3-3 Outlet Structures

Knox County Tennessee Stormwater Management Manual
3.3 Outlet Structures

3.3.1
Symbols and Definitions
To provide consistency within this section as well as throughout this manual, the symbols listed in
Table 3-21 will be used. These symbols were selected because of their wide use in technical
publications. In some cases, the same symbol is used in existing publications for more than one
definition. Where this occurs in this section, the symbol will be defined where it occurs in the text
or equations.
Table 3-21. Symbols and Definitions for Outlet Structures

Symbol
A,a
Am
Ap
B
Cw
Cp
CPv
d
D
g
H
HC
km
kp
Kg
L
n
Q,q
Qf
QS
Vu
WQv
w
x
Definition
Cross sectional or surface area
Drainage area
Cross sectional area of all holes (perforated riser)
Breadth of weir
Weir coefficient or Discharge coefficient
Discharge coefficient for perforations
Channel protection volume
Change in elevation
Depth of basin or diameter of pipe
Acceleration due to gravity
Head on structure
Height of weir crest above channel bottom
Coefficient of minor losses (1.0)
Pipe friction coefficient
Bar shape factor
Length
Mannings n
Peak inflow or outflow rate
Free flow
Submergence flow
Approach velocity
Water quality volume
Maximum cross sectional bar width facing the flow
Minimum clear spacing between bars
Angle of v-notch
Angle of the grate with respect to the horizontal
Volume 2 (Technical Guidance)
Units
ft2
acres (or mi2)
ft2
ft
ac-ft
ft
ft
ft/s2
ft
ft
ft
cfs, in
cfs
cfs
ft/s
ac-ft
in
in
degrees
degrees
3.3.2
Primary Outlets
Primary outlets provide the critical function of the regulation of flow for structural stormwater BMPs.
The different types of outlets consist of a single stage outlet structure, or several outlet structures
combined to provide multi-stage outlet control. Figure 3-17 shows several typical primary outlets.
For a single stage system, the stormwater facility can be designed as a simple pipe or culvert. For
multi-stage control structures such as an extended detention pond used for control of WQv, CPv,
Qp2, Qp10, Qp25, and Qp100, the inlet is designed considering a range of design flows. A stagedischarge curve is developed for the full range of flows that the structure would experience. The
outlets may be housed in a riser or several pipes or culverts in a single location.
This section provides an overview of outlet structure hydraulics and design for stormwater storage
facilities. The design engineer is referred to an appropriate hydraulics text for additional
information on outlet structures not contained in this section.
Figure 3-17. Typical Primary Outlets
(a) PIPE OR BOX CULVERT
(d) WEIR OVERFLOW SPILLWAY
Side Elevation
(b) RISER STRUCTURE

(single and multi-level outlets)
Front Elevation
(e) SLOTTED OUTLET

(c) DROP INLET
There are a wide variety of outlet structure types, the most common of which are covered in this
section. Descriptions and equations are provided for the following outlet types for use in
stormwater facility design.
orifice
perforated riser
pipe/culvert
sharp-crested weir
broad-crested weir
V-notch weir
proportional weir
combination outlet
Each of these outlet types has a different design purpose and application. The control of WQv and
CPv flows are normally handled with smaller, more protected outlet structures such as reverse
slope pipes, hooded orifices, orifices located within screened pipes or risers, perforated plates or
risers, and V-notch weirs. Larger discharges, such as Qp2, Qp10, Qp25 and Qp100 flows, are
Page 1-2
typically handled through a riser with different sized openings, through an overflow at the top of a
riser (drop inlet structure), or a flow over a broad crested weir or spillway. Overflow weirs can also
be of different heights and configurations to handle control of multiple design flows.
An orifice is a circular or rectangular opening of a prescribed shape and size. The flow rate is
dependant on the height of the water above the opening and the size and edge treatment of the
orifice. For a single orifice, as illustrated in Figure 3-18(a), the orifice discharge can be determined
using the standard orifice equation shown in Equation 3-38 below. Figure 3-18(c) shows a
perforated riser that has multiple openings.
Q = CA(2gH )
0.5
Equation 3-38
where:
Q
C
A
g
H
= the orifice flow discharge (cfs)

= discharge coefficient
2
= cross-sectional area of orifice or pipe (ft )
2
= acceleration due to gravity (32.2 ft/s )
= effective head on the orifice, from the center of orifice to the water surface
Figure 3-18. Orifice Definitions
H
D
(a)
Headwater
Tailwater
D
(b)
H1
H2
H3
(c)
Page 1-3
When the material used for the orifice is thinner than the orifice diameter (i.e., it has sharp edges),
a discharge coefficient of 0.6 should be used. When the material is thicker than the orifice
diameter a coefficient of 0.80 should be used. If the edges are rounded, a coefficient of 0.92 can
be used. Equation 3-39 presents a simplification of the orifice equation that can be used for a
round orifice with square-edged entrance conditions:
Q = 0.6 A(2 gH )
0.5
Equation 3-39
where:
Q
C
A
g
H
D
= 3.78D 2 H 0.5
= the orifice flow discharge (cfs)

= discharge coefficient
2
= cross-sectional area of orifice or pipe (ft )
2
= effective head on the orifice, from the center of orifice to the water surface
= diameter of orifice or pipe (ft)
If the orifice discharges as a free outfall, then the effective head is measured from the center of the
orifice to the upstream (headwater) surface elevation. If the orifice discharge is submerged, then
the effective head is the difference in elevation of the headwater and tailwater surfaces as shown in
Figure 3-18(b).
Flow through multiple orifices, such as the perforated plate shown in Figure 3-18(c), can be
computed by summing the flow through individual orifices. For multiple orifices of the same size
and under the influence of the same effective head, the total flow can be determined by multiplying
the discharge for a single orifice by the number of openings.
Perforated orifice plates for the control of discharge can be of any size and configuration.
However, the Denver Urban Drainage and Flood Control District has developed standardized
dimensions that have worked well. These are presented in Table 3-22.
Table 3-22. Circular Perforation Sizing
(Source: Urban Drainage and Flood Control District, 1999)
Hole
Diameter
(in)
Minimum Column Hole

Centerline Spacing
0.25
0.3125
0.375
0.4375
0.50
0.5625
0.625
0.6875
0.75
0.8125
0.875
0.9375
1.0
1.0625
1.125
1.1875
1.25
1.3125
(in)
1
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
Flow Area per Row (in2)
N=1
0.05
0.08
0.11
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.31
0.37
0.44
0.52
0.6
0.69
0.79
0.89
0.99
1.11
1.23
1.35
N=2
0.1
0.15
0.22
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.62
0.74
0.88
1.04
1.2
1.38
1.58
1.78
1.98
2.22
2.46
2.7
N=3
0.15
0.23
0.33
0.45
0.6
0.75
0.93
1.11
1.32
1.56
1.8
2.07
2.37
2.67
2.97
3.33
3.69
4.05
Page 1-4
Hole
Diameter
(in)
Minimum Column Hole

Centerline Spacing
Flow Area per Row (in2)
(in)
N=1
N=2
4
1.48
2.96
4
1.62
3.24
4
1.77
3.54
4
1.92
3.84
4
2.07
4.14
4
2.24
4.48
4
2.41
4.82
4
2.58
5.16
4
2.76
5.52
4
2.95
5.9
4
3.14
6.28
N = Number of columns of perforations
1.375
1.4375
1.50
1.5625
1.625
1.6875
1.75
1.8125
1.875
1.9375
2.0
Minimum
steel plate
thickness
0.25
0.3125
N=3
4.44
4.86
5.31
5.76
6.21
6.72
7.23
7.74
8.28
8.85
9.42
0.375
The vertical spacing between orifice row hole centerlines is always 4-inches.
For rectangular slots, the slot height is normally two inches with variable slot width. Only one
column of rectangular slots is allowed.
Figure 3-19 provides a schematic of an orifice plate outlet structure for a wet ED pond showing the
design pool elevations and the flow control mechanisms. For simplicity, the outlets for the 2-year
and 10-year pools are not shown.
.Figure 3-19. Schematic of Orifice Plate Outlet Structure
TRASH RACKS
TOP OF EMBANKMENT
1.0 FT. MINIMUM FREEBOARD
0.1 FT. MINIMUM
100 YR. POOL
SPILLWAY
25 YR. POOL
CHANNEL PROTECTION CPv
WATER QUALITY ED
PERMANENT POOL
TRASH RACK
ORIFICE PLATES
A special kind of orifice is a perforated riser as illustrated in Figure 3-20. In the perforated riser, an
orifice plate at the bottom of the riser, or in the outlet pipe just downstream from the elbow at the
bottom of the riser, controls the flow. It is important that the perforations in the riser convey more
flow than the orifice plate so that the perforations do not become the control. Referring to Figure
3-20, Equation 3-40 presents a formula that has been developed to estimate the total flow capacity
Page 1-5
of the perforated section (McEnroe, 1988).
Q = Cp
Equation 3-40
where:
Q
Cp
Ap
g
Hs
2 Ap
3H s
2g H
= discharge (cfs)
= discharge coefficient for perforations (normally 0.61)
2
= cross-sectional area of all the holes (ft )
2
= distance from S/2 below the lowest row of holes to S/2 above the top row (ft)
Figure 3-20. Perforated Riser
Discharge pipes are often used as outlet structures for stormwater control facilities. The design of
these pipes can be for either single or multi-stage discharges. A reverse-slope, underwater pipe is
often used for water quality or channel protection outlets.
Pipes smaller than 12 inches in diameter may be analyzed as a submerged orifice as long as H/D
is greater than 1.5. Note: For low flow conditions, when the flow reaches and begins to overflow
the pipe, discharge over the weir is the controlling flow. As the stage increases the controlling flow
will transition to the flow through the orifice. Pipes greater than 12 inches in diameter should be
analyzed as a discharge pipe with headwater and tailwater effects taken into account. The outlet
Page 1-6
hydraulics for pipe flow can be determined from the outlet control culvert nomographs and
procedures given in Chapter 7 or by using Equation 3-40 (NRCS, 1984). Equation 3-41 is a
general pipe flow equation that is derived through the use of the Bernoulli and continuity principles.
Q=a
Equation 3-41
where:
Q
a
g
H
km
kp
L
0.5
(2 gH )
(1 + k
+ k p L)
= discharge (cfs)
2
= pipe cross sectional area (ft )
2
= acceleration of gravity (ft/s )
= elevation head differential (ft)
= coefficient of minor losses (use 1.0)
2
4/3
= Mannings n friction head loss / unit length = 5087*n /dia(in)
= pipe length (ft)
If the overflow portion of a weir has a sharp, thin leading edge such that the water springs clear of
the weir plate as it overflows, the overflow is termed a sharp-crested weir. The weirs crest is the
edge where the water flows over the weir. If the sides of the weir also cause the flow through the
weir to contract, it is termed an end-contracted sharp-crested weir. Sharp-crested weirs have
stable stage-discharge relations and are often used as a flow measurement device. A sharpcrested weir with no end contractions is illustrated in Figure 3-21(a). The discharge equation for
this configuration is presented in Equation 3-42 (Chow, 1959).
Q = 3.27 + 0.4
Equation 3-42
where:
Q
H
Hc
L
H
Hc
LH 1.5
= discharge (cfs)
= head above weir crest excluding velocity head (ft)
= height of weir crest above channel bottom (ft)
= horizontal weir length (ft)
Figure 3-21. Sharp-Crested Weir
(a) No end contractions
(b) With end contractions
H1
Hc
Hc
H2
(c) Section view

Page 1-7
A sharp-crested weir with two end contractions is illustrated in Figure 3-21(b). Equation 3-43
presents the discharge equation for this configuration (Chow, 1959).
Q = 3.27 + 0.4
Equation 3-43
where:
Q
H
Hc
L
H
Hc
(L 0.2 H )H 1.5
= discharge (cfs)
= head above weir crest excluding velocity head (ft)
= height of weir crest above channel bottom (ft)
= horizontal weir length (ft)
A sharp-crested weir will be affected by submergence when the tailwater rises above the weir crest
elevation. The result will be that the discharge over the weir will be reduced. Equation 3-44
presents the discharge equation for a submerged sharp-crested weir (Brater and King, 1976).
H2
Qs = Q f 1
H1
Equation 3-44
where:
Qs
Qf
H1
H2
1.5
0.385
= submergence flow (cfs)

= free flow (cfs)
= upstream head above crest (ft)
= downstream head above crest (ft)
! "
A weir in the form of a relatively long raised channel control crest section is a broad-crested weir as shown
in Figure 3-22. The flow control section can have different shapes, such as triangular or circular. True broadcrested weir flow occurs when upstream head above the crest is between the limits of about 1/20 and 1/2 the
crest length in the direction of flow. For example, a thick wall or a flat stop log can act like a sharp-crested
weir when the approach head is large enough that the flow springs from the upstream corner. If upstream
head is small enough relative to the top profile length, the stop log can act like a broad-crested weir (USBR,
1997).
Figure 3-22. Broad-Crested Weir
L
b
Equation 3-45 presents the discharge equation for a broad-crested weir (Brater and King, 1976).
Equation 3-45
where:
Q
C
Q = CLH 1.5
= discharge (cfs)
= broad-crested weir coefficient
Page 1-8
L
H
= broad-crested weir length perpendicular to flow (ft)

= head above weir crest (ft)
If the upstream edge of a broad-crested weir is so rounded as to prevent flow contraction and if the
slope of the crest is as great as the friction head loss, flow will pass through critical depth at the
weir crest; this gives the maximum C value of 3.087. For sharp corners on the broad-crested weir,
a minimum C value of 2.6 should be used. Information on C values as a function of weir crest
breadth and head is given in Table 3-23.
Table 3-23. Broad-Crested Weir Coefficient (C) Values

(Source: Brater and King, 1976)
Measured
Head (H)
in feet
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
4.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
2.80
2.92
3.08
3.30
3.32
3.32
3.32
3.32
3.32
3.32
3.32
3.32
3.32
3.32
3.32
3.32
3.32
2.75
2.80
2.89
3.04
3.14
3.20
3.26
3.29
3.32
3.31
3.32
3.32
3.32
3.32
3.32
3.32
3.32
2.69
2.72
2.75
2.85
2.98
3.08
3.20
3.28
3.31
3.30
3.31
3.32
3.32
3.32
3.32
3.32
3.32
2.62
2.64
2.64
2.68
2.75
2.86
2.92
3.07
3.07
3.03
3.28
3.32
3.32
3.32
3.32
3.32
3.32
2.54
2.61
2.61
2.60
2.66
2.70
2.77
2.89
2.88
2.85
3.07
3.20
3.32
3.32
3.32
3.32
3.32
2.48
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.64
2.65
2.68
2.75
2.74
2.76
2.89
3.05
3.19
3.32
3.32
3.32
3.32
2.44
2.58
2.68
2.67
2.65
2.64
2.64
2.68
2.68
2.27
2.81
2.92
2.97
3.07
3.32
3.32
3.32
2.38
2.54
2.69
2.68
2.67
2.67
2.65
2.66
2.66
2.68
2.72
2.73
2.76
2.79
2.88
3.07
3.32
2.34
2.50
2.70
2.68
2.68
2.66
2.65
2.65
2.65
2.65
2.67
2.66
2.68
2.70
2.74
2.79
2.88
2.49
2.56
2.70
2.69
2.68
2.69
2.67
2.64
2.64
2.64
2.64
2.64
2.64
2.64
2.64
2.64
2.64
2.68
2.70
2.70
2.64
2.63
2.64
2.64
2.63
2.63
2.63
2.63
2.63
2.63
2.63
2.63
2.63
2.63
Weir Crest Breadth (b) in feet
1 - Measured at least 2.5H upstream of the weir.
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Equation 3-46 presents the discharge equation for a V-notch weir (Brater and King, 1976).
Figure 3-23 presents an example V-notch weir.
Q = 2.5 tan
Equation 3-46
where:
H 2.5
= discharge (cfs)
= angle of V-notch (degrees)
= head on apex of notch (ft)
&
Although more complex to design and construct, a proportional weir may significantly reduce the
required storage volume for a given site. The proportional weir is distinguished from other control
devices by having a linear head-discharge relationship achieved by allowing the discharge area to
vary non-linearly with head. A typical proportional weir is shown in Figure 3-24.
Page 1-9
Figure 3-23. V-Notch Weir

A
/2
Section A-A
Figure 3-24. Proportional Weir Dimensions
a
b
Equations 3-47 and 3-48 present the design equations for proportional weirs (Sandvik, 1985).
a
3
Equation 3-47
Q = 4.97 a 0.5b H
Equation 3-48
x
1
y
= 1
arctan
b
3.17
a
where:
0.5
Q
= discharge (cfs)
Dimensions a, b, H, x, and y are shown in Figure 3-24
'
()
Combinations of orifices, weirs and pipes are typically used to provide multi-stage outlet control for
different control volumes/discharges within a storage facility (i.e., WQv, CPv, Qp2, Qp10, Qp25 and
Qp100). The use of a combination outlet requires the construction of a composite stage-discharge
curve suitable for control of multiple storm flows. An example composite curve is presented in
Page 1-10
Figure 3-25. The design of multi-stage combination outlets is discussed in detail in Section 3.3.4.
Figure 3-25. Composite Stage-Discharge Curve

103.5
103.0
Elevation (ft)
102.5
102.0
Secondary O utlet
(Spillway)
101.5
Riser Capacity
101.0
Prim ary O utlet
100.5
Total O utflow
100.0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Discharge (cfs)
There are generally of two types of combination outlets: shared outlet control structures and
separate outlet controls. Shared outlet control is typically a number of individual outlet openings
(orifices), weirs or drops at different elevations on a riser pipe or box which all flow to a common
larger conduit or pipe. Figure 3-26 shows an example of a riser designed for a wet pond. The
orifice plate outlet structure in Figure 3-20 is another example of a combination outlet.
Figure 3-26. Schematic of Shared Outlet Control Structure

1 0 'M IN IM U M
T O P W ID T H
TOP O F EM BANKM ENT
1 .0 F T . M IN I M U M
FREEBOARD
0 .1 F T . M IN IM U M
100 YR .
EM ERGENCY
S P IL L W A Y C R E S T
25 YR .
SLO T
1
3
SLO T
CPv
1 M AX.
W Q v E .D .
G ATE
VALVE
PROPO SED GRADE
GATE
VALVE
PERM . POO L
CO NCRETE
H EAD W ALL
D . I.P .
E .D . P IP E
CONCRETE
B O X R IS E R
S A N D F IL T E R
D IA P H R A G M
E X IS T .
GROUND
GATE
VALVE
POND
BOTTOM
RCP BARREL
4.0'MIN.
P O N D D R A IN
P IP E
IM P E R M E A B L E
C UTO FF TRENCH
R IP - R A P C H A N N E L
Page 1-11
Separate outlet controls are less common and may consist of several pipe or culvert outlets at
different levels in the storage facility that are either discharged separately or are combined to
discharge at a single location.
3.3.3
The Design of Extended Detention Outlets
* +
Extended detention (ED) orifice sizing is required in design applications that provide extended
detention for downstream channel protection volume control (CPv) or the ED portion of the water
quality volume (WQv). In both cases an extended detention orifice or reverse slope pipe can be
used for the outlet. For a structural control facility providing both WQv extended detention and CPv
control (wet ED pond, micropool ED pond, and shallow ED wetland), there will be a need to design
two outlet orifices one for the water quality control outlet and one for the channel protection
drawdown.
(The following procedures are based on the water quality outlet design procedures included in the
Virginia Stormwater Management Handbook, 1999)
The outlet hydraulics for peak control design (Qp2, Qp10, Qp25 and Qp100) is usually straightforward
in that an outlet is selected that will limit the peak flow to some predetermined maximum. Since
volume and the time required for water to exit the storage facility are not usually considered, the
outlet design can easily be calculated and routing procedures used to determine if quantity design
criteria are met.
However, in an extended detention facility for water quality treatment or downstream channel
protection, the storage volume is detained and released over a specified amount of time (e.g., no
less than 24-hours). The release period is a brim drawdown time, beginning at the time of peak
storage of the water quality volume until the entire calculated volume drains out of the basin. This
assumes that the brim volume is present in the basin prior to any discharge. In reality, however,
water is flowing out of the basin prior to the full or brim volume being reached. Therefore, the
extended detention outlet can be sized using either of the following two methods:
1.
Use the maximum hydraulic head associated with the storage volume and maximum flow, and calculate
the orifice size needed to achieve the required drawdown time, and route the volume through the basin to
verify the actual storage volume used and the drawdown time.
2.
Approximate the orifice size using the average hydraulic head associated with the storage volume and
the required drawdown time.
These two procedures are outlined in the examples below.
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Page 1-12
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Small low flow orifices such as those used for extended detention applications can easily clog,
preventing the structural control from meeting its design purpose(s) and potentially causing
adverse impacts. Therefore, extended detention orifices need to be adequately protected from
clogging. There are a number of different anti-clogging designs, as described in the following
paragraphs.
The use of a reverse slope pipe attached to a riser for a stormwater pond or wetland with a
permanent pool. This configuration is presented in Figure 3-27. The inlet is submerged 1 foot
below the elevation of the permanent pool to prevent floatables from clogging the pipe and to avoid
Page 1-13
discharging warmer water at the surface of the pond.
Figure 3-27. Reverse Slope Pipe Outlet
The use of a hooded outlet for a stormwater pond or wetland with a permanent pool. This
configuration is shown in Figures 3-28 and 3-29.
Internal orifice protection through the use of an over-perforated vertical stand pipe with -inch
orifices or slots that are protected by wirecloth and a stone filtering jacket. This configuration is
shown in Figure 3-30.
Internal orifice protection through the use of adjustable gate valves can achieve an equivalent
orifice diameter. This configuration is not shown in a figure.
Figure 3-28. Hooded Outlet
Page 1-14
Figure 3-29. Half-Round CMP Orifice Hood
Figure 3-30. Perforated Stand-pipe Orifice Protection
Page 1-15
3.3.4
Multi-Stage Outlet Design
A combination outlet such as a multiple orifice plate system or multi-stage riser is often used to
provide adequate hydraulic outlet controls for the different design requirements (e.g., WQv, CPv,
Qp2, Qp10, Qp25 and Qp100) for stormwater ponds, stormwater wetlands and detention-only facilities.
Separate openings or devices at different elevations are used to control the rate of discharge from
a facility during multiple design storms. Figure 3-26 (shown previously) is an example of multistage combination outlet systems.
A design engineer may be creative to provide the most economical and hydraulically efficient outlet
design possible in designing a multi-stage outlet. Many iterative routings are usually required to
arrive at a minimum structure size and storage volume that provides proper control. The stagedischarge table or rating curve is a composite (previously shown in Figure 3-25) of the different
outlets that are used for different elevations within the multi-stage riser.
Below are the steps for designing a multi-stage outlet. Note that if a structural control facility will
not control one or more of the required storage volumes (WQv, CPv, Qp2, Qp10, Qp25, and Qp100),
then that step in the procedure is skipped.
1.
Determine Stormwater Control Volumes. Using the procedures from Sections 3.1 and 3.2, estimate the
required storage volumes for water quality treatment (WQv), channel protection (CPv), and overbank
flood control (Qp2, Qp10, Qp25) and extreme flood control (Qp100).
2.
Develop Stage-Storage Curve. Using the site geometry and topography, develop the stage-storage curve
for the facility in order to provide sufficient storage for the control volumes involved in the design.
3.
Design the Water Quality Volume Outlet. Design the water quality orifice. If a permanent pool is
incorporated into the design of the facility, a portion of the storage volume for water quality will be
above the elevation of the permanent pool. The outlet can be protected using either a reverse slope pipe,
a hooded protection device, or another acceptable method.
4.
Design the Channel Protection Volume Outlet. Design the stream channel protection extended detention
outlet (CPv-ED) using either Method 1 or 2 from subsection 3.3.3. For this design, the storage needed
for channel protection will be stacked on top of the water quality volume storage elevation determined
in Step 3. The total stage-discharge rating curve at this point will include the water quality control
orifice and the outlet used for stream channel protection. The outlet should be protected in a manner
similar to that for the water quality orifice.
5.
Design Overbank Flood Protection Outlet. The overbank protection volume is added above the water
quality and channel protection storage. Establish the Qp2, Qp10, Qp25 maximum water surface elevations
using the stage-storage curve and subtract the CPv elevation to find the 2-year, 10-year and 25-year
maximum head. Select an outlet type and calculate the initial size and geometry based upon maintaining
the pre-development 2-year, 10-year and 25-year peak discharge rates. Develop a stage-discharge curve
for the combined set of outlets (WQv, CPv and Qp2, Qp10, Qp25). This procedure is repeated for control
(peak flow attenuation) of the 100-year storm (Qp100).
6.
Check Performance of the Outlet Structure. Perform a hydraulic analysis of the multi-stage outlet
structure using reservoir routing to ensure that all outlets will function as designed. Several iterations
may be required to calibrate and optimize the hydraulics and outlets that are used. Also, the structure
should operate without excessive surging, noise, vibration, or vortex action at any stage. This usually
requires that the structure have a larger cross-sectional area than the outlet conduit. The hydraulic
analysis of the design must take into account the hydraulic changes that will occur as depth of storage
changes for the different design storms. As shown in Figure 3-31, as the water passes over the rim of a
riser, the riser acts as a weir. However, when the water surface reaches a certain height over the rim of a
riser, the riser will begin to act as a submerged orifice. The designer must compute the elevation at
which this transition from riser weir flow control to riser orifice flow control takes place for an outlet
where this change in hydraulic conditions will occur. Also note in Figure 3-31 that as the elevation of
Page 1-16
the water increases further, the control can change from barrel inlet flow control to barrel pipe flow
control. Figure 3-32 shows another condition where weir flow can change to orifice flow, which must
be taken into account in the hydraulics of the rating curve as different design conditions result in
changing water surface elevations.
Figure 3-31. Riser Flow Diagrams
(Source: Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation, 1999)
Figure 3-32. Weir and Orifice Flow
Page 1-17
7.
Size the Emergency Spillway. It is recommended that all stormwater impoundment structures have a
vegetated emergency spillway. An emergency spillway provides a degree of safety to prevent
overtopping of an embankment if the primary outlet or principal spillway should become clogged, or
otherwise inoperative. The 100-year storm should be routed through the outlet devices and emergency
spillway to ensure the hydraulics of the system will operate as designed.
8.
Design Outlet Protection. Design necessary outlet protection and energy dissipation facilities to avoid
erosion problems downstream from outlet devices and emergency spillway(s). Refer to Chapter 7 for
more information.
9.
Perform Buoyancy Calculations. Perform buoyancy calculations for the outlet structure and footing.
Flotation will occur when the weight of the structure is less than or equal to the buoyant force exerted by
the water.
10. Provide Seepage Control. Seepage control should be provided for the outflow pipe or culvert through an
embankment. The two most common devices for controlling seepage are (1) filter and drainage
diaphragms and (2) anti-seep collars.
3.3.5
Trash Racks and Safety Grates
The susceptibility of larger inlets to clogging by debris and trash needs to be considered when
estimating their hydraulic capacities. In most instances, trash racks will be needed. Trash racks
and safety grates are a critical element of outlet structure design and serve several important
functions. When properly designed, installed, and maintained, trash racks:
keep debris away from the entrance to the outlet works where the debris will not clog the
critical portions of the structure;
capture debris in such a way that relatively easy removal is possible;
ensure that people and large animals are kept out of confined conveyance and outlet areas;
and,
provide a safety system that prevents humans and animals from being drawn into the outlet
and allows them to climb to safety.
Trash racks can serve these purposes without interfering significantly with the hydraulic capacity of
the outlet (or inlet in the case of conveyance structures) (ASCE, 1985; Allred-Coonrod, 1991). The
location and size of the trash rack depends on a number of factors, including head losses through
the rack, structural convenience, safety and size of outlet.
.-
An example of trash racks used on a riser outlet structure is shown in Figure 3-33. The inclined
vertical bar rack is most effective for lower stage outlets. Debris will ride up the trash rack as water
levels rise. This design also allows for removal of accumulated debris with a rake while standing
on top of the structure.
Trash racks must be large enough such that partial plugging will not adversely restrict flows
reaching the control outlet. There are no universal guidelines for the design of trash racks to
protect detention basin outlets, although a commonly used "rule-of-thumb" is to have the trash rack
area at least ten times larger than the control outlet orifice.
The surface area of all trash racks should be maximized and the trash racks should be located a
suitable distance from the protected outlet to avoid interference with the hydraulic capacity of the
outlet. The spacing of trash rack bars must be proportioned to the size of the smallest outlet
protected. However, where a small orifice is provided, a separate trash rack for that outlet should
be used, so that a simpler, sturdier trash rack with more widely spaced members can be used for
Page 1-18
the other outlets. Spacing of the rack bars should be wide enough to avoid interference, but close
enough to provide the level of clogging protection required.
Figure 3-33. Trash Racks Used on a Riser Outlet Structure

To facilitate removal of accumulated debris and sediment from around the outlet structure, the
racks should have hinged connections. If the rack is bolted or set in concrete it will preclude
removal of accumulated material and will eventually adversely affect the outlet hydraulics.
Since sediment will tend to accumulate around the lowest stage outlet, the inside of the outlet
structure for a dry basin should be depressed below the ground level to minimize clogging due to
sedimentation. Depressing the outlet bottom to a depth below the ground surface at least equal to
the diameter of the outlet is recommended.
Trash racks at entrances to pipes and conduits should be sloped at about 3H:1V to 5H:1V to allow
trash to slide up the rack with flow pressure and rising water levelthe slower the approach of
flow, the flatter the trash rack angle. Rack opening rules-of-thumb are found in literature. Figure
3-34 gives opening estimates based on outlet diameter (Urban Drainage and Flood Control District,
1999). Judgment should be used in that an area with higher debris (e.g., a wooded area) may
require more opening space.
Page 1-19
Figure 3-34. Minimum Rack Size vs. Outlet Diameter

(Source: Urban Drainage and Flood Control District, 1999)
The bar opening space for small pipes should be less than the pipe diameter. For larger diameter
pipes, openings should be 6 inches or less. Collapsible racks have been used in some places if
clogging becomes excessive or a person becomes pinned to the rack. Alternately, debris for
culvert openings can be caught upstream from the opening by using pipes placed in the ground or
a chain safety net (United States Bureau of Reclamation, 1978; Urban Drainage and Flood Control
District, 1999). Racks can be hinged on top to allow for easy opening and cleaning.
The control for the outlet should not shift to the grate, nor should the grate cause the headwater to
rise above planned levels. Therefore, head losses through the grate should be calculated. A
number of empirical loss equations exist though many have difficult to estimate variables. Two will
be given to allow for comparison.
Equation 3-49 can be used to determine the head loss through a trash rack (Metcalf and Eddy,
1972). In the use of Equation 3-49, grate openings should be calculated assuming a certain
percentage blockage as a worst case to determine losses and upstream head. Often 40 to 50%
blockage is chosen as a working assumption.
H g = K g1
Equation 3-49
where:
Hg
Kg1
w
x
Vu
sin g
2g
= head loss through grate (ft)

= bar shape factor:
2.42 sharp-edged rectangular
1.83 - rectangular bars with semicircular upstream faces
1.79 - circular bars
Page 1-20
w
x
Vu
g
g
1.67 - rectangular bars with semicircular up- and downstream faces

= maximum cross-sectional bar width facing the flow (in)
= minimum clear spacing between bars (in)
= approach velocity (ft/s)
= angle of the grate with respect to the horizontal (degrees)
2
= acceleration of gravity (32.2 ft/s )
The United States Army Corps of Engineers has developed a similar head loss equation for trash
racks, shown in Equation 3-50 (USACE, 1988). This equation is for vertical racks, but presumably
can be adjusted through multiplication by the sine of the angle of the grate with respect to the
horizontal, in a manner similar to the previous equation.
Hg =
Equation 3-50
K g 2Vu
2g
where:
Hg
Kg2
Vu
g
= head loss through grate (ft)

= defined as described below
= approach velocity (ft/s)
2
= acceleration of gravity (32.2 ft/s )
Kg2 is defined from a series of fit curves, as shown in Table 3-24.
Table 3-24. Fit Curves to Determine Kg2

Grate Type
Sharp-edged rectangular
Length/thickness
10
Curve
Kg2 = 0.00158 - 0.03217 Ar + 7.1786 Ar2
Sharp-edged rectangular
Kg2 = -0.00731 + 0.69453 Ar + 7.0856 Ar2
Round edged rectangular
10.9
Kg2 = -0.00101 + 0.02520 Ar + 6.0000 Ar2
Circular cross-section
not applicable
Kg2 = 0.00866 + 0.13589 Ar + 6.0357 Ar2
3.3.6
Secondary Outlets
The purpose of a secondary outlet (emergency spillway) is to provide a controlled overflow for
flows in excess of the maximum design storm for a storage facility. Figure 3-35 shows an example
of an emergency spillway.
In many cases, on-site stormwater storage facilities do not warrant elaborate studies to determine
spillway capacity. While the risk of damage due to failure is a real one, it normally does not
approach the catastrophic risk involved in the overtopping or breaching of a major reservoir. By
contrast, regional facilities with homes immediately downstream could pose a significant hazard if
failure were to occur, in which case emergency spillway considerations are a major design factor.
/(
Emergency spillway designs are open channels, usually trapezoidal in cross section, and consist of
an inlet channel, a control section, and an exit channel (see Figure 3-35). The emergency spillway
is proportioned to pass flows in excess of the 100-year flood without allowing excessive velocities
and without overtopping of the embankment. Flow in the emergency spillway is open channel flow.
Normally, it is assumed that critical depth occurs at the control section. Volume 2, Chapter 7
provides more information on open channel hydraulics.
SCS manuals provide guidance for the selection of emergency spillway characteristics for different
soil conditions and different types of vegetation. The selection of degree of retardance for a given
spillway depends on the vegetation. Knowing the retardance factor and the estimated discharge
Page 1-21
rate, the emergency spillway bottom width can be determined. For erosion protection during the
first year, assume minimum retardance. Both the inlet and exit channels should have a straight
alignment and grade. Spillway side slopes should be no steeper the 3:1 (horizontal to vertical).
The most common type of emergency spillway used is a broad-crested overflow weir cut through
original ground next to the embankment. The transverse cross section of the weir cut is typically
trapezoidal in shape for ease of construction. Such an excavated emergency spillway is illustrated
below.
Figure 3-35. Emergency Spillway
Page 1-22

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Knox County Tennessee Stormwater Management Manual