Project of Group 7.

a of Calculus for Teachers Class

"LIMITS "

Contents
Tangent Lines and Rates of Change
The Limit
One-Sided Limits
Limit Properties
Computing Limits
Infinite Limits
Continuity
The Definition of the Limit
 Introduction

The topic that we will be examining in this project is that of Limits. We will
be seeing limits in a variety of examples.
Here is a quick listing of the material that will be covered in this project.
Tangent Lines and Rates of Change –
The Limit – Here we will take a conceptual look at limits and try to get a
grasp on just what they are and what they can tell us.
One-Sided Limits – A brief introduction to one-sided limits.
Limit Properties – Properties of limits that we’ll need to use in computing
limits. We will also compute some basic limits in this section
Computing Limits-any of the limits we’ll be asked to compute will not be
“simple” limits. In other words, we won’t be able to just apply the properties
and be done. In this section we will look at several types of limits that
require some work before we can use the limit properties to compute them.
Infinite Limits – Here we will take a look at limits that have a value of
positive or negative infinity. We’ll also take a brief look at vertical
asymptotes.
Continuity – In this section we will introduce the concept of continuity and
how it relates to limits. We will also see the Mean Value Theorem in this
section.
The Definition of the Limit – We will give the exact definition of several
of the limits covered in this section. We’ll also give the exact definition of
continuity.
Finally:
We are thankful for the assistance given by our teachers

Dr. M Refai Dr. H Al-Qasem

Dr.A Kenzo Dr.M Khasawneh

QU-who provided us by their knowledge , texts, software (mathematica ).It

was only through the cooperation of these and other individuals that we
were able to finish this training course successfully to serve our students.
Thanks

GROUP 7a. Members (2010-Qatar University)

Ali Alrawashdeh Omar Younis

Basil Madi Hisham Ibraheem
 Rates of change

Differential Calculus is the study of rates of change of a function y = f with respect to an

independent variable (usually x or t). We are usually interested in how much y changes
whenever x changes by 1 unit. It is easy to quantify average rates of change since there
are 2 points involved in calculating the average. The following formula can be used to
find the distance covered by an object in motion over time interval t:

d = rt where d is the distance traveled in some time period

r is the rate that the distance changed during a time period
t is the number of time periods

If we wanted to know the average rate of change for some time period and we knew the
distance covered and the length of the time period, we could use the formula:

r=d/t where r is the average rate of change per time period

What if we wanted to know how fast an object was moving at a point in time? We know
it is in motion since we can clearly see it moving and can easily calculate any average
rate of speed that we are interested in. The above formula as it is however, cannot give us
an instantaneous rate of speed since there will be no time period and no distance traveled
at a point in time. In other words, t = 0 and d = 0 .

To avoid the problem of division by 0, we will purposely refrain from discussing that t
might equal 0. Instead, we will only consider values of r when t is very close to 0 but
never equal to 0. In other words, we will calculate the rate of speed over very short time
periods on the left side of t = 0 and the rate of speed over very short time periods on the
right side of t = 0. If r appears to be approaching the same value on the left side as it is on
the right side, then it is probably safe to assume that that value is the instantaneous rate of
change that we are looking for.

This process of finding a value that a function is approaching as its independent variable
approaches a particular value is called finding the limit of the function at that value.
While calculating the short time periods mentioned above can be helpful in getting an
idea of the value of a particular limit, mathematical methods are available to yield the
exact value, if it exists.
 Limits found Graphically

A limit is the idea of looking at what happens to a function as you approach particular
values of x. Left-hand and right-hand limits are the idea of looking at what happens to
a function as you approach a particular value of x, from a particular direction.

The limit of f(x) as x approaches the value of a from the left is written

lim f ( x )
x a 

and the limit of f(x) as x approaches the value of a from the right is written

lim f ( x)
x a 

Let’s explore these ideas with the graph of f(x) in Figure 3.1 below.

Figure 3.1

Looking at f(x) when x = -2, you notice there is a “break” in the function. However, if
you approach x = -2 “from the left” (Figure 3.2a) you can see that the function values are
getting closer and closer to 1. On the other hand, if we approach x = -2 “from the right”
(Figure 3.2b) you can see that the function values are getting closer and closer to 3.

Figure 3.2a Figure 3.2b

Looking at f(x) when x = 1, you notice there is a hole in the function. If we approach f(x)
from the left or from the right (Figure 3.3), you can see that the function values are
getting closer and closer to 2.

Figure 3.3

Therefore, the following statements are true.

lim f ( x)  1 lim f ( x)  3
x 2 x 2

lim f ( x)  2 lim f ( x )  2
x 1 x 1

Example 1 Using the given graph of g(x), find the following left- and right-hand limits.

a. lim g ( x)
x 0
b. lim g ( x )
x 0
c. lim g ( x )
x 1
d. lim g ( x )
x 1

Solution

a. This asks us to look at the graph of g(x) as x approaches 0 from

the left. You can see that the function values are getting
closer and closer to -1. So, lim g ( x)  1
x 0

b. This asks us to look at the graph of g(x) as x approaches 0 from the right. You
can see that the function values are getting closer and closer to -1. So,

lim g ( x)  1
x 0
 c. This asks us to look at the graph of g(x) as x approaches 1 from the left.
d. You can see that the function values are getting
closer and closer to -2. So, lim g ( x )  2

x 1

e. This asks us to look at the graph of g(x)

as x approaches 1 from the right.
You can see that the function values are getting
closer and closer to -2. So, lim g ( x)  2

x 1

Notice that in the solutions to parts (c) and (d) above, the function value g(1)=1 does not
play a role in determining the values of the limits. A limit is strictly the behavior of a
function “near” a point.

Example 2 Using the graph of h(x) below, find the following left- and right-hand limits.

a. lim h( x)
x 4

b. lim h( x )
x 4

Solution

a. Looking at the graph of h(x),

as x approaches 4 from the left, you can see that the function values keep getting
more and more negative, without end. Thus, we say that the function values
approach negative infinity, written
lim h( x )   GRAPH?
x 4

b. Looking at the graph of h(x), as x approaches 4 from the right, you can see that
the function values keep getting more and more positive without end. Thus, we
say that the function values approach positive infinity, written

lim h( x )   GRAPH?
x 4

By considering both the left- and right-hand limits of a function as you approach a
particular value of x, you can determine whether or not the limit of the function at that
point exists.
Definition of a Limit at a Point:

If lim f ( x)  L and lim f ( x)  L, then lim f ( x)  L.

x a  xa xa

Therefore, if the left-hand limit does not equal the right-hand limit as x approaches a,
then the limit as x approaches a does not exist.

Example 3 Using the graph of f(x) below, find the following limits.

a. lim f ( x) b. lim f ( x)
x 1 x 2

Solution

a. In previous investigations of this function,

we found that lim f ( x )  2 and lim f ( x )  2 .
 
x 1 x 1
Therefore, by definition, since lim f ( x )  lim f ( x)  2 ,
 
x 1 x 1

then lim f ( x )  2 .
x 1
It is important to notice that this limit exists even though f(1) does not exist.

b. In previous investigations of this function, we found that

lim f ( x)  1 and lim f ( x)  3 . Therefore, by definition, since

x 2 x 2

lim f ( x)  lim f ( x ) , then lim f ( x) does not exist (DNE).

x 2 x 2 x 2

Example 4 Using the given graph of g(x), find lim g ( x) .

x 1
Solution In previous investigations of this function,

we found that lim g ( x )  2 and lim g ( x)  2 .

 
x 1 x 1
Therefore, by definition, since

lim g ( x )  lim g ( x )  2 , then lim g ( x)  2 .

x 1 x 1 x 1
Example 5 Using the given graph of h(x), find lim h( x) .
x 4
Solution In previous investigations of this function,
we found that lim h( x )   and lim h( x )   .
x 4 x 4
Therefore, by definition, since
lim h( x )  lim h( x) , then lim h( x) DNE.
x 4 x  4 x 4

So far we have been focusing on what is happening with

functions at particular values of x by looking at what is
happening to the function values corresponding to values
very near to the x value. Let’s now explore what happens
to the function values when we allow x to approach
positive and negative infinity.

Figure 3.4 Figure 3.4a Figure 3.4b Figure 3.4c

In Figure 3.4a, you can see that if you move to the right on the graph and allow x to
continually become larger (approach infinity), the function values also become larger and
larger. If you move to the left on the graph and allow x to become more and more
negative (approach negative infinity), you can see that the function values are again
becoming larger and larger. Thus, we have
lim k ( x)   and lim k ( x)  
x  x 
In Figure 3.4b, you can see that if you allow x to approach infinity, the function values go
towards negative infinity. If you allow x to approach negative infinity, you can see that
the function values go towards positive infinity. Thus, we have
lim m( x )   and lim m( x )  
x  x 
In Figure 3.4c, you can see that if you allow x to approach either positive or negative
infinity, the function values approach zero. Thus, we have
lim p ( x)  0 and lim p ( x )  0
x  x 
When a function approaches a numerical value, say L, as x   or as x   , we say
that the function has a horizontal asymptote at y = L. Thus, we have just found that p(x)
has a horizontal asymptote at y=0, while k(x) and m(x) have no horizontal asymptotes.
(Note: You can only approach positive infinity from the left and you can only approach
negative infinity from the right so there is no discussion of left- and right-hand limits at
infinity.
Example 6 Using the graph of f(x) below, find the following limits.

a. lim f ( x)
x 5
b. lim f ( x )
x 
c. lim f ( x)
x 0
d. lim f ( x)
x 

Solution
a. We need to find and compare the left- and right-hand limits of f(x) at x= -5. As x
approaches -5 from the left, f(x) approaches 1 and as x approaches -5 from the
right, f(x) also approaches 1. Therefore,

lim f ( x )  1
x 5
b. As x   , the function values get more and more positive without end.
Therefore,
lim f ( x )  
x 

c. As x approaches zero from the left, f(x) approaches 5. Therefore,

lim f ( x )  5
x 0

d. As x   , the function values get closer and closer to zero. Therefore

lim f ( x )  0
x 
 Limits found Numerically and Algebraically
While almost all limits can be found graphically, as we have been discussing, it is not
always practical or necessary if the function is defined algebraically.
x2  9
For instance, say we are given that f ( x)  . If we are looking for lim f ( x) , instead
x3 x 3

of having to graphically search for the answer, we can find both the left- and right-hand
limits by using tables. By choosing x values that get closer and closer to x = 3 from both
sides, we can analyze the behavior of f(x).
Table 3.1
Limit from the left Limit from the right
   
x 2.99 2.999 2.9999 3 3.0001 3.001 3.01
f(x) 5.99 5.999 5.9999 ? 6.0001 6.001 6.01

Notice that when we chose values on either side of x = 3, they were values that were very
close to x = 3. It seems that as x approaches 3 from either side, the function values are
approaching 6. Therefore, it seems reasonable to conclude that
x2  9
lim 6
x 3 x 3
We can check this conclusion by looking at the graph of f(x) near x = 3, as shown below.
Example 7
 4, x  1
Using tables, find the following limits given that f ( x )   2
x , x  1
a. lim f ( x ) b. lim f ( x )
x 2 x 1

Solution a. We need to construct a table with x-values approaching 2 from both sides.
Since all of these x-values are in the domain of x >1, we will use the part of the function
defined by x 2 to determine the function values in our table.
 Limit from the left Limit from the right
   
x 1.99 1.999 1.9999 2 2.0001 2.001 2.01
f(x) 3.96 3.996 3.9996 ? 4.0004 4.004 4.04

Approaching x=2 from both the left and the right sides shows that the function values
are approaching 4. Thus, lim f ( x)  4 .
x 2

a. We need to construct a table with x-values approaching 1 from both sides. All x-
values approaching x = 1 from the left are in the domain x < 1, so we will be
using the part of the function defined by 4 when finding these function values.
All x-values approaching x = 1 from the right are in the domain x > 1, so we will
use x 2 to find these function values in our table.

Limit from the left Limit from the right

   
x 0.99 0.999 0.9999 1 1.0001 1.001 1.01
f(x) 4 4 4 ? 1.0002 1.002 1.0201

As x  1 from the left, f(x) seems to be approaching 4, while as x  1 from the right,
f(x) seems to be approaching 1. Since these are not equal, by definition,
lim f ( x ) does not exist.
x 1

Making tables can still be as time-consuming as graphing, so we will use the following
rules to algebraically evaluate limits more efficiently. Most of these rules can intuitively
be verified from looking at the previously worked examples.
Table 3.2 – Limit Rules If a, c, and n, are real numbers, then
1) lim p( x)  p (a) where p(x) is any polynomial 2) lim c  c
x a x a

3) lim  c  f ( x)   c  lim f ( x) 4) lim  f ( x)  g ( x )  lim f ( x)  lim g ( x )

x a x a x a xa xa

f ( x) lim f ( x)
5) lim  f ( x)  g ( x )  lim f ( x )   lim g ( x)  6) lim  x a , if lim g ( x )  0
x a  xa   x a  x a g ( x) lim g ( x) x a
x a

n
7) lim  f ( x) n  lim f ( x)  (provided this is defined)
x a  x a 
 x2  9 1
Example 8 :Evaluate a. lim x 2  2 x  4 b. lim c. lim
x 1 x 3 x3 x4 x4
Solution
a. lim x 2  2 x  4  (1) 2  2(1)  4  5 (Rule 2)
x 1

x 2  9 lim x2  9
x 3
b. lim  (Rule 6)
x 3 x  3 lim x  3
x 3

0
 (Rule 2)
0
When you get 0/0 you have what is called an indeterminant form and you must try other
techniques to determine the limit. In this case, factor both the numerator and
denominator and cancel common terms to remove the zero in the denominator. Then,
apply the limit rules to the simplified expression.
x2  9 ( x  3)( x  3)
lim  lim (Factor)
x 3 x  3 x 3 ( x  3)
 lim x  3 (Cancel common terms)
x 3

=3+3=6 (Rule 2)

1 lim1
c. lim  x 4 (Rule 6)
x 4 x  4 lim x  4
x 4

1
 (Rules 1 and 2)
0
This is not defined and whenever you get a result of a non-zero number over zero, there
are no common factors in the numerator and denominator which can be cancelled.
Therefore, there is no way to rid the denominator of its zero term, meaning that the limit
does not exist. Looking at the graph of the function near x = 4 , we can see what is
2 x2  7
happening. Example 9: Evaluate lim
x  6  3 x 2

2 x 2  7 lim 2x2  7 
x 
Solution: lim  
x  6  3 x 2 lim 6  3 x 2 
x 
   
or or are all also known as indeterminant forms. When this form occurs
  
when finding limits at infinity (or negative infinity) with rational functions,
divide every term in the numerator and denominator by the highest power of x in the
denominator to determine the limit.
Since x 2 is the highest power of x in the denominator of our function, we have

2 x 2  7 lim
x 
 2x2  7   x2
lim 
x  6  3 x 2 lim  6  3x 2   x 2
x 

 7 
lim  2  2 
x 
 x 

 6 
lim  2  3 
x  x
 
2  0 2
 
03 3

Continuity

Definition: A function f(x) is continuous at x = a, if all of the following are true:

1. f(a) is defined (A function value exists at x=a.)

2. lim f ( x ) exists (A limit value exists as you approach x=a.)

x a

3. lim f ( x )  f ( a ) (The function value equals the limit value at x=a.)

x a

Graphically, this means that a function is continuous wherever the graph of the function
has no holes, gaps, or jumps. A function is said to be discontinuous at x = a, if a hole,
gap, or break occurs in the graph at x = a, meaning the function violates one of the three
items above.

Notice that the third item in the definition of continuity and Rule 2 of the Limit Rules
show that all polynomial functions are continuous for all real values of x.
Example 10 Using the graph of f(x) below,
find all values of x where f(x) is discontinuous and state why
f(x) is discontinuous at these points,
according to the definition of continuity.

Solution
 x = -3, f(-3) is undefined
 x = -2, f(-2) is undefined
 x = 1, while the function is defined by f(1)=5 and
lim f ( x )  1 , these are not equal and thus the third item of the definition is violated
x 1

 x = 4, lim f ( x ) does not exist

x 4

x4
Example 11 Is f ( x)  continuous at x =1? At x =3?
x 3
Solution For both values of x, we must check each of the three items in the definition of
continuity. If one of the items fails, f(x) not continuous at that particular x-value.
1 4 5
x = 1: First, check to see if a function value exists: f (1)  
1  3 2

x  4 lim x4 5
Next, check to see if a limit value exists: lim  x1 
x 1 x  3 lim x  3 2
x 1

Last, check that the function value equals the limit value, which it does in this case.
Therefore, f(x) is continuous at x =1.
34 7
x = 3: First, check to see if a function value exists: f (3)   is undefined
33 0
Therefore, since the first item of the definition is violated, f(x) is discontinuous at x = 3.
As previously stated, polynomial functions are continuous for all real values of x. This is
also true for exponential functions. Moreover, it is true that rational functions are
continuous for all real values of x that do not make the denominator zero and logarithmic
functions are continuous for all x-values in their domains.
Exercises
Use the given graph of f(x) to answer Exercises 3.1-3.4.
Exercise 3.1 Evaluate lim f ( x) Exercise 3.2 Evaluate lim f ( x)
x 1 x 

Exercise 3.3 Evaluate lim f ( x )

x 2

Exercise 3.4 For what values of x is f(x) discontinuous?

Exercise 3.5 Fill in the given table and use it to find lim f ( x ) .
x 2

x 1.99 1.999 1.9999 2 2.0001 2.001 2.01

x2
f ( x)  ?
x2

Exercise 3.6 Fill in the given table and use it to find lim g ( x) .
x 0

x -0.01 -0.001 -0.0001 0 0.0001 0.001 0.01

 x  1, x  0

g ( x )  3, x0 ?
 x  1, x  0
2


x 2  4 x  21
Exercise 3.7 Evaluate lim 2
x  7 x  5 x  14

x 1
Exercise 3.8 Evaluate lim 2
x 1 x  2x  1
x 2  2 x  x3
Exercise 3.9 Evaluate lim
x  3x4  7
 x  2, x  1
Exercise 3.10 Is f ( x )   continuous at x = -1? At x=1?
 x , x 1
References
1-Calculus one and several variables ."Salas and Hille's"
2)calculus with analytic –Geometry"Earl W. Swokowski"
3)Schaum's Solved Problems Series _Calculus .
4)Related Websites ."Math Help",MathsNet…..