EXPERT

insight

WAITS AND MEASURES

Documento de consulta gratuito para el uso exclusivo del/a Prof. Carlos Chavarria Hidalgo, 2014-08-13

Dont Manage Waits,

Manage Experiences
By GABRIEL BITRAN, JUAN CARLOS FERRER and PAULO ROCHA e OLIVEIRA

58

SECOND QUARTER 2009 ISSUE 1

IESEinsight

EXPERT insight

DONT MANAGE WAITS, MANAGE EXPERIENCES

Before devising a plan of action, however,

managers rst need to understand their business
and their audience.
These are the main ideas behind The Waiting
Prot Chain illustrated in Figure 1. In order to
properly manage their customers time, managers need to understand how the wait ts in the
context of the entire experience, which is, after
all, what will determine how customers will behave in the future. Time is not money, but delightful experiences that occur over time are money.

Determine the Business Context

Lets start with what is perhaps one of the bestknown examples: Disney. For Disney to be successful, managers there know that the waiting has
to be fun, because visitors spend more time in line
than on the actual rides themselves. So how come
visitors are usually all smiles exiting the park at
the end of the day? Because employees cleverly
orchestrate their time while in the park.
Keeping children entertained in line is a huge
challenge, but Disney is chock-full of entertaining diversions. Mickey, Minnie and the rest of
the gang pose for pictures with the kids. While
children line up for the next show at Tomorrow-

Illustration by MIRANDA JELICI

Documento de consulta gratuito para el uso exclusivo del/a Prof. Carlos Chavarria Hidalgo, 2014-08-13

ime is money, they say. To prove it,

Barclaycard once calculated the cost
of the time it takes an average Briton
to brush his or her teeth: roughly 30
pence (43 cents). But when it comes to understanding how customers make decisions, time
and money have some critical dierences. For
example: How relevant to you is the previous gure for brushing your teeth?
Understandably, managers fret that customers will perceive waiting as an annoyance - and
anyone who has spent a half-hour waiting in line
to pay for a carton of milk in a noisy, overcrowded
supermarket would be inclined to agree. So managers scramble to reduce the wait or at least to
lessen its eect: thus, more lanes, broader bandwidth, better hold music - based on the fair assumption that taking up too much of the customers time will ultimately hurt prots.
Yet waiting doesnt have to be a negative. It can
be a neutral or, at places like Walt Disney World, a
positive. Sometimes slowing things down can be
the best way to ensure cost-eective service and
can even make customers feel better. The key to
the management of waiting is to understand how
the wait aects prots.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Managers worry that their customers will

perceive waiting as an annoyance. But simply
reducing the wait time may not be the answer.
Indeed, as the authors argue, thats an outdated solution less relevant for todays new
breed of customer. Using research that blends
behavioral psychology and traditional marketing principles with operations, the authors
IESEinsight

propose a new framework to help businesses

make better decisions about wait management. They offer six implementable ideas
to improve the service encounter, which will
greatly impact customer satisfaction and ultimately protability. Stop watching the clock,
they say, and start asking, How can I best
manage my customers time with me?

ISSUE 1 SECOND QUARTER 2009

59

Documento de consulta gratuito para el uso exclusivo del/a Prof. Carlos Chavarria Hidalgo, 2014-08-13

EXPERT insight

DONT MANAGE WAITS, MANAGE EXPERIENCES

lands Monsters, Inc. Laugh Floor comedy club,

they can text jokes to be incorporated into the
show. During the wait for Disneys Soarin Over
California, guests can play various interactive
video games or they can take a peek at the Wings
of Fame, a tribute to historical aircraft.
Another thing Disney employees do is apprise
visitors of the wait time, with frequent updates
so guests feel more in control of their day. Once
they know what to expect, families can decide for
themselves if they want to wait. The estimated
wait times are usually longer than the reality, so
customers end up pleasantly surprised. Disney
also oers limited Fastpass, which enables visitors to bypass wait lines and ride by appointment,
which reduces uncertainty.
One of the reasons Disney works so well is
that most visitors dont realize their time is being managed so carefully. For much the same reason, airports install TV screens with a continuous
news stream, hotels place mirrors in front of elevators, phone queues oer music or promotional oers all to provide customers with a more
pleasant experience and keep their minds o the
fact theyre waiting for something else.
Managers need to realize that time, in itself,
neednt be the enemy. In fact, in some cases,
spending too little time will engender annoyance

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Gabriel Bitran is the Sloan Fellows Professor of Operations

Management/System Dynamics at MIT Sloan School of
Management. He is a source for
information on the design of service delivery and manufacturing
systems. His work addresses
topics that include matching the
supply and demand in service
systems, capacity planning,
and understanding consumer
behavior in highly interactive
services like the Internet. He
is the former president of the
Production and Operations
Management Society.
Juan Carlos Ferrer has a Ph.D. in
Management from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
and an M.Sc. in industrial engineering from Ponticia Universidad Catlica in Santiago, Chile,

60

SECOND QUARTER 2009 ISSUE 1

where he is a professor in the

School of Engineering. He has
received numerous academic
awards. His areas of interest
include service and operations
management, and information
technologies.
Paulo Rocha e Oliveira is
assistant professor of marketing at IESE Business School in
Barcelona. He holds an A.B. in
Mathematics from Princeton
University and a Ph.D. in Management from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
His main area of expertise is the
management and marketing of
services. His research focuses
on issues at the interface of
marketing and operations, including service quality, customization strategies and dynamic
pricing policies.

or even anger. For instance, if youre going for a

tennis lesson, a massage or a doctors appointment, and the tennis pro, masseuse or doctor hurries you, youll probably feel slighted, as if youre
not getting your moneys worth. Minimizing time
is a manufacturing principle that doesnt always
hold when people are involved, just as feelings
dont factor into manufacturing: a car door, for
instance, isnt going to feel slighted because it
was assembled in 10 minutes as opposed to ve.

Know Your Audience

Before installing time-saving devices, managers
must rst make sure their customers want them.
Automated check-ins at hotels, for example, certainly speed up service, but the technology is a
double-edged sword. After a long flight, even
guests toting laptops and BlackBerries may prefer
the comforting Welcome to the Hotel Majestic
delivered by a friendly human face rather than yet
another impersonal computer to contend with.
Shopping is another instance where taking more
time can be a good thing at least for those who
enjoy the process as much as or even more than
the actual buying. For others, however, shopping is about minimizing time: its the result that
counts, and the faster the better.
Clearly, what one culture, age group or gender might embrace, another will discard. When it
comes to waiting, determine whether your audience is interested in the prize or the process and
make the decision that most positively enhances
the entire experience.

The Old Way: Reduce the Wait

The study of wait time in engineering contexts,
known as queueing theory, is well documented.
Most of the research to date has tackled the matter as an operations problem: Reduce the wait
and hope prots grow as a result. Thats been the
guiding light since the Industrial Revolution.
Concentrating on eciencies in production
works so long as youre talking about stu
tangible products or goods, as marketing scholars Stephen L. Vargo and Robert F. Lusch noted
in their 2004 paper, Evolving to a New Dominant
Logic for Marketing. But as we move toward a
service-dominant logic, where the primary focus
of economic activity is the process of doing something for someone else, the limitations of the
old-fashioned manufacturing approaches begin
to come to light. Out goes the idea that rms produce and customers consume; in comes the idea
that rms and customers create value together.
Services are no longer complements to products, nor are they special types of intangible
IESEinsight

EXPERT insight

DONT MANAGE WAITS, MANAGE EXPERIENCES

The Waiting Profit Chain

Operational
Policies

FIGURE 1

Set of established
decisions to manage a
service delivery
process

OPERATIONAL POLICIES AFFECT PROFITABILITY IN

DIRECT AND INDIRECT WAYS

Profitability

POSITIVE
EXPERIENCE
Repeat purchase,
word of mouth

>A
f

NEGATIVE
EXPERIENCE
Switch provider,
bad reputation

te

r th

e wait

<

Behaviors
> D

ri

POSITIVE
EXPERIENCE
Greater patience,
propensity to
purchase

ng

t h e w ait

<

Evaluation
OF THE SERVICE BY
THE CUSTOMER

NEGATIVE
EXPERIENCE
Balking and
reneging, no
purchase

products. Instead, tangible goods are but one of

the many accessories rms can use to apply their
knowledge and expertise in a collaborative eort
with the customer.
In this context, a win-win skill set of specialized knowledge and abilities becomes crucial in
interactions with customers, as Christopher Lovelock and Evert Gummesson argue in their 2004
paper Whither Services Marketing: In Search
of a New Paradigm and Fresh Perspectives. As
the economic paradigm shifts from the production and consumption of goods (and the implied
transfer of ownership from seller to buyer) to the
co-creation of value, consumer exchanges are increasingly becoming focused on oering benets
IESEinsight

PERSONAL
SON
NAL
State
Personality
Culture
Education
Experience
Knowledge
Gender

AMBIENCE
Lighting
Temperature
Sound/Color
Functionality/
Layout of Space
Signs/Symbols
Queuing
Instructions
Time-Keeping
Devices

T H E WA I T T I M E

OF THE
CUSTOMER

Documento de consulta gratuito para el uso exclusivo del/a Prof. Carlos Chavarria Hidalgo, 2014-08-13

Moderators
Affect a customers
mood and sense
of time

through rentals or access fees. Consumers are

used to considering the tradeo renting the car
rather than buying it and are more likely to take a
utilitarian approach, preferring a slice of freedom
to a physical piece of the action.
Viewed from this new perspective, time begins
to play a crucial role in economic exchanges. Yet,
despite near-universal acknowledgement that
time has become a precious commodity, few companies bother to examine exactly how customers
perceive time and how it shapes their decisions.
This is partly due to the existence of silos in
both academia and practice. Operations managers have been focusing on the production and
delivery of goods and services. Most marketers,

ISSUE 1 SECOND QUARTER 2009

61

EXPERT insight

DONT MANAGE WAITS, MANAGE EXPERIENCES

Documento de consulta gratuito para el uso exclusivo del/a Prof. Carlos Chavarria Hidalgo, 2014-08-13

meanwhile, have been focusing on selling the

products and maximizing customer satisfaction.
Both operations and marketing are working toward the same goal, but in working independently
they have created a collective myopia where neither sees the full picture.
Its time to shake o assembly-line solutions
to service-centered problems, say Vargo and
Lusch. In a business context, that means that
managers must bridge the gap between operations and marketing by understanding the psychology in waiting. And with such a revised understanding, businesses will enhance the design
and delivery of the services they oer and boost
protability as a result.

The New Way: Apply Behavioral

Principles to Manage Time
Managers have much to learn from a stream of research in the eld of psychology that began in the
1990s, which has helped spearhead those changes
to current thinking when it comes to experiences that take place over time. It was then that the
Princeton University psychologist and Nobel
Prize laureate in economics, Daniel Kahneman,
and his collaborators began studying how people
summarize those experiences.
In one representative experiment, subjects
immersed their hands in two dierent buckets
of water for one minute. The water in the rst
bucket remained the same frigid temperature
throughout. The water in the second bucket was
equally cold, but became slightly less so at the
end for 30 seconds. Kahneman found that participants preferred the second bucket, even though
it was objectively more uncomfortable. This led
him to formulate the end eect: When people
evaluate an experience, the end is not only more
important than the beginning, but it can also lead
people to ignore its duration.
Another group of researchers, led by Duke
University behavioral economist Dan Ariely and
others, conducted additional experiments where
they identied the gestalt features, or the memorable aspects of an experience that determine how
customers will remember them in the future.
We have applied Kahnemans and Arielys
ideas to services management to show how a
customers emotions both positive and negative uctuate over time. Figure 2 illustrates the
gestalt features (peaks, troughs, rate, end and
trend) of a service encounter as customer satisfaction uctuates over time. In applying these
principles to real-life situations from airlines
and hotels to nancial services and retail outlets
we discovered that customers dont remem-

62

SECOND QUARTER 2009 ISSUE 1

ber the details of their experiences. They recall

only its salient features. And what they recollect
is what determines whether theyll return and
what theyll say about you. Whats important in a
service encounter is not just the amount of time,
its what happens over time, how it happens and
when it happens.
Keeping customers happy during the service
encounter and happier still at the end will yield
a competitive edge. Here are six ideas to help
managers along these lines. These ideas are based
on the results of our own research, consulting and
teaching experience, as well as on the published
results obtained by other researchers, all of which
are cited in our paper published in Manufacturing
& Service Operations Management.
MAKE THE WAIT LESS PROMINENT . As weve just
said, customers remember the prominent features of the experience and are likely to forget
about the wait as long as its not prominent. Customers kept busy watching a at-screen TV or listening to music that they like while on hold may
very well forget about the wait time, which ends
up being neutral or even a positive.
Consider the story of the customer listening
to a piped-in broadcast of the last few nail-biting
minutes of a football game while on hold at a call
center. When the customer was nally routed to a
live technician, he exclaimed, No, please, put me
back on hold, theyre about to score!
Drawing attention away from the passage
of time tends to be most eective in situations
where customers focus on the outcome of the
service encounter and perceive time to be an
obstacle separating them from their objectives.
However, when the focus is on the experience, we
want customers to savor every moment.
MANAGE THE CUSTOMER, NOT THE DELAY. Time is
mutable. The way the customer perceives wait
time can be larger or smaller than it actually is.
An explained delay can seem shorter than an
unexplained one. Waits that generate feelings of
impatience or anxiety are the ones that generate
the most negative feelings. In these cases, managers need to go beyond managing the duration of
the wait and directly inuence their customers
anxiety and stress.
Case in point: A medical-supply rm sold and
maintained a vital blood-testing machine. With
the help of a technician over the phone, users
could troubleshoot most technical issues. The
clients service contract stipulated that once the
user called, a technician would call back within
30 minutes. The medical-equipment company
always met the 30-minute contract agreement
and remedied most of the problems.
IESEinsight

EXPERT insight

DONT MANAGE WAITS, MANAGE EXPERIENCES

End

Documento de consulta gratuito para el uso exclusivo del/a Prof. Carlos Chavarria Hidalgo, 2014-08-13

FIGURE 2

Peak

The memorable aspects of a service

encounter fluctuate over time.
Customers only remember the salient
points. Ending on an upbeat
determines whether theyll return.

<TR

Trough

Rate

Access

Check-In
t1

END

S AT I S FA C T I O N

Service Encounter
Satisfaction Profile

>

Trough
Diagnosis Service Delivery Check-Out
t2

t3

t4

TIME (T)
t0=0

Yet customers continually griped about poor

service. Flummoxed, the company hired a marketing research rm to gure out why and discovered that the customers key complaint was wait
time. But the problem couldnt be with the actual
wait time, since the company always called back
within the allotted 30 minutes.
Instead, the problem lay squarely with customer psychology. So important was the machine to operations that the employees perceived
that the callback took longer than it actually did.
Thats because the customer wasnt ipping absentmindedly through dog-eared magazines as if
he were in a doctors waiting room, checking his
watch every so often to see whether 30 minutes
had elapsed. No, he was anxiously pacing by the
machine as work accumulated and his antsy coworkers complained about not having the test results. Theres waiting, and then theres waiting.
Punchline: The company was perfect
from the operations perspective, being within
the allotted 30 minutes. But it failed miserably
from a marketing perspective because customers werent satised. Their perceptions of time
skewed the reality of time. The solution to this
problem isnt to improve operations: it wouldnt
matter if the wait time were reduced from 30 minutes to 20. The point is that the companys uneasy
customers wanted things xed, and their concern
would continue regardless of the promise.
Not knowing heightens the customers stress.
Reducing the clients worry is paramount, and
thats accomplished through the management of
their perceptions. A companys ability to convey
its own sense of urgency to the customer is critical. A courtesy update informing the client how
IESEinsight

t5=T

much longer the wait would be and placating the

clients fears that hell be forgotten would have
done wonders to defuse the situation. In being
proactive, providers demonstrate that they care,
which relieves the customers apprehension and
strengthens the relationship between provider
and customer.
MINIMIZE UNCERTAINTY , INCREASE PREDICTABILITY .
Minimizing uncertainty and increasing predictability boosts the customers sense of control
and satisfaction. Providing customers with honest information about wait time especially in
telephone and Internet encounters makes them
more comfortable with the delay and allows them
to manage their time better. In a public setting,
a clock, a teleprompter depicting estimated wait
time, take-a-number systems or beepers for restaurant waiting all help the customer feel in control and lead to a more positive outlook on the
overall experience.
The supplier that keeps its customers informed about delivery times can greatly reduce
repeated calls from worried clients inquiring,
Is everything OK? or Has the product been
shipped yet? In keeping the customer apprised
with their excellent automated tracking systems,
UPS and FedEx are superb in this regard, both assuaging apprehension and eliminating consumer
calls. The result is a relaxed, trusting customer
who wont need to make back-up plans and or tax
the companys resources.
Managing waiting and other glitches in the
system are such big concerns that whole new
industries have sprung up purely to appease
customers anxiety about them. One company, Envoy WorldWide (part of the Varolii

ISSUE 1 SECOND QUARTER 2009

63

EXPERT insight

DONT MANAGE WAITS, MANAGE EXPERIENCES

Customers who are happy with the outcome tend

to minimize or overlook problems. The retrospective
evaluation of the waiting experience tends to be
more positive.
Documento de consulta gratuito para el uso exclusivo del/a Prof. Carlos Chavarria Hidalgo, 2014-08-13

Corporation), oered its services to airlines to

notify their VIP lists that a given ight would be
late before passengers left for the airport. That
way, patrons could wait comfortably at home or
the office. Likewise, Envoy could advise bank
customers that the statement theyd be receiving shortly was sent in error, stemming a ood of
calls from nervous customers. Notication services like this are good for the bank and good for
the customer. No one likes unpleasant surprises,
and there are enormous business opportunities
to be had by preventing them.
MANIPULATE THE ENVIRONMENT. Managers can often improve customer satisfaction in wait times
by manipulating the environment. Usually referred to as a form of perceptions management,
its the control of ambient conditions, including
lighting, temperature, sound and color; signs,
symbols and artifacts, from signage to queueing
instructions and time-keeping devices; and spatial layout and functionality, such as equipment
and furnishings.
This moderator can translate into plush seating while you wait, or not-so-comfy seating while
youre being waited on. Thats the reason those
molded plastic chairs at fast-food restaurants
arent particularly comfortable. McDonalds and
Burger King want people in and out, not lingering over coee thats why they call it fast food.
Theres a famous case from Harvard Business
School about the Japanese restaurant chain Benihana. Back in the 1960s and 70s, the restaurants
sole dessert was ice cream; youd have to eat it
quickly or it would melt. The beauty of the dessert design is that the customers never realized
they were being rushed.
INSTILL A POSITIVE END EFFECT. If customers arent
happy at the end of the transaction the end effect they understandably amplify the wait time
and other obstacles along the way. But customers who are happy with the outcome tend to minimize or overlook wait time or problems; a certain amount of revisionist history is at work. The
retrospective evaluation of a waiting experience
that ends happily tends to be more positive.
In a good-news/bad-news scenario, managers should carefully spill the bad news first to
avoid leaving the customer unhappy at the end

64

SECOND QUARTER 2009 ISSUE 1

of the encounter. The end eect applies to situations that are goal-oriented (where customers
are interested in the nal outcome of the service
encounter) as well as to those that are process
oriented (where customers are interested in the
encounter itself ). The dierence is that in goaloriented situations, the end eect will be largely,
if not completely, determined by the outcome,
that is, whether the goal was achieved.
BE FAIR. When it comes to space control, managers should enforce a rst-in/rst-out rule, avoid
crowding, and keep idle employees and special
lines out of sight.
For example, while coach customers realize
rst-class yers pay more for their tickets, they
nevertheless feel neglected, resentful and lessthan when the well-heeled cut ahead and board
rst. LAN Airlines designed a brilliant x for this:
by checking in rst-class patrons on the other
side of the airport, coach passengers didnt see
them and, therefore, didnt feel slighted. Its the
perceived fairness of the thing: thats what coach
customers care about, as opposed to the actual
time waiting to board.
When we ask students to describe their worst
waiting experience, they rarely cite the length of
time. Instead theyll say, People cut in front of
me, or I felt I wasnt being heard, or Employees kept talking to each other instead of helping
me, or The salesperson was rude. They grumble about the lying and lame excuses, the eye-rolling and incompetence, and, of course, the disconnected calls after being on hold for a millennium.
How could that possibly feel good? Except in a
true emergency, as well explain shortly, the wait
is usually secondary to the customers notions of
fairness and decency.

Waiting and Protability

Consumer behavior that takes place during and
after the service encounter is one of the key determinants of protability. When a transaction
is not completed for example, when a customer
chooses not to join a queue or leaves before being served and the customer passes on making a
purchase, protability is, of course, impacted.
And its not just the prots of that one sale.
Behavior that takes place afterward from reIESEinsight

EXPERT insight

DONT MANAGE WAITS, MANAGE EXPERIENCES

Documento de consulta gratuito para el uso exclusivo del/a Prof. Carlos Chavarria Hidalgo, 2014-08-13

peated purchases, word of mouth, length of the

relationship and share of wallet can aect profits in a big way. Thats why its so important that
the customers experience be positive.
Take, for instance, an American Airlines
ight from Barcelona to New York. The outcome
landing at JFK Airport is, hopefully, a given.
The process is what counts. To ensure repeat
business, the crew should strive to keep passengers happy during those eight hours in the air, in
much the same way as Disney manages its visitors stay. At the end of trip, customers selectively
recall their feelings was the trip pleasant, was
the food decent, did the ight attendants treat
me well and decide whether theyll y American Airlines again. In todays hyper-competitive
economy, its not just about whether or not you
deliver the core benet. What will dierentiate
you from your competitor is how that benet is
delivered over time.

When Waiting Is Always Negative

In an emergency room, installing a television or
cushy chairs isnt likely to make the wait more
bearable. Its a desperate, disquieting place. If
youve gone to ER with a nasty cut, and a woman
with a mangled arm is admitted, of course shes
going to go rst. And if an asthmatic boy, gasping for air, is carried in by his frantic parents, hes
going before her. Thats triage. Are you going to
object when the physician attends to the young
boy and the woman before you? No, the circumstances are vastly dierent from the coach customers notions of fairness.
That said, everyone in the emergency room of
a hospital wants fast service. No one feels good
during the wait there. The same caveat applies
when you phone the police, re department or
rescue squad. You just want help now.

plier then employs to smooth things over is more

likely to succeed. An apology, for example, is
much more likely to be perceived as being sincere.

A New Way of Thinking

Managers need to stop using the negatively
charged term waiting and instead start asking,
How can I best manage my customers time with
me? Or, What can I do to create more value to
both of us?
The problem is, once you introduce the term
waiting, the only action that makes sense is to
minimize it. And in an emergency, thats certainly
the right course of action.
But in most other instances, managers need
to think in terms of fashioning more satisfying
encounters and become open to more creative
and potentially more protable alternatives than
mere time crunching.
As our research shows, creative techniques
abound to turn the wait from a negative to a neutral or even a positive. Companies that apprise clients of delays, nd creative ways to deect them
and treat people fairly will have happier customers. And as we all know, happier customers spend
more money.
Mindy Kitei served as editor for this article.

TO KNOW MORE
Q

Q

B2B Interactions
We tend to associate anxiety with B2C interactions, but it plays a big part in B2B dealings as well.
In fact, its one of the main factors a rm uses to
evaluate whether a supplier is easy to do business
with. Managing the customers time perceptions
and emotions are critical.
If the supplier can demonstrate that the
buyers problem is also the suppliers problem,
then the supplier can capitalize on a great opportunity to build the relationship. Suppliers can
even bank goodwill capital to cash in later on,
if they occasionally fail to meet standards. After
all, theyve demonstrated that theyve done well
in the past and have a sincere interest in helping
the rm. Whatever mea culpa strategy the supIESEinsight

Q

Q

Q

Ariely, D., and Z. Carmon. Gestalt Characteristics of

Experiences: The Dening Features of Summarized
Events. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 13, no.
2 (2000): 191-201.
Bitran, G., J.C. Ferrer and P. Rocha e Oliveira. Managing Customer Experiences: Perspectives on the
Temporal Aspects of Service Encounters. Manufacturing & Service Operations Management 10, no. 1
(Winter 2008): 61-83.
Kahneman, D., D.L. Fredrickson, C.A. Schreiber and
D.A. Redelmeier. When More Pain Is Preferred to
Less: Adding a Better End. Psychological Science 4,
no. 6 (1993): 401405.
Lovelock, C., and E. Gummesson. Whither Services
Marketing: In Search of a New Paradigm and Fresh
Perspectives. Journal of Service Research 7, no. 1 (August 2004): 20-41.
Vargo, S.L., and R.F. Lusch. Evolving to a New Dominant Logic for Marketing. Journal of Marketing 68
(January 2004): 1-17.

ISSUE 1 SECOND QUARTER 2009

65