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Dyeing flowchart/wet processing technology
Flowchart

Singeing is the first steps of pre-treatment. It removes loose, hairy and projecting
fibers.
De-sizing is the second pre-treatment step. By this process gummy materials are
removed. Also size materials are removed.
Scouring is performed for removing impurities of the textile materials.

Bleaching is used to reduce natural color of the raw materials. Dyeing performance
depends on it a lot.
Mercerizing is special type of treatment (buyer requirement). It increases strength
and luster of the materials.
Dyeing is the main process where white material becomes decorated by different
colors. We have to know the depth of shade of the materials.
Printing is called localized dyeing. Different types of printing are done for giving
special appearance on colored or white fabric.

Finishing is the last treatment of wet processing. Different types of properties can
be added to the materials by different finishing effects.

Scouring
It is the pretreatment process of wet processing technology. Scouring is the first
stage of pretreatment. Before dyeing or printing of textile of materials, natural
fibers must pass through scouring. It is the process by which natural (oil, wax, gum,
fat, etc) as well as added (during fabrication process) impurities are removed
completely as possible. Especially hydrophobic character which is present in the
fiber of fabric is removed by this process.

Objectives:

Main purpose is to remove impurities from the textile materials

The textile materials leave in a highly absorptive condition without
undergoing any chemical or physical damage significantly
After scouring process, materials become suitable for next bleaching process.

Effects

Saponifiable oils and free fatty acids are converted into soaps
Pectose and pectin are changed into soluble salts of pectic acid
Proteins are hydrolyzed into soluble degradation products
Mineral matters are dissolved in the water
Unsaponifiable oils and waxes are emulsified by the soaps formed from
saponification (oil + caustic soda + water = soap + glycerin)
Dust particles are removed and held in suspension

Methods of scouring

Continuous process: In this process, scouring of the fabric is continuously

done in a J-Box. In this machine, pretreatment and dyeing processes are done
continuously. This type of application is very limited.
Discontinuous process: This type of process is also called batch process.
Here, scouring is done discontinuously in Kier Boiler, Jigger or Winch dyeing
machine. Before dyeing, different batch of lot is created.

Scouring is generally done for natural fiber. Better dyeing or printing performance
depends on better scouring of materials. It also depends on the shade of the fabric.
Generally it is important for light shade dyeing.

Bleaching
Bleaching is done to remove natural color which is inherent in the fiber. It is the
second step of pretreatment of textile materials as well as wet processing
technology. Bleaching process can be defined as the destruction of natural coloring
matter from the textile materials in order to achieve a clean white end product.
Different types of bleaching agent are used during bleaching.

Objectives

The main objective is to get a sufficiently high and uniform degree of

whiteness in the textile materials
To get a high and uniform absorptivity in the textile materials
Bleaching agent occur some damage to the textile materials. So, bleaching
must be accompanied with minimum fiber damage
To preserve a good user and technological properties of the textile materials.
The process must be ecologically and financially sensible
To accelerate the next dyeing process

Bleaching agents
Bleaching agent is alkaline in properties. Some are strong and some are weak in
alkaline nature. Following parameters for bleaching must be considered:

Chemical construction of bleaching agents and chemistry of bleaching

Concentration of bleaching agents and other chemicals which are used in the
bleaching process
Bleaching is generally done in alkaline medium of the bath. Bath pH decides
the performance of bleaching. So pH of the bath should be considered.
Temperature of the bath should be considered during process of bleaching
Bleaching performance also affected by duration of bleaching. So, time is an
important factor.
Materials and liquor ration also considered during bleaching process.
Scouring is done for removing impurities of fabric or fiber. If scouring process
is not successfully done then presence of impurities hamper the bleaching
performance. So, presence of impurities in the materials is important point for
bleaching operation.
Bleaching agents are sensitive to atmospheric condition. So storage condition
of bleaching agent is important. The place of storage should be neat, clean
and dry. Otherwise the working activities could be damaged.

Bleaching is done in different types of machine. Bleaching agents are manufactured

by different types of chemical manufacturing companies. In bleaching, Hydrogen
peroxide is widely used for bleaching.

Bleaching agents are applied on different types of fiber. Textile fiber maybe natural
or synthetic. Agents are mainly classified as follows:

Oxidizing agents

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)

Sodium Hypochloride (NaOCl)
Sodium chlorite (NaClO2)
Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7)
Potassium permanganate (KMnO4)
Per acetic acid(CH3COOH)
Sodium peroxide (Na2O2)

Reducing agents

Ferrous sulphate (FeSO4)

Zinc dust (ZnO)
Stannous chloride(SnCl2)
Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
Sodium hyposulphite (Na2S2O2)
Glucose
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S)

Hydrogen peroxide is called universal agent because of following properties

Very gentle bleaching agent

Very easy for application
Permanent treatment is possible
Easy to apply with any types of fiber

Application

Discontinuous or semi-continuous process: In this method, bleaching agent is

applied on fiber discontinuously or semi continuously. Bleaching tank, Jigger,
Padder, Kier and many others used for treatment with bleaching agent
Continuous process: In this process, bleaching treatment is performed as per
sequence of treatment. J-Box is used for continuous process.

During bleaching, following points must be considered for better performance:

Bleaching Agent
Wetting agent
Sequestering agent
Stabilizer
Alkali
Material and liquor ration
Temperature
Application time.

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Mercerization

Mercerizing is done after bleaching. Bleaching is enough for prepared fabrics for
dyeing and printing but mercerizing is done for added advantage to the fabric.
Luster and strength of the fabric increases for mercerizing process. Cotton
mercerizing is the most popular operation. It is done in three basic stages of
materials:

Yarn stage
o Hank form
o Package form
o Beam form
Fabric stage
o White fabric
o Woven fabric
Knitted fabric
o Dyed fabric stage

Methods of application

Yarn of fabric can be mercerized by J-Box. Mercerizing is a continuous process. At

first fabric is hanked by the roller in a J-Box. Fabric is passed through a solution
which contains a 23% NaOH at room temperature. Fabric is passed for 4-5min. Then
fabric is squeezed by the squeezed roller and washing is done in a bath at 85 0C.
Then it is immersed in an acid solution bath which contains 5% CH 3COOH. After that,
it is washed in another bath at 850C.

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Denim mercerization:

In fabric market, mercerization plays an important role. Mercerized fabric is more

suitable than the unmercerized fabric. In general, mercerizing of cotton is done
before dyeing but for denim, mercerizing is done after dyeing and weaving

Steps of fabric processing in mercerization machine:

Washing
Closed tank-1: Desizing using detergent
Impregnation tank: Desizing using detergent
Stabilization tank: Water wash
Closed Tank-2: Water wash
Closed Tank-3: Water wash
Closed Tank-4: Water wash
Closed Tank-5: Water wash

Mercerization:
Closed Tank-1: Water wash
Impregnation Tank: Caustic (NaOH) solution
Stabilization Tank: Steam Supply
Closed Tank-2: Water wash
Closed Tank-3: Water wash
Closed Tank-4: Water wash (800C)
Closed Tank-5: Acetic Acid (CH3COOH)
Temperature in mercerizing: 410C-430C
Caustic (NaOH) concentration in bath 250g/l (500g/l)
Bath pick-up: 95%

Printing
Printing is another part of wet processing technology. Printing is carried out after the
pretreatment of fabric or after dyeing of the fabric. It is carried out for producing
attractive designs on fabric or other materials. The printing is described as localized
dyeing, i.e. dyes or pigments are applied locally or discontinuously to produce the
various attractive designs on fabric. The main objectives of printing are the
production of attractive designs with well defined boundaries made by the artistic
arrangement of a motif or motifs in one or more colors. Printed fabrics are well
protected from friction and washing if dyes or pigments are applied properly on
fiber. A strong bonding is formed between dyes and fiber.

Steps:

At first, fabrics should be pretreated before printing

Then, making an impression of the print paste on the fabric by using any of
the printing methods, which is required

Printing paste must be prepared by using printing ingredients; printing

performance depends on a well printing paste

After that, drying is carried out on printed fabric

Steaming is carried out on printed fabric for fixing the printing paste on the
fabric
At last, printing fabrics are neutralized by the after-treatment process.

Styles of printing

Direct style

Resist style
o White resist
o Color resist

Discharge style
o White discharge
o Color discharge

Methods: Printing is carried out with different instruments. Different methods are
used to produce impression on fabric. Methods of printing differ on the demand of
user. Also, it depends on the materials type and type of purpose of end product use.
The following methods can be applied:

Block
Burn-out
Blotch

Digital
Duplex
Engraved roller
Electrostatic
Flock
Ink-jet
Jet spray
Photo
Rotary screen
Screen (Flat screen)
Stencil
Spray
Transfer
Warp
Special method (Tie dyeing and batik printing)

Dye Terminology
Exhaustion
Proportion of dye taken up by the fiber at any stage of the process relative to the
amount originally available

Fixation
Proportion of dye remaining on the fiber at the end of the process relative to the
amount originally available

Fastness
Resistance to fading due to washing, light, etc.

Advantages

Simplifies dyeing process

Improve fastness

Disadvantages

Hydrolysis accompanies fixation

o Waste of dye
o Extra wash step
Colored effluent discharge processing
Large amount of electrolytes used
o Basic conditions create anionic repulsion of dye and fiber

CI number (Color Index International)

Generic color name followed by a code to indicate the shade or intensity of the
color. E.g. Yellow 86.

CAS registry number

CAS Registry Numbers, also referred to as CASRNs and CAS Numbers, are
unique numerical identifiers assigned by the Chemical Abstracts Service to every
chemical substance described in the open scientific literature (currently including
those described from at least 1957 through the present), including organic and
inorganic compounds, minerals, isotopes, alloys and nonstructurable materials
(UVCBs, of unknown, variable composition, or biological origin).
A CAS Registry Number has no inherent meaning but is assigned in sequential,
increasing order when the substance is identified by CAS scientists for inclusion in
the CAS REGISTRY database.
A CASRN is separated by hyphens into three parts, the first consisting of up to 7
digits, the second consisting of two digits, and the third consisting of a single digit
serving as a check digit. The check digit is found by taking the last digit times 1, the
previous digit times 2, the previous digit times 3 etc., adding all these up and
computing the sum modulo 10. For example, the CAS number of water is 7732-18-5:
the checksum 5 is calculated as (81 + 12 + 23 + 34 + 75 + 76) = 105;
105 mod 10 = 5.

Direct dyes
Direct dyes are sodium salt of sulphonic acid and most of them contain an azo
group as the main chromophore. Direct dye dyeing is carried out in alkaline
condition. This dyeing process is done comparatively in low temperature. After
absorbing dyes it tends to bleeding of dyes which produce unevenness of shade, to
resist these different types of after treatment is done.

Direct dyes are anionic dyes substantive to cellulosic fibers when applied from an
aqueous bath containing electrolyte. Many of them also dye protein fibers. Direct
dyes are very easy to apply and available in market.

Properties

Water soluble
Anionic in nature
Needs electrolyte for exhaustion
Carried out in alkaline condition
Fastness properties are average, especially wet fastness
Fastness properties are improved by after treatment
Not widely used as compared with reactive dyes
Comparatively cheap in price
Used for cheap goods for local market
Not suitable to dye cellulosic fiber.

Reactive dyes
They are the most common and most used dyes all over the world. Most of the
dyeing operation of natural fibers is done by them. They have a worldwide
acceptance of the dyeing technologist for dyeing cotton. It is the only class of dyes
which makes covalent bond with the fiber and becomes a part of it.

Classification:
By chemical
Chlorotriazine dyes (MCT)
Vinyl sulphone dyes (VS)
Heterocyclic helogen containing dyes (HHC)
Mixed dyes (MCT-VS)
By application methods of temperature:
Cold brand: Applied in very low temperature. Temperature lies between 25 0500C. They are highly reactive with fiber on this temperature
Medium brand: Applied in a medium temperature range of 40 0-600C. Their
reactivity is medium with fiber.
Low brand: Has very low reactive properties with fiber in comparison with
medium and high brand reactive dyes. Dyeing is carried out on 60 0-900C.

Properties

Anionic in nature
Water soluble
Better wash and light fastness properties
Better substantivity
Form strong covalent bond with cellulosic fiber

Alkaline condition is required for dyeing

Electrolyte is must for exhaustion of dyes in the fiber
A certain amount of dyes are hydrolyzed during application
Wide range of color can be produced with reactive dyes
Comparatively cheap in price

Influencing factors

pH: Reactive dyeing is done in alkaline condition, so pH should be controlled

between 11-11.5
Temperature: depends on the brand of reactive dyes
Concentration of electrolyte: Depends on type of shade
Time: Dyeing time should be between 60-90min
Liquor ratio: Huge amount of water is used during dyeing operation. Higher
the liquor ratio, better the efficiency of dyeing.

Basic Dyes: Used mainly in Jute and derivatives

Sulphur Dyes
Sulphur dyes are one of the most used dyes for producing bright black and brown
shade on cellulosic fiber products. The chemistry of sulphur dyes dyeing is near
similar to vat dyes dyeing. In both cases, final color is developed by oxidation
process. Sulphur dyes are preferable for black shade production. The dyeing is
carried out in alkaline condition. They are used for both dyeing and printing.

Properties

Water insoluble
Needs solubilization for application (with reducing agent)
Oxidation is needed for final color development
Applied in alkaline condition
Electrolyte can be added in the dye to enhance exhaustion of dyes
Fastness properties are average
Best suitable for producing black and brown shade on the textile materials.
Mainly applied on cotton, viscose and staple fiber
Exhaustion properties are good.
Most of the time dyeing is carried out in 80-95 degree Celsius.
Comparatively cheap in price.

Disadvantages

Bronziness of shade: For this defect some white spot can appear in fabric
Sulphur black tendency

Azoic color
Azoic color is produced by combination of Naphtha or coupling component and
Diazo component. Production procedure of Azoic color is different from other dyes
production process. Azoic color is different from other dye and its application
process is also different. Azoic color is called Ice color or Magic Color because it
needs low temperature and after coupling color is produced within few seconds.
Color fastness properties are good to excellent.

Properties

Water insoluble
Composed of two components: coupling and Diazo
For color production, coupling is necessary
Coupling is done in alkaline condition
Applicable mainly for cellulosic fibers
Time of application is lengthy
Very bright shade can be produced by Azoic color
Fastness property is good to excellent
Comparatively cheap in price
Dyeing process is run by three processes Naphtholation, Diazotization and
Coupling
Final color is produced within few seconds after immersing the textile
materials in the dye solution.
Azoic color is used for coloring small amount of textile materials dyeing. It is
suitable for small scale industry. It is not as popular as reactive or disperses
dye.

Vat dyes
Vat dyes application process is near similar to sulphur dyes. They are used for
coloring cellulosic fiber, especially cotton fiber. It is widely used for dyeing of cotton
yarns which is used for producing jeans or denim product.
Vat dyes can be applied in a vessel for coloration of textile products. Vat dyes are
natural coloring materials which are solubilized in a vat by the fermentation process
called vatting.

Properties

Natural coloring dyes

Insoluble in water
Vatting process need for making insoluble vat dyes into soluble form
Final color is developed by oxidation process
Vatting is done in alkaline condition

Fastness properties of the dyes are excellent but its rubbing properties are
not so good
Sometimes, it causes different types of skin disease
Mainly used for coloring cellulosic fibers
Stability of color in fiber is excellent
Wide range of color can be achieved
Application of vat dyes is limited in practical life
Vat dyes are expensive in price
Most denim product is colored by vat dyes.

Disperse dyes
Disperse dyes are synthetic dyes. They are one kind of organic substances which is
free of ionizing group. Disperse dyes are less soluble in water and used for dyeing
synthetic textile materials. Disperse dyes are mainly used for dyeing polyester yarn
of fabric. Disperse dyes are so called because it is non soluble and molecularly
dispersed therefore dispersing agent is necessary for coloration with disperse dyes

Properties

Organic substance which is free of ionizing group

Non soluble in nature
Insoluble in water
Dispersing agent needed for dyeing with disperse dyes.
Fastness properties specially wet and light fastness is good to excellent
Applied in acidic condition
Widely used for dyeing synthetic fibers. Polyester fiber is dyed by disperse
dyes but nylon, acrylic can also be dyed with this
Disperse dyes dyeing is carried out in high temperature
In some case, carrier method is applied for dyeing of polyester with disperse
dyes
Disperse dyes are economical
Molecular size of disperse dyes are smaller than other dyes
Disperse dyes are derivatives of azo, anthroquinone, nitro and quinine groups