Motivation

Motivation is a theoretical construct, used to explain

behavior. Motives are hypothetical constructs, used to
explain why people do what they do, for example, when
they use some strategy to achieve a goal. According to
Maehr and Meyer, Motivation is a word that is part of
the popular culture as few other psychological concepts
are.[1] Wikipedia readers will have a motive (or motives)
for reading an article, even if such motives are complex
and dicult to pinpoint. At the other end of the range of
complexity, hunger is frequently the motive for seeking
out and consuming food.

the conscious motivation could be more benign or even

positive emotions. For example, while it may be in the
best interest of a males genes to have multiple partners
and thus break up with or divorce one before moving onto
the next, the conscious rationalization could be, I loved
her at the time. [3]
Freud is associated with the idea that human beings have
many unconscious motivations that cause them to make
important decisions because of these unconscious forces,
such as choosing a partner.
According to Freud and his followers, majority of the human behavior is the result of desires, impulses, and memories that have been repressed into an unconscious state,
yet still inuence actions.[4]

Types of theories and models

Motivation theories can be classied on a number of basis.

2 Psychological theories and models

Natural vs. Rational based on whether the underlying theory of human cognition is based on natural forces (drives, needs, desires) or some kind Motivation can be looked at as a cycle where thoughts
of rationality (instrumentality, meaningfulness, self- inuence behaviours, and behaviours drive performance,
identity).
performance impacts thoughts and the cycle begins again.
Each stage of the cycle is composed of many dimensions
Content vs. Process based on whether the focus is on
including attitudes, beliefs, intentions, eort, and withthe content (what) motivates vs process (how)
drawal which can all aect the motivation that an indimotivation takes place.
vidual experiences.

1.1

Monist and pluralistic motivational

2.1 Rational motivations
theories
The idea that human beings are rational and human behaviour is guided by reason is an old one. However, recent
research (on Satiscing for example) has signicantly undermined the idea of homo economicus or of perfect rationality in favour of a more bounded rationality. The
eld of behavioural economics is particularly concerned
with the limits of rationality in economic agents.

A class of theories about why people do things seeks

to reduce the number of factors down to one and explain all behaviour through that one factor. For example,
economics has been criticized for using self-interest as
a mono-motivational theory. [2] Mono-motivational theories are often criticized for being too reductive or too
abstract.

1.2

2.2 Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Conscious and unconscious motivations
Motivation can be divided into two types: intrinsic (in-

ternal) motivation and extrinsic (external) motivation.

A number of motivational theories emphasize the distinction between conscious and unconscious motivations.
Unconscious motivation refers to hidden or unknown de- Intrinsic motivation
sires that makes people push themselves to achieve their
goal. In evolutionary psychology, the ultimate, uncon- Intrinsic motivation is the self-desire to seek out new
scious motivation may be a cold evolutionary calculation, things and new challenges, to analyze ones capacity, to
1

2 PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES AND MODELS

observe and to gain knowledge.[5] It is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself, and exists within the
individual rather than relying on external pressures or a
desire for reward. Intrinsic motivation has been studied
since the early 1970s. The phenomenon of intrinsic motivation was rst acknowledged within experimental studies of animal behavior. In these studies, it was evident
that the organisms would engage in playful and curiosity
driven behaviors in the absence of reward. Intrinsic motivation is a natural motivational tendency and is a critical
element in cognitive, social, and physical development.[6]
Students who are intrinsically motivated are more likely
to engage in the task willingly as well as work to improve
their skills, which will increase their capabilities.[7] Students are likely to be intrinsically motivated if they:
attribute their educational results to factors under
their own control, also known as autonomy or locus
of control
believe they have the skills to be eective agents
in reaching their desired goals, also known as selfecacy beliefs

found to increase ones intrinsic interest in that activity. In

one study, when children were given mild threats against
playing with an attractive toy, it was found that the threat
actually served to increase the childs interest in the toy,
which was previously undesirable to the child in the absence of threat.[11]
For those children who received no extrinsic reward, selfdetermination theory proposes that extrinsic motivation
can be internalized by the individual if the task ts with
their values and beliefs and therefore helps to fulll their
basic psychological needs.
Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning, a term coined by B.F. Skinner, is a
method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behaviour. Skinner believed that internal
thoughts and motivations could not be used to explain behaviour; instead to look at external, observable causes of
human behaviour. His theory explained how we acquire
the range of learned behaviors we exhibit each and every
day.[12]

are interested in mastering a topic, not just in achieving good grades

2.3
Extrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an
activity in order to attain a desired outcome and it is
the opposite of intrinsic motivation.[5] Extrinsic motivation comes from inuences outside of the individual.
Common extrinsic motivations are rewards (for example
money or grades) for showing the desired behavior, and
the threat of punishment following misbehavior. Competition is in an extrinsic motivator because it encourages
the performer to win and to beat others, not simply to
enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity. A cheering
crowd and the desire to win a trophy are also extrinsic
incentives.[8]

Push and pull

Push motivations are those where people push themselves towards their goals or to achieve something, such
as the desire for escape, rest, and relaxation, prestige,
health and tness, adventure, and social interaction.[13]
However, with push motivation its also easy to get discouraged when there are obstacles present in the path of
achievement. Push motivation acts as a willpower and
peoples willpower is only as strong as the desire behind
the willpower. [14]

Pull motivations is another type of motivation that is

much stronger than push motivation. Some of the factors are those that emerge as a result of the attractiveness of a destination as it is perceived by those with
the propensity to travel. They include both tangible resources, such as beaches, recreation facilities, and culComparison of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
tural attractions, and travelers perceptions and expectation, such as novelty, benet expectation, and marketing
Social psychological research has indicated that extrinsic image.[13] Push motivation can be seemed as the desire
rewards can lead to overjustication and a subsequent re- to achieve a goal so badly that it just seems that goal are
duction in intrinsic motivation. In one study demonstrat- pulling us to it.
ing this eect, children who expected to be (and were)
rewarded with a ribbon and a gold star for drawing pictures spent less time playing with the drawing materials 2.4 Self-control
in subsequent observations than children who were assigned to an unexpected reward condition.[9] However, The self-control aspect of motivation is increasingly conanother study showed that third graders who were re- sidered to be a subset of emotional intelligence; it is sugwarded with a book showed more reading behavior in gested that although a person may be classed as highly
the future, implying that some rewards do not undermine intelligent (as measured by many traditional intelligence
intrinsic motivation.[10] While the provision of extrinsic tests), they may remain unmotivated to pursue intellectual
rewards might reduce the desirability of an activity, the endeavours. Vroom's "expectancy theory" provides an
use of extrinsic constraints, such as the threat of pun- account of when people may decide to exert self-control
ishment, against performing an activity has actually been in pursuit of a particular goal.

2.7

2.5

Escape-seeking dichotomy model

Drives

a reinforcing stimulus. Negative reinforcement involves

stimulus change consisting of the removal of an aversive
stimulus following a response. Positive reinforcement inMain article: Drive theory
volves a stimulus change consisting of the presentation or
magnication of a positive stimulus following a response.
A drive or desire can be described as a deciency or need
From this perspective, motivation is mediated by envithat activates behavior that is aimed at a goal or an inronmental events, and the concept of distinguishing be[15]
centive.
These drives are thought to originate within
tween intrinsic and extrinsic forces is irrelevant.
the individual and may not require external stimuli to encourage the behavior. Basic drives could be sparked by Applying proper motivational techniques can be much
deciencies such as hunger, which motivates a person to harder than it seems. Steven Kerr notes that when creseek food whereas more subtle drives might be the desire ating a reward system, it can be easy to reward A, while
for praise and approval, which motivates a person to be- hoping for B, and in the process, reap harmful eects that
have in a manner pleasing to others. Another basic drive can jeopardize your goals.
is the sexual drive which like food motivates us because it Incentive theory in psychology treats motivation and
is essential to our survival.[16] The desire for sex is wired behavior of the individual as they are inuenced by
deep into the brain of all human beings as glands secrete beliefs, such as engaging in activities that are expected to
hormones that travel through the blood to the brain and be protable. Incentive theory is promoted by behavioral
stimulates the onset of sexual desire.[16] The hormone in- psychologists, such as B.F. Skinner and literalized by
volved in the initial onset of sexual desire is called dihy- behaviorists, especially by Skinner in his philosophy of
droepiandrosterone (DHEA).[16] The hormonal basis of Radical behaviorism, to mean that a persons actions alboth men and womens sex drives is testosterone.[16] Men ways have social ramications: and if actions are posinaturally have more testosterone than women do and so tively received people are more likely to act in this manare more likely than woman to think about sex, have sex- ner, or if negatively received people are less likely to act
ual fantasies, seek sex and sexual variety (whether posi- in this manner.
tions or partners), masturbate, want sex at an early point
in a relationship, sacrice other things for sex, have per- Incentive theory distinguishes itself from other motivamissive attitudes for sex, and complain about low sex tion theories, such as drive theory, in the direction of
the motivation. In incentive theory, stimuli attract, to
drive in their partners.[16]
use the term above, a person towards them, as opposed
By contrast, the role of extrinsic rewards and stimuli can to the body seeking to reestablish homeostasis and pushbe seen in the example of training animals by giving them ing towards the stimulus. In terms of behaviorism, intreats when they perform a trick correctly. The treat mo- centive theory involves positive reinforcement: the reintivates the animals to perform the trick consistently, even forcing stimulus has been conditioned to make the perlater when the treat is removed from the process.
son happier. For instance, a person knows that eating
food, drinking water, or gaining social capital will make
them happier. As opposed to in drive theory, which in2.6 Incentive theory
volves negative reinforcement: a stimulus has been associated with the removal of the punishmentthe lack of
A reward, tangible or intangible, is presented after the homeostasis in the body. For example, a person has come
occurrence of an action (i.e. behavior) with the inten- to know that if they eat when hungry, it will eliminate that
tion of causing the behavior to occur again. This is done negative feeling of hunger, or if they drink when thirsty,
by associating positive meaning to the behavior. Stud- it will eliminate that negative feeling of thirst.
ies show that if the person receives the reward immediately, the eect is greater, and decreases as delay lengthens. Repetitive action-reward combination can cause the
action to become habit. Motivation comes from two 2.7 Escape-seeking dichotomy model
sources: oneself, and other people. These two sources
are called intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation, Escapism and seeking are major factors inuencing
respectively.
decision making. Escapism is a need to breakaway from
Reinforcers and reinforcement principles of behavior differ from the hypothetical construct of reward. A reinforcer is any stimulus change following a response that
increases the future frequency or magnitude of that response, therefore the cognitive approach is certainly the
way forward as in 1973 Maslow described it as being the
golden pineapple. Positive reinforcement is demonstrated
by an increase in the future frequency or magnitude of a
response due to in the past being followed contingently by

a daily life routine, turning on the television and watching an adventure lm, whereas seeking is described as
the desire to learn, turning on the television to watch a
documentary. Both motivations have some interpersonal
and personal facets for example individuals would like to
escape from family problems (personal) or from problems with work colleagues (interpersonal). This model
can also be easily adapted with regard to dierent studies.

2.8

2 PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES AND MODELS

Drive-reduction theory

There are a number of drive theories. The Drive Reduction Theory grows out of the concept that people have
certain biological drives, such as hunger. As time passes
the strength of the drive increases if it is not satised (in
this case by eating). Upon satisfying a drive the drives
strength is reduced. The theory is based on diverse ideas
from the theories of Freud to the ideas of feedback control systems, such as a thermostat.
Drive theory has some intuitive or folk validity. For instance when preparing food, the drive model appears to
be compatible with sensations of rising hunger as the food
is prepared, and, after the food has been consumed, a decrease in subjective hunger. There are several problems,
however, that leave the validity of drive reduction open
for debate. The rst problem is that it does not explain
how secondary reinforcers reduce drive. For example,
money satises no biological or psychological needs, but
a pay check appears to reduce drive through second-order
conditioning. Secondly, a drive, such as hunger, is viewed
as having a desire to eat, making the drive a homuncular
beinga feature criticized as simply moving the fundamental problem behind this small man and his desires.

inuential and extensively studied theories in social psychology.

2.10 Content theories

Motivation, as dened by Pritchard and Ashwood, is the
process used to allocate energy to maximize the satisfaction of needs.[17]
2.10.1 Maslows hierarchy of needs
Content theory of human motivation includes both
Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs and Herzberg's
two-factor theory. Maslows theory is one of the most
widely discussed theories of motivation.
The American motivation psychologist Abraham H.
Maslow developed the hierarchy of needs consisting of
ve hierarchic classes. According to Maslow, people are
motivated by unsatised needs. The needs, listed from
basic (lowest-earliest) to most complex (highest-latest)
are as follows:

Physiology (hunger, thirst, sleep, etc.)

Drive reduction theory cannot be a complete theory of
Safety/Security/Shelter /Health
behavior, or a hungry human could not prepare a meal
without eating the food before he nished cooking it. The
Belongingness/Love/Friendship
ability of drive theory to cope with all kinds of behavior,
Self-esteem/Recognition/ Achievement
from not satisfying a drive (by adding on other traits such
as restraint), or adding additional drives for tasty food,
Self actualization
which combine with drives for food in order to explain
cooking render it hard to test.
The basic requirements build upon the rst step in the
pyramid: physiology. If there are decits on this level,
all behavior will be oriented to satisfy this decit. Essen2.9 Cognitive dissonance theory
tially, if you have not slept or eaten adequately, you won't
be interested in your self-esteem desires. Subsequently
Suggested by Leon Festinger, cognitive dissonance oc- we have the second level, which awakens a need for secucurs when an individual experiences some degree of dis- rity. After securing those two levels, the motives shift to
comfort resulting from an inconsistency between two cog- the social sphere, the third level. Psychological requirenitions: their views on the world around them, and their ments comprise the fourth level, while the top of the hiown personal feelings and actions. For example, a con- erarchy consists of self-realization and self-actualization.
sumer may seek to reassure themselves regarding a purMaslows hierarchy of needs theory can be summarized
chase, feeling in retrospect that another decision may
as follows:
have been preferable. Their feeling that another purchase
would have been preferable is inconsistent with their ac Human beings have wants and desires which inution of purchasing the item. The dierence between their
ence their behavior. Only unsatised needs inufeelings and beliefs causes dissonance, so they seek to reence behavior, satised needs do not.
assure themselves.
Needs are arranged in order of importance to human
While not a theory of motivation, per se, the theory
life, from the basic to the complex.
of cognitive dissonance proposes that people have a
motivational drive to reduce dissonance. The cognitive
The person advances to the next level of needs only
miser perspective makes people want to justify things in a
after the lower level need is at least minimally satissimple way in order to reduce the eort they put into coged.
nition. They do this by changing their attitudes, beliefs,
The further the progress up the hierarchy, the more
or actions, rather than facing the inconsistencies, because
individuality, humanness and psychological health a
dissonance is a mental strain. Dissonance is also reduced
person will show.
by justifying, blaming, and denying. It is one of the most

2.11
2.10.2

Temporal motivation theory

Herzbergs two-factor theory

motivate the self to initiate specic behaviour and mental

nutriments that are essential for psychological health and
Main article: Two-factor theory
well-being. When these needs are satised, there are positive consequences, such as well-being and growth, leadFrederick Herzberg's two-factor theory concludes that ing people to be motivated, productive and happy. When
certain factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction, they are thwarted, peoples motivation, productivity and
but if absent, they don't lead to dissatisfaction but no satis- happiness plummet.
faction. The factors that motivate people can change over There are three essential elements to the theory:[23]
their lifetime, but respect for me as a person is one of
the top motivating factors at any stage of life.
Humans are inherently proactive with their potential
He distinguished between:
and mastering their inner forces (such as drive and
emotions).
Motivators; (e.g. challenging work, recognition, re Humans have an inherent tendency towards growth,
sponsibility) which give positive satisfaction, and
development and integrated functioning.
Hygiene factors; (e.g. status, job security, salary and
Optimal development and actions are inherent in hufringe benets) that do not motivate if present, but,
mans but they do not happen automatically.
if absent, result in demotivation.
The name hygiene factors is used because, like hygiene,
the presence will not improve health, but absence can
cause health deterioration.
Herzbergs theory has found application in such occupational elds as information systems and in studies of user
satisfaction such as computer user satisfaction.
2.10.3

Alderfers ERG theory

Alderfer, expanding on Maslows hierarchy of needs, created the ERG theory. This theory posits that there are
three groups of core needs existence, relatedness, and
growth, hence the label: ERG theory. The existence
group is concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements. They include the items that Maslow
considered to be physiological and safety needs. The
second group of needs are those of relatedness- the desire we have for maintaining important personal relationships. These social and status desires require interaction with others if they are to be satised, and they
align with Maslows social need and the external component of Maslows esteem classication. Finally, Alderfer isolates growth needs as an intrinsic desire for personal development. These include the intrinsic component from Maslows esteem category and the characteristics included under self-actualization.

2.11 Temporal motivation theory

The latest approach in developing a broad, integrative
theory of motivation is Temporal Motivation Theory.[24]
Introduced in a 2006 Academy of Management Review
article,[25] it synthesizes into a single formulation the primary aspects of several other major motivational theories, including Incentive Theory, Drive Theory, Need
Theory, Self-Ecacy and Goal Setting. It simplies the
eld of motivation and allows ndings from one theory to
be translated into terms of another. Another journal article that helped to develop the Temporal Motivation Theory, The Nature of Procrastination,[26] " received American Psychological Associations George A. Miller award
for outstanding contribution to general science.

2.12 Achievement motivation

Achievement motivation is an integrative perspective

based on the premise that performance motivation results
from the way broad components of personality are directed towards performance. As a result, it includes a
range of dimensions that are relevant to success at work
but which are not conventionally regarded as being part
of performance motivation. The emphasis on performance seeks to integrate formerly separate approaches as
need for achievement[27] with, for example, social mo2.10.4 Self-determination theory
tives like dominance. Personality is intimately tied to
Since the early seventies Edward L. Deci and Richard M. performance and achievement motivation, including such
as tolerance for risk, fear of failure, and
Ryan have conducted research that eventually led to the characteristics
[28][29][30]
others.
proposition of the self-determination theory (SDT). This
theory focuses on the degree to which an individuals be- Achievement motivation can be measured by The
haviour is self-motivated and self-determined. SDT iden- Achievement Motivation Inventory, which is based on
ties three innate needs that, if satised, allow optimal this theory and assesses three factors (in 17 separated
function and growth: competence,[18][19] relatedness,[20] scales) relevant to vocational and professional success.
and autonomy.[21][22] These three psychological needs This motivation has repeatedly been linked with adaptive

2 PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES AND MODELS

motivational patterns, including working hard, a willing- respectively. Both processes require self-regulatory efness to pick learning tasks with much diculty, and con- forts. Several self-regulatory constructs are needed to optributing success to eort.[31]
erate in orchestration to attain goals. An example of such
Achievement motivation was studied intensively by David a motivational and volitional construct is perceived selfC. McClelland, John W. Atkinson and their colleagues ecacy. Self-ecacy is supposed to facilitate the formsince the early 1950s.[32] Their research showed that busi- ing of behavioral intentions, the development of action
ness managers who were successful demonstrated a high plans, and the initiation of action. It can support the transneed to achieve no matter the culture. There are three lation of intentions into action.
major characteristics of people who have a great need to John W. Atkinson, David Birch and their colleagues deachieve according to McClellands research.
veloped the theory of Dynamics of Action to mathematically model change in behavior as a consequence
and associated tenden1. They would prefer a work environment in which of the interaction of motivation
[34][35]
cies
toward
specic
actions.
The theory posits that
they are able to assume responsibility for solving
change
in
behavior
occurs
when
the
tendency for a new,
problems.
unexpressed behavior becomes dominant over the ten2. They would take calculated risk and establish mod- dency currently motivating action. In the theory, the
strength of tendencies rises and falls as a consequence
erate, attainable goals.
of internal and external stimuli (sources of instigation),
3. They want to hear continuous recognition, as well as inhibitory factors, and consummatory in factors such as
feedback, in order for them to know how well they performing an action. In this theory, there are three
causes responsible for behavior and change in behavior:
are doing.[33]

2.13 Cognitive theories

2.13.1

1. Instigation (Ts) - increases tendency when an activity

has intrinsic ability to satisfy;

Goal-setting theory

Goal-setting theory is based on the notion that individuals sometimes have a drive to reach a clearly dened end
state. Often, this end state is a reward in itself. A goals
eciency is aected by three features: proximity, diculty and specicity. Good goal setting incorporates the
SMART criteria, in which goals are: specic, measurable, accurate, realistic, and timely. An ideal goal should
present a situation where the time between the initiation
of behavior and the end state is close. This explains why
some children are more motivated to learn how to ride
a bike than to master algebra. A goal should be moderate, not too hard or too easy to complete. In both cases,
most people are not optimally motivated, as many want a
challenge (which assumes some kind of insecurity of success). At the same time people want to feel that there is a
substantial probability that they will succeed. Specicity
concerns the description of the goal in their class. The
goal should be objectively dened and intelligible for the
individual. A classic example of a poorly specied goal
is to get the highest possible grade. Most children have
no idea how much eort they need to reach that goal.

2.14 Models of behavior change

Social-cognitive models of behavior change include the
constructs of motivation and volition. Motivation is seen
as a process that leads to the forming of behavioral intentions. Volition is seen as a process that leads from
intention to actual behavior. In other words, motivation and volition refer to goal setting and goal pursuit,

2. Inhibition (Taf) - decreases tendency when there are

obstacles to performing an activity; and
3. Consummation - decreases a tendency as it is
performed.[36][37]

2.15 Conscious motivation

This is a kind of motivation that people are aware of.[38]

2.16 Unconscious motivation

Some psychologists believe that a signicant portion of
human behavior is energized and directed by unconscious
motives. According to Maslow, Psychoanalysis has often
demonstrated that the relationship between a conscious
desire and the ultimate unconscious aim that underlies it
need not be at all direct.

2.17 Thematic Apperception Test

Psychologists David C. McClelland and John W. Atkinson argued that motivation should be unconscious. They
rened measures of motivation by means of content
analysis of imaginative thought using, for example, the
Thematic Apperception Test.'[38][39]

2.20

Approach versus avoidance

2.18 Intrinsic motivation and the 16 basic Individuals formulate explanatory attributions to understand the events they experience and to seek reasons for
desires theory
Starting from studies involving more than 6,000 people, Professor Steven Reiss has proposed a theory that
found 16 basic desires that guide nearly all human
behavior.[40][41] The 16 basic desires that motivate our actions and dene our personalities are:
Acceptance, the need for approval
Curiosity, the need to learn

their failures. When individuals seek positive feedback

from their failures, they use the feedback as motivation
to show improved performances. For example, using the
intrapersonal perspective, a student who failed a test may
attribute their failure for not studying enough and would
use their emotion of shame or embarrassment as motivation to study harder for the next test. A student who
blames their test failure on the teacher would be using the
interpersonal perspective, and would use their feeling of
disappointment as motivation to rely on a dierent study
source other than the teacher for the next test.

Eating, the need for food

Family, the need to raise children

2.20 Approach versus avoidance

Honor, the need to be loyal to the traditional values Approach motivation is a motivation to experience a posof ones clan/ethnic group
itive outcome. In contrast, avoidance motivation is a
motivation not to experience a negative outcome.[38] Re Idealism, the need for social justice
search suggests that, all else being equal, avoidance motivations tend to be more powerful than approach mo Independence, the need for individuality
tivations. Because people expect losses to have more
Order, the need for organized, stable, predictable powerful emotional consequences than equal-size gains,
environments
they will take more risks to avoid a loss than to achieve a
gain.[38]
Physical activity, the need for exercise
Power, the need for inuence of will
Romance, the need for sex and for beauty

3 Practical applications

The control of motivation is only understood to a limited extent. There are many dierent approaches of
Social contact, the need for friends (peer relation- motivation training, but many of these are considered
pseudoscientic by critics. To understand how to control
ships)
motivation it is rst necessary to understand why many
Social status, the need for social stand- people lack motivation.
ing/importance
Saving, the need to collect

Tranquility, the need to be safe

3.1 Employee motivation

Vengeance, the need to strike back and to compete

Main article: Employee motivation

2.19 Attribution theory

The attribution theory is a theory developed by psychologist, Fritz Heider that describes the processes by
which individuals explain the causes of their behavior and
events.[42] A form of attribution theory developed by psychologist, Bernard Weiner describes an individuals beliefs about how the causes of success or failure aect
their emotions and motivations. Bernard Weiners theory can be dened into two perspectives: intrapersonal
or interpersonal. The intrapersonal perspective includes
self-directed thoughts and emotions that are attributed to
the self. The interpersonal perspective includes beliefs
about the responsibility of others and other directed affects of emotions; the individual would place the blame
on another individual.[43]

Workers in any organization need something to keep

them working. Most of the time, the salary of the employee is enough to keep him or her working for an organization. An employee must be motivated to work for
a company or organization. If no motivation is present
in an employee, then that employees quality of work or
all work in general will deteriorate. People dier on a
personality dimension called locus of control. This variable refers to individuals beliefs about the location of the
factors that control their behavior. At one end of the continuum are high internals who believe that opportunity to
control their own behavior rests within themselves. At
the other end of the continuum there are high externals
who believe that external forces determine their behavior.
Not surprisingly, compared with internals, externals see
the world as an unpredictable, chancy place in which luck,

fate, or powerful people control their destinies.[44] When

motivating an audience, you can use general motivational
strategies or specic motivational appeals. General motivational strategies include soft sell versus hard sell and
personality type. Soft sell strategies have logical appeals,
emotional appeals, advice and praise. Hard sell strategies
have barter, outnumbering, pressure and rank. Also, you
can consider basing your strategy on your audience personality. Specic motivational appeals focus on provable
facts, feelings, right and wrong, audience rewards and audience threats.[45]
3.1.1

Job characteristics model

Main article: Job characteristics model

The job characteristics Model (JCM), as designed by
Hackman and Oldham attempts to use job design
to improve employee motivation. They show that
any job can be described in terms of ve key job
characteristics:[46][47]
1. Skill Variety - the degree to which the job requires
the use of dierent skills and talents
2. Task Identity - the degree to which the job has contributed to a clearly identiable larger project

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

meaningfulness, and also must be high on both Autonomy

and Feedback.[48] If a job has a high MPS, the job characteristics model predicts that motivation, performance
and job satisfaction will be positively aected and the
likelihood of negative outcomes, such as absenteeism and
turnover, will be reduced.[48]
3.1.2 Employee recognition programs
Employee recognition is not only about gifts and points.
Its about changing the corporate culture in order to meet
goals and initiatives and most importantly to connect employees to the companys core values and beliefs. Strategic employee recognition is seen as the most important
program not only to improve employee retention and
motivation but also to positively inuence the nancial
situation.[49] The dierence between the traditional approach (gifts and points) and strategic recognition is the
ability to serve as a serious business inuencer that can
advance a companys strategic objectives in a measurable
way. The vast majority of companies want to be innovative, coming up with new products, business models and
better ways of doing things. However, innovation is not
so easy to achieve. A CEO cannot just order it, and so it
will be. You have to carefully manage an organization so
that, over time, innovations will emerge.[50]

3. Task Signicance - the degree to which the job has 3.2

an impact on the lives or work of other people

Drugs

4. Autonomy - the degree to which the employee has in- Some authors, especially in the transhumanist movement,
dependence, freedom and discretion in carrying out have suggested the use of smart drugs, also known as
nootropics, as motivation-enhancers. These drugs work
the job
in various ways to aect neurotransmitters in the brain. It
5. Task Feedback - the degree to which the employee is generally widely accepted that these drugs enhance cogis provided with clear, specic, detailed, actionable nitive functions, but not without potential side eects.[51]
information about the eectiveness of his or her job The eects of many of these drugs on the brain are emperformance
phatically not well understood, and their legal status often
makes open experimentation dicult.
The JCM links the core job dimensions listed above to
critical psychological states which results in desired personal and work outcomes. This forms the basis of this 3.3 Education
'employee growth-need strength. The core dimensions
listed above can be combined into a single predictive in- Motivation is of particular interest to educational psychologists because of the crucial role it plays in student
dex, called the Motivating Potential Score.
learning. However, the specic kind of motivation that
is studied in the specialized setting of education diers
Motivating potential score See also: Work motiva- qualitatively from the more general forms of motivation
tion and Job satisfaction
studied by psychologists in other elds.
Motivation in education can have several eects on how
The motivating potential score (MPS) can be calculated, students learn and how they behave towards subject
using the core dimensions discussed above, as follows:
matter.[52] It can:
Signicance Task + Identity Task + Variety Skill 1. Direct behavior toward particular goals
Feedback x Autonomy x
3
2. Lead to increased eort and energy
Jobs that are high in motivating potential must be high on
at least one of the three factors that lead to experienced
3. Increase initiation of, and persistence in, activities

MPS =

3.3

Education

4. Enhance cognitive processing

Nanayakkara, and Marshall conducted neuroscience research on childrens motivation orientation, neurologi5. Determine what consequences are reinforcing
cal indicators of error monitoring (the process of detecting an error), and academic achievement. Their re6. Lead to improved performance.
search suggests that students with high intrinsic motivation attribute performance to personal control and that
Because students are not always internally motivated, their error-monitoring system is more strongly engaged
they sometimes need situated motivation, which is found by performance errors. They also found that motivation orientation and academic achievement were related
in environmental conditions that the teacher creates.
to the strength in which their error-monitoring system was
If teachers decided to extrinsically reward productive engaged.[61]
student behaviors, they may nd it dicult to extricate
themselves from that path. Consequently student depen- Motivation has been found to be an important element
dency on extrinsic rewards represents one of the greatest in the concept of Andragogy (what motivates the adult
learner), and in treating Autism Spectrum Disorders, as
detractors from their use in the classroom.[53]
in Pivotal Response Therapy.
The majority of new student orientation leaders at colleges and universities recognize that distinctive needs of Doyle and Moeyn have noted that traditional methods
students should be considered in regard to orientation in- tended to use anxiety as negative motivation (e.g. use
formation provided at the beginning of the higher educa- of bad grades by teachers) as a method of getting stution experience. Research done by Whyte in 1986 raised dents to work. However, they have found that progressive
the awareness of counselors and educators in this regard. approaches with focus on positive motivation over punIn 2007, the National Orientation Directors Association ishment has produced greater eectiveness with learnreprinted Cassandra B. Whyte's research report allowing ing, since anxiety interferes with performance of complex
[62]
readers to ascertain improvements made in addressing tasks.
specic needs of students over a quarter of a century later
to help with academic success.[54]
Generally, motivation is conceptualized as either intrin- 3.3.1 Indigenous education and learning
sic or extrinsic. Classically, these categories are regarded
as distinct.[55] Today, these concepts are less likely to be For many indigenous students (such as Native Ameriused as distinct categories, but instead as two ideal types can children), motivation may be derived from social
organization; an important factor educators should acthat dene a continuum:[56]
count for in addition to variations in Sociolinguistics and
Cognition.[63] While poor academic performance among
1. Intrinsic motivation occurs when people are inter- Native American students is often attributed to low levnally motivated to do something because it either els of motivation, Top-down classroom organization is
brings them pleasure, they think it is important, often found to be ineective for children of many culor they feel that what they are learning is signi- tures who depend on a sense of community, purpose,
cant. It has been shown that intrinsic motivation and competence in order to engage.[64] Horizontallyfor education drops from grades 3-9 though the ex- structured, community-based learning strategies often
act cause cannot be ascertained.[57] Also, in younger provide a more structurally supportive environment for
students it has been shown that contextualizing ma- motivating indigenous children, who tend to be driven
terial that would otherwise be presented in an ab- by social/aective emphasis, harmony, holistic perspecstract manner increases the intrinsic motivation of tives, expressive creativity, and nonverbal communicathese students.[58]
tion.[65] This drive is also traceable to a cultural tradition of community-wide expectations of participation in
2. Extrinsic motivation comes into play when a student the activities and goals of the greater group, rather than
is compelled to do something or act a certain way individualized aspirations of success or triumph.[66]
because of factors external to him or her (like money
In some indigenous communities, young children can
or good grades).
often portray a sense of community-based motivation
through their parent-like interactions with siblings.[67]
Cassandra B. Whyte researched and reported about the Furthermore, it is commonplace for children to assist and
importance of locus of control and academic achieve- demonstrate for their younger counterparts without being
ment. Students tending toward a more internal locus of prompted by authority gures. Observation techniques
control are more academically successful, thus encourag- and integration methods are demonstrated in such examing curriculum and activity development with considera- ples as weaving in Chiapas, Mexico, where it is commontion of motivation theories.[59][60]
place for children to learn from a more skilled other
Academic motivation orientation may also be tied with within the community.[68] The childs real responsibility
ones ability to detect and process errors. Fisher, within the Mayan community can be seen in, for example,

10

weaving apprenticeships; often, when the more skilled

other is tasked with multiple obligations, an older child
will step in and guide the learner.[68] Sibling guidance is
supported from early youth, where learning through play
encourages horizontally-structured environments through
alternative educational models such as Intent Community Participation.[69] Research also suggests that that
formal Westernized schooling can actually reshape the
traditionally collaborative nature of social life in indigenous communities [70] This research is supported crossculturally, with variations in motivation and learning often reported higher between indigenous groups and their
national Westernized counterparts than between indigenous groups across international continental divides.[71]
3.3.2

Self-determination in education

Self-determination is the ability to make choices and exercise a high degree of control, such as what the student
does and how they do it (Deci et al., 1991; Reeve, Hamm,
& Nix, 2003; Ryan & Deci, 2002). Self-determination
can be supported by providing opportunities for students
to be challenged, such as leadership opportunities, providing appropriate feedback and fostering, establishing
and maintaining good relationships between teachers and
students. These strategies can increase students interest, competence, creativity and desire to be challenged
and ensure that students are intrinsically motivated to
study. On the other hand, students who lack of selfdetermination are more likely to feel their success is out
of their control. Such students lose motivation to study,
which causes a state of helpless learning. Students who
feel helpless readily believe they will fail and therefore
cease to try. Over time, a vicious circle of low achievement develops.
3.3.3

Physical activity in education

Physical activity is body movement that works your muscles and requires more energy than resting. According to
a blog by the American Intercontinental University, college students should make time for exercise to maintain
and increase motivation. AIU states that regular exercise has impeccable eects on the brain. With consistent running routines, there are more complex connections between neurons, meaning the brain is able to access
its brain cells more exibly. By performing well physically, motivation will be present in education because of
how well the brain is performing. After exercising, the
brain can have more desire to obtain knowledge and better retain the information. In addition, exercise can relieve stress. Exercising can ease anxiety and relieve negative eects of stress on the body. Without stress factors,
individuals can perform better and more eciently, since
their minds will have a more positive outlook. This positive mood will help keep students motivated and more
open and willing to succeed academically. Lastly, ex-

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

ercise increases focus and concentration that could also

help students maintain their motivation and focus on their
studies. AIU claims that exercise may have improved the
students ability to participate and retain information during the class after they had exercised. Being able to retain information and being willing to participate keeps
students motivated and performing well academically.[72]
3.3.4 Healthy sleeping habits in education
Sleep is a natural periodic state of rest for the mind and
body. According to the American Academy of Sleep
Medicine, it is important and essential for students to obtain the right amount of sleep in order to succeed in academics. AASM states that getting good nights of sleep
is one of the best ways to maximize performance on nals. It is possible that the more chaotic and sporadic
ones sleeping schedule is, the harder it will be for that
individual to get an A or B on an exam. Dr. Kushida
from AASM proclaims that sleep loss may lead to learning and memory impairment. In addition, she also comments that lack of sleep can lead to decreased attention
and vigilance. So, with small amounts of sleep, individuals cannot maintain all their memory or focus needed
to score well in their classes. Therefore, sleep is a requirement in education if the individual wants to succeed
academically. The right amount of sleep will enable individuals to keep their motivation and good grades in education. Without sleep, students and individuals memory
capacity can become so minimal that it is possible for
them not to even remember what they are supposed to
do in a days time. In addition, with a lack of sleep, students cannot physically withhold and function for a long
time, since their bodies will not have the energy. So, with
enough sleep, students minds will be clearer and have
more potential to contain information. At the same time,
students would be granted with more motivation and energy since their minds and bodies will be more willing to
obtain information.[73]

3.4 Business
Main article: Work motivation
At lower levels of Maslows hierarchy of needs, such as
physiological needs, money is a motivator, however it
tends to have a motivating eect on sta that lasts only
for a short period (in accordance with Herzberg's twofactor model of motivation). At higher levels of the hierarchy, praise, respect, recognition, empowerment and a
sense of belonging are far more powerful motivators than
money, as both Abraham Maslow's theory of motivation
and Douglas McGregor's theory X and theory Y (pertaining to the theory of leadership) demonstrate.
According to Maslow, people are motivated by unsatised needs.[74] The lower level needs such as Physiologi-

3.5

Games

cal and Safety needs will have to be satised before higher

level needs are to be addressed. We can relate Maslows
Hierarchy of Needs theory with employee motivation.
For example, if a manager is trying to motivate his employees by satisfying their needs; according to Maslow, he
should try to satisfy the lower level needs before he tries
to satisfy the upper level needs or the employees will not
be motivated. Also he has to remember that not everyone will be satised by the same needs. A good manager
will try to gure out which levels of needs are active for
a certain individual or employee.

11
need not consider psychological or social aspects of work.
In essence, scientic management bases human motivation wholly on extrinsic rewards and discards the idea of
intrinsic rewards.
In contrast, David McClelland believed that workers
could not be motivated by the mere need for money
in fact, extrinsic motivation (e.g., money) could extinguish intrinsic motivation such as achievement motivation, though money could be used as an indicator of success for various motives, e.g., keeping score. In keeping with this view, his consulting rm, McBer & Company, had as its rst motto To make everyone productive, happy, and free. For McClelland, satisfaction lay
in aligning a persons life with their fundamental motivations.

Maslow has money at the lowest level of the hierarchy and

shows other needs are better motivators to sta. McGregor places money in his Theory X category and feels it
is a poor motivator. Praise and recognition are placed in
the Theory Y category and are considered stronger moti- Elton Mayo found that the social contacts a worker has at
vators than money.
the workplace are very important and that boredom and
repetitiveness of tasks lead to reduced motivation. Mayo
Motivated employees always look for better ways to believed that workers could be motivated by acknowledgdo a job.
ing their social needs and making them feel important.
As a result, employees were given freedom to make deci Motivated employees are more quality oriented.
sions on the job and greater attention was paid to informal
Motivated workers are more productive.
work groups. Mayo named the model the Hawthorne effect. His model has been judged as placing undue reliance
The average workplace is about midway between the ex- on social contacts within work situations for motivating
tremes of high threat and high opportunity. Motivation by employees.[79]
threat is a dead-end strategy, and naturally sta are more William Ouchi introduced Theory Z, a hybrid manageattracted to the opportunity side of the motivation curve ment approach consisting of both Japanese and Amerithan the threat side. Motivation is a powerful tool in the can philosophies and cultures.[80] Its Japanese segment is
work environment that can lead to employees working at much like the clan culture where organizations focus on
their most ecient levels of production.[75]
a standardized structure with heavy emphasis on socialNonetheless, Steinmetz also discusses three common
character types of subordinates: ascendant, indierent,
and ambivalent who all react and interact uniquely, and
must be treated, managed, and motivated accordingly.
An eective leader must understand how to manage all
characters, and more importantly the manager must utilize avenues that allow room for employees to work, grow,
and nd answers independently.[76]

ization of its members. All underlying goals are consistent across the organization. Its American segment retains formality and authority amongst members and the
organization. Ultimately, Theory Z promotes common
structure and commitment to the organization, as well as
constant improvement of work ecacy.

In Essentials of Organizational Behavior, Robbins and

Judge examine recognition programs as motivators, and
The assumptions of Maslow and Herzberg were chal- identify ve principles that contribute to the success of an
lenged by a classic study[77] at Vauxhall Motors UK man- employee incentive program:[81]
ufacturing plant. This introduced the concept of orienta Recognition of employees individual dierences,
tion to work and distinguished three main orientations:
and clear identication of behavior deemed worthy
instrumental (where work is a means to an end), bureauof recognition
cratic (where work is a source of status, security and immediate reward) and solidaristic (which prioritizes group
Allowing employees to participate
loyalty).
Linking rewards to performance
Other theories which expanded and extended those of
Maslow and Herzberg included Kurt Lewin's Force Field
Theory, Edwin Lockes Goal Theory and Victor Vroom's
Expectancy theory. These tend to stress cultural dierences and the fact that individuals tend to be motivated
by dierent factors at dierent times.[78]

Rewarding of nominators
Visibility of the recognition process

3.5 Games

According to the system of scientic management developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor, a workers motivation Motivational models are central to game design, because
is solely determined by pay, and therefore management without motivation a player will not be interested in

12

progressing further within a game.[82] Several models

for gameplay motivations have been proposed, including Richard Bartles. Jon Rado has proposed a fourquadrant model of gameplay motivation that includes cooperation, competition, immersion and achievement.[83]
The motivational structure of games is central to the
gamication trend, which seeks to apply game-based motivation to business applications.[84]

See also
Adaptive performance
Addiction
Amotivational syndrome
Andragogy
Dopamine
Equity theory
Flow
Goal orientation
Happiness at work
Health Action Process Approach
Hedonic motivation
Human behavior
Human Potential Movement
Humanistic psychology
Industrial and organizational psychology
I-Change Model
Incentive program
Learned industriousness
Locus of control
Motivation crowding theory
Organismic theory
Organizational behavior
Personality psychology
Positive education
Positive Psychology in the Workplace
Regulatory Focus Theory

REFERENCES

Sexual motivation and hormones

Social cycle theory
Theory Z of Ouchi
Volition
Work engagement

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15
Understanding Motivation and Schooling: Where We've
Been, Where We Are, and Where We Need to Go | Martin L Maehr and Heather Mayer Educational Psychology
Review, Vol 9, No. 4, 1997

Further reading
Baumeister, R.F.; Vohs, K.D. (2004), Handbook of
self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications,
New York: Guilford Press, p. 574, ISBN 1-57230991-1
Carver, C.S.; Scheier, M.F. (2001), On the selfregulation of behavior, New York: Cambridge University Press, p. 460, ISBN 0-521-00099-8
Cervone, D.; Shadel, W.G.; Smith, Ronald E.; Fiori,
Marina (2006), Self-Regulation: Reminders and Suggestions from Personality Science, Applied Psychology: an International Review 55 (3): 333385,
doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2006.00261.x
Cofer, Charles N; Appley, Mortimer H (1967), Motivation: Theory and Research, New York, London,
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Murphy, Jim (2009), Inner Excellence, McGrawHill, ISBN 978-0-07-163504-2

External links
The Pleasure of Finding Things Out (1981), Richard
Feynman on intrinsic motivation: I don't know anything about the Nobel Prize. I don't understand what
its about, or what its worth ... I don't like honors.
I'm appreciated for the work that I did and I've noticed that other physicists use my work. I don't need
anything else. I don't think theres any sense to anything else. I don't see that it makes any point that
someone in the Swedish Academy decides that this
work is Nobel enough to receive a prize. I've already got the prize. The prize is the pleasure of nding the thing out, the kick in the discovery, the observation that other people use it. Those are the real
things. The honors are unreal to me.

16

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Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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Motivation Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation?oldid=630454717 Contributors: Eloquence, Ed Poor, Anthere, Heron,

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Henry150 and Anonymous: 1083

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