnover rate.
Cumulative
Batches
1
Cumulative
Units
15
20 hr
Cumulative
time/batch
20 hr
30
32 hr
16 hr
60
51.2hr
12.8hr
120
81.92hr
10.24hr
16
240
131.072hr
8.192hr
Total Time
Total cost for 16 batches (240 components)

$
Material A:
$30 batch
480
Material B:
$30/batch
480
Labour:
Skilled 131.072 hr @ $15/hr
Variable OH:
Semi-skilled $40/batch
640
131.072 hr @ $4/hr
524
320
5 hr/batch at $4/hr
Less: Cost for 1st batch (15 components)
...cost for 225 components
(b)
1,966
4,410
(500)
3,910
The limited use of learning curve theory is due to several factors:

(a)
the learning curve phenomenon is not always present;
(b) it assumes stable conditions at work (eg of the labour force and labour mix) which will enable
learning to take place. This is not always practicable (eg because of labour turnover).
(c)
it must also assume a certain degree of motivation amongst employees;
(d)
extensive breaks between production of items must not be too long, or workers will forget and the
learning process would have to begin all over again;
147

(e)
(f)
it is dicult to obtain enough accurate data to decide what the learning curve is;
there there will be a cessation to learning eventually, once the job has been repeated often
enough.
5. Spa
(a)
Budgeted Net Profit/Loss outcomes for year ending 30 June 2001.

Client
Days
(b)
Fee per Client Variable cost per Contribution Total contribution

day
client day
per client day
per year
$
$
$
$
15,750
180
95
185
1,338,750
15,750
180
85
195
1,496,250
15,750
180
70
110
1,732,500
13,125
200
95
105
1,378,125
13,125
200
85
115
1,509,375
13,125
200
70
130
1,706,250
10,500
220
95
125
1,312,500
10,500
220
85
135
1,417,500
10,500
220
70
150
1,575,000
The maximax rule looks for the largest contribution from all outcomes. In this case the decision maker will
choose a client fee of $180 per day where there is a possibility of a contribution of $1,732,500.
The maximin rule looks for the strategy which will maximise the minimum possible contribution. In this
case the decision maker will choose client fee of $200 per day where the lowest contribution is
$1,378,125. This is better than the worst possible outcome from client fees per day of $180 or $220 which
will provide contribution of $1,338,750 and $1,312,500 respectively.
The minimax regret rule requires the choice of the strategy which will minimise the maximum regret from
making the wrong decision. Regret in this context is the opportunity lost through making the wrong
decision.
Using the calculations from part (a) we may create an opportunity loss table as follows:
Client fee per day strategy
State of variable cost
$180
$200
$220
High
39,375
65,625
Most likely
13,125
91,875
26,250
157,500
39,375
26,250
157,500
Low
Maximum regret
Example of the workings: at the low level of variable costs, the best strategy would be a client fee of $180.
The opportunity loss from using a fee of $200 or $220 per day would be $26,250 (1,732,500 $1,706,250)
or $157,500 (1,732,500 1,575,000) respectively.
The minimum regret strategy (client fee $200 per day) is that which minimises the maximum regret (i.e.
$26,250 in the maximum regret row above).
(c)
The expected value of variable cost

= $95 01 + $85 06 + $70 03 = $81.50
For each client fee strategy the expected value of budget contribution for the year may be calculated:
148
fee of $180 : 15,750 (180 8150) = $1,551,375
fee of $200 : 13,125 (200 8150) = $1,555,31250
fee of $220 : 10,500 (220 8150) = $1,454,250
Hence choose a client fee of $200 per day to give the maximum expected value contribution of
$1,555,31250. Note that there is virtually no dierence between this and the contribution where a fee of
$180 per day is used.
6. UKCOM
(a)
The rapid growth in turnover has been exceeded by an even faster growth in costs and hence the growth
in the annual loss sustained. The companys growth has been facilitated by extensive borrowing which
has resulted in a substantial interest burden. In terms of key financial indicators we have:
1998
1999
2000
2001
net loss
(17%)
(68%)
(71%)
(79%)
return on assets
(64%)
(142%)
(84%)
(104%)
65%
67%
73%
debt/assets
The increasing loss and rising gearing would represent serious cause for concern in a traditional/
conventional assessment of financial performance. In contrast, the increasing share price suggests that
the shareholders are not taking a pessimistic view. They are aware of the financial results but still have
confidence in the company we need to investigate this apparent dichotomy in viewpoints. Share price
is a measure of financial performance alongside sales and profit margins. Suggestions for the paradox:
(b)
the companys financial performance is judged according to how it is performing in relation to a

known business plan. The loss was predicted and revenues and costs are on target. The share price
may begin to fall if the results do not adhere to the plan. Shareholder confidence and perceived
performance is about the management delivering on their promises.
the shareholders and the market are taking a long term view with the first four year results being
regarded as only short to medium term. The long term financial performance is yet to be disclosed
the company owns substantial tangible assets in addition to intangibles that will provide the basis
of future market growth. The licences and goodwill represent the purchase of future cash inflows
and may be regarded as market entry costs.
This is concerned with the issue of being able to dierentiate the performance of the organisation from
the performance of the manager. The COE may argue that they do not determine either the amount of
the assets under their control or the interest on the debt acquisition and financing policy is determined
by the board and therefore beyond their control. Instead of using the standard measure of profit as an
indicator of performance, the CEO may be judged on Earnings Before Interest, Tax, Depreciation and
Amortisation (EBITDA). This represents the surplus after excluding to two significant costs associated with
the acquisition of the companys capital assets depreciation (of tangible and intangibles assets) and
interest charges.
Loss (as per accounts)

Interest adjustment
Depreciation Adjustment
EBITDA
1998
1999
2000
2001
(30)
40
10
(335)
203
153
21
(531)
336
273
78
(1,268)
689
791
212
This shows a significant improvement in performance and therefore could be used to justify the assertion
that the teams performance has improved.
149

(c)
The uncertain cash flows require to be adjusted for the alternative potential scenarios.
Calculate the expected values by multiplying the cashflows by the probabilities:
04 9 =
036
04 105 =
042
016
02 8 =
094
2002
4,100 094 =3,854
2003
4,700 094 = 4,418
2005
7,500 094 = 7,050
Year
Cash outflows
EV cash inflows
Net cash flow
12% PV factor
PV
2004
6,100 094 = 5,734
2006
9,000 094 = 8,460
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
(2,500) (2,600) (2,700) (2,800) (2,900)
3,854
4,418
5,734
7,050
8,460
1,354
893
1,209
1,818
797
1,449
3,034
712
2,160
4,250
636
2,703
5,560
567
3,153
Total NPV = $10.674 billion

Cost of capital = 689/8997 = 765% + 4% =1165 or rounded up to 12%
The cash inflow projections are likely to arise from the company entering into a period of stable capital
costs and increasing revenues as the spare capacity in the network becomes utilised (mentioned in
question brief ).
The $107 billion is far in excess of the historic cumulative loss. The rising share price would have probably
been influenced by these anticipated cash flows.
7. Nation
(a)
The performance can be categorised into the following key areas: Financial, Competitiveness, Resource
Utilisation, Quality of Service and Innovation/Flexibility.
Financial:
Continuous turnover growth with a 123% increase over the period.
Annual compound growth rate
An even faster growth in profit approximate five fold increase
Profits growing faster than turnover creates an increasing net profit margin from 14% in 1998 to
309% in 2010. This may have arisen from improved resource utilisation (see below) resulting in a
gradual decrease in the ratio of fixed costs to revenues.
Competitiveness:
Concerned with market share and growing new business areas.
Market share measured by the rate of restaurant turnover to the turnover of all restaurants in the locality.
This commences with 92% in 2007 and continually increases to 175% in 2010. There is also a rapid
150
growth in the proposals submitted for new events (10 to 38), and even more significantly, is the faster
growth in contracts won. The success rate increases from 20% in 2007 to 66% in 2010. The restaurant is
therefore competing increasingly successfully in this developing business area. The restaurant is
becoming increasingly price competitive.
Quality of service
The increasing number of regular customers would suggest that many customers are satisfied with the
total package that the restaurant oers. This may be partly due to service quality or other factors such as
price competitiveness. The growth in complaints, complimentary letters, reported cases of food
poisoning and the service delivery data would suggest rather a mixed situation. It is dicult to provide a
definitive comment regarding the quality of service over the period, especially as the number of
customers nearly doubled over the period. Even additional calculations, such as those involving key
service quality data per 100 customers would not provide the basis for an overall conclusive comment.
Innovation/Flexibility
The restaurant has fared quite well in this respect when we consider:
increase in the number of dishes on oer
the introduction of theme evenings
the development of the catering activities for special events
The restaurant is prepared to try new dishes although the extent of its experimentation varies
considerably from year to year.
Also, the fluctuating and somewhat unsatisfactory service delays suggest that they are not managing to
flex their resources adequately to meet peak demand levels.
Resource Utilisation
The business activity level continually increased over the period (meals served) with a decline in nonproductive time and the hours of operation with no customers. All these suggest an improvement in
resource utilisation. We do not know whether the increase in seating capacity in 2009 arose from
extending the floor area available or from the provision of more seating within a constant space.
Although this capacity increase permitted more customers to be fed at peak times, it did result in a
fluctuation in the annual number of meals served at each seat, 150 (2007), 204 (2008), 155 (2009), 167
(2010). A brief attempt was made in 2009 to extend the opening hours and increase the hourly utilisation
of the premises.
(b)
Financial:
the value of assets required to generate the profits to calculate the ROCE
details of cost categories e.g. labour, food overheads to assess comparative financial ratios
did the increase in capacity in 2009 require additional capital investment to assess the marginal
returns
the level of business risk inherent in alternative business and the associated expected return
Competitiveness
national trends in restaurant attendance and revenues provide broader comparisons
data on/customer surveys of restaurants in targeted customer groups
Quality of Service
to assess various intangible factors e.g. politeness of sta, atmosphere and dcor, responsiveness to
customer requests
151
food writers or expert ratings
Innovation/Flexibility:
sta training and the potential for multi-skilling activities to provide greater operational flexibility
the ability to cope with non-standard requests e.g. special dietary needs and respond to customer
needs
Resource Utilisation
data on employee numbers would facilitate the calculation of business activity per employee
data on floor area per customer
8. HFG
(a) (i)
To: The Directors From: Management Accountant Subject: The performance of our three
health centres Date: 6 June 2008
Further to your recent request please find below my detailed responses to the questions you have
raised. A Summary of the financial performance of the three centres is shown in the following
table:
Heath centre
Return on investment
Residual income Economic value added
(%)
($000)
($000)
Ayetown
2302
18000
4208
Beetown
1396
3300
12327
Ceetown
1840
18700
3009
Which of the three centres is the most successful?

This very much depends on the method used to assess the performance of the three health
centres. As requested, I have undertaken calculations based on three performance measures
namely, return on investment (ROI), residual income (RI) and economic value added (EVA). I have
included the workings for each respective calculation in an appendix to this report.
Using ROI as a measure of financial performance indicates that Ayetown is the most successful of
the three centres since its ROI was 2302% compared with the 1840% achieved by Ceetown and
the 1396% achieved by Beetown. However, you should bear in mind that the use of ROI can be
grossly misleading since it is a relative measure and ignores absolute returns. In this respect I wish
to draw your attention to the fact that Beetown earned $45,000 (114%) more operating profit than
Ayetown and Ceetown earned $397,000 (775%) more profit than Ayetown.
The use of RI as a measure of financial performance indicates that Ceetown is the best performing
centre, generating $187,000 of residual income. It is worth observing that Ayetown was not far
behind Ceetown in terms of generating residual income of $180,000. However, Beetown only
managed to generate $33,000 of residual income.
EVA is a specific type of residual income calculation which has attracted a considerable amount of
attention during recent years. Economic Value Added equals after-tax operating profit minus the
(after-tax) weighted average cost of capital multiplied by total assets minus current liabilities. EVA
substitutes the following numbers in residual income calculations:
(a)
Income is equal to after-tax profits;
(b)
A required rate of return is equal to the after-tax weighted average cost of capital; and
(c)
Investment is equal to total assets minus current liabilities.
Ayetown has the highest EVA. Indeed, it is the only centre which has a positive EVA. In common
with RI, EVA charges managers for the cost of making investments in long-term assets and working
capital. Value will only be created in circumstances where post-tax operating profit exceeds the
152
cost of investing the required capital. In order to improve EVA, managers need to earn more
operating profit using the same amount of capital, or invest capital in higher-earning projects. The
use of EVA is often preferred to RI because it takes into account tax eects of investment decisions
whereas pre-tax residual income measures do not.
(ii)
(iii)
The ROI of Beetown is currently 1396%. In order to obtain an ROI of 20%, operating profit would
need to increase to (20% $3,160,000) = $632,000, based on the current level of net assets. Three
alternative ways in which a target ROI of 20% could be achieved for the Beetown centre are as
follows:
(1)
Attempts could be made to increase revenue by attracting more clients while keeping
invested capital and operating profit per $ of revenue constant. Revenue would have to
increase to $2,361,644, assuming that the current level of profitability is maintained and fixed
costs remain unchanged. The current rate of contribution to revenue is $2,100,000
$567,000 = $1,533,000/$2,100,000 = 73%. Operating profit needs to increase by $191,000 in
order to achieve an ROI of 20%. Therefore, revenue needs to increase by $191,000/073 =
$261,644 = 1246%.
(2)
Attempts could be made to decrease the level of operating costs by, for example, increasing
the eciency of maintenance operations. This would have the eect of increasing operating
profit per $ of revenue. This would require that revenue and invested capital were kept
constant. Total operating costs would need to fall by $191,000 in order to obtain an ROI of
20%. This represents a percentage decrease of 191,000/1,659,000 = 115%. If fixed costs were
truly fixed, then variable costs would need to fall to a level of $376,000, which represents a
decrease of 337%.
(3)
Attempts could be made to decrease the net asset base of HFG by, for example, reducing
debtor balances and/or increasing creditor balances, while keeping turnover and operating
profit per $ of revenue constant. Net assets would need to fall to a level of ($441,000/02) =
$2,205,000, which represents a percentage decrease amounting to $3,160,000 $2,205,000
= 955,000/3,160,000 = 302%.
The marketing director is certainly correct in recognising that success is dependent on levels of
service quality provided by HFG to its clients. However, whilst the number of complaints is an
important performance measure, it needs to be used with caution. The nature of a complaint is,
very often, far more indicative of the absence, or a lack, of service quality. For example, the fact that
50 clients complained about having to wait for a longer time than they expected to access
gymnasium equipment is insignificant when compared to an accident arising from failure to
maintain properly a piece of gymnasium equipment. Moreover, the marketing director ought to be
aware that the absolute number of complaints may be misleading as much depends on the
number of clients serviced during any given period. Thus, in comparing the number of complaints
received by the three centres then a relative measure of complaints received per 1,000 client days
would be far more useful than the absolute number of complaints received.
The marketing director should also be advised that the number of complaints can give a
misleading picture of the quality of service provision since individuals have dierent levels of
willingness to complain in similar situations.
The marketing director seems to accept the current level of complaints but is unwilling to accept
any increase above this level. This is not indicative of a quality-oriented organisation which would
seek to reduce the number of complaints over time via a programme of continuous improvement.
From the foregoing comments one can conclude that it would be myopic to focus on the number
of client complaints as being the only performance measure necessary to measure the quality of
service provision. Other performance measures which may indicate the level of service quality
provided to clients by HFG are as follows:
Sta responsiveness assumes critical significance in service industries. Hence the time taken to
resolve client queries by health centre sta is an important indicator of the level of service quality
provided to clients.
Sta appearance may be viewed as reflecting the image of the centres.
153
The comfort of bedrooms and public rooms including facilities such as air-conditioning, tea/
coee-making and cold drinks facilities, and oce facilities such as e-mail, facsimile and
photocopying.
The availability of services such as the time taken to gain an appointment with a dietician or
fitness consultant.
The cleanliness of all areas within the centres will enhance the reputation of HFG. Conversely,
unclean areas will potentially deter clients from making repeat visits and/or
recommendations to friends, colleagues etc.
The presence of safety measures and the frequency of inspections made regarding
gymnasium equipment within the centres and compliance with legislation are of
paramount importance in businesses like that of HFG.
The achievement of target reductions in weight that have been agreed between centre
consultants and clients. (Other relevant measures would be acceptable.)
Appendix:
Calculations of ROI:
(A)
Ayetown
Beetown
Ceetown
(B)
(A) (C)
Operating Total assets Return on

profit
less current Investment
liabilities
(%)
396
1,720
2302
441
3,160
1396
703
3,820
1840
Calculations of RI
(A)
Operating
profit
RI:
Ayetown
Beetown
Ceetown
($000)
396
441
703
Calculations of EVA
EVA
(A)
Pre-tax
operating
profit
Ayetown
Beetown
Ceetown
($000)
396
441
703
(B)
(C)
Required Total assets

rate return
12%
12%
12%
(B) = (A) x
70%
Post-tax
operating
profit
($000)
2772
3087
4921
(D) = (B) (C) (E) = (A) (D)

Residual
income
($000)
1,800
3,400
4,300
Required
return on
investment
($000)
216
408
516
(C)
(D)
(E) = (C) x (D)
(F) = (B) (E)
WACC
Total assets
less current
liabilities
WACC x (ta
cl)
EVA
($000)
1,720
3,160
3,820
($000)
23512
43197
52219
($000)
4208
12327
3009
1367%
1367%
1367%
($000)
180
33
187
154
Calculation of weighted average cost of capital (WACC) for use in calculation of EVA is as follows:
Market value ($000)
equity
9,000
Ke
015
1350
debt
1,800
Kd
007
126
10,800
1,476
WACC = 1,476/10,800
1367%
Note that the cost of equity is 15% and the after-tax cost of debt is
(b)
(100 30)
100
10% = 7%
There are a number of potential problems which the directors of HFG need to recognise. These are as
follows:
(i)
There needs to exist a sucient incentive for SFO to share their information with HFG as the
success of any benchmarking programme is dependent upon obtaining accurate information
about the comparator organisation. This is not an easy task to accomplish, as many organisations
are reluctant to reveal confidential information to competitors. The directors of HFG must be able
to convince the directors of SFO that entering into a benchmarking arrangement is a potential
win-win situation.
(ii)
The value of the exercise must be sucient to justify the cost involved. Also, it is inevitable that
behavioural issues will need to be addressed in any benchmarking programme. Management
should give priority to the need to communicate the reasons for undertaking a programme of
benchmarking in order to gain the full co-operation of its personnel whilst reducing the potential
level of resistance to change.
(iii) Management need to handle the ethical implications relating to the introduction of benchmarking
in a sensitive manner and should endeavour, insofar as possible, to provide reassurance to
employees that their status, remuneration and working conditions will not suer as a consequence
of the introduction of any benchmarking initiatives.
9. Jim and Jam

(a)
(b)
Potential benefits include:
achieving global/corporate profit optimality
goal congruence between divisions and group
fostering divisional autonomy and local decision making
the measurement of divisional financial performance via the generation of a recognised income
figure
the provision of pricing signals that induce decisions to improve corporate profitability.
(i)
(ii)
When division Jim has spare capacity the incremental cost to the company of producing Y is $35.
The cost of the external supply is $38. Therefore it is cheaper for the company if division Jim
supplies Y. The transfer price should be fixed at a price above $35, to provide an incentive for Jim to
supply and generate a contribution towards the recovery of fixed costs, and below $38 to
encourage Jam to buy. The price should be set so that both divisions, acting independently and in
their own interests, choose to trade at the set price.
The situation now requires a consideration of the opportunity cost of diverting resources away
from the supply of external customers. For every additional unit of Y produced and supplied to
Jam, Jim will have to sacrifice indirectly $10 in lost contribution from external sales ($42 $32). So
the relevant cost of making a unit of Y in these circumstances is $35 plus $10 i.e. $45. $45
represents the real cost of supplying division Jam with one unit of product Y. It is therefore better
for the company to purchase product Y from the external supplier for $38. We can ensure this
155
(c)
happens by fixing the transfer price of Y above $38, to discourage Jam from buying it from Jim. At a
price of $40, Jam would not choose to buy from Jim, and it would not be in the interest of Jim to
sell to the other division.
Unit variable costs to identify the incremental costs of producing the dierent products and services
sales prices in the external market to assess potential contribution towards overheads and profit
current and maximum capacity levels to ascertain the opportunity cost of lost sales
the limiting factors that are constraining the capacity so that the managers can take appropriate
action to expand capacity
the value of the shadow prices so that the managers can evaluate whether it is worthwhile to
acquire specific resources
the availability and prices of obtaining supplies from external suppliers (for make or buy decisions)
10. CTC
(a)
(i)
Statement of Product Profitability

2008
Bruno Kong
000
Sales units
180
40
150
50
7,200
2,160
7,500
2,625
Product fixed overheads
5,040
3,800
4,875
2,400
Product profit
1,240
2,475
Selling price per unit ($)

Sales revenue
Variable cost
Contribution
(ii)
(b)
000
2009
Leo
Total Bruno Kong
Leo
000
000
000
60
60
000
Total
120
40
48
50
3,600 18,300
1,440 6,225
4,800
1,440
2,400
840
4,320 11,520
1,728 4,008
2,160 12,075
2,040 8,240
3,360
2,400
1,560
1,340
2,592
2,100
7,512
5,840
960
220
492
1,672
1,650
120
Company fixed overheads
3,835
1,650
Profit/Loss
2,185
72
60
22
The statement of product profitability shows that CTC is forecast to achieve a profit of $2185
million in 2008 giving a profit:sales ratio of 119%. However, the forecast profit in 2009 is only
$22,000 which would give a profit:sales ratio of just 019%! Total sales volume in 2008 is 390,000
units which represent 975% utilisation of total annual capacity. In stark contrast, the total sales
volume in 2009 is forecast to be 240,000 units which represents 60% utilisation of total annual
capacity and shows the expected rapid decline in sales volumes of Bruno and Kong products. The
rapid decline in the sales of these two products is only oset to a relatively small extent by
increased sales volume from the Leo product. It is vital that a new product or products with healthy
contribution to sales ratios are introduced. Management should also undertake cost/benefit
analyses in order to assess the potential of extending the life of Bruno and Kong products.
(i)
Initial investment
Working capital
01 Jun
31 May
31 May
31 May
2008
2009
2010
2011
3,900,000
500,000
Contribution (at 50%)
Discount factor at 12%

DCF
700,000
2,000,000 4,500,000 2,500,000

1,600,000 1,440,000 1,296,000
Fixed overheads
Net cash flow
200,000
4,400,000
200,000
3,060,000
1,904,000
1000
0893
0797
0712
4,400,000
178,600
2,438,820
1,355,648
156
The negative net present value indicates that the introduction of Nellie the Elephant is not viable
on financial grounds.
(ii)
Let X = the change in the contribution to sales ratio (%)

For Nellie the Elephant to become financially viable, an increase in the contribution to sales ratio
(%) is required. This can be calculated as follows:
(4 X 0893) + (9 X 0797) + (5 X 0712)
= 0426932
i.e 3572X + 7173X + 356X
= 0426932
14305X = 0426932
X = 002985
This means that the required contribution to sales ratio (%) = 050 + 002985 = 052985 or 52985%.
This would result in a net present value = 0.
(Alternative solution methods would be accepted.)
(iii)
If no new products are available then CTC must look to boost revenues obtained from its existing
product portolio whilst seeking to reduce product specific fixed overheads and the companys
other fixed overheads. In order to do this attention should be focused on the marketing activities
currently undertaken.
CTC should consider selling all of its products in multi product packages as it might well be the
case that the increased contribution achieved from increased sales volumes would outweigh the
diminution in contribution arising from reductions in the selling price per unit of each product.
CTC could also apply target costing principles in order to reduce costs and thereby increase the
margins on each of its products. Value analysis should be undertaken in order to evaluate the
value-added features of each product. For example, the use of non-combustible materials in
manufacture would be a valued added feature of such products whereas the use of pins and metal
fastenings which are potentially harmful to children would obviously not comprise value added
features. CTC should focus on delivering value to the customer and in attempting to do
11. Costs and Quality

(a)
(b)
The path from A to:

A
higher costs and lower quality is the worst possible scenario which will probably result in business
failure.
B
higher costs and quality, the appropriateness depends on the market situation and how
competitors respond.
C
higher quality at constant costs, may be successful but depends on market situation and
competitors response.
D
improved quality and lower costs is certainly the most desirable path to follow. This will generate
long term business success if it can sustained.
E
lower costs while maintaining quality, may be successful in the short term but quality
improvements amongst competitors may create problems in market retention.
F
lower costs and quality, going down market, unlikely to be successful in increasingly auent
societies - may have limited success in specific markets.
Path D is most likely to bring business success.
Total Quality Management (TQM)
TQM is an approach that seeks to ensure that goods and services are delivered at the highest possible
standard. The underlying principle is that the costs of preventing deficient quality is less than the costs of
correcting poor quality. This denies the idea that improved quality can only be secured with greater
expenditure, but adopts the approach that improved quality will reduce costs.
157
Quality related costs are concerned with both achieving quality and failure to achieve quality. Quality
costs can categorised as:
Prevention costs - communicating the concept, training, establishing systems to deliver quality services
Appraisal costs - e.g. inspection and testing
Internal failure costs - wasted materials used in rejects, down time resulting from internal service
quality failures, resources devoted to dealing with complaints
External failure costs - loss of goodwill and future business, compensation paid to customers and
rectification costs
The TQM view is that by getting it right first time and every time, the prevention and appraisal costs will
be outweighed by the savings in failure costs, hence lower costs and improved quality are congruent
goals. TQM requires everyone in the organisation to have identified customers, whether external or
internal, so that a continuous service quality chain is maintained all the way through the organisation to
the final customer.
Just In Time (JIT)
JIT is a manufacturing and supply chain process that is intended to reduce inventory levels and improve
customer service by ensuring that customers receive their orders at the right time and in the right
quantity. The system should facilitate a smooth workflow throughout the business and reduce waste.
Goods are produced to meet customer needs directly, not for stock.
Cost reductions should arise from:
Lower raw material and finished goods inventory levels, therefore reduced holding costs
Reduced material handling
Frequently results in a reduction in the number of suppliers and lower administration and
communication costs
Guaranteed quality of supplies reduces inspection and rectification costs
Quality improvements arising from:
Fewer or even single sourcing of supplies strengthens the buyer-supplier relationship and is likely
to improve the quality.
The absence of customer stockholding compels the supplier (if they want continued business) to
guarantee the quality of the material that they deliver.
The necessity to work regularly and closer with hauliers strengthens the relationship with them.
The deliveries become high priority and more reliable.
Customers are not faced with the traditional problems of having to wait until their suppliers stocks
are replenished. The system is designed to respond to customers needs rapidly.
Direct focus on meeting an identified customers need, production is merely to add to an

anonymous stock pile.
Value Analysis
Is concerned with concentrating on activities that add value to the product/service as perceived by the
customer. It examines business activities and questions why they are being undertaken and what
contribution do they make. Value added activities includes designing products, producing output and
developing customer relationships. Non-value added activities include returning goods, inventory
holding checking on the quality of supplies received. Wherever possible eliminate the non-value added
activities.
158
Value analysis commences with a focus on the customer - what do they want, what do they regard as
significant in the buying decision: function, appearance, longevity or disposal value? This is concerned
with identifying what customers regard as quality and then providing it. Do not expend eort on what
they regard as unimportant. It is about clarifying what the constituents of quality is on the Costs and
Quality diagram. Having decided this there is a need to develop alternative designs, estimate costs and
evaluate alternatives.
Activity Based Costing (ABC)
ABC is concerned with attributing/assigning costs to cost units on the basis of the service received from
indirect activities e.g. public relations, recruitment, quality assurance general meetings. The organisation
needs to identify cost drivers - the specific activities that cause costs to arise e.g. number of orders taken,
telephone calls made, number of breakdowns or the number of visitors to an attraction
ABC intends to avoid the arbitrary allocation of overheads to products/services by identifying a causal link
between costs, activities and outputs. The increasing significance of overheads in the cost make up of
output intensifies the need to improve the apportionment of them. Accountants can contribute towards
providing better cost information to the value analysis referred to above. Product managers need to
know what they are getting for their money - what is the real cost of quality? What are the cost driving
activities that do not impact on quality? What activities that generate minimal costs have a significantly
favourable impact on quality?
The Balanced Scorecard (Kaplan and Norton)
The Balanced Scorecard provides a framework for a business to achieve its strategic objectives include
both financial and non-financial objectives. The approach claims that performance has four dimensions of
which the Customer Perspective is one - how does the business appear to the customers and the internal
perspective is another - what do we need to do to satisfy shareholders and customers, including the
monitoring of unit costs. The scorecard is concerned with monitoring and measuring the critical variables
that comprise the customer and internal perspective. The choice of variables for inclusion in the
scorecard is significant because the scorecard report is a design for action. Inappropriate indicators will
trigger damaging responses. For example, the organisation needs to monitor what factors customers
regard as contributing to improved quality, not what the business thinks it should provide. Therefore the
scorecards would be suitable for inclusion as quantifiable indicators on the axis on the Costs and Quality
diagram. The Balanced Scorecard attempts to improve the range and relationship between alternative
performance measures, in the case under discussion, costs and quality.
159
12. Marge LTD

(a)
Contribution summary (Ww 2, 4 & 5)

High
Order Medium
Low
High (0.2)
3,888
3,744
3,672
Medium (0.6)
3,055
3,185
3,120
Low (0.2)
2,322
2,268
2,376
High
Order Medium
Low
3,075
3,113.4
3,081.6
Availability
(b)
Expected value
High (0.2)
(i)
Maximum
The option oering the highest return is to place an order for 1,440,000 kg of seeds (HIGH).
(ii)
Maximin
Minimum contribution from:
High order = $2,322
Medium order
= $2,268
Low order
= $2,376
Therefore place a low order initially as this is preferable to the other options.
(iii)
Expected value
A medium order size oers the highest long run average value.
(c)
(d)
Maximax implies a management that is risk seeking. Maximin implies a risk averse management.
If the company knows in advance what level of seeds will be available it can then place the most
appropriate order for Duralin.
Consultants advice
Order
Contribution Probability
$000
High
Medium
Low
EV without consultants advice
Maximum value of consultants advice
$000
High
3,888
0.2
777.6
Medium
3,185
0.6
Low
2,376
0.2
1,911.0
475.2
3,163.8
3,113.4
50.4
160
Workings
1
Sales price per kg =
$0.80
Variable costs 65% =
$0.52
Contribution excluding Duralin
$0.28
Availability
High Medium Low

000kg 000kg 000kg
72,000 65,000 54,000
21,600 19.500 16.200
$6.048 $5,460 $4,536
1,440
1,300
1,080
Seeds
Output 30%
Contribution ($0.28)
Price paid per kg of Duralin

High (1.50)
Order Medium
Low (2.00)
Availability
Final order High
1.50
(1.75)
1.60
1.65
Medium
1.85
1.75
1.80
Low
2.05
2.10
2.00
High
Order
Low
Purchase High
(1,440kg)
2,160
Medium
2,304
2,376
Medium
(1,300kg)
2,405
2,275
2,340
Low (1,080kg)
2,214
2,268
2,160
$ per kg
Total price paid for Duralin

(kgs purchased times cost in W3)
Sampling working for contribution

Availability High - contribution before Duralin
Cost of Duralin if order high
Net contribution
Cost of Duralin if ordered medium
6,048
(2,160)
3,888
(2,304)
3,744
etc.
161
162

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